Wikipedia enwiki https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Main_Page MediaWiki 1.27.0-wmf.22 first-letter Media Special Talk User User talk Wikipedia Wikipedia talk File File talk MediaWiki MediaWiki talk Template Template talk Help Help talk Category Category talk Portal Portal talk Book Book talk Draft Draft talk Education Program Education Program talk TimedText TimedText talk Module Module talk Gadget Gadget talk Gadget definition Gadget definition talk Topic 0 10 631144794 381202555 2014-10-26T04:50:23Z Paine Ellsworth 9092818 add [[WP:RCAT|rcat]]s wikitext text/x-wiki #REDIRECT [[Computer accessibility]] {{Redr|move|from CamelCase|up}} 4ro7vvppa5kmm0o1egfjztzcwd0vabw 0 12 716551092 714146352 2016-04-22T10:19:33Z 85.193.216.88 a better word; use [[plain English]] -> [[WP:MOS]] wikitext text/x-wiki {{Redirect2|Anarchist|Anarchists|the fictional character|Anarchist (comics)|other uses|Anarchists (disambiguation)}} {{pp-move-indef}} {{Use British English|date=January 2014}} {{Anarchism sidebar}} '''Anarchism''' is a [[political philosophy]] that advocates [[self-governance|self-governed]] societies based on voluntary institutions. These are often described as [[stateless society|stateless societies]],<ref>"ANARCHISM, a social philosophy that rejects authoritarian government and maintains that voluntary institutions are best suited to express man's natural social tendencies." George Woodcock. "Anarchism" at The Encyclopedia of Philosophy</ref><ref>"In a society developed on these lines, the voluntary associations which already now begin to cover all the fields of human activity would take a still greater extension so as to substitute themselves for the state in all its functions." [http://www.theanarchistlibrary.org/HTML/Petr_Kropotkin___Anarchism__from_the_Encyclopaedia_Britannica.html Peter Kropotkin. "Anarchism" from the Encyclopædia Britannica]</ref><ref>"Anarchism." The Shorter Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy. 2005. p. 14 "Anarchism is the view that a society without the state, or government, is both possible and desirable."</ref><ref>Sheehan, Sean. Anarchism, London: Reaktion Books Ltd., 2004. p. 85</ref> although several authors have defined them more specifically as institutions based on non-[[Hierarchy|hierarchical]] [[Free association (communism and anarchism)|free associations]].<ref>"as many anarchists have stressed, it is not government as such that they find objectionable, but the hierarchical forms of government associated with the nation state." Judith Suissa. ''Anarchism and Education: a Philosophical Perspective''. Routledge. New York. 2006. p. 7</ref><ref name="iaf-ifa.org"/><ref>"That is why Anarchy, when it works to destroy authority in all its aspects, when it demands the abrogation of laws and the abolition of the mechanism that serves to impose them, when it refuses all hierarchical organisation and preaches free agreement — at the same time strives to maintain and enlarge the precious kernel of social customs without which no human or animal society can exist." [[Peter Kropotkin]]. [http://www.theanarchistlibrary.org/HTML/Petr_Kropotkin__Anarchism__its_philosophy_and_ideal.html Anarchism: its philosophy and ideal]</ref><ref>"anarchists are opposed to irrational (e.g., illegitimate) authority, in other words, hierarchy — hierarchy being the institutionalisation of authority within a society." [http://www.theanarchistlibrary.org/HTML/The_Anarchist_FAQ_Editorial_Collective__An_Anarchist_FAQ__03_17_.html#toc2 "B.1 Why are anarchists against authority and hierarchy?"] in [[An Anarchist FAQ]]</ref> Anarchism considers the [[state (polity)|state]] to be undesirable, unnecessary, and harmful.<ref name="definition"> {{cite journal |last=Malatesta|first=Errico|title=Towards Anarchism|journal=MAN!|publisher=International Group of San Francisco|location=Los Angeles|oclc=3930443|url=http://www.marxists.org/archive/malatesta/1930s/xx/toanarchy.htm|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20121107221404/http://marxists.org/archive/malatesta/1930s/xx/toanarchy.htm|archivedate=7 November 2012 |deadurl=no|authorlink=Errico Malatesta |ref=harv}} {{cite journal |url=http://www.theglobeandmail.com/servlet/story/RTGAM.20070514.wxlanarchist14/BNStory/lifeWork/home/ |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070516094548/http://www.theglobeandmail.com/servlet/story/RTGAM.20070514.wxlanarchist14/BNStory/lifeWork/home |archivedate=16 May 2007 |deadurl=yes |title=Working for The Man |journal=[[The Globe and Mail]] |accessdate=14 April 2008 |last=Agrell |first=Siri |date=14 May 2007 |ref=harv }} {{cite web |url=http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9117285|title=Anarchism|year=2006|work=Encyclopædia Britannica|publisher=Encyclopædia Britannica Premium Service|accessdate=29 August 2006| archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20061214085638/http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9117285| archivedate= 14 December 2006<!--Added by DASHBot-->}} {{cite journal |year=2005|title=Anarchism|journal=The Shorter [[Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy]]|page=14|quote=Anarchism is the view that a society without the state, or government, is both possible and desirable. |ref=harv}} The following sources cite anarchism as a political philosophy: {{cite book | last = Mclaughlin | first = Paul | title = Anarchism and Authority | publisher = Ashgate | location = Aldershot | year = 2007 | isbn = 978-0754661962 |page=59}} {{cite book | last = Johnston | first = R. | title = The Dictionary of Human Geography | publisher = Blackwell Publishers | location = Cambridge | year = 2000 | isbn = 0-631-20561-6 |page=24}}</ref><ref name=slevin>Slevin, Carl. "Anarchism." ''The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Politics''. Ed. Iain McLean and Alistair McMillan. Oxford University Press, 2003.</ref> While [[anti-statism]] is central,<ref>"Anarchists do reject the state, as we will see. But to claim that this central aspect of anarchism is definitive is to sell anarchism short."[http://books.google.com.ec/books?id=kkj5i3CeGbQC&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false ''Anarchism and Authority: A Philosophical Introduction to Classical Anarchism'' by Paul McLaughlin. AshGate. 2007. p. 28]</ref> anarchism entails opposing [[authority]] or [[hierarchical organisation]] in the conduct of all human relations, including, but not limited to, the state system.<ref name="iaf-ifa.org">{{cite web |url=http://www.iaf-ifa.org/principles/english.html |title=IAF principles |publisher=[[International of Anarchist Federations]] |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120105095946/http://www.iaf-ifa.org/principles/english.html |archivedate=5 January 2012 |deadurl=yes |quote=The IAF – IFA fights for : the abolition of all forms of authority whether economical, political, social, religious, cultural or sexual.}}</ref><ref>"My use of the word hierarchy in the subtitle of this work is meant to be provocative. There is a strong theoretical need to contrast hierarchy with the more widespread use of the words class and State; careless use of these terms can produce a dangerous simplification of social reality. To use the words hierarchy, class, and State interchangeably, as many social theorists do, is insidious and obscurantist. This practice, in the name of a "classless" or "libertarian" society, could easily conceal the existence of hierarchical relationships and a hierarchical sensibility, both of which-even in the absence of economic exploitation or political coercion-would serve to perpetuate unfreedom." [[Murray Bookchin]]. ''The Ecology of Freedom: the emergence and dissolution of Hierarchy. CHESHIRE BOOKS Palo Alto. 1982. Pg. 3''</ref><ref>"Authority is defined in terms of the right to exercise social control (as explored in the "sociology of power") and the correlative duty to obey (as explored in the "philosophy of practical reason"). Anarchism is distinguished, philosophically, by its scepticism towards such moral relations – by its questioning of the claims made for such normative power – and, practically, by its challenge to those "authoritative" powers which cannot justify their claims and which are therefore deemed illegitimate or without moral foundation."[http://books.google.com.ec/books?id=kkj5i3CeGbQC&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false ''Anarchism and Authority: A Philosophical Introduction to Classical Anarchism'' by Paul McLaughlin. AshGate. 2007. p. 1]</ref><ref>"Anarchism, then, really stands for the liberation of the human mind from the dominion of religion; the liberation of the human body from the dominion of property; liberation from the shackles and restraint of government. Anarchism stands for a social order based on the free grouping of individuals for the purpose of producing real social wealth; an order that will guarantee to every human being free access to the earth and full enjoyment of the necessities of life, according to individual desires, tastes, and inclinations." [[Emma Goldman]]. "What it Really Stands for Anarchy" in ''[[Anarchism and Other Essays]]''.</ref><ref>Individualist anarchist Benjamin Tucker defined anarchism as opposition to authority as follows "They found that they must turn either to the right or to the left, – follow either the path of Authority or the path of Liberty. Marx went one way; Warren and Proudhon the other. Thus were born State Socialism and Anarchism&nbsp;... Authority, takes many shapes, but, broadly speaking, her enemies divide themselves into three classes: first, those who abhor her both as a means and as an end of progress, opposing her openly, avowedly, sincerely, consistently, universally; second, those who profess to believe in her as a means of progress, but who accept her only so far as they think she will subserve their own selfish interests, denying her and her blessings to the rest of the world; third, those who distrust her as a means of progress, believing in her only as an end to be obtained by first trampling upon, violating, and outraging her. These three phases of opposition to Liberty are met in almost every sphere of thought and human activity. representatives of the first are seen in the Catholic Church and the Russian autocracy; of the second, in the Protestant Church and the Manchester school of politics and political economy; of the third, in the atheism of Gambetta and the socialism of Karl Marx." [[Benjamin Tucker]]. [http://www.theanarchistlibrary.org/HTML/Benjamin_Tucker__Individual_Liberty.html ''Individual Liberty.'']</ref><ref name="Ward 1966">{{cite web |url=http://www.panarchy.org/ward/organization.1966.html|last=Ward|first=Colin|year=1966|title=Anarchism as a Theory of Organization|accessdate=1 March 2010| archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20100325081119/http://www.panarchy.org/ward/organization.1966.html| archivedate= 25 March 2010<!--Added by DASHBot-->}}</ref><ref>Anarchist historian [[George Woodcock]] report of [[Mikhail Bakunin]]'s anti-authoritarianism and shows opposition to both state and non-state forms of authority as follows: "All anarchists deny authority; many of them fight against it." (p. 9)&nbsp;... Bakunin did not convert the League's central committee to his full program, but he did persuade them to accept a remarkably radical recommendation to the Berne Congress of September 1868, demanding economic equality and implicitly attacking authority in both Church and State."</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Brown |first=L. Susan |chapter=Anarchism as a Political Philosophy of Existential Individualism: Implications for Feminism |title=The Politics of Individualism: Liberalism, Liberal Feminism and Anarchism |publisher=Black Rose Books Ltd. Publishing |year= 2002 |page=106}}</ref> Anarchism draws on many currents of thought and strategy. Anarchism does not offer a fixed body of doctrine from a single particular world view, instead fluxing and flowing as a philosophy.<ref>{{cite book |last=Marshall|first=Peter|title=[[Demanding the Impossible: A History of Anarchism]]|year=2010|publisher=PM Press|location=Oakland, CA|isbn=978-1-60486-064-1|page=16}}</ref> Many types and traditions of anarchism exist, not all of which are mutually exclusive.<ref>{{cite book |last= Sylvan |first= Richard |chapter= Anarchism |title= A Companion to Contemporary Political Philosophy |editors= Goodwin, Robert E. and Pettit |publisher= Philip. Blackwell Publishing |year= 1995 |page= 231}}</ref> [[Anarchist schools of thought]] can differ fundamentally, supporting anything from extreme [[individualism]] to complete collectivism.<ref name=slevin/> Strains of anarchism have often been divided{{by whom|date=February 2016}} into the categories of [[social anarchism|social]] and [[individualist anarchism]] or similar dual classifications.<ref name="black dict">[[Geoffrey Ostergaard|Ostergaard, Geoffrey]]. "Anarchism". ''The Blackwell Dictionary of Modern Social Thought''. Blackwell Publishing. p. 14.</ref><ref name=socind>{{cite book |authorlink= Peter Kropotkin |last= Kropotkin |first= Peter |title= Anarchism: A Collection of Revolutionary Writings |publisher= Courier Dover Publications |year= 2002 |page= 5|isbn= 0-486-41955-X}}{{cite journal |author= R.B. Fowler|title= The Anarchist Tradition of Political Thought|year= 1972|journal= Western Political Quarterly|volume= 25|issue= 4|pages= 738–752|doi= 10.2307/446800|publisher= University of Utah|jstor= 446800 |ref= harv}}</ref> Anarchism is usually considered a radical [[left-wing]] ideology,<ref name=brooks>{{cite book |quote= Usually considered to be an extreme left-wing ideology, anarchism has always included a significant strain of radical individualism, from the hyperrationalism of Godwin, to the egoism of Stirner, to the libertarians and anarcho-capitalists of today |last= Brooks |first= Frank H. |year= 1994 |title= The Individualist Anarchists: An Anthology of Liberty (1881–1908) |publisher= Transaction Publishers |page= xi|isbn= 1-56000-132-1}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author= Joseph Kahn|title= Anarchism, the Creed That Won't Stay Dead; The Spread of World Capitalism Resurrects a Long-Dormant Movement |year= 2000|journal= [[The New York Times]]|issue= 5 August |ref= harv}}{{cite journal |author= Colin Moynihan |title= Book Fair Unites Anarchists. In Spirit, Anyway|year= 2007|journal= New York Times|issue= 16 April |ref= harv}}</ref> and much of [[anarchist economics]] and [[anarchist law|anarchist legal philosophy]] reflect [[Libertarian socialism|anti-authoritarian interpretations]] of [[anarcho-communism|communism]], [[collectivist anarchism|collectivism]], [[anarcho-syndicalism|syndicalism]], [[Mutualism (economic theory)|mutualism]], or [[participatory economics]].<ref> "The anarchists were unanimous in subjecting authoritarian socialism to a barrage of severe criticism. At the time when they made violent and satirical attacks these were not entirely well founded, for those to whom they were addressed were either primitive or "vulgar" communists, whose thought had not yet been fertilized by Marxist humanism, or else, in the case of Marx and Engels themselves, were not as set on authority and state control as the anarchists made out." Daniel Guerin, ''[http://theanarchistlibrary.org/library/daniel-guerin-anarchism-from-theory-to-practice#toc2 Anarchism: From Theory to Practice]'' (New York: Monthly Review Press, 1970) </ref> ==Etymology and terminology== {{Related articles|Anarchist terminology}} The term ''[[wikt:anarchism|anarchism]]'' is a compound word composed from the word ''[[anarchy]]'' and the suffix ''[[-ism]]'',<ref>[http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=anarchism&allowed_in_frame=0 Anarchism], [[Online etymology dictionary]].</ref> themselves derived respectively from the Greek {{lang|grc|ἀναρχία}}, i.e. ''anarchy''<ref>{{LSJ|a)narxi/a|ἀναρχία|ref}}.</ref><ref>[http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/anarchy Anarchy], [[Merriam-Webster]] online.</ref><ref>[http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=anarchy&allowed_in_frame=0 Anarchy], [[Online etymology dictionary]].</ref> (from {{lang|grc|ἄναρχος}}, ''anarchos'', meaning "one without rulers";<ref>{{LSJ|a)/narxos|ἄναρχος|ref}}.</ref> from the [[privative]] prefix [[privative alpha|ἀν]]- (''an-'', i.e. "without") and {{lang|grc|ἀρχός}}, ''archos'', i.e. "leader", "ruler";<ref>{{LSJ|a)rxo/s|ἀρχός|ref}}</ref> (cf. ''[[archon]]'' or {{lang|grc|ἀρχή}}, ''arkhē'', i.e. "authority", "sovereignty", "realm", "magistracy")<ref>{{LSJ|a)rxh/|ἀρχή|ref}}.</ref>) and the suffix {{lang|grc|-ισμός}} or {{lang|grc|-ισμα}} (''-ismos'', ''-isma'', from the verbal [[infinitive]] suffix -ίζειν, ''-izein'').<ref>[http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=-ism&allowed_in_frame=0 -ism], [[Online etymology dictionary]].</ref> The first known use of this word was in 1539.<ref>"Origin of ANARCHY Medieval Latin anarchia, from Greek, from anarchos having no ruler, from an- + archos ruler — more at arch- First Known Use: 1539" [http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/anarchy "Anarchy" at Merriam Webster dictionary online]</ref> Various factions within the [[French Revolution]] labelled opponents as anarchists (as [[Maximilien de Robespierre|Robespierre]] did the [[Hébertists]])<ref>{{cite book|last=Deleplace|first=Marc|editor=Annie Geffroy|title=Dictionnaire des usages socio-politiques (1770–1815)|chapterurl=https://books.google.com/books?id=GOkSKE57mdYC&pg=PA9|year=1990|publisher=ENS Editions|language=French|isbn=9782252026946|pages=9–34|chapter=Anarchie–Anarchiste; Germinal–Fructidor An III (21 mars – 16 septembre 1795)}}</ref> although few shared many views of later anarchists. There would be many revolutionaries of the early nineteenth century who contributed to the anarchist doctrines of the next generation, such as [[William Godwin]] and [[Wilhelm Weitling]], but they did not use the word ''anarchist'' or ''anarchism'' in describing themselves or their beliefs.<ref>{{cite book |title=The Anarchists |last=Joll |first=James |year=1964 |publisher=Harvard University Press |isbn=0-674-03642-5 |pages=27–37}}</ref> The first political philosopher to call himself an anarchist was [[Pierre-Joseph Proudhon]], marking the formal birth of anarchism in the mid-nineteenth century. Since the 1890s, and beginning in France,<ref>{{cite book |title=A Short History of Anarchism |last=Nettlau |first=Max |authorlink=Max Nettlau |year=1996 |publisher=Freedom Press |isbn=0-900384-89-1 |page=162}}</ref> the term ''libertarianism'' has often been used as a synonym for anarchism<ref>"At the end of the century in France, Sebastien Faure took up a word used in 1858 by one Joseph Dejacque to make it the title of a journal, Le Libertaire. Today the terms "anarchist" and "libertarian" have become interchangeable." [http://www.theanarchistlibrary.org/HTML/Daniel_Guerin__Anarchism__From_Theory_to_Practice.html#toc2 ''Anarchism: From Theory to Practice''] [[Daniel Guérin]]</ref> and was used almost exclusively in this sense until the 1950s in the United States;<ref>Russell, Dean. [http://www.boogieonline.com/revolution/politics/name.html ''Who is a Libertarian?''], [[Foundation for Economic Education]], "Ideas on Liberty," May 1955.</ref> its use as a synonym is still common outside the United States.<ref> * Ward, Colin. Anarchism: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford University Press 2004 p. 62 * Goodway, David. [[Anarchist Seeds Beneath the Snow]]. Liverpool Press. 2006, p. 4 * MacDonald, Dwight & Wreszin, Michael. Interviews with [[Dwight Macdonald]]. University Press of Mississippi, 2003. p. 82 * Bufe, Charles. The Heretic's Handbook of Quotations. See Sharp Press, 1992. p. iv * Gay, Kathlyn. Encyclopedia of Political Anarchy. ABC-CLIO / University of Michigan, 2006, p. 126 * [[George Woodcock|Woodcock, George]]. Anarchism: A History of Libertarian Ideas and Movements. Broadview Press, 2004. (Uses the terms interchangeably, such as on page 10) * [[Alexandre Skirda|Skirda, Alexandre]]. Facing the Enemy: A History of Anarchist Organization from Proudhon to May 1968. AK Press 2002. p. 183. * Fernandez, Frank. Cuban Anarchism. The History of a Movement. See Sharp Press, 2001, page 9.</ref> On the other hand, some use ''[[libertarianism]]'' to refer to individualistic free-market philosophy only, referring to free-market anarchism as ''[[libertarian anarchism]]''.<ref>Morris, Christopher. 1992. ''An Essay on the Modern State''. Cambridge University Press. p. 61. (Using "libertarian anarchism" synonymously with "individualist anarchism" when referring to individualist anarchism that supports a [[market economy|market society]]).</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Burton |first=Daniel C. |title= Libertarian anarchism |url= http://www.libertarian.co.uk/lapubs/polin/polin168.pdf |publisher=[[Libertarian Alliance]] |year= |page=}}</ref> ==History== {{Main|History of anarchism}} ===Origins=== [[Image:Levellers declaration and standard.gif|thumb|upright|Woodcut from a [[Diggers]] document by [[William Everard (Digger)|William Everard]]]] <!--Anarcho-communist Joseph Déjacque, the first person to use the term "libertarian" in a political sense and self-proclaimed advocate of libertarianism, needs to be added here. His work and stances on anarchism are very relevant to this particular section of the article. Additionally, his criticisms of Pierre-Joseph Proudhon's mutualism are very relevant here.--> The earliest<ref name="LVM">{{cite web|url=https://mises.org/daily/2054#1.10|title=Mises Daily|work=Mises Institute}}</ref> anarchist themes can be found in the 6th century BC, among the works of [[Taoism|Taoist]] philosopher [[Laozi]],<ref name="EB1910">Peter Kropotkin, [http://dwardmac.pitzer.edu/Anarchist_Archives/kropotkin/britanniaanarchy.html "Anarchism"], ''[[Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition|Encyclopædia Britannica]]'' 1910.</ref> and in later centuries by [[Zhuang Zhou|Zhuangzi]] and Bao Jingyan.<ref name="wordpress">{{cite web|url=http://robertgraham.wordpress.com/anarchism-a-documentary-history-of-libertarian-ideas-volume-one-from-anarchy-to-anarchism-300ce-1939/|title=Anarchism: A Documentary History of Libertarian Ideas, Volume One: From Anarchy to Anarchism (300CE–1939)|work=Robert Graham's Anarchism Weblog}}</ref> Zhuangzi's philosophy has been described by various sources as anarchist.<ref>"The priority of dao over tiannature:sky underwrites the themes of dependency and relativism that pervade the Zhuangzi and ultimately the skepticism, the open-minded toleration and the political anarchism (or disinterest in political activity or involvement)." [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/taoism/ "Taoism" at the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy]</ref><ref>"Doing nothing [wu wei] is the famous Daoist concept for natural action, action in accord with Dao, action in which we freely follow our own way and allow other beings to do likewise. Zhuangzi, the great anarchic Daoist sage, compared it to "riding on the wind." [http://www.theanarchistlibrary.org/HTML/Max_Cafard__Zen_Anarchy.html Max Cafard. "Zen Anarchy"]</ref><ref>"Zhuangzi helps us discover an anarchistic epistemology and sensibility. He describes a state in which "you are open to everything you see and hear, and allow this to act through you."[45] Part of wuwei, doing without doing, is "knowing without knowing," knowing as being open to the things known, rather than conquering and possessing the objects of knowledge. This means not imposing our prejudices (whether our own personal ones, our culture's, or those built into the human mind) on the Ten Thousand Things." [http://www.theanarchistlibrary.org/HTML/Max_Cafard__The_Surre_gion_alist_Manifesto_and_Other_Writings.html#toc24 Max Cafard. ''The Surre(gion)alist Manifesto and Other Writings'']</ref><ref>"The next group of interpreters have also become incorporated into the extant version of the text. They are the school of anarchistically inclined philosophers, that Graham identifies as a "Primitivist" and a school of "Yangists," chapters 8 to 11, and 28 to 31. These thinkers appear to have been profoundly influenced by the Laozi, and also by the thought of the first and last of the Inner Chapters: "Wandering Beyond," and "Responding to Emperors and Kings." There are also possible signs of influence from Yang Zhu, whose concern was to protect and cultivate one's inner life-source. These chapters combine the anarchistic ideals of a simple life close to nature that can be found in the Laozi with the practices that lead to the cultivation and nurturing of life. " [http://www.iep.utm.edu/zhuangzi/ "Zhuangzi (Chuang-Tzu, 369–298 BCE)" at the Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy]</ref> Zhuangzi wrote, "A petty thief is put in jail. A great [[wikt:brigand|brigand]] becomes a ruler of a Nation."<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.mises.org/journals/jls/9_2/9_2_3.pdf|format=PDF|title=Concepts of the role of intellectuals in social change toward laissez faire|author=[[Murray Rothbard]]|accessdate=28 December 2008| archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20081216214953/https://www.mises.org/journals/jls/9_2/9_2_3.pdf| archivedate= 16 December 2008<!--Added by DASHBot-->}}</ref> [[Diogenes of Sinope]] and the [[Cynicism (philosophy)|Cynics]], their contemporary [[Zeno of Citium]], the founder of [[Stoicism]], also introduced similar topics.<ref name="EB1910" /><ref>{{IEP|c/cynics.htm|Cynics|Julie Piering}}</ref> [[Jesus]] is sometimes considered the first anarchist in the [[Christian anarchism|Christian anarchist]] tradition. Georges Lechartier wrote that "The true founder of anarchy was Jesus [[Christ]] and&nbsp;... the first anarchist society was that of the [[Apostle (Christian)|apostles]]."<ref>Cited in George Woodcock, ''Anarchism: A History of Libertarian Ideas and Movements'' (Cleveland: Meridian Books, 1962), p. 38.</ref> In early [[History of Islam|Islamic history]], some manifestations of anarchic thought are found during the [[Second Fitna|Islamic civil war]] over the [[Caliphate]], where the [[Kharijites]] insisted that the [[imamate]] is a right for each individual within the Islamic society.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://theanarchistlibrary.org/library/mohamed-jean-veneuse-anarca-islam#fn_back31|title=Anarca-Islam|work=theanarchistlibrary.org}}</ref> Later, some [[Muslim]] scholars, such as Amer al-Basri<ref>هادي العلوي, ''شخصيات غير قلقة في الإسلام'', دار الكنوز الأدبية، بيروت، 1995، ص36</ref> and [[Abu Hanifa]],<ref>هادي العلوي, ''شخصيات غير قلقة في الإسلام'', دار الكنوز الأدبية، بيروت، 1995، ص136</ref> led movements of boycotting the rulers, paving the way to the [[waqf]] (endowments) tradition, which served as an alternative to and asylum from the centralized authorities of the emirs. But such interpretations reverberates subversive religious conceptions like the aforementioned seemingly anarchistic Taoist teachings and that of other anti-authoritarian religious traditions creating a complex relationship regarding the question as to whether or not [[Anarchism and religion|anarchism and religion are compatible]]. This is exemplified when the glorification of the state is viewed as a form of sinful [[idolatry]].<ref name=CritiqueofViolence>{{cite web |first=Alexandre |last=Christoyannopoulos |url=http://www.psa.ac.uk/journals/pdf/5/2010/1338_1226.pdf |title=A Christian Anarchist Critique of Violence: From Turning the Other Cheek to a Rejection of the State |pages= |date = March 2010|publisher= Political Studies Association}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=Christian Anarchism: A Political Commentary on the Gospel |last=Christoyannopoulos |first=Alexandre |authorlink=Alexandre Christoyannopoulos |coauthors= |year=2010 |publisher=Imprint Academic |location=Exeter |isbn= |page=254 |pages= |url= |accessdate= |quote=The state as idolatry}}</ref> The French [[Renaissance humanism|renaissance]] political philosopher [[Étienne de La Boétie]] wrote in his most famous work the ''Discourse on Voluntary Servitude'' what some historians consider an important anarchist precedent.<ref>Several historians of anarchism have gone so far as to classify La Botie's treatise itself as anarchist, which is incorrect since La botie never extended his analysis from tyrannical government to government per se. But while La Botie cannot be considered an anarchist, his sweeping strictures on tyranny and the universality of his political philosophy lend themselves easily to such an expansion.[http://books.google.com.ec/books?id=6o-8P3iqf7IC&pg=PA18&lpg=PA18&dq=anarchism+la+boetie&source=bl&ots=z79GU1rW1t&sig=4ini7oZUie2U8-P0BpMLogXYWPs&hl=en&sa=X&ei=eAOFUJCYJ4Le9AT_iYG4DA&ved=0CD0Q6AEwBQ#v=onepage&q=anarchism%20la%20boetie&f=false ''Introduction to The Politics of Obedience: The Discourse of Voluntary Servitude'' by Murray Rothbard. Ludwig Von Mises Institute. p. 18]</ref><ref>"Quite rightly, La Boëtie recognizes the potential for domination in any democracy: the democratic leader, elected by the people, becomes intoxicated with his own power and teeters increasingly towards tyranny. Indeed, we can see modern democracy itself as an instance of voluntary servitude on a mass scale. It is not so much that we participate in an illusion whereby we are deceived by elites into thinking we have a genuine say in decision-making. It is rather that democracy itself has encouraged a mass contentment with powerlessness and a general love of submission."[http://theanarchistlibrary.org/library/saul-newman-voluntary-servitude-reconsidered-radical-politics-and-the-problem-of-self-dominatio "Voluntary Servitude Reconsidered: Radical Politics and the Problem of Self-Domination"] [[Saul Newman]]</ref> The radical [[Protestant Christianity|Protestant Christian]] [[Gerrard Winstanley]] and his group the [[Diggers]] are cited by various authors as proposing anarchist social measures in the 17th century in England.<ref>"Anarchists have regarded the secular revolt of the Diggers, or True Levellers, in seventeenth-century England led by Gerrard Winstanley as a source of pride. Winstanley, deeming that property is corrupting, opposed clericalism, political power and privilege. It is economic inequality, he believed, that produces crime and misery. He championed a primitive communalism based on the pure teachings of God as comprehended through reason." [http://www.theanarchistlibrary.org/HTML/Kenneth_C._Wenzer__Godwin_s_Place_in_the_Anarchist_Tradition___a_Bicentennial_Tribute.html Kenneth C. Wenzer. "Godwin's Place in the Anarchist Tradition — a Bicentennial Tribute"]</ref><ref>"It was in these conditions of class struggle that, among a whole cluster of radical groups such as the Fifth Monarchy Men, the [[Levellers]] and the Ranters, there emerged perhaps the first real proto-anarchists, the Diggers, who like the classical 19th-century anarchists identified political and economic power and who believed that a social, rather than political revolution was necessary for the establishment of justice. Gerrard Winstanley, the Diggers' leader, made an identification with the word of God and the principle of reason, an equivalent philosophy to that found in [[Tolstoy]]'s ''[[The Kingdom of God is Within You]]''." Marlow. "Anarchism and Christianity"</ref><ref>"Although Proudhon was the first writer to call himself an anarchist, at least two predecessors outlined systems that contain all the basic elements of anarchism. The first was Gerrard Winstanley (1609 – c. 1660), a linen draper who led the small movement of the Diggers during the Commonwealth. Winstanley and his followers protested in the name of a radical Christianity against the economic distress that followed the Civil War and against the inequality that the grandees of the New Model Army seemed intent on preserving. In 1649–1650 the Diggers squatted on stretches of common land in southern England and attempted to set up communities based on work on the land and the sharing of goods." George Woodcock Anarchism The Encyclopedia of Philosophy</ref> The term "anarchist" first entered the English language in 1642, during the [[English Civil War]], as a [[Pejorative|term of abuse]], used by [[Cavalier|Royalists]] against their [[Roundhead]] opponents.<ref name=bbc>[http://www.bbc.co.uk/radio4/history/inourtime/inourtime_20061207.shtml "Anarchism"], [[BBC Radio 4]] program, [[In Our Time (BBC Radio 4)|In Our Time]], Thursday 7 December 2006. Hosted by [[Melvyn Bragg]] of the BBC, with John Keane, Professor of Politics at [[University of Westminster]], [[Ruth Kinna]], Senior Lecturer in Politics at [[Loughborough University]], and [[Peter Marshall (author)|Peter Marshall]], philosopher and historian.</ref> By the time of the [[French Revolution]] some, such as the ''[[Enragés]]'', began to use the term positively,<ref>Sheehan, Sean. ''Anarchism'', London: Reaktion Books Ltd., 2004. p. 85.</ref> in opposition to [[Jacobin (politics)|Jacobin]] centralisation of power, seeing "revolutionary government" as [[oxymoron]]ic.<ref name=bbc/> By the turn of the 19th century, the English word "anarchism" had lost its initial negative connotation.<ref name=bbc/> Modern anarchism sprang from the secular or religious thought of the [[Age of Enlightenment|Enlightenment]], particularly [[Jean-Jacques Rousseau]]'s arguments for the moral centrality of freedom.<ref name=Encarta>"Anarchism", ''[[Encarta]] Online Encyclopedia'' 2006 (UK version).</ref> As part of the political turmoil of the 1790s in the wake of the [[French Revolution]], [[William Godwin]] developed the first expression of [[anarchist schools of thought|modern anarchist thought]].<ref name="Everhart, Robert B 1982. p. 115">Everhart, Robert B. The Public School Monopoly: A Critical Analysis of Education and the State in American Society. Pacific Institute for Public Policy Research, 1982. p. 115.</ref><ref name="godwinsep" /> Godwin was, according to [[Peter Kropotkin]], "the first to formulate the political and economical conceptions of anarchism, even though he did not give that name to the ideas developed in his work",<ref name="EB1910" /> while Godwin attached his anarchist ideas to an early [[Edmund Burke]].<ref>Godwin himself attributed the first anarchist writing to [[Edmund Burke]]'s '' [[A Vindication of Natural Society]]''. "Most of the above arguments may be found much more at large in Burke's ''Vindication of Natural Society''; a treatise in which the evils of the existing political institutions are displayed with incomparable force of reasoning and lustre of eloquence&nbsp;..." – footnote, Ch. 2 ''[[Political Justice]]'' by William Godwin.</ref> [[File:WilliamGodwin.jpg|left|thumb|upright|[[William Godwin]], "the first to formulate the political and economical conceptions of anarchism, even though he did not give that name to the ideas developed in his work".<ref name="EB1910"/>]] Godwin is generally regarded as the founder of the school of thought known as 'philosophical anarchism'. He argued in ''[[Political Justice]]'' (1793)<ref name="godwinsep" /><ref name="Adams, Ian 2001. p. 116">Adams, Ian. Political Ideology Today. Manchester University Press, 2001. p. 116.</ref> that government has an inherently malevolent influence on society, and that it perpetuates dependency and ignorance. He thought that the spread of the use of reason to the masses would eventually cause government to wither away as an unnecessary force. Although he did not accord the state with moral legitimacy, he was against the use of revolutionary tactics for removing the government from power. Rather, he advocated for its replacement through a process of peaceful evolution.<ref name="godwinsep">{{sep entry|godwin|William Godwin|Mark Philip|2006-05-20}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|title=[[Political Justice|Enquiry Concerning Political Justice and its Influence on Modern Morals and Manners]] |last=Godwin |first=William |authorlink=William Godwin |year=1796 |publisher=G.G. and J. Robinson |oclc=2340417 |origyear=1793}}</ref> His aversion to the imposition of a rules-based society led him to denounce, as a manifestation of the people’s ‘mental enslavement’, the foundations of law, [[property rights]] and even the institution of marriage. He considered the basic foundations of society as constraining the natural development of individuals to use their powers of reasoning to arrive at a mutually beneficial method of social organization. In each case, government and its institutions are shown to constrain the development of our capacity to live wholly in accordance with the full and free exercise of private judgment. The French [[Pierre-Joseph Proudhon]] is regarded as the first ''self-proclaimed'' anarchist, a label he adopted in his groundbreaking work, ''[[What is Property?]],'' published in 1840. It is for this reason that some claim Proudhon as the founder of modern anarchist theory.<ref>Daniel Guerin, ''Anarchism: From Theory to Practice'' (New York: Monthly Review Press, 1970).</ref> He developed the theory of [[spontaneous order]] in society, where organisation emerges without a central coordinator imposing its own idea of order against the wills of individuals acting in their own interests; his famous quote on the matter is, "Liberty is the mother, not the daughter, of order." In ''What is Property?'' Proudhon answers with the famous accusation "[[Property is theft]]." In this work, he opposed the institution of decreed "property" (''propriété''), where owners have complete rights to "use and abuse" their property as they wish.<ref name="proudhon-prop">[[Pierre-Joseph Proudhon|Proudhon]], Pierre-Joseph. ''"[http://www.marxists.org/reference/subject/economics/proudhon/property/ch03.htm Chapter 3. Labour as the efficient cause of the domain of property]"'' from ''"[[What is Property?]]"'', 1840</ref> He contrasted this with what he called "possession," or limited ownership of resources and goods only while in more or less continuous use. Later, however, Proudhon added that "Property is Liberty," and argued that it was a bulwark against state power.<ref>Edwards, Stewart. Introduction to ''Selected Writings of Pierre-Joseph Proudhon'', Anchor Books, Doubleday & Company, Inc. 1969, p. 33</ref> His opposition to the state, organised religion, and certain capitalist practices inspired subsequent anarchists, and made him one of the leading social thinkers of his time. The anarcho-communist [[Joseph Déjacque]] was the first person to describe himself as "[[libertarian socialism|libertarian]]".<ref name="Dejacque">Joseph Déjacque, [http://joseph.dejacque.free.fr/ecrits/lettreapjp.htm De l'être-humain mâle et femelle - Lettre à P.J. Proudhon par Joseph Déjacque] (in French)</ref> Unlike [[Pierre-Joseph Proudhon]], he argued that, "it is not the product of his or her labour that the worker has a right to, but to the satisfaction of his or her needs, whatever may be their nature."<ref>"l'Echange", article in ''Le Libertaire'' no 6, 21 September 1858, New York. [http://joseph.dejacque.free.fr/libertaire/n06/lib01.htm]</ref> In 1844 in Germany the post-hegelian philosopher [[Max Stirner]] published the book, ''[[The Ego and Its Own]],'' which would later be considered an influential early text of [[individualist anarchism]].<ref name = "SEP-Stirner" /> French anarchists active in the [[1848 Revolution]] included [[Anselme Bellegarrigue]], Ernest Coeurderoy, [[Joseph Déjacque]]<ref name="Dejacque">Joseph Déjacque, [http://joseph.dejacque.free.fr/ecrits/lettreapjp.htm De l'être-humain mâle et femelle - Lettre à P.J. Proudhon par Joseph Déjacque] (in French)</ref> and [[Pierre Joseph Proudhon]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://theanarchistlibrary.org/library/pierre-joseph-proudhon-toast-to-the-revolution|title=Toast to the Revolution|work=theanarchistlibrary.org}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://books.google.com.ec/books/about/L_acitivit%C3%A9_d_un_socialiste_de_1848.html?id=wbrfSAAACAAJ&redir_esc=y|title=L'acitivité d'un socialiste de 1848|work=google.com.ec}}</ref> {{Clear}} ===First International and the Paris Commune=== {{Main|International Workingmen's Association|Paris Commune}} [[File:Bakunin.png|thumb|upright|Collectivist anarchist [[Mikhail Bakunin]] opposed the [[Marxist]] aim of [[dictatorship of the proletariat]] in favour of universal rebellion, and allied himself with the federalists in the First International before his expulsion by the Marxists.<ref name=bbc/>]] In Europe, harsh reaction followed the [[revolutions of 1848]], during which ten countries had experienced brief or long-term social upheaval as groups carried out nationalist uprisings. After most of these attempts at systematic change ended in failure, conservative elements took advantage of the divided groups of socialists, anarchists, liberals, and nationalists, to prevent further revolt.<ref>{{cite book |last=Breunig |first=Charles |title=The Age of Revolution and Reaction, 1789–1850 |year=1977 |publisher=[[W. W. Norton & Company]] |location=New York, N.Y |isbn=0-393-09143-0 }}</ref> In Spain Ramón de la Sagra established the anarchist journal ''El Porvenir'' in La Coruña in 1845 which was inspired by Proudhon´s ideas.<ref name="britannica.com">{{cite web|url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/22753/anarchism/66525/Anarchism-in-Spain#ref539322|title=anarchism :: Anarchism in Spain|work=Encyclopedia Britannica}}</ref> The [[Catalan people|Catalan]] politician [[Francesc Pi i Margall]] became the principal translator of Proudhon's works into Spanish<ref>[[George Woodcock]]. ''Anarchism: a history of libertarian movements''. Pg. 357</ref> and later briefly became president of Spain in 1873 while being the leader of the Democratic Republican Federal Party. According to [[George Woodcock]] "These translations were to have a profound and lasting effect on the development of Spanish anarchism after 1870, but before that time Proudhonian ideas, as interpreted by Pi, already provided much of the inspiration for the federalist movement which sprang up in the early 1860's."<ref>George Woodcock. ''Anarchism: a history of libertarian movements''. Pg. 357</ref> According to the ''[[Encyclopedia Britannica]]'' "During the Spanish revolution of 1873, Pi y Margall [[Cantonal Revolution|attempted to establish a decentralized, or "cantonalist," political system]] on Proudhonian lines."<ref name="britannica.com"/> In 1864 the [[International Workingmen's Association]] (sometimes called the "First International") united diverse revolutionary currents including French followers of [[Pierre-Joseph Proudhon|Proudhon]],<ref>{{cite book | last = Blin | first = Arnaud | title = The History of Terrorism | publisher = University of California Press | location = Berkeley | year = 2007 | isbn = 0-520-24709-4 |page=116}}</ref> [[Blanquism|Blanquists]], [[Philadelphes]], English trade unionists, socialists and [[social democrats]]. Due to its links to active workers' movements, the International became a significant organisation. [[Karl Marx]] became a leading figure in the International and a member of its General Council. Proudhon's followers, the [[Mutualism (economic theory)|mutualists]], opposed Marx's [[state socialism]], advocating political [[abstentionism]] and small property holdings.<ref>{{cite book | last = Dodson | first = Edward | title = The Discovery of First Principles: Volume 2 | publisher = Authorhouse | page=312 | year = 2002 | isbn = 0-595-24912-4 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book | last = Thomas | first = Paul | title = Karl Marx and the Anarchists | publisher = Routledge & Kegan Paul |ref=harv | location = London | year = 1985 | isbn = 0-7102-0685-2 |page=187}}</ref> Woodcock also reports that the American individualist anarchists [[Lysander Spooner]] and [[William B. Greene]] had been members of the [[First International]].<ref name="Woodcock">{{cite book|last=Woodcock|first=G.|authorlink=George Woodcock|title=Anarchism: A History of Libertarian Ideas and Movements|year=1962|publisher=Penguin|location=Melbourne|page=460}}</ref> In 1868, following their unsuccessful participation in the [[League of Peace and Freedom]] (LPF), Russian revolutionary [[Mikhail Bakunin]] and his [[collectivist anarchism|collectivist anarchist]] associates joined the First International (which had decided not to get involved with the LPF).<ref>{{cite book | last = Thomas | first = Paul | title = Karl Marx and the Anarchists | publisher = Routledge and Kegan Paul | location = London | year = 1980 | isbn = 0-7102-0685-2 |page=304}}</ref> They allied themselves with the [[federalist]] socialist sections of the International,<ref>{{cite book | last = Bak | first = Jǹos | title = Liberty and Socialism | publisher = Rowman & Littlefield Publishers | location = Lanham | year = 1991 | isbn = 0-8476-7680-3 |page=236}}</ref> who advocated the revolutionary overthrow of the state and the collectivization of property. At first, the collectivists worked with the Marxists to push the First International in a more revolutionary socialist direction. Subsequently, the International became polarised into two camps, with Marx and Bakunin as their respective figureheads.<ref>{{cite book | last = Engel | first = Barbara | title = Mothers and Daughters | publisher = Northwestern University Press | location = Evanston | year = 2000 | isbn = 0-8101-1740-1 |page=140}}</ref> Bakunin characterised Marx's ideas as [[centralism|centralist]] and predicted that, if a Marxist party came to power, its leaders would simply take the place of the [[ruling class]] they had fought against.<ref name="bakuninmarx" /><ref>{{cite book |last=Bakunin|first=Mikhail|authorlink=Mikhail Bakunin|origyear=1873|year=1991|title=Statism and Anarchy |publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=0-521-36973-8}}</ref> Anarchist historian [[George Woodcock]] reports that "The annual Congress of the International had not taken place in 1870 owing to the outbreak of the Paris Commune, and in 1871 the General Council called only a special conference in London. One delegate was able to attend from Spain and none from Italy, while a technical excuse – that they had split away from the Fédération Romande – was used to avoid inviting Bakunin's Swiss supporters. Thus only a tiny minority of anarchists was present, and the General Council's resolutions passed almost unanimously. Most of them were clearly directed against Bakunin and his followers."<ref name="Anarchism 1962">[[George Woodcock]]. ''Anarchism: A History of Libertarian Ideas and Movements'' (1962)</ref> In 1872, the conflict climaxed with a final split between the two groups at the [[Hague Congress (1872)|Hague Congress]], where Bakunin and [[James Guillaume]] were expelled from the International and its headquarters were transferred to New York. In response, the federalist sections formed their own International at the [[Anarchist St. Imier International|St. Imier Congress]], adopting a revolutionary anarchist program.<ref name=Graham-05>Graham, Robert '[http://www.blackrosebooks.net/anarism1.htm ''Anarchism''] (Montreal: Black Rose Books 2005) ISBN 1-55164-251-4.</ref> The [[Paris Commune]] was a government that briefly ruled Paris from 18 March (more formally, from 28 March) to 28 May 1871. The Commune was the result of an uprising in Paris after France was defeated in the Franco-Prussian War. Anarchists participated actively in the establishment of the Paris Commune. They included {{quote|[[Louise Michel]], the Reclus brothers, and [[Eugene Varlin]] (the latter murdered in the repression afterwards). As for the reforms initiated by the Commune, such as the re-opening of workplaces as co-operatives, anarchists can see their ideas of associated labour beginning to be realised&nbsp;... Moreover, the Commune's ideas on federation obviously reflected the influence of [[Pierre-Joseph Proudhon|Proudhon]] on French radical ideas. Indeed, the Commune's vision of a communal France based on a federation of delegates bound by imperative mandates issued by their electors and subject to recall at any moment echoes Bakunin's and Proudhon's ideas (Proudhon, like Bakunin, had argued in favour of the "implementation of the binding mandate" in 1848&nbsp;... and for federation of communes). Thus both economically and politically the Paris Commune was heavily influenced by anarchist ideas.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://flag.blackened.net/revolt/anarchism/writers/anarcho/commune.html|title=The Paris Commune|work=blackened.net}}</ref>}} George Woodcock states: {{quote|a notable contribution to the activities of the Commune and particularly to the organisation of public services was made by members of various anarchist factions, including the mutualists Courbet, Longuet, and Vermorel, the [[Collectivist anarchism|libertarian collectivists]] Varlin, Malon, and Lefrangais, and the bakuninists Elie and [[Elisée Reclus]] and Louise Michel.<ref name="Anarchism 1962"/>}} ===Organised labour=== {{Main|Anarcho-syndicalism|International Workers' Association|Anarchism in Spain|Spanish Revolution}} The anti-authoritarian sections of the First International were the precursors of the anarcho-syndicalists, seeking to "replace the privilege and authority of the State" with the "free and spontaneous organisation of labour."<ref>Resolutions from the St. Imier Congress, in ''Anarchism: A Documentary History of Libertarian Ideas'', Vol. 1, p. 100 [http://www.blackrosebooks.net/anarism1.htm]</ref> In 1886, the [[Federation of Organized Trades and Labor Unions]] (FOTLU) of the United States and Canada unanimously set 1 May 1886, as the date by which the [[Eight-hour day|eight-hour work day]] would become standard.<ref name=foner/> [[File:ChicagoAnarchists.jpg|left|thumb|upright|A sympathetic engraving by [[Walter Crane]] of the executed "Anarchists of Chicago" after the [[Haymarket affair]]. The Haymarket affair is generally considered the most significant event for the origin of international May Day observances.]] In response, unions across the United States prepared a [[general strike]] in support of the event.<ref name=foner/> On 3 May, in Chicago, a fight broke out when [[strikebreaker]]s attempted to cross the picket line, and two workers died when police opened fire upon the crowd.<ref>{{cite book |last=Avrich |first=Paul |title=The Haymarket Tragedy |year=1984 |publisher=Princeton University Press |location=Princeton |isbn=0-691-00600-8 |page=190}}</ref> The next day, 4 May, anarchists staged a rally at Chicago's Haymarket Square.<ref>{{cite book |last=Avrich |title=The Haymarket Tragedy |page=193 |isbn=0-691-04711-1 }}</ref> A bomb was thrown by an unknown party near the conclusion of the rally, killing an officer.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.odmp.org/officer/3972-patrolman-mathias-j.-degan |title=Patrolman Mathias J. Degan |accessdate=19 January 2008 |publisher=The Officer Down Memorial Page, Inc | archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20080118084649/http://www.odmp.org/officer/3972-patrolman-mathias-j.-degan| archivedate= 18 January 2008<!--Added by DASHBot-->}}</ref> In the ensuing panic, police opened fire on the crowd and each other.<ref>''[[Chicago Tribune]]'', 27 June 1886, quoted in {{cite book |last=Avrich |title=The Haymarket Tragedy |page=209 |isbn=0-691-04711-1 }}</ref> Seven police officers and at least four workers were killed.<ref name='the bomb'>{{cite web |url=http://www.chicagohistory.org/dramas/act2/act2.htm |title=Act II: Let Your Tragedy Be Enacted Here |accessdate=19 January 2008 |year=2000 |work=The Dramas of Haymarket |publisher=Chicago Historical Society | archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20080115030929/http://www.chicagohistory.org/dramas/act2/act2.htm| archivedate= 15 January 2008<!--Added by DASHBot-->}}</ref> Eight anarchists directly and indirectly related to the organisers of the rally were arrested and charged with the murder of the deceased officer. The men became international political celebrities among the labour movement. Four of the men were executed and a fifth committed suicide prior to his own execution. The incident became known as the [[Haymarket affair]], and was a setback for the labour movement and the struggle for the eight-hour day. In 1890 a second attempt, this time international in scope, to organise for the eight-hour day was made. The event also had the secondary purpose of memorializing workers killed as a result of the Haymarket affair.<ref>{{cite book |last=Foner |title=May Day |page=42 |isbn=0-7178-0624-3 }}</ref> Although it had initially been conceived as a once-off event, by the following year the celebration of [[International Workers' Day]] on May Day had become firmly established as an international worker's holiday.<ref name=foner>{{cite book | last = Foner | first = Philip Sheldon | title = May day: a short history of the international workers' holiday, 1886–1986 | publisher = International Publishers | location = New York | year = 1986 | isbn = 0-7178-0624-3 |page=56}}</ref> In 1907, the [[International Anarchist Congress of Amsterdam]] gathered delegates from 14 different countries, among which important figures of the anarchist movement, including [[Errico Malatesta]], [[Pierre Monatte]], [[Luigi Fabbri]], [[Benoît Broutchoux]], [[Emma Goldman]], [[Rudolf Rocker]], and [[Christiaan Cornelissen]]. Various themes were treated during the Congress, in particular concerning the organisation of the anarchist movement, [[popular education]] issues, the [[general strike]] or [[antimilitarism]]. A central debate concerned the relation between anarchism and [[syndicalism]] (or [[trade union]]ism). Malatesta and Monatte were in particular disagreement themselves on this issue, as the latter thought that syndicalism was revolutionary and would create the conditions of a [[social revolution]], while Malatesta did not consider syndicalism by itself sufficient.<ref>[http://www.fondation-besnard.org/article.php3?id_article=225 Extract of Malatesta's declaration] {{fr icon}}</ref> He thought that the trade-union movement was [[reformism|reformist]] and even [[Conservatism|conservative]], citing as essentially bourgeois and anti-worker the phenomenon of professional union officials. Malatesta warned that the syndicalists aims were in perpetuating syndicalism itself, whereas anarchists must always have anarchy as their end and consequently refrain from committing to any particular method of achieving it.<ref>{{cite book | last = Skirda | first = Alexandre | title = [[Facing the Enemy|Facing the enemy: a history of anarchist organization from Proudhon to May 1968]] | publisher = A. K. Press| year = 2002 | isbn = 1-902593-19-7 |page=89 }}</ref> The [[Federación Anarquista Ibérica|Spanish Workers Federation]] in 1881 was the first major anarcho-syndicalist movement; anarchist trade union federations were of special importance in Spain. The most successful was the [[Confederación Nacional del Trabajo]] (National Confederation of Labour: CNT), founded in 1910. Before the 1940s, the CNT was the major force in Spanish working class politics, attracting 1.58&nbsp;million members at one point and playing a major role in the [[Spanish Civil War]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Beevor |first=Antony |authorlink=Antony Beevor |year=2006 |title=The Battle for Spain: The Spanish Civil War 1936–1939 |publisher=Weidenfeld & Nicolson |location=London |isbn=978-0-297-84832-5 |page=24 }}</ref> The CNT was affiliated with the [[International Workers Association]], a federation of anarcho-syndicalist trade unions founded in 1922, with delegates representing two million workers from 15 countries in Europe and Latin America. In Latin America in particular "The anarchists quickly became active in organizing craft and industrial workers throughout South and Central America, and until the early 1920s most of the trade unions in [[Anarchism in Mexico|Mexico]], [[Anarchism in Brazil|Brazil]], Peru, Chile, and Argentina were anarcho-syndicalist in general outlook; the prestige of the Spanish C.N.T. as a revolutionary organization was undoubtedly to a great extent responsible for this situation. The largest and most militant of these organizations was the [[Federación Obrera Regional Argentina]]&nbsp;... it grew quickly to a membership of nearly a quarter of a million, which dwarfed the rival socialdemocratic unions."<ref name="Anarchism 1962"/> {{Clear}} ===Propaganda of the deed and illegalism=== {{Main|Propaganda of the deed|Illegalism|Expropriative anarchism}} [[File:Lugi Gallean2.jpg|right|thumb|upright|[[Italian-American]] anarchist [[Luigi Galleani]]. His followers, known as Galleanists, carried out a series of bombings and assassination attempts from 1914 to 1932 in what they saw as attacks on 'tyrants' and 'enemies of the people']] Some anarchists, such as [[Johann Most]], advocated publicizing violent acts of retaliation against counter-revolutionaries because "we preach not only action in and for itself, but also action as propaganda."<ref>{{cite web |url=http://dwardmac.pitzer.edu/Anarchist_Archives/bright/most/actionprop.html |title="Action as Propaganda" by Johann Most, 25 July 1885 |publisher=Dwardmac.pitzer.edu |date=21 April 2003 |accessdate=20 September 2010}}</ref> By the 1880s, people inside and outside the anarchist movement began to use the slogan, "propaganda of the deed" to refer to individual bombings, [[regicide]]s, and [[tyrannicide]]s. From 1905 onwards, the Russian counterparts of these anti-syndicalist anarchist-communists become partisans of economic terrorism and illegal '[[Confiscation|expropriations]]'."<ref>{{Wayback |date=20090312022528 |url=http://www.zabalaza.net/theory/txt_anok_comm_ap.htm |title="Anarchist-Communism" by Alain Pengam }}</ref> [[Illegalism]] as a practice emerged and within it "The acts of the anarchist bombers and assassins ("[[propaganda by the deed]]") and the anarchist burglars ("[[individual reappropriation]]") expressed their desperation and their personal, violent rejection of an intolerable society. Moreover, they were clearly meant to be ''exemplary'' invitations to revolt.".<ref name="illegalism">{{cite web|url=http://recollectionbooks.com/siml/library/illegalistsDougImrie.htm|title=The Illegalists - By Doug Imrie|work=recollectionbooks.com}}</ref> France's [[Bonnot Gang]] was the most famous group to embrace illegalism. However, as soon as 1887, important figures in the anarchist movement distanced themselves from such individual acts. [[Peter Kropotkin]] thus wrote that year in ''Le Révolté'' that "a structure based on centuries of history cannot be destroyed with a few kilos of dynamite".<ref>quoted in Billington, James H. 1998. ''Fire in the minds of men: origins of the revolutionary faith'' New Jersey: Transaction Books, p 417.</ref> A variety of anarchists advocated the abandonment of these sorts of tactics in favour of collective revolutionary action, for example through the [[trade union]] movement. The [[anarcho-syndicalism|anarcho-syndicalist]], [[Fernand Pelloutier]], argued in 1895 for renewed anarchist involvement in the labour movement on the basis that anarchism could do very well without "the individual dynamiter."<ref>{{cite web |url=http://blackrosebooks.net/anarism1.htm |title=Table Of Contents |publisher=Blackrosebooks.net |date= |accessdate=20 September 2010}}</ref> [[Political repression|State repression]] (including the infamous 1894 French ''[[lois scélérates]]'') of the anarchist and [[labour movement]]s following the few successful bombings and assassinations may have contributed to the abandonment of these kinds of tactics, although reciprocally state repression, in the first place, may have played a role in these isolated acts. The dismemberment of the French [[socialist movement]], into many groups and, following the suppression of the 1871 [[Paris Commune]], the execution and exile of many ''[[communards]]'' to [[penal colonies]], favoured individualist political expression and acts.<ref>Historian [[Benedict Anderson]] thus writes: <blockquote> "In March 1871 the Commune took power in the abandoned city and held it for two months. Then [[Adolphe Thiers|Versailles]] seized the moment to attack and, in one horrifying week, executed roughly 20,000 Communards or suspected sympathizers, a number higher than those killed in the recent war or during [[Robespierre]]'s '[[Reign of Terror|Terror]]' of 1793–1794. More than 7,500 were jailed or deported to places like New Caledonia. Thousands of others fled to Belgium, England, Italy, Spain and the United States. In 1872, stringent laws were passed that ruled out all possibilities of organising on the left. Not till 1880 was there a general amnesty for exiled and imprisoned Communards. Meanwhile, the Third Republic found itself strong enough to renew and reinforce [[Napoleon III of France|Louis Napoleon]]'s imperialist expansion – in Indochina, Africa, and Oceania. Many of France's leading intellectuals and artists had participated in the Commune ([[Gustave Courbet|Courbet]] was its quasi-minister of culture, [[Arthur Rimbaud|Rimbaud]] and [[Pissarro]] were active propagandists) or were sympathetic to it. The ferocious repression of 1871 and thereafter, was probably the key factor in alienating these milieux from the Third Republic and stirring their sympathy for its victims at home and abroad." {{Cite journal | last = Anderson | first = Benedict | author-link = Benedict Anderson | title = In the World-Shadow of Bismarck and Nobel | journal = [[New Left Review]] | volume = II | issue = 28 | pages = 85–129 | publisher = New Left Review | date = July–August 2004 | url = http://newleftreview.org/II/28/benedict-anderson-in-the-world-shadow-of-bismarck-and-nobel | ref = harv | postscript = .}} </blockquote> According to some analysts, in [[History of Germany since 1945|post-war Germany]], the prohibition of the [[Communist Party of Germany|Communist Party]] (KDP) and thus of institutional far-left political organisation may also, in the same manner, have played a role in the creation of the [[Red Army Faction]].</ref> Numerous heads of state were assassinated between 1881 and 1914 by members of the anarchist movement, including Tsar [[Alexander II of Russia]], President [[Marie François Sadi Carnot|Sadi Carnot]] of France, [[Empress Elisabeth of Austria]], King [[Umberto I of Italy]], President [[William McKinley]] of the United States, King [[Carlos I of Portugal]] and King [[George I of Greece]].{{citation needed|date=November 2015}} McKinley's assassin [[Leon Czolgosz]] claimed to have been influenced by anarchist and [[feminist]] [[Emma Goldman]].<ref>{{Cite web|title = American Experience {{!}} Emma Goldman {{!}} Transcript {{!}} PBS|url = http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/goldman/filmmore/pt.html|website = www.pbs.org|access-date = 2016-01-12}}</ref> Propaganda of the deed was abandoned by the vast majority of the anarchist movement after World War I (1914–1918) and the [[1917 October Revolution]].{{citation needed|date=November 2015}} ===Russian Revolution and other uprisings of the 1910s=== {{Main|Anarchism in Russia|Russian Revolution (1917)||Revolutionary Insurrectionary Army of Ukraine|Revolutions of 1917–23}} [[File:Makhno group.jpg|thumb|left|[[Nestor Makhno]] with members of the anarchist [[Revolutionary Insurrectionary Army of Ukraine]]]] Anarchists participated alongside the [[Bolshevik]]s in both [[February Revolution|February]] and [[October Revolution|October revolutions]], and were initially enthusiastic about the Bolshevik revolution.<ref>{{cite book | last = Dirlik | first = Arif | title = Anarchism in the Chinese Revolution | publisher = University of California Press | location = Berkeley | year = 1991 | isbn = 0-520-07297-9 }}</ref> However, following a political falling out with the Bolsheviks by the anarchists and other left-wing opposition, the conflict culminated in the 1921 [[Kronstadt rebellion]], which the new government repressed. Anarchists in central Russia were either imprisoned, driven underground or joined the victorious Bolsheviks; the anarchists from Petrograd and Moscow fled to [[Ukraine]].<ref>{{cite book | last = Avrich | first = Paul | title = The Russian Anarchists | publisher = AK Press | location = Stirling | year = 2006 | isbn = 1-904859-48-8 |page=204}}</ref> There, in the [[Free Territory (Ukraine)|Free Territory]], they fought in the [[Russian Civil War|civil war]] against the [[White movement|Whites]] (a grouping of monarchists and other opponents of the October Revolution) and then the Bolsheviks as part of the [[Revolutionary Insurrectionary Army of Ukraine]] led by [[Nestor Makhno]], who established an anarchist society in the region for a number of months. Expelled American anarchists [[Emma Goldman]] and [[Alexander Berkman]] were amongst those agitating in response to Bolshevik policy and the suppression of the [[Kronstadt rebellion|Kronstadt uprising]], before they left Russia. Both wrote accounts of their experiences in Russia, criticising the amount of control the Bolsheviks exercised. For them, [[Mikhail Bakunin|Bakunin]]'s predictions about the consequences of Marxist rule that the rulers of the new "socialist" Marxist state would become a new elite had proved all too true.<ref name="bakuninmarx">"[http://www.marxists.org/reference/archive/bakunin/works/1872/karl-marx.htm On the International Workingmen's Association and Karl Marx]" in ''Bakunin on Anarchy'', translated and edited by Sam Dolgoff, 1971.</ref><ref>{{cite book | last = Goldman | first = Emma | title = [[My Disillusionment in Russia]] |chapter=Preface |page=xx | publisher = Dover Publications | location = New York | year = 2003 | isbn = 0-486-43270-X |quote= My critic further charged me with believing that "had the Russians made the Revolution à la Bakunin instead of à la Marx" the result would have been different and more satisfactory. I plead guilty to the charge. In truth, I not only believe so; I am certain of it.}}</ref> The victory of the Bolsheviks in the October Revolution and the resulting Russian Civil War did serious damage to anarchist movements internationally. Many workers and activists saw Bolshevik success as setting an example; [[Communist party|Communist parties]] grew at the expense of anarchism and other socialist movements. In France and the United States, for example, members of the major syndicalist movements of the [[Confédération générale du travail|CGT]] and [[Industrial Workers of the World|IWW]] left the organisations and joined the [[Comintern|Communist International]].<ref>{{cite book | editor1-last = Drachkovitch | editor1-first = Milorad M. |first=Max |last=Nomad |contribution=The Anarchist Tradition |title = Revolutionary Internationals 1864 1943 | publisher = Stanford University Press |page=88 | year = 1966 | isbn = 0-8047-0293-4 }}</ref> The [[Revolutions of 1917–23|revolutionary wave of 1917–23]] saw the active participation of anarchists in varying degrees of protagonism. In the German uprising known as the [[German Revolution of 1918–1919]] which established the [[Bavarian Soviet Republic]] the anarchists [[Gustav Landauer]], [[Silvio Gesell]] and [[Erich Mühsam]] had important leadership positions within the revolutionary [[Council communism|councilist]] structures.<ref>"The Munich Soviet (or "Council Republic") of 1919 exhibited certain features of the TAZ, even though — like most revolutions — its stated goals were not exactly "temporary." Gustav Landauer's participation as Minister of Culture along with Silvio Gesell as Minister of Economics and other anti-authoritarian and extreme libertarian socialists such as the poet/playwrights Erich Mühsam and Ernst Toller, and Ret Marut (the novelist B. Traven), gave the Soviet a distinct anarchist flavor." [[Hakim Bey]]. [http://www.theanarchistlibrary.org/HTML/Hakim_Bey__T.A.Z.__The_Temporary_Autonomous_Zone__Ontological_Anarchy__Poetic_Terrorism.html "T.A.Z.: The Temporary Autonomous Zone, Ontological Anarchy, Poetic Terrorism"]</ref><ref name="br.de">{{cite web |url= http://www.br.de/themen/bayern/inhalt/geschichte/bayern-revolution-1919-erste-raeterepublik100.html |title=Die bayerische Revolution 1918/19: Die erste Räterepublik: Literaten an der Macht |trans_title=The Bavarian Revolution 1918/19: The first Soviet Republic: Literati in Power |language=German |work=br.de |location=Munich, Bavaria, Germany |publisher=[[Bayerischer Rundfunk]] |accessdate=1 September 2012}}</ref> In the Italian events known as the ''[[biennio rosso]]''<ref name="Dallacasa">Brunella Dalla Casa, ''Composizione di classe, rivendicazioni e professionalità nelle lotte del "biennio rosso" a Bologna'', in: AA. VV, ''Bologna 1920; le origini del fascismo'', a cura di Luciano Casali, Cappelli, Bologna 1982, pag. 179.</ref> the anarcho-syndicalist trade union [[Unione Sindacale Italiana]] "grew to 800,000 members and the influence of the Italian Anarchist Union (20,000 members plus ''[[Umanita Nova]]'', its daily paper) grew accordingly&nbsp;... Anarchists were the first to suggest occupying workplaces.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://libcom.org/history/articles/italy-factory-occupations-1920|title=1918–1921: The Italian factory occupations and Biennio Rosso|work=libcom.org}}</ref> In the [[Mexican Revolution]] the [[Mexican Liberal Party]] was established and during the early 1910s it led a series of military offensives leading to the conquest and occupation of certain towns and districts in [[Baja California]] with the leadership of anarcho-communist [[Ricardo Flores Magón]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sandiegohistory.org/journal/99winter/magonista.htm|title=The Magonista Revolt in Baja California|work=sandiegohistory.org}}</ref> In Paris, the [[Dielo Truda]] group of Russian anarchist exiles, which included [[Nestor Makhno]], concluded that anarchists needed to develop new forms of organisation in response to the structures of Bolshevism. Their 1926 manifesto, called the ''[[Platformism|Organisational Platform of the General Union of Anarchists (Draft)]]'',<ref name=Platformtext>{{cite book |last=Dielo Trouda |authorlink=Dielo Truda |title=Organizational Platform of the General Union of Anarchists (Draft) |origyear=1926 |url=http://www.anarkismo.net/newswire.php?story_id=1000 |accessdate=24 October 2006 |year=2006 |publisher=FdCA |location=Italy| archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20070311013533/http://www.anarkismo.net/newswire.php?story_id=1000| archivedate= 11 March 2007<!--Added by DASHBot-->}}</ref> was supported. [[Platformist]] groups active today include the [[Workers Solidarity Movement]] in Ireland and the [[NEFAC|North Eastern Federation of Anarchist Communists]] of North America. [[Synthesis anarchism]] emerged as an organisational alternative to platformism that tries to join anarchists of different tendencies under the principles of [[anarchism without adjectives]].<ref>{{cite web |author=Starhawk |url=http://www.infoshop.org/page/AnarchistFAQSectionJ3 |title="J.3.2 What are "synthesis" federations?"|work=[[An Anarchist FAQ]]|publisher=Infoshop.org |date= |accessdate=20 September 2010| archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20101007160139/http://www.infoshop.org/page/AnarchistFAQSectionJ3| archivedate= 7 October 2010<!--Added by DASHBot-->}}</ref> In the 1920s this form found as its main proponents [[Volin]] and [[Sebastien Faure]].<ref>{{cite web |author=Starhawk |url=http://www.infoshop.org/page/AnarchistFAQSectionJ3 |title="J.3.2 What are "synthesis" federations?"|work=[[An Anarchist FAQ]]|publisher=Infoshop.org |date= |accessdate=20 September 2010| archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20101007160139/http://www.infoshop.org/page/AnarchistFAQSectionJ3| archivedate= 7 October 2010<!--Added by DASHBot-->}}</ref> It is the main principle behind the anarchist federations grouped around the contemporary global [[International of Anarchist Federations]].<ref>{{cite web |author=Starhawk |url=http://www.infoshop.org/page/AnarchistFAQSectionJ3 |title="J.3.2 What are "synthesis" federations?"|work=[[An Anarchist FAQ]]|publisher=Infoshop.org |date= |accessdate=20 September 2010| archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20101007160139/http://www.infoshop.org/page/AnarchistFAQSectionJ3| archivedate= 7 October 2010<!--Added by DASHBot-->}}</ref> ===Conflicts with European fascist regimes=== {{Main|Anti-fascism}} {{See also|Anarchism in France|Anarchism in Italy|Anarchism in Spain|Anarchism in Germany}} In the 1920s and 1930s, the rise of fascism in Europe transformed anarchism's conflict with the state. Italy saw the first struggles between anarchists and fascists. [[Anarchism in Italy|Italian anarchists]] played a key role in the [[Anti-fascism|anti-fascist]] organisation ''[[Arditi del Popolo]]'', which was strongest in areas with anarchist traditions, and achieved some success in their activism, such as repelling [[Blackshirts]] in the anarchist stronghold of [[Parma]] in August 1922.<ref>Holbrow, Marnie, [http://www.socialistreview.org.uk/article.php?articlenumber=8205 "Daring but Divided"] (''Socialist Review'' November 2002).</ref> The veteran Italian anarchist, [[Luigi Fabbri]], was one of the first critical theorists of fascism, describing it as "the preventive counter-revolution." <ref name="wordpress"/> In France, where the [[far right leagues]] came close to insurrection in the [[6 February 1934 crisis|February 1934 riots]], anarchists divided over a [[united front]] policy.<ref>Berry, David. "Fascism or Revolution." ''Le Libertaire''. August 1936.</ref> Anarchists in [[Anarchism in France|France]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://flag.blackened.net/revolt/anarchism/texts/war/anarFranceWW2.html|title=Anarchist Activity in France during World War Two|work=blackened.net}}</ref> and [[Anarchism in Italy|Italy]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://libcom.org/history/articles/italian-resistance-anarchist-partisans-1943|title=1943–1945: Anarchist partisans in the Italian Resistance|work=libcom.org}}</ref> were active in the [[Resistance during World War II]]. In Germany the anarchist [[Erich Mühsam]] was arrested on charges unknown in the early morning hours of 28 February 1933, within a few hours after the [[Reichstag fire]] in Berlin. [[Joseph Goebbels]], the Nazi [[Propagandaministerium|propaganda minister]], labelled him as one of "those Jewish subversives." Over the next seventeen months, he would be imprisoned in the concentration camps at [[Sonnenburg]], Brandenburg and finally, [[Oranienburg]]. On 2 February 1934, Mühsam was transferred to the [[Nazi concentration camps|concentration camp]] at [[Oranienburg concentration camp|Oranienburg]] when finally on the night of 9 July 1934, Mühsam was tortured and murdered by the guards, his battered corpse found hanging in a latrine the next morning.<ref name=" Shepherd">{{cite book |last=Mühsam|first=Erich|editor=David A. Shepherd|title=Thunderation!/Alle Wetter!: Folk Play With Song and Dance/Volksstuck Mit Gesang Und Tanz|url=https://books.google.com/?id=jspUxzlyZIQC&pg=PA18&dq=%22Erich+M%C3%BChsam%22+Oranienburg#v=onepage&q&f=false|year=2001|publisher=[[Bucknell University Press]]|isbn=978-0-8387-5416-0|page=18}}</ref> === Spanish Revolution === {{Main|Spanish Revolution}} In Spain, the national anarcho-syndicalist trade union [[Confederación Nacional del Trabajo]] initially refused to join a popular front electoral alliance, and abstention by CNT supporters led to a right wing election victory. But in 1936, the CNT changed its policy and anarchist votes helped bring the popular front back to power. Months later, the former ruling class responded with an attempted coup causing the [[Spanish Civil War]] (1936–1939).<ref>{{Cite book |last=Beevor |first=Antony |authorlink=Antony Beevor |year=2006 |page=46 |title=The Battle for Spain: The Spanish Civil War 1936–1939 |publisher=Weidenfeld & Nicolson |location=London |isbn=978-0-297-84832-5 }}</ref> In response to the army rebellion, an [[Anarchism in Spain|anarchist-inspired]] movement of peasants and workers, supported by armed militias, took control of [[Barcelona]] and of large areas of rural Spain where they [[Collective farming|collectivised]] the land.<ref name='Bolloten 1984, p.54'>{{cite book | last = Bolloten | first = Burnett | authorlink = Burnett Bolloten | coauthors = | title = The Spanish Civil War: Revolution and Counterrevolution | publisher = University of North Carolina Press | date = 15 November 1984 | location = | page =1107 | url = | doi = | id = | isbn = 978-0-8078-1906-7 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book | last = Bolloten | first = Burnett | authorlink = Burnett Bolloten | coauthors = | title = The Spanish Civil War: Revolution and Counterrevolution | publisher = University of North Carolina Press | date = 15 November 1984 | location = | page =1107 | url = | doi = | isbn = 978-0-8078-1906-7 }}</ref> But even before the fascist victory in 1939, the anarchists were losing ground in a bitter struggle with the [[Stalinism|Stalinists]], who controlled much of the distribution of military aid to the Republican cause from the [[Soviet Union]]. The events known as the Spanish Revolution was a workers' [[social revolution]] that began during the outbreak of the [[Spanish Civil War]] in 1936 and resulted in the widespread implementation of [[Anarchism in Spain|anarchist]] and more broadly [[libertarian socialist]] organisational principles throughout various portions of the country for two to three years, primarily [[Catalonia]], [[Anarchist Aragon|Aragon]], [[Andalusia]], and parts of [[Levante, Spain|the Levante]]. Much of [[Spain's economy]] was put under worker control; in anarchist strongholds like [[Catalonia]], the figure was as high as 75%, but lower in areas with heavy [[Communist Party of Spain (main)|Communist Party of Spain]] influence, as the [[Soviet Union|Soviet]]-allied party actively resisted attempts at [[collectivization]] enactment. Factories were run through worker committees, [[agriculture|agrarian]] areas became collectivised and run as [[Libertarian socialism|libertarian]] [[commune (intentional community)|communes]]. Anarchist historian [[Sam Dolgoff]] estimated that about eight million people participated directly or at least indirectly in the Spanish Revolution,<ref name=Dolgoff1974>{{Cite book | title = The Anarchist Collectives: Workers' Self-Management in the Spanish Revolution. In The Spanish Revolution, the Luger P08 was used as a weapon of choice by the Spanish | year = 1974 | author = Dolgoff, S. | isbn = 978-0-914156-03-1 | ref = harv | postscript = <!-- Bot inserted parameter. Either remove it; or change its value to "." for the cite to end in a ".", as necessary. -->{{inconsistent citations}} }}</ref> which he claimed "came closer to realizing the ideal of the free stateless society on a vast scale than any other revolution in history."<ref>Dolgoff (1974), p. 5</ref> [[Spanish Communist Party]]-led troops suppressed the collectives and persecuted both [[Workers' Party of Marxist Unification|dissident Marxists]] and anarchists.<ref>{{cite book |isbn=1-57181-542-2 |page=29 |title=Sartre Against Stalinism |first=Ian |last=Birchall |year=2004 |publisher=Berghahn Books}}</ref> The prominent Italian anarchist [[Camillo Berneri]], who volunteered to fight against Franco was killed instead in Spain by gunmen associated with the [[Spanish Communist Party]].<ref>"When clashes with the Communist Party broke out, his house, where he lived with other anarchists, was attacked on 4 May 1937. They were all labelled "counter-revolutionaries", disarmed, deprived of their papers and forbidden to go out into the street. There was still shooting in the streets when, on 5 May 1937, news arrived from Italy of Antonio Gramsci's death in a fascist prison...Leaving Radio Barcelona, Berneri set off for the Plaça de la Generalitat, where some Stalinists shouted after him. Before he could turn and look, they opened fire with machine guns, and left his dead body there on the street."[http://libcom.org/history/berneri-luigi-camillo-1897-1937 "Berneri, Luigi Camillo, 1897–1937" at libcom.com]</ref><ref>[[Paul Avrich]]. ''Anarchist Voices: An Oral History of Anarchism in America''. AK Press. 2005. p. 516</ref><ref>"Spain: Return to "normalization" in Barcelona. The Republican government had sent troops to take over the telephone exchange on 3 May, pitting the anarchists & Poumists on one side against the Republican government & the Stalinist Communist Party on the other, in pitched street battles, resulting in 500 anarchists killed. Squads of Communist Party members took to the streets on 6 May to assassinate leading anarchists. Today, among those found murdered, was the Italian anarchist Camillo Berneri"[http://recollectionbooks.com/bleed/Encyclopedia/BerneriCamillo.htm "Camillo Berneri" at The Anarchist Encyclopedia: A Gallery of Saints & Sinners ...]</ref> The city of Madrid was turned over to the francoist forces by the last non-francoist mayor of the city, the anarchist [[Melchor Rodríguez García]].<ref>"Sí se ha aprobado por unanimidad, también a propuesta de Ciudadanos, dedicar una calle al anarquista Melchor Rodríguez García, el último alcalde de Madrid republicano, ante “el gran consenso social y político” al respecto y por “su gran relevancia para la reconciliación y la concordia tras la Guerra Civil”. ''[[El País]]''. [http://ccaa.elpais.com/ccaa/2016/01/27/madrid/1453905439_934798.html?rel=cx_articulo#cxrecs_s Madrid sustituirá las calles franquistas por víctimas del terrorismo]</ref> === Post-war years === <!-- Commented out: [[File:Paul Goodman.jpg|thumb|[[Paul Goodman (writer)|Paul Goodman]], influential American anarchist author of ''[[Growing Up Absurd|Growing Up Absurd: Problems of Youth in the Organized Society]]'' among other works critical of contemporary societies.]] --> Anarchism sought to reorganise itself after the war and in this context the organisational debate between [[synthesis anarchism]] and [[platformism]] took importance once again especially in the [[Anarchism in Italy#Postwar years and today|anarchist movements of Italy]] and [[Anarchism in France#The Fourth Republic (1945–1958)|France]]. The [[Mexican Anarchist Federation]] was established in 1945 after the Anarchist Federation of the Centre united with the Anarchist Federation of the Federal District.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.portaloaca.com/historia/historia-libertaria/1735-regeneracion-y-la-federacion-anarquista-mexicana-1952-1960-tesis.html|title=Regeneración y la Federación Anarquista Mexicana (1952–1960) [Tesis] - Portal Libertario OACA|author=Coordinación del Portal Libertario OACA|work=portaloaca.com}}</ref> In the early 1940s, the Antifascist International Solidarity and the Federation of Anarchist Groups of Cuba merged into the large national organisation Asociación Libertaria de Cuba (Cuban Libertarian Association).<ref>"The surviving sectors of the revolutionary anarchist movement of the 1920–1940 period, now working in the SIA and the FGAC, reinforced by those Cuban militants and Spanish anarchists fleeing now-fascist Spain, agreed at the beginning of the decade to hold an assembly with the purpose of regrouping the libertarian forces inside a single organization. The guarantees of the 1940 Constitution permitted them to legally create an organization of this type, and it was thus that they agreed to dissolve the two principal Cuban anarchist organizations, the SIA and FGAC, and create a new, unified group, the Asociación Libertaria de Cuba (ALC), a sizable organization with a membership in the thousands."[http://www.theanarchistlibrary.org/HTML/Frank_Fernandez__Cuban_Anarchism__The_History_of_A_Movement.html#toc8 ''Cuban Anarchism: The History of A Movement'' by Frank Fernandez]</ref> From 1944 to 1947, the Bulgarian Anarchist Communist Federation reemerged as part of a factory and workplace committee movement, but was repressed by the new Communist regime.<ref name="robertgraham.wordpress.com">{{cite web|url=http://robertgraham.wordpress.com/anarchism-a-documentary-history-of-libertarian-ideas-volume-two-the-emergence-of-the-new-anarchism-1939-1977/|title=Anarchism: A Documentary History of Libertarian Ideas, Volume Two: The Emergence of the New Anarchism (1939–1977)|work=Robert Graham's Anarchism Weblog}}</ref> In 1945 in [[Anarchism in France|France]] the [[Fédération Anarchiste]] and the anarchosyndicalist trade union [[Confédération nationale du travail]] was established in the next year while the also [[Synthesist anarchism|synthesist]] [[Federazione Anarchica Italiana]] was founded in [[Anarchism in Italy|Italy]]. Korean anarchists formed the League of Free Social Constructors in September 1945<ref name="robertgraham.wordpress.com"/> and in 1946 the [[Japanese Anarchist Federation]] was founded.<ref>[http://flag.blackened.net/af/ace/japchap3.html THE ANARCHIST MOVEMENT IN JAPAN Anarchist Communist Editions § ACE Pamphlet No. 8]</ref> An International Anarchist Congress with delegates from across Europe was held in Paris in May 1948.<ref name="robertgraham.wordpress.com"/> After World War II, an appeal in the ''[[Fraye Arbeter Shtime]]'' detailing the plight of [[Anarchism in Germany|German anarchists]] and called for Americans to support them. By February 1946, the sending of aid parcels to anarchists in Germany was a large-scale operation. The Federation of Libertarian Socialists was founded in Germany in 1947 and [[Rudolf Rocker]] wrote for its organ, ''Die Freie Gesellschaft'', which survived until 1953.<ref>* {{cite journal | doi = 10.1177/002200947300800304 | last = Vallance | first = Margaret |date=July 1973 | title = Rudolf Rocker&nbsp;– a biographical sketch | journal = Journal of Contemporary History | volume = 8 | issue = 3 | pages = 94–95 | publisher = Sage Publications | location = London/Beverly Hills | issn = 0022-0094 | oclc = 49976309 | ref = harv }}</ref> In 1956 the [[Uruguayan Anarchist Federation]] was founded.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.anarkismo.net/newswire.php?story_id=3701|title=50 años de la Federación Anarquista Uruguaya|work=anarkismo.net}}</ref> In 1955 the Anarcho-Communist Federation of Argentina renamed itself as the [[Argentine Libertarian Federation]]. The [[Syndicalist Workers' Federation]] was a syndicalist group in active in post-war Britain,<ref name="Political Encyclopedia">{{cite book|title=Encyclopedia of British and Irish Political Organizations'|year=2000|publisher=Pinter Publishers|location=United Kingdom|isbn=978-1855672642|url=http://www.amazon.com/Encyclopedia-British-Irish-Political-Organizations/dp/1855672642}}</ref> and one of [[Solidarity Federation]]'s earliest predecessors. It was formed in 1950 by members of the dissolved Anarchist Federation of Britain.<ref name="Political Encyclopedia" /> Unlike the AFB, which was influenced by anarcho-syndicalist ideas but ultimately not syndicalist itself, the SWF decided to pursue a more definitely [[syndicalism|syndicalist]], worker-centred strategy from the outset.<ref name="Political Encyclopedia" /> Anarchism continued to influence important literary and intellectual personalities of the time, such as [[Albert Camus]], [[Herbert Read]], [[Paul Goodman (writer)|Paul Goodman]], [[Dwight Macdonald]], [[Allen Ginsberg]], [[George Woodcock]], [[Leopold Kohr]],<ref name="NYT-Obit">[http://www.nytimes.com/1994/02/28/obituaries/dr-leopold-kohr-84-backed-smaller-states.html Dr. Leopold Kohr, 84; Backed Smaller States], [[New York Times]] obituary, 28 February 1994.</ref><ref name="Sale-foreword">{{cite web|url=http://www.ditext.com/kohr/foreword.html|title=The Breakdown of Nations|work=ditext.com}}</ref> [[Julian Beck]], [[John Cage]]<ref name="cage">Cage self-identified as an anarchist in a 1985 interview: "I'm an anarchist. I don't know whether the adjective is pure and simple, or philosophical, or what, but I don't like government! And I don't like institutions! And I don't have any confidence in even good institutions." [http://www.ubu.com/papers/cage_montague_interview.html John Cage at Seventy: An Interview] by Stephen Montague. ''American Music'', Summer 1985. Ubu.com. Accessed 24 May 2007.</ref> and the French [[Surrealism|Surrealist]] group led by [[André Breton]], which now openly embraced anarchism and collaborated in the [[Fédération Anarchiste]].<ref>"It was in the black mirror of anarchism that surrealism first recognised itself," wrote André Breton in "The Black Mirror of Anarchism," Selection 23 in Robert Graham, ed., ''Anarchism: A Documentary History of Libertarian Ideas, Volume Two: The Emergence of the New Anarchism (1939–1977)''[http://robertgraham.wordpress.com/anarchism-a-documentary-history-of-libertarian-ideas-volume-two-the-emergence-of-the-new-anarchism-1939-1977/]. Breton had returned to France in 1947 and in April of that year Andre Julien welcomed his return in the pages of Le Libertaire the weekly paper of the [[Fédération Anarchiste|Federation Anarchiste]] "[http://libcom.org/history/1919-1950-the-politics-of-surrealism "1919–1950: The politics of Surrealism" by Nick Heath] on libcom.org</ref> [[Anarcho-pacifism]] became influential in the [[Anti-nuclear movement]] and [[anti war movement]]s of the time<ref>"In the forties and fifties, anarchism, in fact if not in name, began to reappear, often in alliance with pacifism, as the basis for a critique of militarism on both sides of the Cold War.[http://robertgraham.wordpress.com/anarchism-a-documentary-history-of-libertarian-ideas-volume-two-the-emergence-of-the-new-anarchism-1939-1977/] The anarchist/pacifist wing of the peace movement was small in comparison with the wing of the movement that emphasized electoral work, but made an important contribution to the movement as a whole. Where the more conventional wing of the peace movement rejected militarism and war under all but the most dire circumstances, the anarchist/pacifist wing rejected these on principle."[http://www.monthlyreview.org/0901epstein.htm "Anarchism and the Anti-Globalization Movement" by Barbara Epstein]</ref><ref>"In the 1950s and 1960s anarcho-pacifism began to gel, tough-minded anarchists adding to the mixture their critique of the state, and tender-minded pacifists their critique of violence. Its first practical manifestation was at the level of method: nonviolent direct action, principled and pragmatic, was used widely in both the Civil Rights movement in the US and the campaign against nuclear weapons in Britain and elsewhere."[http://www.theanarchistlibrary.org/HTML/Geoffrey_Ostergaard__Resisting_the_Nation_State._The_pacifist_and_anarchist_tradition.html#toc13 Geoffrey Ostergaard. ''Resisting the Nation State. The pacifist and anarchist tradition'']</ref> as can be seen in the activism and writings of the English anarchist member of [[Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament]] [[Alex Comfort]] or the similar activism of the American catholic anarcho-pacifists [[Ammon Hennacy]] and [[Dorothy Day]]. Anarcho-pacifism became a "basis for a critique of militarism on both sides of the [[Cold War]]."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.monthlyreview.org/0901epstein.htm|title=Anarchism and the Anti-Globalization Movement|work=Monthly Review}}</ref> The resurgence of anarchist ideas during this period is well documented in Robert Graham's [[Anarchism: A Documentary History of Libertarian Ideas]], ''Volume Two: The Emergence of the New Anarchism (1939–1977)''.<ref name="robertgraham.wordpress.com"/> ===Contemporary anarchism=== {{Main|Contemporary anarchism}} [[File:ParcGuellOkupas.jpg|thumb|left|The famous ''okupas'' [[squatting|squat]] near [[Park Güell|Parc Güell]], overlooking [[Barcelona]]. [[Squatting]] was a prominent part of the emergence of renewed anarchist movement from the [[counterculture]] of the 1960s and 1970s. On the roof: "Occupy and Resist"]] A surge of popular interest in anarchism occurred in western nations during the 1960s and 1970s.<ref>{{Harvnb|Thomas|1985|page=4}}</ref> Anarchism was influential in the [[Counterculture of the 1960s]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.katesharpleylibrary.net/dnckhs|title=Islands of Anarchy: Simian, Cienfuegos, Refract and their support network|work=katesharpleylibrary.net}}</ref><ref>Farrell provides a detailed history of the Catholic Workers and their founders Dorothy Day and Peter Maurin. He explains that their pacifism, anarchism, and commitment to the downtrodden were one of the important models and inspirations for the 1960s. As Farrell puts it, "Catholic Workers identified the issues of the sixties before the Sixties began, and they offered models of protest long before the protest decade."[http://library.nothingness.org/articles/SA/en/display/268 "The Spirit of the Sixties: The Making of Postwar Radicalism" by James J. Farrell]</ref><ref>"While not always formally recognized, much of the protest of the sixties was anarchist. Within the nascent women's movement, anarchist principles became so widespread that a political science professor denounced what she saw as "[[The Tyranny of Structurelessness]]." Several groups have called themselves "Amazon Anarchists." After the [[Stonewall Rebellion]], the New York [[Gay Liberation Front]] based their organisation in part on a reading of [[Murray Bookchin]]'s anarchist writings." [http://www.williamapercy.com/wiki/images/Anarchism.pdf "Anarchism" by Charley Shively in ''Encyclopedia of Homosexuality'']. p. 52</ref> and anarchists actively participated in the [[Protests of 1968|late sixties students and workers revolts]].<ref>"Within the movements of the sixties there was much more receptivity to anarchism-in-fact than had existed in the movements of the thirties&nbsp;... But the movements of the sixties were driven by concerns that were more compatible with an expressive style of politics, with hostility to authority in general and state power in particular&nbsp;... By the late sixties, political protest was intertwined with cultural radicalism based on a critique of all authority and all hierarchies of power. Anarchism circulated within the movement along with other radical ideologies. The influence of anarchism was strongest among radical feminists, in the commune movement, and probably in the Weather Underground and elsewhere in the violent fringe of the anti-war movement." [http://www.monthlyreview.org/0901epstein.htm "Anarchism and the Anti-Globalization Movement" by Barbara Epstein]</ref> In 1968 in [[Carrara]], Italy the [[International of Anarchist Federations]] was founded during an international anarchist conference held there in 1968 by the three existing European federations of France (the [[Fédération anarchiste|Fédération Anarchiste]]), the [[Federazione Anarchica Italiana]] of Italy and the [[Iberian Anarchist Federation]] as well as the [[Bulgaria]]n federation in French exile.<ref>[http://www.iisg.nl/archives/en/files/l/10760196.php London Federation of Anarchists involvement in Carrara conference, 1968] International Institute of Social History. Retrieved 19 January 2010</ref><ref>[http://flag.blackened.net/liberty/ifa-hist-short.html Short history of the IAF-IFA] A-infos news project. Retrieved 19 January 2010</ref> In the United Kingdom in the 1970s this was associated with the [[punk rock]] movement, as exemplified by bands such as [[Crass]] and the [[Sex Pistols]].<ref>{{cite book | last = McLaughlin | first = Paul | title = Anarchism and Authority | publisher = Ashgate | location = Aldershot | year = 2007 | isbn = 0-7546-6196-2 | page = 10}}</ref> The housing and employment crisis in most of Western Europe led to the formation of [[commune (intentional community)|communes]] and [[Squatting|squatter]] movements like that of [[Barcelona]], Spain. In Denmark, [[squatter]]s occupied a disused military base and declared the [[Freetown Christiania]], an autonomous haven in central Copenhagen. Since the revival of anarchism in the mid-20th century,<ref name="revival">{{Cite journal |last=Williams |first=Leonard |date=September 2007 |title=Anarchism Revived |journal=New Political Science |volume=29 |issue=3 |pages=297–312 |doi=10.1080/07393140701510160 |ref=harv }} </ref> a number of new movements and schools of thought emerged. Although feminist tendencies have always been a part of the anarchist movement in the form of [[anarcha-feminism]], they returned with vigour during the second wave of feminism in the 1960s. Anarchist anthropologist [[David Graeber]] and anarchist historian [[Andrej Grubacic]] have posited a rupture between generations of anarchism, with those "who often still have not shaken the sectarian habits" of the 19th century contrasted with the younger activists who are "much more informed, among other elements, by [[Traditional knowledge|indigenous]], [[feminism|feminist]], ecological and [[counterculture|cultural-critical]] ideas", and who by the turn of the 21st century formed "by far the majority" of anarchists.<ref name="graeber">[[David Graeber]] and [[Andrej Grubacic]], "[http://www.zmag.org/content/showarticle.cfm?SectionID=41&ItemID=4796 Anarchism, Or The Revolutionary Movement Of The Twenty-first Century]", [[ZNet]]. Retrieved 2007-12-13. or [http://www.punksinscience.org/kleanthes/courses/UK04S/WV/Graeber-Grubacic.pdf Graeber, David and Grubacic, Andrej(2004)Anarchism, Or The Revolutionary Movement Of The Twenty-first Century Retrieved 26 July 2010]</ref> Around the turn of the 21st century, anarchism grew in popularity and influence as part of the anti-war, anti-capitalist, and [[anti-globalisation movement]]s.<ref name=rupert>{{cite book | page=66 |last = Rupert | first = Mark | title = Globalization and International Political Economy | publisher = Rowman & Littlefield Publishers | location = Lanham | year = 2006 | isbn = 0-7425-2943-6 }}</ref> Anarchists became known for their involvement in protests against the meetings of the [[World Trade Organization]] (WTO), [[G8|Group of Eight]], and the [[World Economic Forum]]. Some anarchist factions at these protests engaged in rioting, property destruction, and violent confrontations with police. These actions were precipitated by ad hoc, leaderless, anonymous cadres known as ''[[black bloc]]s''; other organisational tactics pioneered in this time include [[security culture]], [[affinity groups]] and the use of decentralised technologies such as the internet.<ref name=rupert/> A significant event of this period was the confrontations at [[World Trade Organization Ministerial Conference of 1999 protest activity|WTO conference in Seattle in 1999]].<ref name=rupert/> According to anarchist scholar [[Simon Critchley]], "contemporary anarchism can be seen as a powerful critique of the pseudo-libertarianism of contemporary [[neo-liberalism]]&nbsp;... One might say that contemporary anarchism is about responsibility, whether sexual, ecological or socio-economic; it flows from an experience of conscience about the manifold ways in which the West ravages the rest; it is an ethical outrage at the yawning inequality, impoverishment and disenfranchisment that is so palpable locally and globally."<ref>[[Simon Critchley#Infinitely Demanding|Infinitely Demanding]]'' by [[Simon Critchley]]. [[Verso Books|Verso]]. 2007. p. 125</ref> International anarchist federations in existence include the [[International of Anarchist Federations]], the [[International Workers' Association]], and [[International Libertarian Solidarity]]. The largest organised anarchist movement today is in Spain, in the form of the [[Confederación General del Trabajo]] (CGT) and the [[Confederación Nacional del Trabajo|CNT]]. CGT membership was estimated at around 100,000 for 2003.<ref>Carley, Mark "Trade union membership 1993–2003" (International:SPIRE Associates 2004).</ref> Other active syndicalist movements include in Sweden the [[Central Organisation of the Workers of Sweden]] and the [[Swedish Anarcho-syndicalist Youth Federation]]; the CNT-AIT in France; the [[Unione Sindacale Italiana|Unione Sindicale Italiana]] in Italy; in the US [[Workers Solidarity Alliance]] and the UK [[Solidarity Federation]] and [[Anarchist Federation (Britain and Ireland)|Anarchist Federation]]. The revolutionary industrial unionist [[Industrial Workers of the World]], claiming 3,000 paying members, and the [[International Workers Association]], an anarcho-syndicalist successor to the First International, also remain active.{{citation needed|date=July 2015}} == Anarchist schools of thought == {{Main|Anarchist schools of thought}} [[File:Portrait of Pierre Joseph Proudhon 1865.jpg|thumb|upright|Portrait of philosopher [[Pierre-Joseph Proudhon]] (1809–1865) by [[Gustave Courbet]]. Proudhon was the primary proponent of anarchist [[Mutualism (economic theory)|mutualism]], and influenced many later [[individualist anarchist]] and social anarchist thinkers.]] Anarchist schools of thought had been generally grouped in two main historical traditions, [[individualist anarchism]] and [[social anarchism]], which have some different origins, values and evolution.<ref name=slevin/><ref name="black dict" /><ref>[http://libertarian-labyrinth.org/archive/Anarchism Anarchism], [http://www.amazon.co.uk/dp/1855069954 The New Encyclopedia of Social Reform] (1908).</ref> The individualist wing of anarchism emphasises [[negative liberty]], i.e. opposition to state or [[social control]] over the individual, while those in the social wing emphasise [[positive liberty]] to achieve one's potential and argue that humans have needs that society ought to fulfill, "recognizing equality of entitlement".<ref>Harrison, Kevin and Boyd, Tony. ''Understanding Political Ideas and Movements''. Manchester University Press 2003, p. 251.</ref> In a chronological and theoretical sense, there are classical – those created throughout the 19th century – and post-classical anarchist schools – those created since the mid-20th century and after. Beyond the specific factions of anarchist thought is [[philosophical anarchism]], which embodies the theoretical stance that the [[state (polity)|state]] lacks moral legitimacy without accepting the imperative of revolution to eliminate it. A component especially of individualist anarchism<ref>Outhwaite, William & Tourain, Alain (Eds.). (2003). Anarchism. The Blackwell Dictionary of Modern Social Thought (2nd Edition, p. 12). Blackwell Publishing.</ref><ref>Wayne Gabardi, [http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0003-0554%28198603%2980%3A1%3C300%3AA%3E2.0.CO%3B2-6 review] of ''Anarchism'' by David Miller, published in ''American Political Science Review'' Vol. 80, No. 1. (Mar., 1986), pp. 300–02.</ref> philosophical anarchism may accept the existence of a [[minarchism|minimal state]] as unfortunate, and usually temporary, "necessary evil" but argue that citizens do not have a [[moral obligation]] to obey the state when its laws conflict with individual autonomy.<ref>Klosko, George. ''Political Obligations''. Oxford University Press 2005. p. 4.</ref> One reaction against sectarianism within the anarchist milieu was "[[anarchism without adjectives]]", a call for [[toleration]] first adopted by [[Fernando Tarrida del Mármol]] in 1889 in response to the "bitter debates" of anarchist theory at the time.<ref>Avrich, Paul. ''Anarchist Voices: An Oral History of Anarchism in America''. Princeton University Press, 1996, p. 6.</ref> In abandoning the hyphenated anarchisms (i.e. collectivist-, communist-, mutualist– and individualist-anarchism), it sought to emphasise the [[anti-authoritarian]] beliefs common to all anarchist schools of thought.<ref>Esenwein, George Richard "Anarchist Ideology and the Working Class Movement in Spain, 1868–1898" [p. 135].</ref> ===Classical anarchist schools of thought=== ====Mutualism==== {{Main|Mutualism (economic theory)}} Mutualism began in 18th-century English and French labour movements before taking an anarchist form associated with [[Pierre-Joseph Proudhon]] in France and others in the United States.<ref>"A member of a community," ''The Mutualist''; this 1826 series criticised [[Robert Owen]]'s proposals, and has been attributed to a dissident Owenite, possibly from the Friendly Association for Mutual Interests of Valley Forge; Shawn Wilburn, 2006, "More from the 1826 "Mutualist"?".</ref> Proudhon proposed [[spontaneous order]], whereby organisation emerges without central authority, a "positive anarchy" where order arises when everybody does "what he wishes and only what he wishes"<ref>Proudhon, ''Solution to the Social Problem'', ed. H. Cohen (New York: Vanguard Press, 1927), p. 45.</ref> and where "business transactions alone produce the social order."<ref>{{cite book |last=Proudhon |first=Pierre-Joseph |authorlink=Pierre-Joseph Proudhon |title=The Principle of Federation |publisher=University of Toronto Press |location=Toronto |year=1979 |isbn=0-8020-5458-7 |quote=The notion of ''anarchy'' in politics is just as rational and positive as any other. It means that once industrial functions have taken over from political functions, then business transactions alone produce the social order.}}</ref> It is important to recognize that Proudhon distinguished between ideal political possibilities and practical governance. For this reason, much in contrast to some of his theoretical statements concerning ultimate spontaneous self-governance, Proudhon was heavily involved in French parliamentary politics and allied himself not with Anarchist but Socialist factions of workers movements and, in addition to advocating state-protected charters for worker-owned cooperatives, promoted certain nationalization schemes during his life of public service. Mutualist anarchism is concerned with [[Reciprocity (cultural anthropology)|reciprocity]], free association, voluntary contract, federation, and credit and currency reform. According to the American mutualist [[William Batchelder Greene]], each worker in the mutualist system would receive "just and exact pay for his work; services equivalent in cost being exchangeable for services equivalent in cost, without profit or discount."<ref>"Communism versus Mutualism", ''Socialistic, Communistic, Mutualistic and Financial Fragments''. (Boston: Lee & Shepard, 1875) [[William Batchelder Greene]]: "Under the mutual system, each individual will receive the just and exact pay for his work; services equivalent in cost being exchangeable for services equivalent in cost, without profit or discount; and so much as the individual laborer will then get over and above what he has earned will come to him as his share in the general prosperity of the community of which he is an individual member."</ref> Mutualism has been retrospectively characterised as ideologically situated between individualist and collectivist forms of anarchism.<ref>Avrich, Paul. ''Anarchist Voices: An Oral History of Anarchism in America'', Princeton University Press 1996 ISBN 0-691-04494-5, p. 6<br />''Blackwell Encyclopaedia of Political Thought'', Blackwell Publishing 1991 ISBN 0-631-17944-5, p. 11.</ref> Proudhon first characterised his goal as a "third form of society, the synthesis of communism and property."<ref>Pierre-Joseph Proudhon. ''What Is Property?'' Princeton, MA: Benjamin R. Tucker, 1876. p. 281.</ref> ====Individualist anarchism==== {{Main|Individualist anarchism}} Individualist anarchism refers to several traditions of thought within the anarchist movement that emphasize the [[individual]] and their [[will (philosophy)|will]] over any kinds of external determinants such as groups, society, traditions, and ideological systems.<ref name="ryner">"What do I mean by individualism? I mean by individualism the moral doctrine which, relying on no dogma, no tradition, no external determination, appeals only to the individual conscience."[http://www.marx.org/archive/ryner/1905/mini-manual.htm ''Mini-Manual of Individualism'' by Han Ryner]</ref><ref name="tucker">"I do not admit anything except the existence of the individual, as a condition of his sovereignty. To say that the sovereignty of the individual is conditioned by Liberty is simply another way of saying that it is conditioned by itself.""Anarchism and the State" in ''Individual Liberty''</ref> Individualist anarchism is not a single philosophy but refers to a group of individualistic philosophies that sometimes are in conflict. In 1793, [[William Godwin]], who has often<ref name="Everhart, Robert B 1982. p. 115"/> been cited as the first anarchist, wrote ''[[Political Justice]]'', which some consider the first expression of anarchism.<ref name="godwinsep" /><ref name="Adams, Ian 2001. p. 116"/> Godwin, a philosophical anarchist, from a [[rationalist]] and [[utilitarian]] basis opposed revolutionary action and saw a [[Limited government|minimal state]] as a present "necessary evil" that would become increasingly irrelevant and powerless by the gradual spread of knowledge.<ref name="godwinsep">{{sep entry|godwin|William Godwin|Mark Philip|2006-05-20}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=[[Political Justice|Enquiry Concerning Political Justice and its Influence on Modern Morals and Manners]] |last=Godwin |first=William |authorlink=William Godwin |year=1796 |publisher=G.G. and J. Robinson |oclc=2340417 |origyear=1793}}</ref> Godwin advocated [[individualism]], proposing that all cooperation in labour be eliminated on the premise that this would be most conducive with the general good.<ref>''Britannica Concise Encyclopedia''. Retrieved 7 December 2006, from [http://www.britannica.com/ebc/article-9037183 Encyclopædia Britannica Online].</ref><ref name=pmcl119>Paul McLaughlin. Anarchism and Authority: A Philosophical Introduction to Classical Anarchism. Ashgate Publishing, Ltd., 2007. p. 119.</ref> [[File:Max stirner.jpg|left|thumb|[[19th century philosophy|19th-century philosopher]] [[Max Stirner]], usually considered a prominent early [[individualist anarchist]] (sketch by [[Friedrich Engels]]).]] An influential form of individualist anarchism, called "egoism,"<ref name="Goodway, David 2006, p. 99">Goodway, David. [[Anarchist Seeds Beneath the Snow]]. Liverpool University Press, 2006, p. 99.</ref> or [[egoist anarchism]], was expounded by one of the earliest and best-known proponents of individualist anarchism, the German [[Max Stirner]].<ref name="SEP-Stirner">{{sep entry|max-stirner|Max Stirner|David Leopold|2006-08-04}}</ref> Stirner's ''[[The Ego and Its Own]]'', published in 1844, is a founding text of the philosophy.<ref name = "SEP-Stirner" /> According to Stirner, the only limitation on the rights of individuals is their power to obtain what they desire,<ref>The Encyclopedia Americana: A Library of Universal Knowledge. Encyclopedia Corporation. p. 176.</ref> without regard for God, state, or morality.<ref>Miller, David. "Anarchism." 1987. ''The Blackwell Encyclopaedia of Political Thought''. Blackwell Publishing. p. 11.</ref> To Stirner, rights were ''[[Reification (fallacy)|spooks]]'' in the mind, and he held that society does not exist but "the individuals are its reality".<ref>"What my might reaches is my property; and let me claim as property everything I feel myself strong enough to attain, and let me extend my actual property as fas as ''I'' entitle, that is, empower myself to take&nbsp;..." In Ossar, Michael. 1980. ''Anarchism in the Dramas of Ernst Toller''. SUNY Press. p. 27.</ref> Stirner advocated self-assertion and foresaw [[union of egoists|unions of egoists]], non-systematic associations continually renewed by all parties' support through an act of will,<ref name=nonserviam>{{Cite journal |url=http://i-studies.com/journal/n/pdf/nsi-17.pdf#page=13 |title=The union of egoists |journal=Non Serviam |volume=1 |first=Svein Olav |last=Nyberg |pages=13–14 |location=Oslo, Norway |publisher=Svein Olav Nyberg |oclc=47758413 |accessdate=1 September 2012 |ref=harv |postscript=<!-- Bot inserted parameter. Either remove it; or change its value to "." for the cite to end in a ".", as necessary. -->{{inconsistent citations}}}}</ref> which Stirner proposed as a form of organisation in place of the [[state (polity)|state]].<ref name=karl>{{cite book | last = Thomas | first = Paul | title = Karl Marx and the Anarchists | publisher = [[Routledge]]/[[Kegan Paul]] | location = London | year = 1985 | isbn = 0-7102-0685-2 |page=142}}</ref> Egoist anarchists argue that egoism will foster genuine and spontaneous union between individuals.<ref name=carlson>{{cite book | last = Carlson | first = Andrew | title = Anarchism in Germany | publisher = Scarecrow Press | location = Metuchen | year = 1972 | isbn = 0-8108-0484-0 |chapterurl=http://tmh.floonet.net/articles/carlson.html |chapter=Philosophical Egoism: German Antecedents|accessdate=4 December 2008}}</ref> "Egoism" has inspired many interpretations of Stirner's philosophy. It was re-discovered and promoted by German philosophical anarchist and [[LGBT]] activist [[John Henry Mackay]]. [[Josiah Warren]] is widely regarded as the first American anarchist,<ref name=Slate>Palmer, Brian (29 December 2010) [http://www.slate.com/id/2279457/ What do anarchists want from us?], ''[[Slate.com]]''</ref> and the four-page weekly paper he edited during 1833, ''The Peaceful Revolutionist'', was the first anarchist periodical published.<ref name="bailie20">William Bailie, [http://libertarian-labyrinth.org/warren/1stAmAnarch.pdf] ''Josiah Warren: The First American Anarchist – A Sociological Study'', Boston: Small, Maynard & Co., 1906, p. 20</ref> For American anarchist historian Eunice Minette Schuster "It is apparent&nbsp;... that [[Pierre-Joseph Proudhon|Proudhonian]] Anarchism was to be found in the United States at least as early as 1848 and that it was not conscious of its affinity to the Individualist Anarchism of [[Josiah Warren]] and [[Stephen Pearl Andrews]]&nbsp;... [[William B. Greene]] presented this Proudhonian Mutualism in its purest and most systematic form.".<ref name="againstallauthority.org">{{cite web|url=http://www.againstallauthority.org/NativeAmericanAnarchism.html|title=潜水資格を持っていないインストラクターが多い？！|work=againstallauthority.org}}</ref> [[Henry David Thoreau]] (1817–1862) was an important early influence in individualist anarchist thought in the United States and Europe. Thoreau was an American author, poet, naturalist, tax resister, [[Development criticism|development critic]], surveyor, historian, philosopher, and leading [[transcendentalist]]. He is best known for his books ''[[Walden]]'', a reflection upon [[simple living]] in natural surroundings, and his essay, ''[[Civil Disobedience (Thoreau)|Civil Disobedience]]'', an argument for individual resistance to civil government in moral opposition to an unjust state. Later [[Benjamin Tucker]] fused Stirner's egoism with the economics of Warren and Proudhon in his eclectic influential publication ''[[Liberty (1881–1908)|Liberty]]''. From these early influences individualist anarchism in different countries attracted a small but diverse following of bohemian artists and intellectuals,<ref name="bohemian individualism">{{cite web|url=http://libcom.org/library/socanlifean2|title=2. Individualist Anarchism and Reaction|work=libcom.org}}</ref> [[free love]] and [[birth control]] advocates (see [[Anarchism and issues related to love and sex]]),<ref name="freelove">{{cite web|url=http://www.ncc-1776.org/tle1996/le961210.html|title=The Free Love Movement and Radical Individualism, By Wendy McElroy|work=ncc-1776.org}}</ref><ref>[http://www.acracia.org/1-23a58lainsumision.pdf "La insumisión voluntaria: El anarquismo individualista español durante la Dictadura y la Segunda República (1923–1938)" by Xavier Díez]</ref> individualist [[Naturism|naturists]] [[Nudism|nudists]] (see [[anarcho-naturism]]),<ref>"Los anarco-individualistas, G.I.A&nbsp;... Una escisión de la FAI producida en el IX Congreso (Carrara, 1965) se produjo cuando un sector de anarquistas de tendencia humanista rechazan la interpretación que ellos juzgan disciplinaria del ''pacto asociativo'' clásico, y crean los GIA (Gruppi di Iniziativa Anarchica). Esta pequeña federación de grupos, hoy nutrida sobre todo de veteranos anarco-individualistas de orientación pacifista, naturista, etcétera defiende la autonomía personal y rechaza a rajatabla toda forma de intervención en los procesos del sistema, como sería por ejemplo el sindicalismo. Su portavoz es L'Internazionale con sede en Ancona. La escisión de los GIA prefiguraba, en sentido contrario, el gran debate que pronto había de comenzar en el seno del movimiento"[http://almeralia.enlucha.info/bicicleta/bicicleta/ciclo/01/17.htm "El movimiento libertario en Italia" by ''Bicicleta. REVISTA DE COMUNICACIONES LIBERTARIAS'' Year 1 No. Noviembre, 1 1977]</ref><ref name="acracia.org">"Proliferarán así diversos grupos que practicarán el excursionismo, el naturismo, el nudismo, la emancipación sexual o el esperantismo, alrededor de asociaciones informales vinculadas de una manera o de otra al anarquismo. Precisamente las limitaciones a las asociaciones obreras impuestas desde la legislación especial de la Dictadura potenciarán indirectamente esta especie de asociacionismo informal en que confluirá el movimiento anarquista con esta heterogeneidad de prácticas y tendencias. Uno de los grupos más destacados, que será el impulsor de la revista individualista Ética será el Ateneo Naturista Ecléctico, con sede en Barcelona, con sus diferentes secciones la más destacada de las cuales será el grupo excursionista Sol y Vida."[http://www.acracia.org/1-23a58lainsumision.pdf "La insumisión voluntaria: El anarquismo individualista español durante la Dictadura y la Segunda República (1923–1938)" by Xavier Díez]</ref><ref name="aujourdhui">"Les anarchistes individualistes du début du siècle l'avaient bien compris, et intégraient le naturisme dans leurs préoccupations. Il est vraiment dommage que ce discours se soit peu à peu effacé, d'antan plus que nous assistons, en ce moment, à un retour en force du puritanisme (conservateur par essence)."[http://ytak.club.fr/natytak.html "Anarchisme et naturisme, aujourd'hui." by Cathy Ytak]</ref> [[freethought]] and [[Anti-clericalism|anti-clerical]] activists<ref name="mises.org">{{cite web|url=https://mises.org/journals/jls/5_3/5_3_4.pdf|title=The Journal of Libertarian Studies|work=Mises Institute}}</ref><ref>[http://www.viruseditorial.net/pdf/anarquismo individualista.pdf Xavier Diez. ''El anarquismo individualista en España (1923–1939)'' Virus Editorial. 2007. p. 143]</ref> as well as young anarchist outlaws in what became known as [[illegalism]] and [[individual reclamation]]<ref name="The Illegalists">[http://recollectionbooks.com/siml/library/illegalistsDougImrie.htm The "Illegalists"], by Doug Imrie (published by [[Anarchy: A Journal of Desire Armed]])</ref><ref name="Parry, Richard 1987. p. 15">Parry, Richard. The Bonnot Gang. Rebel Press, 1987. p. 15</ref> (see [[European individualist anarchism]] and [[individualist anarchism in France]]). These authors and activists included [[Oscar Wilde]], [[Emile Armand]], [[Han Ryner]], [[Henri Zisly]], [[Renzo Novatore]], [[Miguel Gimenez Igualada]], [[Adolf Brand]] and [[Lev Chernyi]] among others. ====Social anarchism==== {{Main|Social anarchism}} Social anarchism calls for a system with common ownership of means of production and democratic control of all organisations, without any government authority or [[coercion]]. It is the largest school of thought in anarchism.<ref>"This does not mean that the majority thread within the anarchist movement is uncritical of individualist anarchism. Far from it! Social anarchists have argued that this influence of non-anarchist ideas means that while its "criticism of the State is very searching, and [its] defence of the rights of the individual very powerful," like Spencer it "opens&nbsp;... the way for reconstituting under the heading of 'defence' all the functions of the State." [http://anarchism.pageabode.com/afaq/secGint.html Section G – Is individualist anarchism capitalistic?] ''[[An Anarchist FAQ]]''</ref> Social anarchism rejects private property, seeing it as a source of social inequality (while retaining respect for [[personal property]]),<ref name="theanarchistlibrary.org">"The revolution abolishes private ownership of the means of production and distribution, and with it goes capitalistic business. Personal possession remains only in the things you use. Thus, your watch is your own, but the watch factory belongs to the people."[http://www.theanarchistlibrary.org/HTML/Alexander_Berkman__What_Is_Communist_Anarchism_.html [[Alexander Berkman]]. "[[Now and After|What Is Communist Anarchism?]]"]</ref> and emphasises cooperation and [[mutual aid (organization)|mutual aid]].<ref>[[Geoffrey Ostergaard|Ostergaard, Geoffrey]]. "Anarchism". A Dictionary of Marxist Thought. Blackwell Publishing, 1991. p. 21.</ref> =====Collectivist anarchism===== {{Main|Collectivist anarchism}} Collectivist anarchism, also referred to as "revolutionary socialism" or a form of such,<ref>Morris, Brian. Bakunin: The Philosophy of Freedom. Black Rose Books Ltd., 1993. p. 76.</ref><ref>Rae, John. Contemporary Socialism. C. Scribner's sons, 1901, Original from Harvard University. p. 261.</ref> is a revolutionary form of anarchism, commonly associated with [[Mikhail Bakunin]] and [[Johann Most]].<ref name = "Patsouras-p54">Patsouras, Louis. 2005. Marx in Context. iUniverse. p. 54.</ref><ref>Avrich, Paul. 2006. ''Anarchist Voices: An Oral History of Anarchism in America''. [[AK Press]]. p. 5.</ref> Collectivist anarchists oppose all private ownership of the means of production, instead advocating that ownership be collectivised. This was to be achieved through violent revolution, first starting with a small cohesive group through acts of violence, or ''[[propaganda by the deed]]'', which would inspire the workers as a whole to revolt and forcibly collectivise the means of production.<ref name = "Patsouras-p54" /> However, collectivization was not to be extended to the distribution of income, as workers would be paid according to time worked, rather than receiving goods being distributed "according to need" as in anarcho-communism. This position was criticised by [[anarchist communists]] as effectively "uphold[ing] the wages system".<ref>{{cite book |last=Kropotkin |first=Peter |title=The Conquest of Bread |publisher=AK Press |location=Edinburgh |year=2007 |chapter=13 |isbn=978-1-904859-10-9}}</ref> Collectivist anarchism arose contemporaneously with [[Marxism]] but opposed the Marxist [[dictatorship of the proletariat]], despite the stated Marxist goal of a collectivist stateless society.<ref>{{cite book |last=Bakunin |first=Mikhail |title=Statism and Anarchy |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=Cambridge |year=1990 |isbn=0-521-36182-6 |quote=They [the Marxists] maintain that only a dictatorship&nbsp;– their dictatorship, of course&nbsp;– can create the will of the people, while our answer to this is: No dictatorship can have any other aim but that of self-perpetuation, and it can beget only slavery in the people tolerating it; freedom can be created only by freedom, that is, by a universal rebellion on the part of the people and free organization of the toiling masses from the bottom up.}}</ref> Anarchist, communist and collectivist ideas are not [[mutually exclusive]]; although the collectivist anarchists advocated compensation for labour, some held out the possibility of a post-revolutionary transition to a communist system of distribution according to need.<ref>{{cite web |authorlink=James Guillaume|last=Guillaume |first=James |url=http://www.marxists.org/reference/archive/guillaume/works/ideas.htm |title=Ideas on Social Organization |year=1876}}</ref> =====Anarcho-communism===== {{Main|Anarcho-communism}} Anarchist communism (also known as anarcho-communism, libertarian communism<ref>"Anarchist communism is also known as anarcho-communism, communist anarchism, or, sometimes, libertarian communism."[http://libcom.org/thought/anarchist-communism-an-introduction "Anarchist communism – an introduction"] by libcom.org</ref><ref>"The terms libertarian communism and anarchist communism thus became synonymous within the international anarchist movement as a result of the close connection they had in Spain (with libertarian communism becoming the prevalent term)."[http://www.fdca.it/fdcaen/historical/vault/ancom-libcom.htm "Anarchist Communism & Libertarian Communism" by Gruppo Comunista Anarchico di Firenze. from "L'informatore di parte", No. 4, October 1979, quarterly journal of the Gruppo Comunista Anarchico di Firenze], on libcom.org</ref><ref>"The 'Manifesto of Libertarian Communism' was written in 1953 by Georges Fontenis for the Federation Communiste Libertaire of France. It is one of the key texts of the anarchist-communist current." [http://libcom.org/library/manifesto-of-libertarian-communism-georges-fontenis "Manifesto of Libertarian Communism" by Georges Fontenis] on libcom.org</ref><ref>"In 1926 a group of exiled Russian anarchists in France, the Delo Truda (Workers' Cause) group, published this pamphlet. It arose not from some academic study but from their experiences in the 1917 Russian revolution." [http://www.nestormakhno.info/english/platform/org_plat.htm "The Organizational Platform of the Libertarian Communists" by Delo Truda]</ref> and occasionally as free communism) is a theory of anarchism that advocates abolition of the [[State (polity)|state]], [[market (economics)|market]]s, money, [[private property]] (while retaining respect for [[personal property]]),<ref name="theanarchistlibrary.org"/> and capitalism in favour of [[common ownership]] of the [[means of production]],<ref name=Mayne>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/?id=6MkTz6Rq7wUC&pg=PA131&dq=Communist+anarchism+believes+in+collective+ownership |title=From Politics Past to Politics Future: An Integrated Analysis of Current and Emergent Paradigms Alan James Mayne Published 1999 Greenwood Publishing Group 316 pages ISBN 0-275-96151-6 |publisher=Books.google.com |date= |accessdate=20 September 2010|isbn=978-0-275-96151-0|year=1999}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/?id=jeiudz5sBV4C&pg=PA14&dq=Communist+anarchism+believes+in+common+ownership#PPA13,M1 |title=Anarchism for Know-It-Alls By Know-It-Alls For Know-It-Alls, For Know-It-Alls Published by Filiquarian Publishing, LLC., 2008 ISBN 1-59986-218-2, 9781599862187 72 pages |publisher=Books.google.com |date= January 2008|accessdate=20 September 2010|isbn=978-1-59986-218-7}}</ref> [[direct democracy]] and a horizontal network of [[voluntary association]]s and [[workers' council]]s with production and consumption based on the guiding principle: "[[from each according to his ability, to each according to his need]]".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://dwardmac.pitzer.edu/anarchist_archives/worldwidemovements/fabbrianarandcom.html |title=Luggi Fabbri |publisher=Dwardmac.pitzer.edu |date=2002-10-13 |accessdate=2015-03-16}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nestormakhno.info/english/platform/constructive.htm |title=Platform: Constructive Section |publisher=Nestormakhno.info |date= |accessdate=2015-03-16}}</ref> [[File:Kropotkin2.jpg|thumb|right|upright|Russian theorist [[Peter Kropotkin]] (1842–1921), who was influential in the development of [[anarchist communism]]]] Some forms of anarchist communism such as [[insurrectionary anarchism]] are strongly influenced by [[egoist anarchism|egoism]] and radical [[individualism]], believing anarcho-communism is the best social system for the realization of individual freedom.<ref name="bobblack">[[Post-left anarchy|Post-left]] anarcho-communist [[Bob Black]] after analysing [[Insurrectionary anarchism|insurrectionary]] anarcho-communist [[Luigi Galleani]]'s view on anarcho-communism went as far as saying that "communism is the final fulfillment of [[individualism]]&nbsp;... The apparent contradiction between individualism and communism rests on a misunderstanding of both&nbsp;... Subjectivity is also objective: the individual really is subjective. It is nonsense to speak of "emphatically prioritizing the social over the individual,"...&nbsp;You may as well speak of prioritizing the chicken over the egg. Anarchy is a "method of individualization." It aims to combine the greatest individual development with the greatest communal unity."[http://www.theanarchistlibrary.org/HTML/Bob_Black__Nightmares_of_Reason.html#toc22 Bob Black. ''Nightmares of Reason''.]</ref><ref name="dwardmac.pitzer.edu">"Modern Communists are more individualistic than Stirner. To them, not merely religion, morality, family and State are spooks, but property also is no more than a spook, in whose name the individual is enslaved – and how enslaved!&nbsp;... Communism thus creates a basis for the liberty and Eigenheit of the individual. I am a Communist because I am an Individualist. Fully as heartily the Communists concur with Stirner when he puts the word take in place of demand – that leads to the dissolution of property, to expropriation. Individualism and Communism go hand in hand."[http://dwardmac.pitzer.edu/anarchist_archives/goldman/ME/mev2n3.html#142 [[Max Baginski]]. "Stirner: The Ego and His Own" on ''[[Mother Earth (magazine)|Mother Earth]]''. Vol. 2. No. 3 May 1907]</ref><ref>Christopher Gray, ''Leaving the Twentieth Century'', p. 88.</ref><ref name="creativenothing">{{cite web|url=http://www.theanarchistlibrary.org/HTML/Renzo_Novatore__Toward_the_Creative_Nothing.html|title=Toward the Creative Nothing|work=theanarchistlibrary.org}}</ref> Most anarcho-communists view anarcho-communism as a way of reconciling the opposition between the individual and society.<ref>{{cite book|quote="Communism is the one which guarantees the greatest amount of individual liberty – provided that the idea that begets the community be Liberty, Anarchy&nbsp;... Communism guarantees economic freedom better than any other form of association, because it can guarantee wellbeing, even luxury, in return for a few hours of work instead of a day's work."|url=http://www.theanarchistlibrary.org/HTML/Petr_Kropotkin__Communism_and_Anarchy.html|title=Communism and Anarchy|author=[[Peter Kropotkin]]}}</ref><ref>This other society will be libertarian communism, in which social solidarity and free individuality find their full expression, and in which these two ideas develop in perfect harmony. [http://www.theanarchistlibrary.org/HTML/Dielo_Truda__Workers__Cause___Organisational_Platform_of_the_Libertarian_Communists.html ''Organizational Platform of the Libertarian Communists'' by Dielo Truda (Workers' Cause)]</ref><ref>"I see the dichotomies made between individualism and communism, individual revolt and class struggle, the struggle against human exploitation and the exploitation of nature as false dichotomies and feel that those who accept them are impoverishing their own critique and struggle."[http://www.reocities.com/kk_abacus/vb/wd12persp.html "MY PERSPECTIVES" by Willful Disobedience Vol. 2, No. 12]</ref> Anarcho-communism developed out of radical socialist currents after the French revolution<ref name="Graham-2005">Robert Graham, ''Anarchism – A Documentary History of Libertarian Ideas – Volume One: From Anarchy to Anarchism (300CE to 1939)'', Black Rose Books, 2005</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.theanarchistlibrary.org/HTML/Petr_Kropotkin__The_Great_French_Revolution_1789-1793.html#toc42|title=The Great French Revolution 1789–1793|work=theanarchistlibrary.org}}</ref> but was first formulated as such in the Italian section of the [[First International]].<ref name="Nunzio Pernicone pp. 111–13">Nunzio Pernicone, "Italian Anarchism 1864–1892", pp. 111–13, AK Press 2009.</ref> The theoretical work of [[Peter Kropotkin]] took importance later as it expanded and developed pro-organisationalist and [[Insurrectionary anarchism|insurrectionary anti-organisationalist]] sections.<ref name=" Alain Pengam">{{cite web|url=http://www.theanarchistlibrary.org/HTML/Alain_Pengam__Anarchist-Communism.html|title=Anarchist-Communism|work=theanarchistlibrary.org}}</ref> To date, the best known examples of an anarchist communist society (i.e., established around the ideas as they exist today and achieving worldwide attention and knowledge in the historical canon), are the anarchist territories during the [[Spanish Revolution]]<ref>[[Murray Bookchin|Bookchin, Murray]]. ''[http://www.theanarchistlibrary.org/HTML/Murray_Bookchin__To_Remember_Spain__The_Anarchist_and_Syndicalist_Revolution_of_1936.html To Remember Spain: The Anarchist and Syndicalist Revolution of 1936]''. "This process of education and class organization, more than any single factor in Spain, produced the collectives. And to the degree that the CNT-FAI (for the two organizations became fatally coupled after July 1936) exercised the major influence in an area, the collectives proved to be generally more durable, communist and resistant to Stalinist counterrevolution than other republican-held areas of Spain."</ref> and the [[Free Territory]] during the [[Russian Revolution (1917)|Russian Revolution]]. Through the efforts and influence of the [[Spanish Anarchists]] during the [[Spanish Revolution]] within the [[Spanish Civil War]], starting in 1936 anarchist communism existed in most of [[Anarchist Aragon|Aragon]], parts of the Levante and Andalusia, as well as in the stronghold of [[Anarchist Catalonia]] before being crushed by the combined forces of [[Francoism|the regime that won the war]], [[Adolf Hitler|Hitler]], Mussolini, Spanish Communist Party repression (backed by the USSR) as well as economic and armaments blockades from the capitalist countries and the Spanish Republic itself.<ref>Bookchin, Murray. ''[http://www.theanarchistlibrary.org/HTML/Murray_Bookchin__To_Remember_Spain__The_Anarchist_and_Syndicalist_Revolution_of_1936.html To Remember Spain: The Anarchist and Syndicalist Revolution of 1936]''.</ref> During the Russian Revolution, anarchists such as [[Nestor Makhno]] worked to create and defend – through the [[Revolutionary Insurrectionary Army of Ukraine]] – anarchist communism in the [[Free Territory]] of the Ukraine from 1919 before being conquered by the Bolsheviks in 1921. =====Anarcho-syndicalism===== {{Main|Anarcho-syndicalism}} [[File:Manifestación CNT Bilbao.jpg|thumb|left|May day demonstration of Spanish [[anarcho-syndicalist]] trade union [[Confederación Nacional del Trabajo|CNT]] in [[Bilbao]], Basque Country in 2010]]Anarcho-syndicalism is a branch of anarchism that focuses on the [[trade union|labour movement]].<ref>Sorel, Georges. 'Political Theorists in Context' Routledge (2004) p. 248</ref> Anarcho-syndicalists view [[trade union|labour unions]] as a potential force for revolutionary social change, replacing capitalism and the [[State (polity)|state]] with a new society democratically self-managed by workers. The basic principles of anarcho-syndicalism are: Workers' [[wikt:Solidarity|solidarity]], [[Direct action]] and [[Workers' self-management]] Anarcho-syndicalists believe that only [[direct action]] – that is, action concentrated on directly attaining a goal, as opposed to indirect action, such as electing a representative to a government position – will allow workers to liberate themselves.<ref>Rocker, Rudolf. 'Anarcho-Syndicalism: Theory and Practice' AK Press (2004) p. 73</ref> Moreover, anarcho-syndicalists believe that workers' organisations (the organisations that struggle against the wage system, which, in anarcho-syndicalist theory, will eventually form the basis of a new society) should be self-managing. They should not have bosses or "business agents"; rather, the workers should be able to make all the decisions that affect them themselves. [[Rudolf Rocker]] was one of the most popular voices in the anarcho-syndicalist movement. He outlined a view of the origins of the movement, what it sought, and why it was important to the future of labour in his 1938 pamphlet ''Anarcho-Syndicalism''. The [[International Workers Association]] is an international anarcho-syndicalist federation of various labour unions from different countries. The Spanish [[Confederación Nacional del Trabajo]] played and still plays a major role in the Spanish [[labour movement]]. It was also an important force in the [[Spanish Civil War]]. ===Post-classical schools of thought=== [[File:Jarach and Zerzan.JPG|thumb|left|[[Lawrence Jarach]] (left) and [[John Zerzan]] (right), two prominent contemporary anarchist authors. Zerzan is known as prominent voice within [[anarcho-primitivism]], while Jarach is a noted advocate of [[post-left anarchy]].]] Anarchism continues to generate many philosophies and movements, at times eclectic, drawing upon various sources, and [[Syncretic politics|syncretic]], combining disparate concepts to create new philosophical approaches.<ref>Perlin, Terry M. ''[http://books.google.com.ec/books?id=mppLKlwHx7oC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Contemporary+_+Anarchism&ei=vSDBSuXHMo2mM8mu-OsP#v=onepage&q=&f=false Contemporary Anarchism]''. Transaction Books, New Brunswick, NJ 1979</ref> [[Green anarchism]] (or eco-anarchism)<ref>David Pepper (1996). [http://books.google.com.ec/books?id=PQOvkB7UoWgC&pg=PA44&dq= Modern Environmentalism] p. 44. Routledge.</ref> is a school of thought within anarchism that emphasizes environmental issues,<ref>Ian Adams (2001). [http://books.google.com.ec/books?id=apstK1qIvvMC&pg=PA130&dq= Political Ideology Today] p. 130. Manchester University Press.</ref> with an important precedent in [[anarcho-naturism]],<ref name="acracia.org"/><ref>"Anarchism and the different Naturist views have always been related."[http://www.naturismo.org/adn/ediciones/2003/invierno/7e.html "Anarchism – Nudism, Naturism" by Carlos Ortega at Asociacion para el Desarrollo Naturista de la Comunidad de Madrid. Published on Revista ''ADN''. Winter 2003]</ref><ref name="naturismolibertario">[http://www.soliobrera.org/pdefs/cuaderno4.pdf#search=%22Antonia%20Maym%C3%B3n%22 EL NATURISMO LIBERTARIO EN LA PENÍNSULA IBÉRICA (1890–1939) by Jose Maria Rosello]</ref> and whose main contemporary currents are [[anarcho-primitivism]] and [[social ecology]]. [[Anarcha-feminism]] (also called anarchist feminism and anarcho-feminism) combines anarchism with [[feminism]]. It generally views [[patriarchy]] as a manifestation of involuntary [[Coercion|coercive]] hierarchy that should be replaced by [[decentralised]] [[Free association (communism and anarchism)|free association]]. Anarcha-feminists believe that the struggle against patriarchy is an essential part of [[class struggle]], and the anarchist struggle against the [[State (polity)|state]]. In essence, the philosophy sees anarchist struggle as a necessary component of feminist struggle and vice versa. [[L. Susan Brown]] claims that "as anarchism is a political philosophy that opposes all relationships of power, it is inherently feminist".<ref>Brown, p. 208.</ref> Anarcha-feminism began with the late 19th-century writings of early feminist anarchists such as [[Emma Goldman]] and [[Voltairine de Cleyre]]. [[Anarcho-pacifism]] is a tendency that rejects violence in the struggle for social change (see [[non-violence]]).<ref name="Anarchism 1962"/><ref name="ppu.org.uk">{{cite web |url=http://www.ppu.org.uk/e_publications/dd-trad8.html#anarch%20and%20violence |title="Resisting the Nation State, the pacifist and anarchist tradition" by Geoffrey Ostergaard |publisher=Ppu.org.uk |date=6 August 1945 |accessdate=20 September 2010}}</ref> It developed "mostly in the [[Netherlands]], Britain, and the United States, before and during the Second World War".<ref name="Anarchism 1962"/> [[Christian anarchism]] is a [[Christian movement|movement]] in [[political theology]] that combines anarchism and Christianity.<ref>{{cite book |title=Christian Anarchism: A Political Commentary on the Gospel |last=Christoyannopoulos |first=Alexandre |authorlink=Alexandre Christoyannopoulos |coauthors= |year=2010 |publisher=Imprint Academic |location=Exeter |isbn= |page= |pages=2–4 |url= |accessdate=|quote=Locating Christian anarchism&nbsp;... In political theology}}</ref> Its main proponents included [[Leo Tolstoy]], [[Dorothy Day]], [[Ammon Hennacy]], and [[Jacques Ellul]]. [[Platformism]] is a tendency within the wider anarchist movement based on the organisational theories in the tradition of [[Dielo Truda]]'s ''Organisational Platform of the General Union of Anarchists (Draft)''.<ref name=Platformtext>{{cite book |last=Dielo Trouda |authorlink=Dielo Truda |title=Organizational Platform of the General Union of Anarchists (Draft) |origyear=1926 |url=http://www.anarkismo.net/newswire.php?story_id=1000 |accessdate=24 October 2006 |year=2006 |publisher=FdCA |location=Italy| archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20070311013533/http://www.anarkismo.net/newswire.php?story_id=1000| archivedate= 11 March 2007<!--Added by DASHBot-->}}</ref> The document was based on the experiences of [[Anarchism in Russia|Russian anarchists]] in the 1917 [[October Revolution]], which led eventually to the victory of the [[Bolsheviks]] over the anarchists and other groups. The ''Platform'' attempted to address and explain the anarchist movement's failures during the [[Russian Revolution (1917)|Russian Revolution]]. [[Synthesis anarchism]] is a form of anarchism that tries to join anarchists of different tendencies under the principles of [[anarchism without adjectives]].<ref name=infoshop.org>{{cite web|title=An Anarchist FAQ|url=http://www.infoshop.org/page/AnarchistFAQSectionJ3|website=infoshop.org|accessdate=7 July 2015|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100219221557/http://www.infoshop.org/page/AnarchistFAQSectionJ3|archivedate=19 February 2012|date=14 February 2010|deadurl=yes}}</ref> In the 1920s, this form found as its main proponents the [[anarcho-communists]] [[Voline]] and [[Sébastien Faure]].<ref>{{cite web |author=Starhawk |url=http://www.infoshop.org/page/AnarchistFAQSectionJ3 |title="J.3.2 What are "synthesis" federations?"|work=[[An Anarchist FAQ]]|publisher=Infoshop.org |date= |accessdate=20 September 2010| archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20101007160139/http://www.infoshop.org/page/AnarchistFAQSectionJ3| archivedate= 7 October 2010<!--Added by DASHBot-->}}</ref><ref>Faure, Sébastien. [http://www.theanarchistlibrary.org/HTML/Sebastien_Faure__Libertarian_Communism.html Libertarian Communism]". "The remedy has been found: libertarian communism."</ref> It is the main principle behind the anarchist federations grouped around the contemporary global [[International of Anarchist Federations]].<ref name=infoshop.org /> [[Post-left anarchy]] is a recent current in anarchist thought that promotes a critique of anarchism's relationship to traditional [[Left-wing politics]]. Some post-leftists seek to escape the confines of [[ideology]] in general also presenting a critique of organisations and [[morality]].<ref name="ideology">{{cite web|url=http://www.insurgentdesire.org.uk/postleft.htm|title=insurgentdesire.org.uk|work=insurgentdesire.org.uk}}</ref> Influenced by the work of [[Max Stirner]]<ref name="ideology"/> and by the Marxist [[Situationist International]],<ref name="ideology"/> post-left anarchy is marked by a focus on social [[insurrectionary anarchism|insurrection]] and a rejection of leftist social organisation.<ref>{{cite book |chapter=Introduction |last=Macphee |first=Josh |title=Realizing the Impossible |publisher=AK Press |location=Stirling |year=2007 |isbn=1-904859-32-1 }}</ref> [[Insurrectionary anarchism]] is a revolutionary theory, practice, and tendency within the anarchist movement which emphasizes [[insurrection]] within anarchist practice.<ref name="sasha">{{cite web|url=http://www.insurgentdesire.org.uk/notes.htm|title=insurgentdesire.org.uk|work=insurgentdesire.org.uk}}</ref><ref name="joeblack">{{cite web |url=http://www.ainfos.ca/06/jul/ainfos00232.html |title="Anarchism, insurrections and insurrectionalism" by Joe Black |publisher=Ainfos.ca |date=19 July 2006 |accessdate=20 September 2010| archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20101206162459/http://www.ainfos.ca/06/jul/ainfos00232.html| archivedate= 6 December 2010<!--Added by DASHBot-->}}</ref> It is critical of formal organisations such as [[labour unions]] and federations that are based on a political programme and periodic congresses.<ref name="sasha"/> Instead, insurrectionary anarchists advocate informal organisation and small [[affinity group]] based organisation.<ref name="sasha"/><ref name="joeblack"/> Insurrectionary anarchists put value in attack, permanent [[class conflict]], and a refusal to negotiate or compromise with class enemies.<ref name="sasha"/><ref name="joeblack"/> [[Post-anarchism]] is a theoretical move towards a synthesis of classical anarchist theory and [[poststructuralist]] thought, drawing from diverse ideas including [[post-modernism]], [[autonomist marxism]], [[post-left anarchy]], [[Situationist International]], and [[postcolonialism]]. [[Left-wing market anarchism]] strongly affirm the classical liberal ideas of self-ownership and free markets, while maintaining that, taken to their logical conclusions, these ideas support strongly anti-corporatist, anti-hierarchical, pro-labor positions and anti-capitalism in economics and anti-imperialism in foreign policy.<ref>Writing before the rise of the Carson–Long school of left-libertarianism, historian of American anarchism David DeLeon was disinclined to treat any market-oriented variant of libertarianism as leftist; see DeLeon, David (1978). The American as Anarchist: Reflections on Indigenous Radicalism. Baltimore, MD:Johns Hopkins University Press. p. 123.</ref><ref>Gary Chartier and Charles W. Johnson (eds). ''Markets Not Capitalism: Individualist Anarchism Against Bosses, Inequality, Corporate Power, and Structural Poverty''. Minor Compositions; 1st edition (November 5, 2011)</ref><ref>Gary Chartier has joined [[Kevin Carson]], [[Charles W. Johnson (philosopher)|Charles Johnson]], and others (echoing the language of [[Benjamin Tucker]] and [[Thomas Hodgskin]]) in maintaining that, because of its heritage and its emancipatory goals and potential, radical market anarchism should be seen—by its proponents and by others—as part of the [[socialist]] tradition, and that market anarchists can and should call themselves "socialists." See Gary Chartier, "Advocates of Freed Markets Should Oppose Capitalism," "Free-Market Anti-Capitalism?" session, annual conference, [[Association of Private Enterprise Education]] (Cæsar's Palace, Las Vegas, NV, April 13, 2010); Gary Chartier, [http://c4ss.org/content/1738 "Advocates of Freed Markets Should Embrace 'Anti-Capitalism'"]; Gary Chartier, [http://invisiblemolotov.wordpress.com/2009/09/12/socialist-ends-market-means/ ''Socialist Ends, Market Means: Five Essays'']. Cp. Tucker, "Socialism."</ref><ref>"But there has always been a market-oriented strand of libertarian socialism that emphasizes voluntary cooperation between producers. And markets, properly understood, have always been about cooperation. As a commenter at Reason magazine's Hit&Run blog, remarking on Jesse Walker's link to the Kelly article, put it: "every trade is a cooperative act." In fact, it's a fairly common observation among market anarchists that genuinely free markets have the most legitimate claim to the label 'socialism.'".[http://c4ss.org/content/670 "Socialism: A Perfectly Good Word Rehabilitated"] by [[Kevin Carson]] at website of Center for a Stateless Society</ref> [[Anarcho-capitalism]] advocates the elimination of the [[state (polity)|state]] in favour of [[sovereign individual|individual sovereignty]] in a [[free market]].<ref>[[Ronald Hamowy|Hamowy, Ronald]] (editor). ''The Encyclopedia of Libertarianism,'' SAGE, 2008, [https://books.google.com/books?id=yxNgXs3TkJYC&pg=PT50&dq=anarcho-capitalism+libertarian&hl=en&ei=guxiTNrmIMP7lweDmPC1Dw&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=2&ved=0CCwQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q=anarcho-capitalism%20libertarian&f=false pp. 10–12], [https://books.google.com/books?id=yxNgXs3TkJYC&pg=PT50&dq=anarcho-capitalism+libertarian&hl=en&ei=guxiTNrmIMP7lweDmPC1Dw&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=2&ved=0CCwQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q=radical%20%20libertarian&f=false p 195], ISBN 978-1-4129-6580-4, ISBN 978-1-4129-6580-4</ref><ref name=Stringham51>Edward Stringham, ''Anarchy and the law: the political economy of choice,'' [https://books.google.com/books?id=nft4e62nicsC&pg=PA51&dq=anarcho-capitalism+libertarian&hl=en&ei=R9JiTMCQOYH6lwfGw-SICg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=8&ved=0CE4Q6AEwBw#v=onepage&q=anarcho-capitalism%20libertarian&f=false p 51]</ref> Anarcho-capitalism developed from radical anti-state [[libertarianism]] and [[individualist anarchism]],<ref name=Tormey>Tormey, Simon. ''Anti-Capitalism'', One World, 2004.</ref><ref name=Perlin>Perlin, Terry M. ''Contemporary Anarchism'', Transaction Books, NJ 1979.</ref><ref name=Raico>Raico, Ralph. ''Authentic German Liberalism of the 19th Century'', Ecole Polytechnique, Centre de Recherce en Epistemologie Appliquee, Unité associée au CNRS, 2004.</ref><ref name=Heider>Heider, Ulrike. ''Anarchism:Left, Right, and Green'', City Lights, 1994. p. 3.</ref><ref name=Outhwaite>Outhwaite, William. ''The Blackwell Dictionary of Modern Social Thought'', ''Anarchism'' entry, p. 21, 2002.</ref><ref name=Bottomore>Bottomore, Tom. '' Dictionary of Marxist Thought'', ''Anarchism'' entry, 1991.</ref><ref name=Ostergaard>Ostergaard, Geofrey. Resisting the Nation State – the anarchist and pacifist tradition, Anarchism As A Tradition of Political Thought. Peace Pledge Union Publications [http://www.ppu.org.uk/e_publications/dd-trad6.html]</ref> drawing from [[Austrian School]] economics, study of [[law and economics]], and [[public choice theory]].<ref>Edward Stringham, [http://www.independent.org/publications/tir/article.asp?issueID=53&articleID=686 ''Anarchy, State, and Public Choice''], Cheltenham, UK: Edward Elgar, 2005.</ref> There is a strong current within anarchism which does not consider that anarcho-capitalism can be considered a part of the anarchist movement due to the fact that anarchism has historically been an [[anti-capitalist]] movement and for definitional reasons which see anarchism incompatible with capitalist forms.<ref>"The philosophy of “anarcho-capitalism” dreamed up by the "libertarian" [[New Right]], has nothing to do with Anarchism as known by the Anarchist movement proper."[[Albert Meltzer|Meltzer, Albert]]. ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=CJhCvx_Z0CAC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Anarchism:+Arguments+For+and+Against&ei=GHi-StvuEo6MNfKjyZMD&hl=es#v=onepage&q=&f=false Anarchism: Arguments For and Against]'' [[AK Press]], (2000) p.&nbsp;50</ref><ref>"In fact, few anarchists would accept the 'anarcho-capitalists' into the anarchist camp since they do not share a concern for economic equality and social justice, Their self-interested, calculating market men would be incapable of practising voluntary co-operation and mutual aid. Anarcho-capitalists, even if they do reject the State, might therefore best be called [[Right-libertarianism|right-wing libertarians]] rather than anarchists." Peter Marshall. [[Demanding the Impossible: A History of Anarchism]]. Harper Perennial. London. 2008. p. 565</ref><ref>"It is important to distinguish between anarchism and certain strands of [[Right-libertarianism|right-wing libertarianism]] which at times go by the same name (for example, Murray Rothbard's anarcho-capitalism)."[[Saul Newman]], ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=SiqBiViUsOkC&pg=PA43&dq=anarcho-capitalism+right+libertarian&hl=en&ei=TxeYTKOLFYH-8Aaa77WlAQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=3&ved=0CDEQ6AEwAjge#v=onepage&q=anarcho-capitalism%20right%20libertarian&f=false The Politics of Postanarchism, Edinburgh University Press,]'' 2010, p. 43 ISBN 0748634959</ref><ref>[http://anarchism.pageabode.com/afaq/secFcon.html Section F – Is "anarcho"-capitalism a type of anarchism?] at [[An Anarchist FAQ]] published in physical book form by An Anarchist FAQ as "Volume I"; by [[AK Press]], Oakland/Edinburgh 2008; 558 pages, ISBN 978-1902593906</ref><ref>"‘Libertarian’ and ‘libertarianism’ are frequently employed by anarchists as synonyms for ‘anarchist’ and ‘anarchism’, largely as an attempt to distance themselves from the negative connotations of ‘anarchy’ and its derivatives. The situation has been vastly complicated in recent decades with the rise of anarcho-capitalism, ‘minimal statism’ and an extreme right-wing laissez-faire philosophy advocated by such theorists as Murray Rothbard and Robert Nozick and their adoption of the words ‘libertarian’ and ‘libertarianism’. It has therefore now become necessary to distinguish between their [[right libertarianism]] and the [[left libertarianism]] of the anarchist tradition." ''[[Anarchist Seeds Beneath the Snow: Left-Libertarian Thought and British Writers from William Morris to Colin Ward]]'' by David Goodway. Liverpool University Press. Liverpool. 2006. p. 4</ref><ref>"Within Libertarianism, Rothbard represents a minority perspective that actually argues for the total elimination of the state. However Rothbard’s claim as an anarchist is quickly voided when it is shown that he only wants an end to the public state. In its place he allows countless private states, with each person supplying their own police force, army, and law, or else purchasing these services from capitalist venders...so what remains is shrill anti-statism conjoined to a vacuous freedom in hackneyed defense of capitalism. In sum, the “anarchy” of Libertarianism reduces to a liberal fraud.[http://theanarchistlibrary.org/library/peter-sabatini-libertarianism-bogus-anarchy "Libertarianism: Bogus Anarchy" by Peter Sabatini] in issue #41 (Fall/Winter 1994–95) of ''[[Anarchy: A Journal of Desire Armed]]''</ref> <!-- If you are looking to extend this section, please add the content to the proper sub-article [[anarchist schools of thought]] instead. --> ==Internal issues and debates== {{See also|Anarchism and violence|Anarchist schools of thought|Issues in anarchism}} [[File:Gadewar.jpg|thumb|left|Which forms of violence (if any) are [[anarchism and violence|consistent with anarchist values]] is a controversial subject among anarchists.]]<!-- In the interest of restricting article length, please limit this section to two or three short paragraphs and add any substantial information to the main Issues in anarchism article. Thank you. --> Anarchism is a [[philosophy]] that embodies many diverse attitudes, tendencies and schools of thought; as such, disagreement over questions of values, ideology and tactics is common. The compatibility of [[anarchism and capitalism|capitalism]],<ref name=oxcom>"Anarchism." ''[[The Oxford Companion to Philosophy]]'', [[Oxford University Press]], 2007, p. 31.</ref> [[anarchism and nationalism|nationalism]], and [[anarchism and religion|religion]] with anarchism is widely disputed. Similarly, anarchism enjoys complex relationships with ideologies such as [[Anarchism and Marxism|Marxism]], [[Issues in anarchism#Communism|communism]] and [[Anarchism and capitalism|capitalism]]. Anarchists may be motivated by [[humanism]], [[Christian anarchism|divine authority]], [[enlightened self-interest]], [[veganarchism|veganism]] or any number of alternative ethical doctrines. Phenomena such as [[civilization]], [[technology]] (e.g. within [[anarcho-primitivism]]), and [[Issues in anarchism#Participation in statist democracy|the democratic process]] may be sharply criticised within some anarchist tendencies and simultaneously lauded in others. On a tactical level, while [[propaganda of the deed]] was a tactic used by anarchists in the 19th century (e.g. the [[Nihilist movement]]), some contemporary anarchists espouse alternative [[direct action]] methods such as [[nonviolence]], [[counter-economics]] and [[Crypto-anarchism|anti-state cryptography]] to bring about an anarchist society. About the scope of an anarchist society, some anarchists advocate a global one, while others do so by local ones.<ref>Ted Honderich, Carmen García Trevijano, [https://books.google.com/books?id=s9iwZGv44psC&pg=PA402&dq=Enciclopedia+teor%C3%ADa+pol%C3%ADtica&lr=&as_brr=3#PPA57,M1 ''Oxford Encyclopaedia of Philosophy''].</ref> The diversity in anarchism has led to widely different use of identical terms among different anarchist traditions, which has led to many [[definitional concerns in anarchist theory]]. {{Clear}} ==Topics of interest== Intersecting and overlapping between various schools of thought, certain topics of interest and internal disputes have proven perennial within anarchist theory. ===Free love=== {{Main|Free love|Anarchism and issues related to love and sex|Anarcha-feminism|Queer anarchism}} [[File:Emilearmand01.jpg|thumb|upright|French [[individualist anarchist]] [[Emile Armand]] (1872–1962), who propounded the virtues of free love in the Parisian anarchist milieu of the early 20th century]] An important current within anarchism is [[free love]].<ref name="ncc-1776">{{cite web |url=http://www.ncc-1776.org/tle1996/le961210.html |title=The Free Love Movement and Radical Individualism By Wendy McElroy |publisher=Ncc-1776.org |date=1 December 1996 |accessdate=20 September 2010| archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20101231195631/http://ncc-1776.org/tle1996/le961210.html| archivedate= 31 December 2010<!--Added by DASHBot-->}}</ref> Free love advocates sometimes traced their roots back to [[Josiah Warren]] and to experimental communities, viewed sexual freedom as a clear, direct expression of an individual's sovereignty. Free love particularly stressed [[women's rights]] since most sexual laws discriminated against women: for example, marriage laws and anti-birth control measures.<ref name="freelove"/> The most important American free love journal was ''[[Lucifer the Lightbearer]]'' (1883–1907) edited by [[Moses Harman]] and [[Lois Waisbrooker]],<ref>Joanne E. Passet, "Power through Print: Lois Waisbrooker and Grassroots Feminism," in: ''Women in Print: Essays on the Print Culture of American Women from the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries'', James Philip Danky and Wayne A. Wiegand, eds., Madison, WI, University of Wisconsin Press, 2006; pp. 229–50.</ref> but also there existed [[Ezra Heywood]] and Angela Heywood's ''[[The Word (free love)|The Word]]'' (1872–1890, 1892–1893).<ref name="freelove"/> ''[[Free Society]]'' (1895–1897 as ''The Firebrand''; 1897–1904 as ''Free Society'') was a major anarchist newspaper in the United States at the end of the 19th and beginning of the 20th centuries.<ref name="Goldman-MSF-551">"''Free Society'' was the principal English-language forum for anarchist ideas in the United States at the beginning of the twentieth century." ''Emma Goldman: Making Speech Free, 1902–1909'', p. 551.</ref> The publication advocated [[free love]] and [[women's rights]], and critiqued "[[Comstockery]]" – censorship of sexual information. Also [[M. E. Lazarus]] was an important American individualist anarchist who promoted free love.<ref name="freelove"/> In New York City's [[Greenwich Village]], [[Bohemianism|bohemian]] feminists and socialists advocated self-realisation and pleasure for women (and also men) in the here and now. They encouraged playing with sexual roles and sexuality,<ref>Sochen, June. 1972. ''The New Woman: Feminism in Greenwich Village 1910–1920.'' New York: Quadrangle.</ref> and the openly bisexual radical [[Edna St. Vincent Millay]] and the lesbian anarchist [[Margaret Anderson]] were prominent among them. Discussion groups organised by the Villagers were frequented by [[Emma Goldman]], among others. Magnus Hirschfeld noted in 1923 that Goldman "has campaigned boldly and steadfastly for individual rights, and especially for those deprived of their rights. Thus it came about that she was the first and only woman, indeed the first and only American, to take up the defense of homosexual love before the general public."<ref>Katz, Jonathan Ned. ''Gay American History: Lesbians and Gay Men in the U.S.A.'' (New York: Thomas Y. Crowell, 1976)</ref> In fact, before Goldman, [[heterosexual]] anarchist Robert Reitzel (1849–1898) spoke positively of homosexuality from the beginning of the 1890s in his Detroit-based [[German language]] journal ''Der arme Teufel'' (English: The Poor Devil). In Argentina anarcha-feminist [[Virginia Bolten]] published the newspaper called ''{{lang|es|[[La Voz de la Mujer]]}}'' (English: The Woman's Voice), which was published nine times in Rosario between 8 January 1896 and 1 January 1897, and was revived, briefly, in 1901.<ref name="molyneux">{{cite book |last=Molyneux|first=Maxine|title=Women's movements in international perspective: Latin America and beyond|publisher=Palgrave MacMillan|year=2001|page=24|isbn=978-0-333-78677-2|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yg9HFrOG89kC&pg=PA24}}</ref> In Europe the main propagandist of free love within individualist anarchism was [[Emile Armand]].<ref name="armandfreelove">{{cite web |url=http://www.iisg.nl/womhist/manfreuk.pdf |title=E. Armand and "la camaraderie amoureuse" – Revolutionary sexualism and the struggle against jealousy |format=PDF |date= |accessdate=20 September 2010}}</ref> He proposed the concept of ''la camaraderie amoureuse'' to speak of free love as the possibility of voluntary sexual encounter between consenting adults. He was also a consistent proponent of [[polyamory]].<ref name="armandfreelove"/> In Germany the [[stirner]]ists [[Adolf Brand]] and [[John Henry Mackay]] were pioneering campaigners for the acceptance of male [[bisexuality]] and [[homosexuality]]. [[Mujeres Libres]] was an anarchist women's organisation in Spain that aimed to empower working class women. It was founded in 1936 by [[Lucía Sánchez Saornil]], Mercedes Comaposada and [[Amparo Poch y Gascón]] and had approximately 30,000 members. The organisation was based on the idea of a "double struggle" for [[Feminist movement|women's liberation]] and [[social revolution]] and argued that the two objectives were equally important and should be pursued in parallel. In order to gain mutual support, they created networks of women anarchists.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://flag.blackened.net/revolt/ws98/ws54_mujeres_libres.html |title=Mujeres Libres - Women anarchists in the Spanish Revolution |publisher=Flag.blackened.net |date= |accessdate=2015-03-16}}</ref> [[Lucía Sánchez Saornil]] was a main founder of the Spanish [[anarcha-feminist]] federation [[Mujeres Libres]] who was open about her [[lesbian]]ism.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://wzar.unizar.es/siem/articulos/Premios/MujeresLibres.pdf|format=PDF|title= Basta pensar en el lesbianismo de Lucía Sánchez Saornil|publisher=Wzar.unizar.es|accessdate=2015-03-16}}</ref> She was published in a variety of literary journals where working under a male pen name, she was able to explore [[lesbian]] themes<ref>"R. Fue una época transgresora, emergió el feminismo y la libertad sexual estuvo en el candelero. Hay rastreos de muchas lesbianas escritoras: Carmen Conde[primera académica de número], Victorina Durán, Margarita Xirgu, Ana María Sagi, la periodista Irene Polo, Lucía Sánchez Saornil, fundadora de Mujeres Libres[sección feminista de CNT]... Incluso existía un círculo sáfico en Madrid como lugar de encuentro y tertulia. P. ¿Se declaraban lesbianas? R. Había quien no se escondía mucho, como Polo o Durán, pero lesbiana era un insulto, algo innombrable. Excepto los poemas homosexuales de Sánchez Saornil, sus textos no eran explícitos para poder publicarlos, así que hay que reinterpretarlos."[http://elpais.com/diario/2007/12/06/paisvasco/1196973608_850215.html "Tener referentes serios de lesbianas elimina estereotipos" by Juan Fernandez at ''El Pais'']</ref> at a time when homosexuality was criminalized and subject to [[censorship]] and punishment. More recently, the British [[anarcho-pacifist]] [[Alex Comfort]] gained notoriety during the [[sexual revolution]] for writing the bestseller sex manual ''[[The Joy of Sex]]''. The issue of [[free love]] has a dedicated treatment in the work of French anarcho-[[hedonist]] philosopher [[Michel Onfray]] in such works as ''Théorie du corps amoureux : pour une érotique solaire'' (2000) and ''L'invention du plaisir : fragments cyréaniques'' (2002). ===Libertarian education and freethought=== {{See also|Anarchism and education|Freethought}} [[File:Francisco Ferrer Guardia.jpg|left|thumb|upright|[[Francesc Ferrer i Guàrdia]], [[Catalan people|Catalan]] anarchist pedagogue and [[Freethought|free-thinker]]]] For English anarchist [[William Godwin]] education was "the main means by which change would be achieved."<ref name="GroupedRef1">{{cite web|url=http://www.infed.org/thinkers/et-good.htm|title=infed.org - William Godwin on education|work=infed.org}}</ref> Godwin saw that the main goal of education should be the promotion of happiness.<ref name="GroupedRef1" /> For Godwin education had to have "A respect for the child's autonomy which precluded any form of coercion," "A pedagogy that respected this and sought to build on the child's own motivation and initiatives," and "A concern about the child's capacity to resist an ideology transmitted through the school."<ref name="GroupedRef1" /> In his ''[[Political Justice]]'' he criticises state sponsored schooling "on account of its obvious alliance with national government".<ref name="Enquiry Concerning Political Justice">{{Cite book |chapterurl=http://socserv.mcmaster.ca/econ/ugcm/3ll3/godwin/pj6.htm |at=Book 4: Of Opinion Considered as a Subject of Political Institution |chapter=1: General Effects of the Political Superintendence of Opinion |title=Enquiry Concerning Political Justice |first=William |last=Godwin |edition=1st |id={{OCLC|680251053|642217608|504755839}} |publisher=G.G.J. and J. Robinson |location=London, England |year=1793 |ref=harv |postscript=<!-- Bot inserted parameter. Either remove it; or change its value to "." for the cite to end in a ".", as necessary. -->{{inconsistent citations}}}}</ref> Early American anarchist [[Josiah Warren]] advanced alternative education experiences in the libertarian communities he established.<ref>"Where utopian projectors starting with [[Plato]] entertained the idea of creating an ideal species through eugenics and education and a set of universally valid institutions inculcating shared identities, Warren wanted to dissolve such identities in a solution of individual self-sovereignty. His educational experiments, for example, possibly under the influence of the Swiss educational theorist [[Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi]] (via [[Robert Owen|Owen]]), emphasized – as we would expect – the nurturing of the independence and the conscience of individual children, not the inculcation of pre-conceived values.[http://www.crispinsartwell.com/warrenintrocurrent.htm "Introduction of The Practical Anarchist: Writings of Josiah Warren" by Crispin Sartwell]</ref> [[Max Stirner]] wrote in 1842 a long essay on education called ''[[The False Principle of our Education]]''. In it Stirner names his educational principle "personalist," explaining that self-understanding consists in hourly self-creation. Education for him is to create "free men, sovereign characters," by which he means "eternal characters&nbsp;... who are therefore eternal because they form themselves each moment".<ref>{{cite web |url=http://tmh.floonet.net/articles/falseprinciple.html |title=The False Principle of our Education|author=Max Stirner |publisher=Tmh.floonet.net |date= |accessdate=20 September 2010}}</ref> In the United States "freethought was a basically [[Anti-Christianity|anti-christian]], [[anti-clerical]] movement, whose purpose was to make the individual politically and spiritually free to decide for himself on religious matters. A number of contributors to ''[[Liberty (1881–1908)|Liberty]]'' (anarchist publication) were prominent figures in both freethought and anarchism. The individualist anarchist George MacDonald was a co-editor of ''Freethought'' and, for a time, ''The Truth Seeker''. E.C. Walker was co-editor of the excellent free-thought / free love journal ''[[Lucifer, the Light-Bearer]]''".<ref name="mises.org"/> "Many of the anarchists were ardent freethinkers; reprints from freethought papers such as ''[[Lucifer, the Light-Bearer]]'', ''Freethought'' and ''The Truth Seeker'' appeared in ''[[Liberty (1881–1908)|Liberty]]''...&nbsp;The church was viewed as a common ally of the state and as a repressive force in and of itself".<ref name="mises.org"/> In 1901, Catalan anarchist and [[Freethought|free-thinker]] [[Francesc Ferrer i Guàrdia]] established "modern" or [[Progressive education|progressive schools]] in [[Barcelona]] in defiance of an educational system controlled by the Catholic Church.<ref name="Fidler">{{cite journal |author=Geoffrey C. Fidler |date=Spring–Summer 1985 |title=The Escuela Moderna Movement of Francisco Ferrer: "Por la Verdad y la Justicia" |journal=History of Education Quarterly |volume=25 |issue=1/2 |pages=103–132 |doi=10.2307/368893 |jstor=368893 |publisher=History of Education Society |ref=harv}}</ref> The schools' stated goal was to "[[Popular education|educate the working class]] in a rational, secular and non-coercive setting". Fiercely anti-clerical, Ferrer believed in "freedom in education", education free from the authority of church and state.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://flag.blackened.net/revolt/spain/ferrer.html |title=Francisco Ferrer's Modern School |publisher=Flag.blackened.net |date= |accessdate=20 September 2010| archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20100807032003/http://flag.blackened.net/revolt/spain/ferrer.html| archivedate= 7 August 2010<!--Added by DASHBot-->}}</ref> [[Murray Bookchin]] wrote: "This period [1890s] was the heyday of libertarian schools and pedagogical projects in all areas of the country where Anarchists exercised some degree of influence. Perhaps the best-known effort in this field was Francisco Ferrer's Modern School (Escuela Moderna), a project which exercised a considerable influence on Catalan education and on experimental techniques of teaching generally."<ref>Chapter 7, ''[[anarcho-syndicalism|Anarchosyndicalism]], The New Ferment''. In Murray Bookchin, ''The Spanish anarchists: the heroic years, 1868–1936''. AK Press, 1998, p. 115. ISBN 1-873176-04-X</ref> La Escuela Moderna, and Ferrer's ideas generally, formed the inspiration for a series of ''[[Modern School (United States)|Modern Schools]]'' in the United States,<ref name="Fidler"/> [[Cuba]], South America and London. The first of these was started in New York City in 1911. It also inspired the Italian newspaper ''[[Università popolare (Italian newspaper)|Università popolare]]'', founded in 1901. Russian [[christian anarchist]] [[Leo Tolstoy]] established a school for peasant children on his estate.<ref name="GroupedRef2">{{cite web|url=http://www.theanarchistlibrary.org/HTML/Matt_Hern__The_Emergence_of_Compulsory_Schooling_and_Anarchist_Resistance.html |title=The Emergence of Compulsory Schooling and Anarchist Resistance |publisher=Theanarchistlibrary.org |date=2010-09-21 |accessdate=2015-03-16}}</ref> Tolstoy's educational experiments were short-lived due to harassment by the Tsarist secret police.<ref>{{cite book | last = Wilson | first = A.N. | title = Tolstoy | publisher = Norton, W. W. & Company, Inc. | year = 2001 | page = xxi | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=imYmH8myBUsC&pg=PR19 | isbn = 0-393-32122-3 }}</ref> Tolstoy established a conceptual difference between education and culture.<ref name="GroupedRef2" /> He thought that "Education is the tendency of one man to make another just like himself&nbsp;... Education is culture under restraint, culture is free. [Education is] when the teaching is forced upon the pupil, and when then instruction is exclusive, that is when only those subjects are taught which the educator regards as necessary".<ref name="GroupedRef2" /> For him "without compulsion, education was transformed into culture".<ref name="GroupedRef2" /> A more recent libertarian tradition on education is that of [[unschooling]] and the [[anarchist free school|free school]] in which child-led activity replaces pedagogic approaches. Experiments in Germany led to [[A. S. Neill]] founding what became [[Summerhill School]] in 1921.<ref>{{cite book | last = Purkis | first = Jon | title = Changing Anarchism | publisher = Manchester University Press | location = Manchester | year = 2004 | isbn = 0-7190-6694-8 }}</ref> Summerhill is often cited as an example of anarchism in practice.<ref>British anarchists [[Stuart Christie]] and [[Albert Meltzer]] manifested that "A.S. Neill is the modern pioneer of libertarian education and of "hearts not heads in the school". Though he has denied being an anarchist, it would be hard to know how else to describe his philosophy, though he is correct in recognising the difference between revolution in philosophy and pedagogy, and the revolutionary change of society. They are associated but not the same thing." [[Stuart Christie]] and [[Albert Meltzer]]. [http://theanarchistlibrary.org/library/stuart-christie-albert-meltzer-the-floodgates-of-anarchy ''The Floodgates of Anarchy'']</ref><ref>Andrew Vincent (2010) ''Modern Political Ideologies'', 3rd edition, Oxford, Wiley-Blackwell p. 129</ref> However, although Summerhill and other free schools are radically libertarian, they differ in principle from those of Ferrer by not advocating an overtly political [[class struggle]]-approach.<ref>{{cite journal |first=Judith |last=Suissa |url=http://newhumanist.org.uk/1288/anarchy-in-the-classroom|title= Anarchy in the classroom |journal=[[The New Humanist]] |volume=120 |issue=5 |date=September–October 2005 |ref=harv}}</ref> In addition to organising schools according to libertarian principles, anarchists have also questioned the concept of schooling per se. The term [[deschooling]] was popularised by [[Ivan Illich]], who argued that the school as an institution is dysfunctional for self-determined learning and serves the creation of a consumer society instead.<ref>{{cite book |last=Illich| first=Ivan |title=Deschooling Society |place= New York|publisher= Harper and Row| year= 1971| isbn= 0-06-012139-4}}</ref> == Criticisms == {{Main|Criticisms of anarchism}} Criticisms of anarchism include [[morality|moral]] criticisms and pragmatic criticisms. Anarchism is often evaluated as unfeasible or [[utopian]] by its critics. European history professor Carl Landauer, in his book ''European Socialism'' argued that social anarchism is unrealistic and that government is a "lesser evil" than a society without "repressive force." He also argued that "ill intentions will cease if repressive force disappears" is an "absurdity."<ref>Landauer, Carl. ''European Socialism: A History of Ideas and Movements'' (1959)</ref> ==References== {{Reflist|30em}} ==Further reading== * [[Harold Barclay|Barclay, Harold]], ''People Without Government: An Anthropology of Anarchy'' (2nd ed.), Left Bank Books, 1990 ISBN 1-871082-16-1 * Blumenfeld, Jacob; Bottici, Chiara; [[Simon Critchley|Critchley, Simon]], eds., ''The Anarchist Turn'', Pluto Press. 19 March 2013. ISBN 978-0745333427 * [[April Carter|Carter, April]], ''The Political Theory of Anarchism'', Harper & Row. 1971. ISBN 978-0-06-136050-3 * Gordon, Uri, ''Anarchy Alive!'', London: [[Pluto Press]], 2007. * [[David Graeber|Graeber, David]]. ''Fragments of an Anarchist Anthropology'', Chicago: Prickly Paradigm Press, 2004 * Graham, Robert, ed., ''[[Anarchism: A Documentary History of Libertarian Ideas]]''. ** ''Volume One: From Anarchy to Anarchism (300CE to 1939)'', [[Black Rose Books]], Montréal and London 2005. ISBN 1-55164-250-6. ** ''Volume Two: The Anarchist Current (1939–2006)'', Black Rose Books, Montréal 2007. ISBN 978-1-55164-311-3. * [[Daniel Guerin|Guerin, Daniel]], [http://www.theanarchistlibrary.org/HTML/Daniel_Guerin__Anarchism__From_Theory_to_Practice.html ''Anarchism: From Theory to Practice''], Monthly Review Press. 1970. ISBN 0-85345-175-3 * [[Clifford Harper|Harper, Clifford]], ''Anarchy: A Graphic Guide'', (Camden Press, 1987): An overview, updating Woodcock's classic, and illustrated throughout by Harper's woodcut-style artwork. * McKay, Iain, ed., ''[[An Anarchist FAQ]]''. ** ''Volume I'', [[AK Press]], Oakland/Edinburgh 2008; 558 pages, ISBN 978-1-902593-90-6. ** ''Volume II'', AK Press, Oakland/Edinburgh 2012; 550 Pages, ISBN 978-1-84935-122-5 * McLaughlin, Paul, ''Anarchism and Authority: A Philosophical Introduction to Classical Anarchism'', AshGate. 2007. ISBN 0-7546-6196-2 * Marshall, Peter, ''[[Demanding the Impossible: A History of Anarchism]]'', PM Press. 2010. ISBN 1-60486-064-2 * [[Max Nettlau|Nettlau, Max]], ''Anarchy through the times'', Gordon Press. 1979. ISBN 0-8490-1397-6 * {{cite book |author=Sartwell, Crispin|title=Against the state: an introduction to anarchist political theory|publisher=SUNY Press|year=2008|isbn=978-0-7914-7447-1|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bk-aaMVGKO0C}} * Razsa, Maple. ''Bastards of Utopia: Living Radical Politics After Socialism''. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2015 * [[James C. Scott|Scott, James C.]], ''Two Cheers for Anarchism: Six Easy Pieces on Autonomy, Dignity, and Meaningful Work and Play'', Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2012. ISBN 978-0691155296. * [[George Woodcock|Woodcock, George]], ''Anarchism: A History of Libertarian Ideas and Movements'' (Penguin Books, 1962). ISBN 0-14-022697-4. {{oclc|221147531}}. * Woodcock, George, ed., ''The Anarchist Reader'' (Fontana/Collins 1977; ISBN 0-00-634011-3): An anthology of writings from anarchist thinkers and activists including [[Pierre-Joseph Proudhon|Proudhon]], [[Peter Kropotkin|Kropotkin]], [[Mikhail Bakunin|Bakunin]], [[Errico Malatesta|Malatesta]], [[Murray Bookchin|Bookchin]], [[Emma Goldman|Goldman]], and many others. * David Van Deusen, 2015, [http://news.infoshop.org/anarchist-news/rise-and-fall-green-mountain-anarchist-collective ''The Rise and Fall of The Green Mountain Anarchist Collective' ]. ==External links== {{Sister project links|voy=no|n=no|v=no|b=Subject:Anarchism|s=Portal:Anarchism|d=Q6199}} * {{DMOZ|Society/Politics/Anarchism/}} * [http://anarchism.pageabode.com/afaq/index.html "An Anarchist FAQ Webpage"]&nbsp;–[[An Anarchist FAQ]] * {{In Our Time|Anarchism|p0038x9t|Anarchism}} * [http://www.ditext.com/anarchism/ Anarchism: A Bibliography] * [http://www.gmu.edu/departments/economics/bcaplan/anarfaq.htm Anarchist Theory FAQ]&nbsp;–by [[Bryan Caplan]] * [http://dwardmac.pitzer.edu/Anarchist_Archives/ Anarchy Archives]&nbsp;– information relating to famous anarchists including their writings (see [[Anarchy Archives]]). * [http://recollectionbooks.com/bleed/gallery/galleryindex.htm Daily Bleed's Anarchist Encyclopedia]&nbsp;–700+ entries, with short biographies, links and dedicated pages * [http://www.katesharpleylibrary.net/ KateSharpleyLibrary.net]&nbsp;–website of the [[Kate Sharpley Library]], containing many historical documents pertaining to anarchism * [http://www.infoshop.org/ Infoshop.org]&nbsp;– an online collection of news and information about anarchism. * [http://www.theanarchistlibrary.org/ The Anarchist Library] large online library with texts from anarchist authors * [http://www.theyliewedie.org/ressources/biblio/index-en.php They Lie We Die]&nbsp;–anarchist virtual library containing 768 books, booklets and texts <!-- Attention! 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([[WP:TW|TW]]) wikitext text/x-wiki {{Hatnote|This article is about the classic autistic disorder; some writers use the word ''autism'' when referring to the range of disorders on the [[autism spectrum]] or to the various [[pervasive developmental disorder]]s.<ref name=Caronna/>}} {{pp-semi-indef}} {{pp-move-indef}} {{bots|deny=Monkbot}} <!-- keep Monkbot from visiting this page --> {{Use dmy dates|date=June 2015}} <!-- NOTES: 1) Please follow the Wikipedia style guidelines for editing medical articles [[WP:MEDMOS]], and medical referencing standards at [[WP:MEDRS]]. 2) Use <ref> for explicitly cited references. 3) Reference anything you put here with notable references, as this subject tends to attract a lot of controversy.--> {{Infobox disease | Name = Autism | Image = Autism-stacking-cans 2nd edit.jpg | Alt = Young red-haired boy facing away from camera, stacking a seventh can atop a column of six food cans on the kitchen floor. An open pantry contains many more cans. | Caption = Repetitively stacking or lining up objects is associated with autism. | field = [[Psychiatry]] | DiseasesDB = 1142 | ICD10 = {{ICD10|F|84|0|f|80}} | ICD9 = {{ICD9|299.00}} | OMIM = 209850 | MedlinePlus = 001526 | eMedicineSubj = med | eMedicineTopic = 3202 | eMedicine_mult = {{eMedicine2|ped|180}} | MeshID = D001321 | GeneReviewsNBK = NBK1442 | GeneReviewsName = Autism overview }} <!-- Definition and symptoms --> '''Autism''' is a [[neurodevelopmental disorder]] characterized by impaired [[Interpersonal relationship|social interaction]], [[language acquisition|verbal]] and [[non-verbal communication]], and restricted and repetitive behavior. Parents usually notice signs in the first two years of their child's life.<ref name=CCD/> These signs often develop gradually, though some children with autism reach their [[developmental milestones]] at a normal pace and then [[Regressive autism|regress]].<ref name=Stefanatos/> The [[Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders|diagnostic criteria]] require that symptoms become apparent in early childhood, typically before age three.<ref name=DSM5>{{vcite book | title = Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition | chapter = Autism Spectrum Disorder, 299.00 (F84.0) | editor = American Psychiatric Association | year = 2013 | publisher = American Psychiatric Publishing | pagex = 50–59}}</ref> <!-- Causes and diagnosis --> While autism is highly heritable, researchers suspect both environmental and genetic factors as causes.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Chaste P, Leboyer M |title=Autism risk factors: genes, environment, and gene-environment interactions |journal=Dialogues in Clinical Neuroscience |volume=14 |pages=281–92 |year=2012 |pmid=23226953 |pmc=3513682 }}</ref> In rare cases, autism is strongly associated with [[Teratology|agents that cause birth defects]].<ref name=Arndt/> [[Controversies in autism|Controversies]] surround other proposed environmental [[Causes of autism|causes]];<ref name=Rutter/> for example, the [[MMR vaccine controversy|vaccine hypotheses]] have been disproven. Autism affects information processing in the [[Human brain|brain]] by altering how [[nerve cell]]s and their [[synapse]]s connect and organize; how this occurs is not well understood.<ref name="Levy" /> It is one of three recognized disorders in the [[autism spectrum]] (ASDs), the other two being [[Asperger syndrome]], which lacks delays in cognitive development and language, and [[PDD-NOS|pervasive developmental disorder, not otherwise specified]] (commonly abbreviated as PDD-NOS), which is diagnosed when the full set of criteria for autism or Asperger syndrome are not met.<ref name="Johnson" /> <!-- Treatment --> Early speech or [[Early intensive behavioral intervention|behavioral interventions]] can help children with autism gain self-care, social, and communication skills.<ref name=CCD/> Although there is no known cure,<ref name=CCD/> there have been reported cases of children who recovered.<ref name=Helt/> Not many children with autism live independently after reaching adulthood, though some become successful.<ref name="Howlin">{{cite journal | vauthors = Howlin P, Goode S, Hutton J, Rutter M | title = Adult outcome for children with autism | journal = J Child Psychol Psychiatry | volume = 45 | issue = 2 | pages = 212–29 | year = 2004 | doi = 10.1111/j.1469-7610.2004.00215.x | pmid = 14982237}}</ref> An [[Sociological and cultural aspects of autism|autistic culture]] has developed, with some individuals seeking a cure and others believing autism should be [[Autism rights movement|accepted as a difference and not treated as a disorder]].<ref name=Silverman/> <!-- Epidemiology --> Globally, autism is estimated to affect 21.7 million people as of 2013.<ref name="Collab">{{cite journal |author = Global Burden of Disease Study 2013 Collaborators |title=Global, regional, and national incidence, prevalence, and years lived with disability for 301 acute and chronic diseases and injuries in 188 countries, 1990–2013: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2013.|journal=Lancet|year = 2015|pmid=26063472 |doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(15)60692-4}}</ref> As of 2010, the number of people affected is estimated at about 1–2 per 1,000 worldwide. It occurs four to five times more often in boys than girls. About 1.5% of children in the United States (one in 68) are diagnosed with ASD {{as of|2014|lc=y}}, a 30% increase from one in 88 in 2012.<ref name="ASD Data and Statistics">{{cite web |url = http://www.cdc.gov/ncbddd/autism/data.html |title = ASD Data and Statistics |website = CDC.gov |accessdate= 5 April 2014 |archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20140418153648/http://www.cdc.gov/ncbddd/autism/data.html |archivedate = 18 April 2014 }}</ref><ref name="MMWR2012">{{cite journal | vauthors = | title = Prevalence of autism spectrum disorders&nbsp;— autism and developmental disabilities monitoring network, 14 sites, United States, 2008 | journal = MMWR Surveill Summ | volume = 61 | issue = 3 | pages = 1–19 | year = 2012 | pmid = 22456193 | url = http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/ss6103a1.htm | archivedate = 25 March 2014 | archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20140325235639/http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/ss6103a1.htm }}</ref><ref name="NHSR65">{{cite journal | vauthors = Blumberg SJ, Bramlett MD, Kogan MD, Schieve LA, Jones JR, Lu MC | title = Changes in prevalence of parent-reported autism spectrum disorder in school-aged U.S. children: 2007 to 2011–2012 | journal = Natl Health Stat Report | volume = | issue = 65 | pages = 1–11 | year = 2013 | pmid = 24988818 | url = http://www.cdc.gov/nchs/data/nhsr/nhsr065.pdf | archiveurl = http://www.webcitation.org/6JoG0uE7r|archivedate=21 September 2013 }}</ref> The rate of autism among adults aged 18 years and over in the United Kingdom is 1.1%.<ref name=NHSEstimating/> The number of people diagnosed has been increasing dramatically since the 1980s, partly due to changes in diagnostic practice and government-subsidized financial incentives for named diagnoses;<ref name="NHSR65"/> the question of whether actual rates have increased is unresolved.<ref name=Newschaffer/> ==Characteristics== [[File:Autism spectrum disorder video.webm|thumb|Autism spectrum disorder video]] Autism is a highly variable [[neurodevelopmental disorder]]<ref name=Geschwind/> that first appears during infancy or childhood, and generally follows a steady course without [[Remission (medicine)|remission]].<ref name=ICD-10-F84.0/> People with autism may be severely impaired in some respects but normal, or even superior, in others.<ref>{{vcite book|title = Biopsychology|author= Pinel JPG|publisher = Pearson|year = 2011|isbn = 978-0-205-03099-6|location = Boston, Massachusetts|page = 235}}</ref> Overt symptoms gradually begin after the age of six months, become established by age two or three years,<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Rogers SJ | title = What are infant siblings teaching us about autism in infancy? | journal = Autism Res | volume = 2 | issue = 3 | pages = 125–37 | year = 2009 | pmid = 19582867 | pmc = 2791538 | doi = 10.1002/aur.81 }}</ref> and tend to continue through adulthood, although often in more muted form.<ref name=Rapin/> It is distinguished not by a single symptom, but by a characteristic triad of symptoms: impairments in social interaction; impairments in communication; and restricted interests and repetitive behavior. Other aspects, such as atypical eating, are also common but are not essential for diagnosis.<ref name=Filipek/> Autism's individual symptoms occur in the general population and appear not to associate highly, without a sharp line separating pathologically severe from common traits.<ref name=London/> ===Social development=== Social deficits distinguish autism and the related [[autism spectrum disorder]]s (ASD; see [[#Classification|Classification]]) from other developmental disorders.<ref name=Rapin/> People with autism have social impairments and often lack the intuition about others that many people take for granted. Noted autistic [[Temple Grandin]] described her inability to understand the [[social communication]] of [[neurotypical]]s, or people with normal [[neural development]], as leaving her feeling "like an anthropologist on Mars".<ref>{{vcite book |title=[[An Anthropologist on Mars]]: Seven Paradoxical Tales |author=[[Oliver Sacks|Sacks O]] |publisher=Knopf |year=1995 |isbn=978-0-679-43785-7 }}</ref> Unusual social development becomes apparent early in childhood.<!-- ref name=Volkmar/ --> Autistic infants show less attention to social stimuli, smile and look at others less often, and respond less to their own name. Autistic toddlers differ more strikingly from [[social norms]]; for example, they have less [[eye contact]] and [[turn-taking]], and do not have the ability to use simple movements to express themselves, such as pointing at things.<ref name=Volkmar/> Three- to five-year-old children with autism are less likely to exhibit social understanding, approach others spontaneously, imitate and respond to emotions, communicate nonverbally, and take turns with others. However, they do form [[Attachment (psychology)|attachments]] to their primary caregivers.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Sigman M, Dijamco A, Gratier M, Rozga A | title = Early detection of core deficits in autism | journal = Ment Retard Dev Disabil Res Rev | volume = 10 | issue = 4 | pages = 221–33 | year = 2004 | pmid = 15666338 | doi = 10.1002/mrdd.20046 }}</ref> Most children with autism display moderately less [[Attachment in children#Secure attachment|attachment security]] than neurotypical children, although this difference disappears in children with higher mental development or less severe ASD.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Rutgers AH, Bakermans-Kranenburg MJ, van Ijzendoorn MH, van Berckelaer-Onnes IA | title = Autism and attachment: a meta-analytic review | journal = J Child Psychol Psychiatry | volume = 45 | issue = 6 | pages = 1123–34 | year = 2004 | pmid = 15257669 | doi = 10.1111/j.1469-7610.2004.t01-1-00305.x }}</ref> Older children and adults with ASD [[Face perception#Face perception in individuals with autism|perform worse on tests of face and emotion recognition]]<ref name="Sigman">{{cite journal | vauthors = Sigman M, Spence SJ, Wang AT | title = Autism from developmental and neuropsychological perspectives | journal = Annu Rev Clin Psychol | volume = 2 | pages = 327–55 | year = 2006 | pmid = 17716073 | doi = 10.1146/annurev.clinpsy.2.022305.095210 }}</ref> although this may be partly due to a lower ability to define a person's own emotions.<ref>{{Cite journal|title = Mixed emotions: the contribution of alexithymia to the emotional symptoms of autism|url = http://www.nature.com/tp/journal/v3/n7/full/tp201361a.html|journal = Translational Psychiatry|date = 2013-07-23|pmc = 3731793|pmid = 23880881|pages = e285|volume = 3|issue = 7|doi = 10.1038/tp.2013.61|first = G.|last = Bird|first2 = R.|last2 = Cook}}</ref> Children with high-functioning autism suffer from more intense and frequent loneliness compared to non-autistic peers, despite the common belief that children with autism prefer to be alone. Making and maintaining friendships often proves to be difficult for those with autism. For them, the quality of friendships, not the number of friends, predicts how lonely they feel. Functional friendships, such as those resulting in invitations to parties, may affect the quality of life more deeply.<ref name=Burgess/> There are many anecdotal reports, but few systematic studies, of aggression and violence in individuals with ASD. The limited data suggest that, in children with intellectual disability, autism is associated with aggression, destruction of property, and [[tantrum]]s.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Matson JL, Nebel-Schwalm M | title = Assessing challenging behaviors in children with autism spectrum disorders: A review | journal = Research in Developmental Disabilities | volume = 28 | issue = 6 | pages = 567–79 | date = November 2007 | pmid = 16973329 | doi = 10.1016/j.ridd.2006.08.001 }}</ref> ===Communication=== About a third to a half of individuals with autism do not develop enough natural speech to meet their daily communication needs.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Noens I, van Berckelaer-Onnes I, Verpoorten R, van Duijn G | title = The ComFor: an instrument for the indication of augmentative communication in people with autism and intellectual disability | journal = J Intellect Disabil Res | volume = 50 | issue = 9 | pages = 621–32 | year = 2006 | pmid = 16901289 | doi = 10.1111/j.1365-2788.2006.00807.x }}</ref> Differences in communication may be present from the first year of life, and may include delayed onset of [[babbling]], unusual gestures, diminished responsiveness, and vocal patterns that are not synchronized with the caregiver. In the second and third years, children with autism have less frequent and less diverse babbling, consonants, words, and word combinations; their gestures are less often integrated with words. Children with autism are less likely to make requests or share experiences, and are more likely to simply repeat others' words ([[echolalia]])<ref name=Landa/><ref name=Tager-Flusberg/> or [[Pronoun reversal|reverse pronouns]].<ref name=Kanner1943/> [[Joint attention]] seems to be necessary for functional speech, and deficits in joint attention seem to distinguish infants with ASD:<ref name="Johnson">{{cite journal | vauthors = Johnson CP, Myers SM | title = Identification and evaluation of children with autism spectrum disorders | journal = Pediatrics | volume = 120 | issue = 5 | pages = 1183–215 | year = 2007 | pmid = 17967920 | doi = 10.1542/peds.2007-2361 | url = http://pediatrics.aappublications.org/cgi/content/full/120/5/1183 | archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20090208013449/http://pediatrics.aappublications.org:80/cgi/content/full/120/5/1183 | archivedate = 8 February 2009 }}</ref> for example, they may look at a pointing hand instead of the pointed-at object,<ref name=Volkmar/><ref name=Tager-Flusberg/> and they consistently fail to point at objects in order to comment on or share an experience.<ref name=Johnson/> Children with autism may have difficulty with imaginative play and with developing symbols into language.<ref name="Landa">{{cite journal | vauthors = Landa R | title = Early communication development and intervention for children with autism | journal = Ment Retard Dev Disabil Res Rev | volume = 13 | issue = 1 | pages = 16–25 | year = 2007 | pmid = 17326115 | doi = 10.1002/mrdd.20134 }}</ref><ref name="Tager-Flusberg">{{cite journal | vauthors = Tager-Flusberg H, Caronna E | title = Language disorders: autism and other pervasive developmental disorders | journal = Pediatr Clin North Am | volume = 54 | issue = 3 | pages = 469–81 | year = 2007 | pmid = 17543905 | doi = 10.1016/j.pcl.2007.02.011 }}</ref> In a pair of studies, high-functioning children with autism aged 8–15 performed equally well as, and adults better than, individually matched controls at basic language tasks involving vocabulary and spelling. Both autistic groups performed worse than controls at complex language tasks such as figurative language, comprehension and inference. As people are often sized up initially from their basic language skills, these studies suggest that people speaking to autistic individuals are more likely to overestimate what their audience comprehends.<ref name=Williams/> ===Repetitive behavior=== Autistic individuals display many forms of repetitive or restricted behavior, which the Repetitive Behavior Scale-Revised (RBS-R)<ref name=Lam-Aman/> categorizes as follows. [[File:Autistic-sweetiepie-boy-with-ducksinarow.jpg|thumb|alt=Young boy asleep on a bed, facing the camera, with only the head visible and the body off-camera. On the bed behind the boy's head is a dozen or so toys carefully arranged in a line.|A young boy with autism who has arranged his toys in a row]] * '''[[Stereotypy]]''' is repetitive movement, such as hand flapping, head rolling, or body rocking. * '''[[Compulsive behavior]]''' is intended and appears to follow rules, such as arranging objects in stacks or lines. * '''Sameness''' is resistance to change; for example, insisting that the furniture not be moved or refusing to be interrupted. * '''[[Ritual#Psychology|Ritualistic behavior]]''' involves an unvarying pattern of daily activities, such as an unchanging menu or a dressing ritual. This is closely associated with sameness and an independent validation has suggested combining the two factors.<ref name="Lam-Aman">{{cite journal | vauthors = Lam KS, Aman MG | title = The Repetitive Behavior Scale-Revised: independent validation in individuals with autism spectrum disorders | journal = J Autism Dev Disord | volume = 37 | issue = 5 | pages = 855–66 | year = 2007 | pmid = 17048092 | doi = 10.1007/s10803-006-0213-z }}</ref> * '''Restricted behavior''' is limited in focus, interest, or activity, such as preoccupation with a single television program, toy or game. * '''[[Self-injury]]''' includes movements that injure or can injure the person, such as eye-poking, [[Dermatillomania|skin-picking]], hand-biting and head-banging.<ref name=Johnson/> No single repetitive or self-injurious behavior seems to be specific to autism, but autism appears to have an elevated pattern of occurrence and severity of these behaviors.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Bodfish JW, Symons FJ, Parker DE, Lewis MH | title = Varieties of repetitive behavior in autism: comparisons to mental retardation | journal = J Autism Dev Disord | volume = 30 | issue = 3 | pages = 237–43 | year = 2000 | pmid = 11055459 | doi = 10.1023/A:1005596502855 }}</ref> ===Other symptoms=== Autistic individuals may have symptoms that are independent of the diagnosis, but that can affect the individual or the family.<ref name="Filipek">{{cite journal | vauthors = Filipek PA, Accardo PJ, Baranek GT, Cook EH, Dawson G, Gordon B, Gravel JS, Johnson CP, Kallen RJ, Levy SE, Minshew NJ, Ozonoff S, Prizant BM, Rapin I, Rogers SJ, Stone WL, Teplin S, Tuchman RF, Volkmar FR | title = The screening and diagnosis of autistic spectrum disorders | journal = J Autism Dev Disord | volume = 29 | issue = 6 | pages = 439–84 | year = 1999 | pmid = 10638459 | doi = 10.1023/A:1021943802493 | author. = }} This paper represents a consensus of representatives from nine professional and four parent organizations in the US.</ref> An estimated 0.5% to 10% of individuals with ASD show unusual abilities, ranging from [[splinter skill]]s such as the memorization of trivia to the extraordinarily rare talents of prodigious [[Savant syndrome|autistic savants]].<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Treffert DA | title = The savant syndrome: an extraordinary condition. A synopsis: past, present, future | journal = Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B | volume = 364 | issue = 1522 | pages = 1351–7 | year = 2009 | pmid = 19528017 | pmc = 2677584 | doi = 10.1098/rstb.2008.0326 | url = http://rstb.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/364/1522/1351.full | laysummary = https://www.wisconsinmedicalsociety.org/professional/savant-syndrome/savant-syndrome-overview/ | laysource = Wisconsin Medical Society }}</ref> Many individuals with ASD show superior skills in perception and attention, relative to the general population.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Plaisted Grant K, Davis G | title = Perception and apperception in autism: rejecting the inverse assumption | journal = Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B | volume = 364 | issue = 1522 | pages = 1393–8 | year = 2009 | pmid = 19528022 | pmc = 2677593 | doi = 10.1098/rstb.2009.0001 | url = http://rstb.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/364/1522/1393.full }}</ref> [[Sensory system|Sensory]] abnormalities are found in over 90% of those with autism, and are considered core features by some,<ref name="Geschwind-2009">{{cite journal | vauthors = Geschwind DH | title = Advances in autism | journal = Annu Rev Med | volume = 60 | pages = 367–80 | year = 2009 | pmid = 19630577 | pmc = 3645857 | doi = 10.1146/annurev.med.60.053107.121225 }}</ref> although there is no good evidence that sensory symptoms differentiate autism from other developmental disorders.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Rogers SJ, Ozonoff S | title = Annotation: what do we know about sensory dysfunction in autism? A critical review of the empirical evidence | journal = J Child Psychol Psychiatry | volume = 46 | issue = 12 | pages = 1255–68 | year = 2005 | pmid = 16313426 | doi = 10.1111/j.1469-7610.2005.01431.x }}</ref> Differences are greater for under-responsivity (for example, walking into things) than for over-responsivity (for example, distress from loud noises) or for sensation seeking (for example, rhythmic movements).<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Ben-Sasson A, Hen L, Fluss R, Cermak SA, Engel-Yeger B, Gal E | title = A meta-analysis of sensory modulation symptoms in individuals with autism spectrum disorders | journal = J Autism Dev Disord | volume = 39 | issue = 1 | pages = 1–11 | year = 2009 | pmid = 18512135 | doi = 10.1007/s10803-008-0593-3 }}</ref> An estimated 60%–80% of autistic people have motor signs that include [[Hypotonia|poor muscle tone]], [[Apraxia|poor motor planning]], and [[toe walking]];<ref name=Geschwind-2009/> deficits in motor coordination are pervasive across ASD and are greater in autism proper.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Fournier KA, Hass CJ, Naik SK, Lodha N, Cauraugh JH | title = Motor coordination in autism spectrum disorders: a synthesis and meta-analysis | journal = J Autism Dev Disord | volume = 40| issue = | year = 2010 | pmid = 20195737 | doi = 10.1007/s10803-010-0981-3 | pages=1227–40}}</ref> Unusual eating behavior occurs in about three-quarters of children with ASD, to the extent that it was formerly a diagnostic indicator. Selectivity is the most common problem, although eating rituals and food refusal also occur;<ref name="Dominick">{{cite journal | vauthors = Dominick KC, Davis NO, Lainhart J, Tager-Flusberg H, Folstein S | title = Atypical behaviors in children with autism and children with a history of language impairment | journal = Res Dev Disabil | volume = 28 | issue = 2 | pages = 145–62 | year = 2007 | pmid = 16581226 | doi = 10.1016/j.ridd.2006.02.003 }}</ref> this does not appear to result in [[malnutrition]]. Although some children with autism also have [[gastrointestinal symptom]]s, there is a lack of published rigorous data to support the theory that children with autism have more or different gastrointestinal symptoms than usual;<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Erickson CA, Stigler KA, Corkins MR, Posey DJ, Fitzgerald JF, McDougle CJ | title = Gastrointestinal factors in autistic disorder: a critical review | journal = J Autism Dev Disord | volume = 35 | issue = 6 | pages = 713–27 | year = 2005 | pmid = 16267642 | doi = 10.1007/s10803-005-0019-4 }}</ref> studies report conflicting results, and the relationship between gastrointestinal problems and ASD is unclear.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Buie T, Campbell DB, Fuchs GJ, Furuta GT, Levy J, Vandewater J, Whitaker AH, Atkins D, Bauman ML, Beaudet AL, Carr EG, Gershon MD, Hyman SL, Jirapinyo P, Jyonouchi H, Kooros K, Kushak R, Levitt P, Levy SE, Lewis JD, Murray KF, Natowicz MR, Sabra A, Wershil BK, Weston SC, Zeltzer L, Winter H | title = Evaluation, diagnosis, and treatment of gastrointestinal disorders in individuals with ASDs: a consensus report | journal = Pediatrics | volume = 125 | issue = Suppl 1 | pages = S1–18 | year = 2010 | pmid = 20048083 | doi = 10.1542/peds.2009-1878C | url = http://pediatrics.aappublications.org/cgi/content/full/125/Supplement_1/S1 | author. = | archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20100706035348/http://pediatrics.aappublications.org/cgi/content/full/125/Supplement_1/S1 | archivedate = 6 July 2010 }}</ref> Parents of children with ASD have higher levels of [[stress (psychological)|stress]].<ref name="Volkmar">{{vcite book|authors=Volkmar FR, Paul R, Rogers SJ, Pelphrey KA|title=Handbook of Autism and Pervasive Developmental Disorders, Assessment, Interventions, and Policy|publisher=[[John Wiley & Sons]]|isbn=1-118-28220-5|year=2014|page=301|accessdate=24 December 2014|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4yzqAgAAQBAJ&pg=PT301}}</ref> Siblings of children with ASD report greater admiration of and less conflict with the affected sibling than siblings of unaffected children and were similar to siblings of children with [[Down syndrome]] in these aspects of the sibling relationship. However, they reported lower levels of closeness and intimacy than siblings of children with [[Down syndrome]]; siblings of individuals with ASD have greater risk of negative well-being and poorer sibling relationships as adults.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Orsmond GI, Seltzer MM | title = Siblings of individuals with autism spectrum disorders across the life course | journal = Ment Retard Dev Disabil Res Rev | volume = 13 | issue = 4 | pages = 313–20 | year = 2007 | pmid = 17979200 | doi = 10.1002/mrdd.20171 | url = http://www.waisman.wisc.edu/family/pubs/Autism/2007%20siblings_autism_life-course.pdf | format = PDF | archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20130530100939/http://www.waisman.wisc.edu/family/pubs/Autism/2007%20siblings_autism_life-course.pdf | archivedate = 30 May 2013 }}</ref> ==Causes== {{main|Causes of autism}} It has long been presumed that there is a common cause at the genetic, cognitive, and neural levels for autism's characteristic triad of symptoms.<ref name="Fractionable" /> However, there is increasing suspicion that autism is instead a complex disorder whose core aspects have distinct causes that often co-occur.<ref name="Fractionable">{{cite journal |vauthors=Happé F, Ronald A |title=The 'fractionable autism triad': a review of evidence from behavioural, genetic, cognitive and neural research |journal=[[Neuropsychol Rev]] |volume=18 |issue=4 |pages=287–304 |year=2008 |pmid=18956240 |doi=10.1007/s11065-008-9076-8}}</ref><ref name="HappeTime" /> [[File:Single Chromosome Mutations.svg|thumb|alt=Three diagrams of chromosome pairs A, B that are nearly identical. 1: B is missing a segment of A. 2: B has two adjacent copies of a segment of A. 3: B's copy of A's segment is in reverse order.|Deletion (1), duplication (2) and inversion (3) are all [[chromosome abnormalities]] that have been implicated in autism.<ref name="Beaudet" />]] Autism has a strong genetic basis, although the [[Heritability of autism|genetics of autism]] are complex and it is unclear whether ASD is explained more by rare [[mutation]]s with major effects, or by rare multigene interactions of common genetic variants.<ref name="Abrahams">{{cite journal |vauthors=Abrahams BS, Geschwind DH |title=Advances in autism genetics: on the threshold of a new neurobiology |journal=[[Nature Reviews Genetics]] |volume=9 |issue=5 |pages=341–55 |year=2008 |pmid=18414403 |pmc=2756414 |doi=10.1038/nrg2346}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Buxbaum JD |title=Multiple rare variants in the etiology of autism spectrum disorders |journal=Dialogues Clin Neurosci |volume=11 |issue=1 |pages=35–43 |year=2009 |pmid=19432386 |pmc=3181906}}</ref> Complexity arises due to interactions among multiple genes, the environment, and [[epigenetic]] factors which do not change [[DNA]] sequencing but are heritable and influence [[gene expression]].<ref name="Rapin">{{cite journal |vauthors=Rapin I, Tuchman RF |title=Autism: definition, neurobiology, screening, diagnosis |journal=[[Pediatr Clin North Am]] |volume=55 |issue=5 |pages=1129–46 |year=2008 |pmid=18929056 |doi=10.1016/j.pcl.2008.07.005}}</ref> Many genes have been associated with autism through sequencing the genomes of affected individuals and their parents.<ref name="SandersHe2015">{{cite journal |last1=Sanders |first1=Stephan J. |last2=He |first2=Xin |last3=Willsey |first3=A. Jeremy |last4=Ercan-Sencicek |first4=A. Gulhan |last5=Samocha |first5=Kaitlin E. |last6=Cicek |first6=A. Ercument |last7=Murtha |first7=Michael T. |last8=Bal |first8=Vanessa H. |last9=Bishop |first9=Somer L. |last10=Dong |first10=Shan |last11=Goldberg |first11=Arthur P. |last12=Jinlu |first12=Cai |last13=Keaney |first13=John F. |last14=Klei |first14=Lambertus |last15=Mandell |first15=Jeffrey D. |last16=Moreno-De-Luca |first16=Daniel |last17=Poultney |first17=Christopher S. |last18=Robinson |first18=Elise B. |last19=Smith |first19=Louw |last20=Solli-Nowlan |first20=Tor |last21=Su |first21=Mack Y. |last22=Teran |first22=Nicole A. |last23=Walker |first23=Michael F. |last24=Werling |first24=Donna M. |last25=Beaudet |first25=Arthur L. |last26=Cantor |first26=Rita M. |last27=Fombonne |first27=Eric |last28=Geschwind |first28=Daniel H. |last29=Grice |first29=Dorothy E. |last30=Lord |first30=Catherine |last31=Lowe |first31=Jennifer K. |last32=Mane |first32=Shrikant M. |last33=Martin |first33=Donna M. |last34=Morrow |first34=Eric M. |last35=Talkowski |first35=Michael E. |last36=Sutcliffe |first36=James S. |last37=Walsh |first37=Christopher A. |last38=Yu |first38=Timothy W. |last39=Ledbetter |first39=David H. |last40=Martin |first40=Christa Lese |last41=Cook |first41=Edwin H. |last42=Buxbaum |first42=Joseph D. |last43=Daly |first43=Mark J. |last44=Devlin |first44=Bernie |last45=Roeder |first45=Kathryn |last46=State |first46=Matthew W. |title=Insights into Autism Spectrum Disorder Genomic Architecture and Biology from 71 Risk Loci |journal=Neuron |date=September 2015 |volume=87 |issue=6 |pages=1215–1233 |doi=10.1016/j.neuron.2015.09.016}}</ref> Studies of twins suggest that [[heritability]] is 0.7 for autism and as high as 0.9 for ASD, and siblings of those with autism are about 25 times more likely to be autistic than the general population.<ref name="Geschwind-2009" /> However, most of the mutations that increase autism risk have not been identified. Typically, autism cannot be traced to a [[Mendelian]] (single-gene) mutation or to a single [[chromosome abnormality]], and none of the genetic syndromes associated with ASDs have been shown to selectively cause ASD.<ref name="Abrahams" /> Numerous candidate genes have been located, with only small effects attributable to any particular gene.<ref name=Abrahams/> Most loci individually explain less than 1% of cases of autism.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Persico |first1=Antonio M. |last2=Napolioni |first2=Valerio |title=Autism genetics |journal=Behavioural Brain Research |date=August 2013 |volume=251 |pages=95–112 |doi=10.1016/j.bbr.2013.06.012}}</ref> The large number of autistic individuals with unaffected family members may result from spontaneous [[structural variation]] — such as [[Deletion (genetics)|deletions]], [[Gene duplication|duplications]] or [[Chromosomal inversion|inversions]] in genetic material during [[meiosis]].<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Cook EH, Scherer SW |title=Copy-number variations associated with neuropsychiatric conditions |journal=Nature |volume=455 |issue=7215 |pages=919–23 |year=2008 |pmid=18923514 |doi=10.1038/nature07458}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Brandler |first1=William M. |last2=Antaki |first2=Danny |last3=Gujral |first3=Madhusudan |last4=Noor |first4=Amina |last5=Rosanio |first5=Gabriel |last6=Chapman |first6=Timothy R. |last7=Barrera |first7=Daniel J. |last8=Lin |first8=Guan Ning |last9=Malhotra |first9=Dheeraj |last10=Watts |first10=Amanda C. |last11=Wong |first11=Lawrence C. |last12=Estabillo |first12=Jasper A. |last13=Gadomski |first13=Therese E. |last14=Hong |first14=Oanh |last15=Fajardo |first15=Karin V. Fuentes |last16=Bhandari |first16=Abhishek |last17=Owen |first17=Renius |last18=Baughn |first18=Michael |last19=Yuan |first19=Jeffrey |last20=Solomon |first20=Terry |last21=Moyzis |first21=Alexandra G. |last22=Maile |first22=Michelle S. |last23=Sanders |first23=Stephan J. |last24=Reiner |first24=Gail E. |last25=Vaux |first25=Keith K. |last26=Strom |first26=Charles M. |last27=Zhang |first27=Kang |last28=Muotri |first28=Alysson R. |last29=Akshoomoff |first29=Natacha |last30=Leal |first30=Suzanne M. |last31=Pierce |first31=Karen |last32=Courchesne |first32=Eric |last33=Iakoucheva |first33=Lilia M. |last34=Corsello |first34=Christina |last35=Sebat |first35=Jonathan |title=Frequency and Complexity of De Novo Structural Mutation in Autism |journal=The American Journal of Human Genetics |date=March 2016 |volume=98 |issue=4 |page=1-13 |doi=10.1016/j.ajhg.2016.02.018}}</ref> Hence, a substantial fraction of autism cases may be traceable to genetic causes that are highly heritable but not inherited: that is, the mutation that causes the autism is not present in the parental genome.<ref name="Beaudet">{{cite journal |vauthors=Beaudet AL |title=Autism: highly heritable but not inherited |journal=Nat Med |volume=13 |issue=5 |pages=534–6 |year=2007 |pmid=17479094 |doi=10.1038/nm0507-534}}</ref> Several lines of evidence point to [[Synapse|synaptic]] dysfunction as a cause of autism.<ref name="Levy" /> Some rare mutations may lead to autism by disrupting some synaptic pathways, such as those involved with [[cell adhesion]].<ref name="Betancur">{{cite journal |vauthors=Betancur C, Sakurai T, Buxbaum JD |title=The emerging role of synaptic cell-adhesion pathways in the pathogenesis of autism spectrum disorders |journal=[[Trends Neurosci]] |volume=32 |issue=7 |pages=402–12 |year=2009 |pmid=19541375 |doi=10.1016/j.tins.2009.04.003}}</ref> Gene replacement studies in mice suggest that autistic symptoms are closely related to later developmental steps that depend on activity in synapses and on activity-dependent changes.<ref name="Walsh">{{cite journal |vauthors=Walsh CA, Morrow EM, Rubenstein JL |title=Autism and brain development |journal=[[Cell (journal)|Cell]] |volume=135 |issue=3 |pages=396–400 |year=2008 |pmid=18984148 |pmc=2701104 |doi=10.1016/j.cell.2008.10.015}}</ref> All known [[teratogen]]s (agents that cause [[birth defect]]s) related to the risk of autism appear to act during the first eight weeks from [[Human fertilization|conception]], and though this does not exclude the possibility that autism can be initiated or affected later, there is strong evidence that autism arises very early in development.<ref name="Arndt">{{cite journal |vauthors=Arndt TL, Stodgell CJ, Rodier PM |title=The teratology of autism |journal=[[Int J Dev Neurosci]] |volume=23 |issue=2–3 |pages=189–99 |year=2005 |pmid=15749245 |doi=10.1016/j.ijdevneu.2004.11.001}}</ref> Exposure to [[air pollution]] during pregnancy, especially [[heavy metal (chemistry)|heavy metals]] and particulates, may increase the risk of autism.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Lyall K, Schmidt RJ, Hertz-Picciotto I |title=Maternal lifestyle and environmental risk factors for autism spectrum disorders |journal=Int J Epidemiol |volume=43 |issue=2 |pages=443–64 |date=April 2014 |pmid=24518932 |doi=10.1093/ije/dyt282}}</ref> Although no links have been found,{{qualify evidence}} and some{{which|date=February 2016}} have been completely disproven, [[environmental factor]]s that have been claimed to contribute to or exacerbate autism, include certain foods, [[infectious disease]]s, [[solvent]]s, [[diesel exhaust]], [[PCBs]], [[phthalates]] and [[phenols]] used in plastic products, [[pesticide]]s, [[brominated flame retardant]]s, [[Ethanol|alcohol]], smoking, [[illicit drug]]s, [[vaccine]]s,<ref name="Newschaffer" /> and [[prenatal stress]].<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Kinney DK, Munir KM, Crowley DJ, Miller AM |title=Prenatal stress and risk for autism |journal=[[Neurosci Biobehav Rev]] |volume=32 |issue=8 |pages=1519–32 |year=2008 |pmid=18598714 |pmc=2632594 |doi=10.1016/j.neubiorev.2008.06.004}}</ref> Parents may first become aware of autistic symptoms in their child around the time of a routine vaccination. This has led to unsupported theories blaming [[Vaccine controversy#Vaccine overload|vaccine "overload"]], a [[Thiomersal controversy|vaccine preservative]], or the [[MMR vaccine controversy|MMR vaccine]] for causing autism.<ref name="GerberOffit2009">{{cite journal |vauthors=Gerber JS, Offit PA |title=Vaccines and autism: a tale of shifting hypotheses |journal=Clin Infect Dis |volume=48 |issue=4 |pages=456–61 |year=2009 |pmid=19128068 |pmc=2908388 |doi=10.1086/596476 |url=http://cid.oxfordjournals.org/content/48/4/456.full |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20131031043545/http://cid.oxfordjournals.org:80/content/48/4/456.full |archivedate=31 October 2013}}</ref> The latter theory was supported by a litigation-funded study that has since been shown to have been "an elaborate fraud".<ref name="WakefieldarticleBMJ">{{cite journal |vauthors=Godlee F, Smith J, Marcovitch H |title=Wakefield's article linking MMR vaccine and autism was fraudulent |journal=[[BMJ]] |volume=342 |pages=c7452 |year=2011 |pmid=21209060 |doi=10.1136/bmj.c7452 |url=http://www.bmj.com/content/342/bmj.c7452.full |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20131111093448/http://www.bmj.com/content/342/bmj.c7452.full |archivedate=11 November 2013}}</ref> Although these theories lack convincing scientific evidence and are biologically implausible,<ref name="GerberOffit2009" /> parental concern about a potential vaccine link with autism has led to lower rates of [[childhood immunizations]], [[MMR vaccine controversy#Disease outbreaks|outbreaks of previously controlled childhood diseases]] in some countries, and the preventable deaths of several children.<ref name="vaccines">Vaccines and autism: * {{cite journal |vauthors=Doja A, Roberts W |title=Immunizations and autism: a review of the literature |journal=[[Can J Neurol Sci]] |volume=33 |issue=4 |pages=341–6 |year=2006 |pmid=17168158 |doi=10.1017/s031716710000528x}} * {{cite journal |vauthors=Gerber JS, Offit PA |title=Vaccines and autism: a tale of shifting hypotheses |journal=[[Clin Infect Dis]] |volume=48 |issue=4 |pages=456–61 |year=2009 |pmid=19128068 |pmc=2908388 |doi=10.1086/596476 |url=http://cid.oxfordjournals.org/content/48/4/456.full |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20131031043545/http://cid.oxfordjournals.org:80/content/48/4/456.full |archivedate=31 October 2013}} * {{cite journal |vauthors=Gross L |title=A broken trust: lessons from the vaccine–autism wars |journal=PLoS Biol |volume=7 |issue=5 |pages=e1000114 |year=2009 |pmid=19478850 |pmc=2682483 |doi=10.1371/journal.pbio.1000114}} * {{cite journal |vauthors=Paul R |title=Parents ask: am I risking autism if I vaccinate my children? |journal=[[J Autism Dev Disord]] |volume=39 |issue=6 |pages=962–3 |year=2009 |pmid=19363650 |doi=10.1007/s10803-009-0739-y}} * {{cite journal |vauthors=Poland GA, Jacobson RM |title=The Age-Old Struggle against the Antivaccinationists |journal=N Engl J Med |volume=364 |pages=97–9 |date=13 January 2011 |pmid=21226573 |doi=10.1056/NEJMp1010594 |url=http://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJMp1010594 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140423082318/http://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJMp1010594 |archivedate=23 April 2014}}</ref><ref name="dublin">{{cite journal |vauthors=McBrien J, Murphy J, Gill D, Cronin M, O'Donovan C, Cafferkey MT |title=Measles outbreak in Dublin, 2000 |journal=Pediatr. Infect. Dis. J. |volume=22 |issue=7 |pages=580–4 |year=2003 |pmid=12867830 |doi=10.1097/00006454-200307000-00002}}</ref> ==Mechanism== Autism's symptoms result from maturation-related changes in various systems of the brain.<!-- ref name=Penn/ --> How autism occurs is not well understood. Its mechanism can be divided into two areas: the [[pathophysiology]] of brain structures and processes associated with autism, and the [[neuropsychological]] linkages between brain structures and behaviors.<ref name="Penn">{{cite journal | vauthors = Penn HE | title = Neurobiological correlates of autism: a review of recent research | journal = Child Neuropsychol | volume = 12 | issue = 1 | pages = 57–79 | year = 2006 | pmid = 16484102 | doi = 10.1080/09297040500253546 }}</ref> The behaviors appear to have multiple pathophysiologies.<ref name=London/> ===Pathophysiology=== [[File:Autismbrain.jpg|thumb|alt=Two diagrams of major brain structures implicated in autism. The upper diagram shows the cerebral cortex near the top and the basal ganglia in the center, just above the amygdala and hippocampus. The lower diagram shows the corpus callosum near the center, the cerebellum in the lower rear, and the brain stem in the lower center.|Autism affects the [[amygdala]], [[cerebellum]], and many other parts of the brain.<ref name=Amaral/>]] Unlike many other brain disorders, such as [[Parkinson's]], autism does not have a clear unifying mechanism at either the molecular, cellular, or systems level; it is not known whether autism is a few disorders caused by mutations converging on a few common molecular pathways, or is (like intellectual disability) a large set of disorders with diverse mechanisms.<ref name="Geschwind">{{cite journal | vauthors = Geschwind DH | title = Autism: many genes, common pathways? | journal = Cell | volume = 135 | issue = 3 | pages = 391–5 | year = 2008 | pmid = 18984147 | pmc = 2756410 | doi = 10.1016/j.cell.2008.10.016 | title. = }}</ref> Autism appears to result from developmental factors that affect many or all functional brain systems,<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Müller RA | title = The study of autism as a distributed disorder | journal = Ment Retard Dev Disabil Res Rev | volume = 13 | issue = 1 | pages = 85–95 | year = 2007 | pmid = 17326118 | pmc = 3315379 | doi = 10.1002/mrdd.20141 }}</ref> and to disturb the timing of brain development more than the final product.<ref name="Amaral">{{cite journal | vauthors = Amaral DG, Schumann CM, Nordahl CW | title = Neuroanatomy of autism | journal = Trends Neurosci | volume = 31 | issue = 3 | pages = 137–45 | year = 2008 | pmid = 18258309 | doi = 10.1016/j.tins.2007.12.005 }}</ref> [[Neuroanatomical]] studies and the associations with [[teratogens]] strongly suggest that autism's mechanism includes alteration of brain development soon after conception.<ref name=Arndt/> This anomaly appears to start a cascade of pathological events in the brain that are significantly influenced by environmental factors.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Casanova MF | title = The neuropathology of autism | journal = Brain Pathol | volume = 17 | issue = 4 | pages = 422–33 | year = 2007 | pmid = 17919128 | doi = 10.1111/j.1750-3639.2007.00100.x }}</ref> Just after birth, the brains of children with autism tend to grow faster than usual, followed by normal or relatively slower growth in childhood. It is not known whether early overgrowth occurs in all children with autism. It seems to be most prominent in brain areas underlying the development of higher cognitive specialization.<ref name=Geschwind-2009/> Hypotheses for the cellular and molecular bases of pathological early overgrowth include the following: * An excess of [[neuron]]s that causes local overconnectivity in key brain regions.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Courchesne E, Pierce K, Schumann CM, Redcay E, Buckwalter JA, Kennedy DP, Morgan J | title = Mapping early brain development in autism | journal = Neuron | volume = 56 | issue = 2 | pages = 399–413 | year = 2007 | pmid = 17964254 | doi = 10.1016/j.neuron.2007.10.016 | author. = }}</ref> * Disturbed [[neuronal migration]] during early [[gestation]].<ref name="Schmitz">{{cite journal | vauthors = Schmitz C, Rezaie P | title = The neuropathology of autism: where do we stand? | journal = Neuropathol Appl Neurobiol | volume = 34 | issue = 1 | pages = 4–11 | year = 2008 | pmid = 17971078 | doi = 10.1111/j.1365-2990.2007.00872.x | title. = }}</ref><ref name="Persico">{{cite journal | vauthors = Persico AM, Bourgeron T | title = Searching for ways out of the autism maze: genetic, epigenetic and environmental clues | journal = Trends Neurosci | volume = 29 | issue = 7 | pages = 349–58 | year = 2006 | pmid = 16808981 | doi = 10.1016/j.tins.2006.05.010 }}</ref> * Unbalanced excitatory–inhibitory networks.<ref name=Persico/> * Abnormal formation of [[synapse]]s and [[dendritic spine]]s,<ref name=Persico/> for example, by modulation of the [[neurexin]]–[[neuroligin]] [[Cell adhesion|cell-adhesion]] system,<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Südhof TC | title = Neuroligins and neurexins link synaptic function to cognitive disease | journal = Nature | volume = 455 | issue = 7215 | pages = 903–11 | year = 2008 | pmid = 18923512 | pmc = 2673233 | doi = 10.1038/nature07456 }}</ref> or by poorly regulated [[Protein synthesis|synthesis]] of synaptic proteins.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Kelleher RJ, Bear MF | title = The autistic neuron: troubled translation? | journal = Cell | volume = 135 | issue = 3 | pages = 401–6 | year = 2008 | pmid = 18984149 | doi = 10.1016/j.cell.2008.10.017 | title. = }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Bear MF, Dölen G, Osterweil E, Nagarajan N | title = Fragile X: translation in action. | journal = Neuropsychopharmacology | volume = 33 | issue = 1 | pages = 84–7 | year = 2008 | pmid = 17940551 | doi = 10.1038/sj.npp.1301610 | title. = }}</ref> Disrupted synaptic development may also contribute to [[epilepsy]], which may explain why the two conditions are associated.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Tuchman R, Moshé SL, Rapin I | title = Convulsing toward the pathophysiology of autism | journal = Brain Dev | volume = 31 | issue = 2 | pages = 95–103 | year = 2009 | pmid = 19006654 | pmc = 2734903 | doi = 10.1016/j.braindev.2008.09.009 }}</ref> The [[immune system]] is thought to play an important role in autism. Children with autism have been found by researchers to have [[inflammation]] of both the peripheral and central immune systems as indicated by increased levels of pro-inflammatory [[cytokines]] and significant activation of [[microglia]].<ref name="pmid24290389">{{cite journal | vauthors = Hsiao EY | title = Immune dysregulation in autism spectrum disorder. | journal = International Review of Neurobiology | volume = 113 | pages = 269–302 | year = 2013 | pmid = 24290389 | doi = 10.1016/B978-0-12-418700-9.00009-5 }}</ref><ref name="pmid21906670">{{cite journal | vauthors = Onore C, Careaga M, Ashwood P | title = The role of immune dysfunction in the pathophysiology of autism | journal = Brain, Behavior and Immunity | volume = 26 | issue = 3 | pages = 383–92 | date = August 2011 | pmid = 21906670 | doi = 10.1016/j.bbi.2011.08.007 }}</ref><ref name="pmid24795645">{{cite journal | vauthors = Rossignol DA, Frye RE | title = Evidence linking oxidative stress, mitochondrial dysfunction, and inflammation in the brain of individuals with autism. | journal = Frontiers in Physiology | volume = 5 | page = 150 | year = 2014 | pmid = 24795645 | doi = 10.3389/fphys.2014.00150 }}</ref> Biomarkers of abnormal immune function have also been associated with increased impairments in behaviors that are characteristic of the core features of autism such as deficits in social interactions and communication.<ref name="pmid21906670"/> Interactions between the [[immune system]] and the [[nervous system]] begin early during the [[Human embryogenesis|embryonic stage]] of life, and successful neurodevelopment depends on a balanced immune response. It is thought that activation of a pregnant mother's immune system such as from environmental toxicants or infection can contribute to causing autism through causing a disruption of brain development.<ref name="pmid21482187 ">{{cite journal | vauthors = Patterson PH | title = Maternal infection and immune involvement in autism. | journal = Trends in Molecular Medicine | volume = 17 | issue = 7 | pages = 389–94 | date = July 2011 | pmid = 21482187 | doi = 10.1016/j.molmed.2011.03.001 }}</ref><ref name="Chaste">{{cite journal | vauthors = Chaste P, Leboyer M | title = Autism risk factors: genes, environment, and gene-environment interactions | journal = Dialogues Clin Neurosci | volume = 14 | issue = 3 | pages = 281–92 | year = 2012 | pmid = 23226953 | pmc = 3513682 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Ashwood P, Wills S, Van de Water J | title = The immune response in autism: a new frontier for autism research | journal = J Leukoc Biol | volume = 80 | issue = 1 | pages = 1–15 | year = 2006 | pmid = 16698940 | doi = 10.1189/jlb.1205707 | url = http://www.jleukbio.org/cgi/content/full/80/1/1 }}</ref> This is supported by recent studies that have found that infection during pregnancy is associated with an increased risk of autism.<ref name="pmid25218900">{{cite journal | vauthors = Lee BK, Magnusson C, Gardner RM, Blomström S, Newschaffer CJ, Burstyn I, Karlsson H, Dalman C | title = Maternal hospitalization with infection during pregnancy and risk of autism spectrum disorders. | journal = Brain, Behavior and Immunity | date = September 2014 | pmid = 25218900 | doi = 10.1016/j.bbi.2014.09.001 | volume=44 | pages=100–105}}</ref><ref name="pmid20414802">{{cite journal | vauthors = Atladóttir HO, Thorsen P, Østergaard L, Schendel DE, Lemcke S, Abdallah M, Parner ET | title = Maternal infection requiring hospitalization during pregnancy and autism spectrum disorders. | journal = Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders | volume = 40 | issue = 12 | pages = 1423–30. | date = December 2010 | pmid = 20414802 | doi = 10.1007/s10803-010-1006-y }}</ref> The relationship of [[neurochemical]]s to autism is not well understood; several have been investigated, with the most evidence for the role of [[serotonin]] and of genetic differences in its transport.<ref name="Levy">{{cite journal | vauthors = Levy SE, Mandell DS, Schultz RT | title = Autism | journal = Lancet | volume = 374 | issue = 9701 | pages = 1627–38 | year = 2009 | pmid = 19819542 | pmc = 2863325 | doi = 10.1016/S0140-6736(09)61376-3 }}</ref> The role of group I [[metabotropic glutamate receptors]] (mGluR) in the pathogenesis of [[fragile X syndrome]], the most common identified genetic cause of autism, has led to interest in the possible implications for future autism research into this pathway.<ref name="pmid18093519">{{cite journal | vauthors = Dölen G, Osterweil E, Rao BS, Smith GB, Auerbach BD, Chattarji S, Bear MF | title = Correction of fragile X syndrome in mice | journal = Neuron | volume = 56 | issue = 6 | pages = 955–62 | year = 2007 | pmid = 18093519 | pmc = 2199268 | doi = 10.1016/j.neuron.2007.12.001 }}</ref> Some data suggests neuronal overgrowth potentially related to an increase in several [[growth hormone]]s<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Hughes JR | title = Update on autism: A review of 1300 reports published in 2008 | journal = Epilepsy Behav | volume = 16 | issue = 4 | pages = 569–589 | year = 2009 | pmid = 19896907 | doi = 10.1016/j.yebeh.2009.09.023 }}</ref> or to impaired regulation of [[growth factor receptor]]s. Also, some [[inborn errors of metabolism]] are associated with autism, but probably account for less than 5% of cases.<ref name=Manzi/> The [[mirror neuron system]] (MNS) theory of autism hypothesizes that distortion in the development of the MNS interferes with imitation and leads to autism's core features of social impairment and communication difficulties. The MNS operates when an animal performs an action or observes another animal perform the same action. The MNS may contribute to an individual's understanding of other people by enabling the modeling of their behavior via embodied simulation of their actions, intentions, and emotions.<ref>MNS and autism: * {{cite journal | vauthors = Williams JH | title = Self–other relations in social development and autism: multiple roles for mirror neurons and other brain bases | journal = Autism Res | volume = 1 | issue = 2 | pages = 73–90 | year = 2008 | pmid = 19360654 | doi = 10.1002/aur.15 }} * {{cite journal | vauthors = Dinstein I, Thomas C, Behrmann M, Heeger DJ | title = A mirror up to nature | journal = Curr Biol | volume = 18 | issue = 1 | pages = R13–8 | year = 2008 | pmid = 18177704 | pmc = 2517574 | doi = 10.1016/j.cub.2007.11.004 }}</ref> Several studies have tested this hypothesis by demonstrating structural abnormalities in MNS regions of individuals with ASD, delay in the activation in the core circuit for imitation in individuals with Asperger syndrome, and a correlation between reduced MNS activity and severity of the syndrome in children with ASD.<ref name="Iacoboni">{{cite journal | vauthors = Iacoboni M, Dapretto M | title = The mirror neuron system and the consequences of its dysfunction | journal = Nature Reviews Neuroscience | volume = 7 | issue = 12 | pages = 942–51 | year = 2006 | pmid = 17115076 | doi = 10.1038/nrn2024 }}</ref> However, individuals with autism also have abnormal brain activation in many circuits outside the MNS<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Frith U, Frith CD | title = Development and neurophysiology of mentalizing | journal = Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B | volume = 358 | issue = 1431 | pages = 459–73 | year = 2003 | pmid = 12689373 | pmc = 1693139 | doi = 10.1098/rstb.2002.1218 | url = http://rstb.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/358/1431/459.full.pdf | format = PDF }}</ref> and the MNS theory does not explain the normal performance of children with autism on imitation tasks that involve a goal or object.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Hamilton AF | title = Emulation and mimicry for social interaction: a theoretical approach to imitation in autism | journal = Q J Exp Psychol | volume = 61 | issue = 1 | pages = 101–15 | year = 2008 | pmid = 18038342 | doi = 10.1080/17470210701508798 }}</ref> [[File:Powell2004Fig1A.jpeg|thumb|upright|alt=A human brain viewed from above. About 10% is highlighted in yellow and 10% in blue. There is only a tiny (perhaps 0.5%) green region where they overlap.|Autistic individuals tend to use different areas of the brain (yellow) for a movement task compared to a control group (blue).<ref name="Powell">{{cite journal | vauthors = Powell K | title=Opening a window to the autistic brain |journal=PLoS Biol |volume=2 |issue=8 |pages=E267 |year=2004 |pmid=15314667 |pmc=509312 |doi=10.1371/journal.pbio.0020267 |url=http://www.plosbiology.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pbio.0020267 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130526034145/http://www.plosbiology.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pbio.0020267 |archivedate=26 May 2013 }}</ref>]] ASD-related patterns of low function and aberrant activation in the brain differ depending on whether the brain is doing social or nonsocial tasks.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Di Martino A, Ross K, Uddin LQ, Sklar AB, Castellanos FX, Milham MP | title = Functional brain correlates of social and nonsocial processes in autism spectrum disorders: an activation likelihood estimation meta-analysis | journal = Biol Psychiatry | volume = 65 | issue = 1 | pages = 63–74 | year = 2009 | pmid = 18996505 | doi = 10.1016/j.biopsych.2008.09.022 | pmc=2993772}}</ref> In autism there is evidence for reduced functional connectivity of the [[default network]], a large-scale brain network involved in social and emotional processing, with intact connectivity of the [[task-positive network]], used in sustained attention and goal-directed thinking{{clarify|It is unclear what "with" connects to: it can either connect to the main clause or the first subclause. Sentences with multiple subclauses like this should be split up to avoid confusions.|date=January 2016}}. In people with autism the two networks are not negatively correlated in time, suggesting an imbalance in toggling between the two networks, possibly reflecting a disturbance of [[self-referential]] thought.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Broyd SJ, Demanuele C, Debener S, Helps SK, James CJ, Sonuga-Barke EJ | title = Default-mode brain dysfunction in mental disorders: a systematic review | journal = Neurosci Biobehav Rev | volume = 33 | issue = 3 | pages = 279–96 | year = 2009 | pmid = 18824195 | doi = 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2008.09.002 }}</ref> The underconnectivity theory of autism hypothesizes that autism is marked by underfunctioning high-level neural connections and synchronization, along with an excess of low-level processes.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Just MA, Cherkassky VL, Keller TA, Kana RK, Minshew NJ | title = Functional and anatomical cortical underconnectivity in autism: evidence from an FMRI study of an executive function task and corpus callosum morphometry | journal = Cereb Cortex | volume = 17 | issue = 4 | pages = 951–61 | year = 2007 | pmid = 16772313 | doi = 10.1093/cercor/bhl006 | url = http://cercor.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/content/full/17/4/951 | archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20100707140313/http://cercor.oxfordjournals.org:80/cgi/content/full/17/4/951 | archivedate = 7 July 2010 }}</ref> Evidence for this theory has been found in [[functional neuroimaging]] studies on autistic individuals<ref name="Williams">{{cite journal | vauthors = Williams DL, Goldstein G, Minshew NJ | title = Neuropsychologic functioning in children with autism: further evidence for disordered complex information-processing | journal = Child Neuropsychol | volume = 12 | issue = 4–5 | pages = 279–98 | year = 2006 | pmid = 16911973 | pmc = 1803025 | doi = 10.1080/09297040600681190 }}</ref> and by a [[Electroencephalography|brainwave]] study that suggested that adults with ASD have local overconnectivity in the [[Cerebral cortex|cortex]] and weak functional connections between the [[frontal lobe]] and the rest of the cortex.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Murias M, Webb SJ, Greenson J, Dawson G | title = Resting state cortical connectivity reflected in EEG coherence in individuals with autism | journal = Biol Psychiatry | volume = 62 | issue = 3 | pages = 270–3 | year = 2007 | pmid = 17336944 | pmc = 2001237 | doi = 10.1016/j.biopsych.2006.11.012 }}</ref> Other evidence suggests the underconnectivity is mainly within each [[Cerebral hemisphere|hemisphere]] of the cortex and that autism is a disorder of the [[Association areas|association cortex]].<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Minshew NJ, Williams DL | title = The new neurobiology of autism: cortex, connectivity, and neuronal organization | journal = Arch Neurol | volume = 64 | issue = 7 | pages = 945–50 | year = 2007 | pmid = 17620483 | pmc = 2597785 | doi = 10.1001/archneur.64.7.945 }}</ref> From studies based on [[event-related potential]]s, transient changes to the brain's electrical activity in response to stimuli, there is considerable evidence for differences in autistic individuals with respect to attention, orientation to auditory and visual stimuli, novelty detection, language and face processing, and information storage; several studies have found a preference for nonsocial stimuli.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Jeste SS, Nelson CA | title = Event related potentials in the understanding of autism spectrum disorders: an analytical review | journal = J Autism Dev Disord | volume = 39 | issue = 3 | pages = 495–510 | year = 2009 | pmid = 18850262 | doi = 10.1007/s10803-008-0652-9 }}</ref> For example, [[magnetoencephalography]] studies have found evidence in children with autism of delayed responses in the brain's processing of auditory signals.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Roberts TP, Schmidt GL, Egeth M, Blaskey L, Rey MM, Edgar JC, Levy SE | title = Electrophysiological signatures: magnetoencephalographic studies of the neural correlates of language impairment in autism spectrum disorders | journal = Int J Psychophysiol | volume = 68 | issue = 2 | pages = 149–60 | year = 2008 | pmid = 18336941 | pmc = 2397446 | doi = 10.1016/j.ijpsycho.2008.01.012 | author. = }}</ref> In the genetic area, relations have been found between autism and [[schizophrenia]] based on duplications and deletions of chromosomes; research showed that schizophrenia and autism are significantly more common in combination with [[1q21.1 deletion syndrome]]. Research on autism/schizophrenia relations for chromosome 15 (15q13.3), chromosome 16 (16p13.1) and chromosome 17 (17p12) are inconclusive.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Crespi B, Stead P, Elliot M | title = Evolution in health and medicine Sackler colloquium: Comparative genomics of autism and schizophrenia | journal = Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America | volume = 107 | issue = Suppl 1 | pages = 1736–41 | year = 2010 | pmid = 19955444 | pmc = 2868282 | doi = 10.1073/pnas.0906080106 }}</ref> Functional connectivity studies have found both hypo- and hyper-connectivity in brains of people with autism. Hypo-connectivity seems to dominate, especially for interhemispheric and cortico-cortical functional connectivity.<ref name=HaSohn2015>{{cite journal|vauthors=Ha S, Sohn IJ, Kim N, Sim HJ, Cheon KA|title=Characteristics of Brains in Autism Spectrum Disorder: Structure, Function and Connectivity across the Lifespan|journal=Exp Neurobiol|volume=24|issue=4|pages=273–84|date=Dec 2015|pmid=26713076|pmc=4688328|doi=10.5607/en.2015.24.4.273|type=Review}}</ref> ===Neuropsychology=== Two major categories of [[cognitive]] theories have been proposed about the links between autistic brains and behavior. The first category focuses on deficits in [[social cognition]]. [[Simon Baron-Cohen]]'s [[empathizing–systemizing theory]] postulates that autistic individuals can systemize—that is, they can develop internal rules of operation to handle events inside the brain—but are less effective at empathizing by handling events generated by other agents. An extension, the extreme male brain theory, hypothesizes that autism is an extreme case of the male brain, defined psychometrically as individuals in whom systemizing is better than empathizing.<ref name=E-S-theory/> These theories are somewhat related to Baron-Cohen's earlier [[theory of mind]] approach, which hypothesizes that autistic behavior arises from an inability to ascribe mental states to oneself and others. The theory of mind hypothesis is supported by the atypical responses of children with autism to the [[Sally–Anne test]] for reasoning about others' motivations,<ref name="E-S-theory">{{cite journal | vauthors = Baron-Cohen S | title = Autism: the empathizing–systemizing (E-S) theory | journal = Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences | volume = 1156 | pages = 68–80 | year = 2009 | pmid = 19338503 | doi = 10.1111/j.1749-6632.2009.04467.x | url = http://docs.autismresearchcentre.com/papers/2009_BC_nyas.pdf | format = PDF | archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20131214134422/http://docs.autismresearchcentre.com/papers/2009_BC_nyas.pdf | archivedate = 14 December 2013 }}</ref> and the mirror neuron system theory of autism described in ''[[#Pathophysiology|Pathophysiology]]'' maps well to the hypothesis.<ref name=Iacoboni/> However, most studies have found no evidence of impairment in autistic individuals' ability to understand other people's basic intentions or goals; instead, data suggests that impairments are found in understanding more complex social emotions or in considering others' viewpoints.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Hamilton AF | title = Goals, intentions and mental states: challenges for theories of autism | journal = J Child Psychol Psychiatry | volume = 50 | issue = 8 | pages = 881–92 | year = 2009 | pmid = 19508497 | doi = 10.1111/j.1469-7610.2009.02098.x }}</ref> The second category focuses on nonsocial or general processing: the [[executive functions]] such as [[working memory]], planning, [[Inhibition Theory|inhibition]]. In his review, Kenworthy states that "the claim of [[executive dysfunction]] as a causal factor in autism is controversial", however, "it is clear that executive dysfunction plays a role in the social and cognitive deficits observed in individuals with autism".<ref name=Kenworthy/> Tests of core executive processes such as eye movement tasks indicate improvement from late childhood to adolescence, but performance never reaches typical adult levels.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = O'Hearn K, Asato M, Ordaz S, Luna B | title = Neurodevelopment and executive function in autism | journal = Dev Psychopathol | volume = 20 | issue = 4 | pages = 1103–32 | year = 2008 | pmid = 18838033 | doi = 10.1017/S0954579408000527 }}</ref> A strength of the theory is predicting stereotyped behavior and narrow interests;<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Hill EL | title = Executive dysfunction in autism | journal = Trends Cogn Sci | volume = 8 | issue = 1 | pages = 26–32 | year = 2004 | pmid = 14697400 | doi = 10.1016/j.dr.2004.01.001 }}</ref> two weaknesses are that executive function is hard to measure<ref name="Kenworthy">{{cite journal | vauthors = Kenworthy L, Yerys BE, Anthony LG, Wallace GL | title = Understanding executive control in autism spectrum disorders in the lab and in the real world | journal = Neuropsychol Rev | volume = 18 | issue = 4 | pages = 320–38 | year = 2008 | pmid = 18956239 | pmc = 2856078 | doi = 10.1007/s11065-008-9077-7 }}</ref> and that executive function deficits have not been found in young children with autism.<ref name=Sigman/> [[Weak central coherence theory]] hypothesizes that a limited ability to see the big picture underlies the central disturbance in autism. One strength of this theory is predicting special talents and peaks in performance in autistic people.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Happé F, Frith U | title = The weak coherence account: detail-focused cognitive style in autism spectrum disorders | journal = J Autism Dev Disord | volume = 36 | issue = 1 | pages = 5–25 | year = 2006 | pmid = 16450045 | doi = 10.1007/s10803-005-0039-0 }}</ref> A related theory—enhanced perceptual functioning—focuses more on the superiority of locally oriented and [[perceptual]] operations in autistic individuals.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Mottron L, Dawson M, Soulières I, Hubert B, Burack J | title = Enhanced perceptual functioning in autism: an update, and eight principles of autistic perception | journal = J Autism Dev Disord | volume = 36 | issue = 1 | pages = 27–43 | year = 2006 | pmid = 16453071 | doi = 10.1007/s10803-005-0040-7 }}</ref> These theories map well from the underconnectivity theory of autism. Neither category is satisfactory on its own; social cognition theories poorly address autism's rigid and repetitive behaviors, while the nonsocial theories have difficulty explaining social impairment and communication difficulties.<ref name="HappeTime">{{cite journal | vauthors = Happé F, Ronald A, Plomin R | title = Time to give up on a single explanation for autism | journal = Nature Neuroscience | volume = 9 | issue = 10 | pages = 1218–20 | year = 2006 | pmid = 17001340 | doi = 10.1038/nn1770 }}</ref> A combined theory based on multiple deficits may prove to be more useful.<ref>{{cite journal | journal = Dev Rev | year = 2007 | volume = 27 | issue = 2 | pages = 224–60 | title = Cognitive theories of autism | vauthors = Rajendran G, Mitchell P | doi = 10.1016/j.dr.2007.02.001 }}</ref> ==Diagnosis== [[Medical diagnosis|Diagnosis]] is based on behavior, not cause or mechanism.<ref name="London">{{cite journal | vauthors = London E | title = The role of the neurobiologist in redefining the diagnosis of autism | journal = Brain Pathol | volume = 17 | issue = 4 | pages = 408–11 | year = 2007 | pmid = 17919126 | doi = 10.1111/j.1750-3639.2007.00103.x }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Baird G, Cass H, Slonims V | title = Diagnosis of autism | journal = BMJ | volume = 327 | issue = 7413 | pages = 488–93 | year = 2003 | pmid = 12946972 | pmc = 188387 | doi = 10.1136/bmj.327.7413.488 | url = http://www.bmj.com/cgi/content/full/327/7413/488 | archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20090306153446/http://www.bmj.com:80/cgi/content/full/327/7413/488 | archivedate = 6 March 2009 }}</ref> Under the [[DSM-5]], autism is characterized by persistent deficits in social communication and interaction across multiple contexts, as well as restricted, repetitive patterns of behavior, interests, or activities. These deficits are present in early childhood, typically before age three, and lead to clinically significant functional impairment. Sample symptoms include lack of social or emotional reciprocity, stereotyped and repetitive use of language or [[Idiosyncrasy#Psychiatry and psychology|idiosyncratic language]], and persistent preoccupation with unusual objects. The disturbance must not be better accounted for by [[Rett syndrome]], [[intellectual disability]] or global developmental delay.<ref name=DSM5/> [[ICD-10]] uses essentially the same definition.<ref name="ICD-10-F84.0">{{cite web|url=http://apps.who.int/classifications/apps/icd/icd10online/?gf80.htm+f84 |year=2007 |accessdate=10 October 2009|work=ICD-10: International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems: Tenth Revision|publisher=World Health Organization |title=F84. Pervasive developmental disorders |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130421042448/http://apps.who.int:80/classifications/apps/icd/icd10online/?gf80.htm+f84|archivedate=21 April 2013}}</ref> Several diagnostic instruments are available. Two are commonly used in autism research: the [[Autism Diagnostic Interview-Revised]] (ADI-R) is a semistructured parent interview, and the [[Autism Diagnostic Observation Schedule]] (ADOS)<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Gotham K, Risi S, Dawson G, Tager-Flusberg H, Joseph R, Carter A, Hepburn S, McMahon W, Rodier P, Hyman SL, Sigman M, Rogers S, Landa R, Spence MA, Osann K, Flodman P, Volkmar F, Hollander E, Buxbaum J, Pickles A, Lord C | title = A replication of the Autism Diagnostic Observation Schedule (ADOS) revised algorithms | journal = J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry | volume = 47 | issue = 6 | pages = 642–51 | year = 2008 | pmid = 18434924 | pmc = 3057666 | doi = 10.1097/CHI.0b013e31816bffb7 }}</ref> uses observation and interaction with the child. The [[Childhood Autism Rating Scale]] (CARS) is used widely in clinical environments to assess severity of autism based on observation of children.<ref name=Volkmar/> A [[pediatrician]] commonly performs a preliminary investigation by taking developmental history and physically examining the child. If warranted, diagnosis and evaluations are conducted with help from ASD specialists, observing and assessing cognitive, communication, family, and other factors using standardized tools, and taking into account any associated [[medical conditions]].<ref name=Dover/> A pediatric [[neuropsychologist]] is often asked to assess behavior and cognitive skills, both to aid diagnosis and to help recommend educational interventions.<ref name="Kanne">{{cite journal | vauthors = Kanne SM, Randolph JK, Farmer JE | title = Diagnostic and assessment findings: a bridge to academic planning for children with autism spectrum disorders | journal = Neuropsychol Rev | volume = 18 | issue = 4 | pages = 367–84 | year = 2008 | pmid = 18855144 | doi = 10.1007/s11065-008-9072-z }}</ref> A [[differential diagnosis]] for ASD at this stage might also consider [[intellectual disability]], [[hearing impairment]], and a [[specific language impairment]]<ref name=Dover/> such as [[Landau–Kleffner syndrome]].<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Mantovani JF | title = Autistic regression and Landau–Kleffner syndrome: progress or confusion? | journal = Dev Med Child Neurol | volume = 42 | issue = 5 | pages = 349–53 | year = 2000 | pmid = 10855658 | doi = 10.1017/S0012162200210621 | title. = }}</ref> The presence of autism can make it harder to diagnose coexisting psychiatric disorders such as [[Major depressive disorder|depression]].<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Matson JL, Neal D | title = Cormorbidity: diagnosing comorbid psychiatric conditions | journal = Psychiatr Times | volume = 26 |issue=4 |year=2009|url=http://www.psychiatrictimes.com/display/article/10168/1403043 | archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20130403062215/http://www.psychiatrictimes.com/display/article/10168/1403043 | archivedate = 3 April 2013 }}</ref> [[Clinical genetics]] evaluations are often done once ASD is diagnosed, particularly when other symptoms already suggest a genetic cause.<ref name=Caronna/> Although genetic technology allows clinical geneticists to link an estimated 40% of cases to genetic causes,<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Schaefer GB, Mendelsohn NJ | title = Genetics evaluation for the etiologic diagnosis of autism spectrum disorders | journal = Genet Med | volume = 10 | issue = 1 | pages = 4–12 | year = 2008 | pmid = 18197051 | doi = 10.1097/GIM.0b013e31815efdd7 | laysummary = http://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/96448.php | laydate = 7 February 2008 | laysource = Medical News Today }} {{Wayback|df=yes|url=http://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/96448.php|date =20100901151333}}</ref> consensus guidelines in the US and UK are limited to high-resolution chromosome and [[fragile X]] testing.<ref name=Caronna/> A [[Genotype-first approach|genotype-first]] model of diagnosis has been proposed, which would routinely assess the genome's copy number variations.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Ledbetter DH | title = Cytogenetic technology—genotype and phenotype | journal = N Engl J Med | volume = 359 | issue = 16 | pages = 1728–30 | year = 2008 | pmid = 18784093 | doi = 10.1056/NEJMe0806570 }}</ref> As new genetic tests are developed several ethical, legal, and social issues will emerge. Commercial availability of tests may precede adequate understanding of how to use test results, given the complexity of autism's genetics.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = McMahon WM, Baty BJ, Botkin J | title = Genetic counseling and ethical issues for autism | journal = American Journal of Medical Genetics | volume = 142C | issue = 1 | pages = 52–7 | year = 2006 | pmid = 16419100 | doi = 10.1002/ajmg.c.30082 }}</ref> [[Metabolic]] and [[neuroimaging]] tests are sometimes helpful, but are not routine.<ref name=Caronna/> ASD can sometimes be diagnosed by age 14 months, although diagnosis becomes increasingly stable over the first three years of life: for example, a one-year-old who meets diagnostic criteria for ASD is less likely than a three-year-old to continue to do so a few years later.<ref name="Landa3">{{cite journal | vauthors = Landa RJ | title = Diagnosis of autism spectrum disorders in the first 3 years of life | journal = Nat Clin Pract Neurol | volume = 4 | issue = 3 | pages = 138–47 | year = 2008 | pmid = 18253102 | doi = 10.1038/ncpneuro0731 }}</ref> In the UK the National Autism Plan for Children recommends at most 30 weeks from first concern to completed diagnosis and assessment, though few cases are handled that quickly in practice.<ref name="Dover">{{cite journal | vauthors = Dover CJ, Le Couteur A | title = How to diagnose autism | journal = Arch Dis Child | volume = 92 | issue = 6 | pages = 540–5 | year = 2007 | pmid = 17515625 | doi = 10.1136/adc.2005.086280 | pmc=2066173}}</ref> Although the symptoms of autism and ASD begin early in childhood, they are sometimes missed; years later, adults may seek diagnoses to help them or their friends and family understand themselves, to help their employers make adjustments, or in some locations to claim disability living allowances or other benefits. Underdiagnosis and overdiagnosis are problems in marginal cases, and much of the recent increase in the number of reported ASD cases is likely due to changes in diagnostic practices. The increasing popularity of drug treatment options and the expansion of benefits has given providers incentives to diagnose ASD, resulting in some overdiagnosis of children with uncertain symptoms. Conversely, the cost of screening and diagnosis and the challenge of obtaining payment can inhibit or delay diagnosis.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Shattuck PT, Grosse SD | title = Issues related to the diagnosis and treatment of autism spectrum disorders | journal = Ment Retard Dev Disabil Res Rev | volume = 13 | issue = 2 | pages = 129–35 | year = 2007 | pmid = 17563895 | doi = 10.1002/mrdd.20143 }}</ref> It is particularly hard to diagnose autism among the [[visually impaired]], partly because some of its diagnostic criteria depend on vision, and partly because autistic symptoms overlap with those of common blindness syndromes or [[blindism]]s.<ref>{{cite journal | title = Visual impairment and autism: current questions and future research | vauthors = Cass H |journal=Autism |year=1998 |volume=2 |issue=2 |pages=117–38|doi=10.1177/1362361398022002 }}</ref> ===Classification=== Autism is one of the five [[pervasive developmental disorder]]s (PDD), which are characterized by widespread abnormalities of social interactions and communication, and severely restricted interests and highly repetitive behavior.<ref name=ICD-10-F84.0/> These symptoms do not imply sickness, fragility, or emotional disturbance.<ref name=Rapin/> Of the five PDD forms, [[Asperger syndrome]] is closest to autism in signs and likely causes; [[Rett syndrome]] and [[childhood disintegrative disorder]] share several signs with autism, but may have unrelated causes; [[PDD not otherwise specified]] (PDD-NOS; also called ''atypical autism'') is diagnosed when the criteria are not met for a more specific disorder.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Volkmar FR, State M, Klin A | title = Autism and autism spectrum disorders: diagnostic issues for the coming decade | journal = J Child Psychol Psychiatry | volume = 50 | issue = 1–2 | pages = 108–15 | year = 2009 | pmid = 19220594 | doi = 10.1111/j.1469-7610.2008.02010.x }}</ref> Unlike with autism, people with Asperger syndrome have no substantial delay in [[language development]].<ref name="DSM-IV-TR-299.00">{{vcite book |author=American Psychiatric Association |title=Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders: DSM-IV |chapter=Diagnostic criteria for 299.00 Autistic Disorder |publisher=American Psychiatric Association |edition=4 |location=Washington, DC|year=2000 |pages= |isbn=978-0-89042-025-6 |oclc=768475353 |url=http://cdc.gov/ncbddd/autism/hcp-dsm.html |accessdate=|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20131029080544/http://www.cdc.gov:80/ncbddd/autism/hcp-dsm.html |archivedate=29 October 2013 }}</ref> The terminology of autism can be bewildering, with autism, Asperger syndrome and PDD-NOS often called the ''autism spectrum disorders'' (ASD)<ref name=CCD/> or sometimes the ''autistic disorders'',<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Freitag CM | title = The genetics of autistic disorders and its clinical relevance: a review of the literature | journal = Mol Psychiatry | volume = 12 | issue = 1 | pages = 2–22 | year = 2007 | pmid = 17033636 | doi = 10.1038/sj.mp.4001896 }}</ref> whereas autism itself is often called ''autistic disorder'', ''childhood autism'', or ''infantile autism''. In this article, ''autism'' refers to the classic autistic disorder; in clinical practice, though, ''autism'', ''ASD'', and ''PDD'' are often used interchangeably.<ref name="Caronna">{{cite journal | vauthors = Caronna EB, Milunsky JM, Tager-Flusberg H | title = Autism spectrum disorders: clinical and research frontiers | journal = Arch Dis Child | volume = 93 | issue = 6 | pages = 518–23 | year = 2008 | pmid = 18305076 | doi = 10.1136/adc.2006.115337 }}</ref> ASD, in turn, is a subset of the broader autism [[phenotype]], which describes individuals who may not have ASD but do have autistic-like [[Trait (biology)|traits]], such as avoiding eye contact.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Piven J, Palmer P, Jacobi D, Childress D, Arndt S | title = Broader autism phenotype: evidence from a family history study of multiple-incidence autism families | journal = Am J Psychiatry | volume = 154 | issue = 2 | pages = 185–90 | year = 1997 | pmid = 9016266 | doi=10.1176/ajp.154.2.185}}</ref> The manifestations of autism cover a wide [[Spectrum disorder|spectrum]], ranging from individuals with severe impairments—who may be silent, [[developmentally disabled]], and locked into hand flapping and rocking—to high functioning individuals who may have active but distinctly odd social approaches, narrowly focused interests, and verbose, [[pedantic]] communication.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Happé F | title = Understanding assets and deficits in autism: why success is more interesting than failure | journal = Psychologist | volume = 12 | issue = 11 | pages = 540–7 | year = 1999 | url = http://www.thepsychologist.org.uk/archive/archive_home.cfm/volumeID_12-editionID_46-ArticleID_133-getfile_getPDF/thepsychologist/psy_11_99_p540-547_happe.pdf | format = PDF | archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20120517162434/http://www.thepsychologist.org.uk/archive/archive_home.cfm/volumeID_12-editionID_46-ArticleID_133-getfile_getPDF/thepsychologist/psy_11_99_p540-547_happe.pdf |archivedate=17 May 2012 }}</ref> Because the behavior spectrum is continuous, boundaries between diagnostic categories are necessarily somewhat arbitrary.<ref name=Geschwind-2009/> Sometimes the syndrome is divided into low-, medium- or [[high-functioning autism]] (LFA, MFA, and HFA), based on [[IQ]] thresholds,<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Baron-Cohen S | title = The hyper-systemizing, assortative mating theory of autism | journal = Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry | volume = 30 | issue = 5 | pages = 865–72 | year = 2006 | pmid = 16519981 | doi = 10.1016/j.pnpbp.2006.01.010 | url = http://autismresearchcentre.com/docs/papers/2006_BC_Neuropsychophamacology.pdf | format = PDF | archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20120513020615/http://autismresearchcentre.com/docs/papers/2006_BC_Neuropsychophamacology.pdf | archivedate = 12 May 2012 }}</ref> or on how much support the individual requires in daily life; these subdivisions are not standardized and are controversial. Autism can also be divided into [[Syndrome|syndromal]] and non-syndromal autism; the syndromal autism is associated with severe or profound [[intellectual disability]] or a congenital syndrome with physical symptoms, such as [[tuberous sclerosis]].<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Cohen D, Pichard N, Tordjman S, Baumann C, Burglen L, Excoffier E, Lazar G, Mazet P, Pinquier C, Verloes A, Héron D | title = Specific genetic disorders and autism: clinical contribution towards their identification | journal = J Autism Dev Disord | volume = 35 | issue = 1 | pages = 103–16 | year = 2005 | pmid = 15796126 | doi = 10.1007/s10803-004-1038-2 | author. = }}</ref> Although individuals with Asperger syndrome tend to perform better cognitively than those with autism, the extent of the [[Diagnosis of Asperger syndrome#Differences from high-functioning autism|overlap between Asperger syndrome, HFA, and non-syndromal autism]] is unclear.<ref>Validity of ASD subtypes: * {{cite journal | vauthors = Klin A | title = Autism and Asperger syndrome: an overview | journal = Rev Bras Psiquiatr | volume = 28 | issue = suppl 1 | pages = S3–S11 | year = 2006 | pmid = 16791390 | doi = 10.1590/S1516-44462006000500002 | url = http://www.scielo.br/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S1516-44462006000500002&lng=en&nrm=iso&tlng=en | archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20131029185542/http://www.scielo.br/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S1516-44462006000500002&lng=en&nrm=iso&tlng=en | archivedate = 29 October 2013 }} * {{cite journal | vauthors = Witwer AN, Lecavalier L | title = Examining the validity of autism spectrum disorder subtypes | journal = J Autism Dev Disord | volume = 38 | issue = 9 | pages = 1611–24 | year = 2008 | pmid = 18327636 | doi = 10.1007/s10803-008-0541-2 }}</ref> Some studies have reported diagnoses of autism in children due to a loss of language or social skills, as opposed to a failure to make progress, typically from 15 to 30 months of age. The validity of this distinction remains controversial; it is possible that [[regressive autism]] is a specific subtype,<ref name="Stefanatos">{{cite journal | vauthors = Stefanatos GA | title = Regression in autistic spectrum disorders | journal = Neuropsychol Rev | volume = 18 | issue = 4 | pages = 305–19 | year = 2008 | pmid = 18956241 | doi = 10.1007/s11065-008-9073-y }}</ref><ref name=Landa/><ref name=Landa3/><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Volkmar F, Chawarska K, Klin A | title = Autism in infancy and early childhood | journal = Annu Rev Psychol | volume = 56 | pages = 315–36 | year = 2005 | pmid = 15709938 | doi = 10.1146/annurev.psych.56.091103.070159 }} A partial update is in: {{cite journal | vauthors = Volkmar FR, Chawarska K | title = Autism in infants: an update | journal = World Psychiatry | volume = 7 | issue = 1 | pages = 19–21 | year = 2008 | pmid = 18458791 | pmc = 2366821 }}</ref> or that there is a continuum of behaviors between autism with and without regression.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Ozonoff S, Heung K, Byrd R, Hansen R, Hertz-Picciotto I | title = The onset of autism: patterns of symptom emergence in the first years of life | journal = Autism Res | volume = 1 | issue = 6 | pages = 320–328 | year = 2008 | pmid = 19360687 | pmc = 2857525 | doi = 10.1002/aur.53 }}</ref> Research into causes has been hampered by the inability to identify biologically meaningful subgroups within the autistic population<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Altevogt BM, Hanson SL, Leshner AI | title = Autism and the environment: challenges and opportunities for research | journal = Pediatrics | volume = 121 | issue = 6 | pages = 1225–9 | year = 2008 | pmid = 18519493 | doi = 10.1542/peds.2007-3000 | url = http://pediatrics.aappublications.org/cgi/content/full/121/6/1225 | archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20100115140620/http://pediatrics.aappublications.org:80/cgi/content/full/121/6/1225 | archivedate = 15 January 2010 }}</ref> and by the traditional boundaries between the disciplines of [[psychiatry]], [[psychology]], [[neurology]] and [[pediatrics]].<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Reiss AL | title = Childhood developmental disorders: an academic and clinical convergence point for psychiatry, neurology, psychology and pediatrics | journal = J Child Psychol Psychiatry | volume = 50 | issue = 1–2 | pages = 87–98 | year = 2009 | pmid = 19220592 | doi = 10.1111/j.1469-7610.2008.02046.x }}</ref> Newer technologies such as [[fMRI]] and [[diffusion tensor imaging]] can help identify biologically relevant [[phenotype]]s (observable traits) that can be viewed on [[brain scan]]s, to help further [[neurogenetic]] studies of autism;<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Piggot J, Shirinyan D, Shemmassian S, Vazirian S, Alarcón M | title = Neural systems approaches to the neurogenetics of autism spectrum disorders | journal = Neuroscience | volume = 164 | issue = 1 | pages = 247–56 | year = 2009 | pmid = 19482063 | doi = 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2009.05.054 }}</ref> one example is lowered activity in the [[fusiform face area]] of the brain, which is associated with impaired perception of people versus objects.<ref name=Levy/> It has been proposed to classify autism using genetics as well as behavior.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Stephan DA | title = Unraveling autism | journal = American Journal of Human Genetics | volume = 82 | issue = 1 | pages = 7–9 | year = 2008 | pmid = 18179879 | pmc = 2253980 | doi = 10.1016/j.ajhg.2007.12.003 }}</ref> ==Screening== About half of parents of children with ASD notice their child's unusual behaviors by age 18 months, and about four-fifths notice by age 24 months.<ref name=Landa3/> According to an article failure to meet any of the following milestones "is an absolute indication to proceed with further evaluations. Delay in referral for such testing may delay early diagnosis and treatment and affect the long-term outcome".<ref name=Filipek/> * No [[babbling]] by 12 months. * No [[Gesture|gesturing]] (pointing, waving, etc.) by 12 months. * No single words by 16 months. * No two-word (spontaneous, not just [[echolalia|echolalic]]) phrases by 24 months. * Any loss of any language or social skills, at any age. The [[United States Preventative Services Task Force]] in 2016 found it was unclear if screening was beneficial or harmful among children in whom there is no concerns.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Siu|first1=AL|last2=US Preventive Services Task Force|first2=(USPSTF)|last3=Bibbins-Domingo|first3=K|last4=Grossman|first4=DC|last5=Baumann|first5=LC|last6=Davidson|first6=KW|last7=Ebell|first7=M|last8=García|first8=FA|last9=Gillman|first9=M|last10=Herzstein|first10=J|last11=Kemper|first11=AR|last12=Krist|first12=AH|last13=Kurth|first13=AE|last14=Owens|first14=DK|last15=Phillips|first15=WR|last16=Phipps|first16=MG|last17=Pignone|first17=MP|title=Screening for Autism Spectrum Disorder in Young Children: US Preventive Services Task Force Recommendation Statement.|journal=JAMA|date=16 February 2016|volume=315|issue=7|pages=691-6|pmid=26881372}}</ref> The Japanese practice is to [[Screening (medicine)|screen]] all children for ASD at 18 and 24 months, using autism-specific formal screening tests. In contrast, in the UK, children whose families or doctors recognize possible signs of autism are screened. It is not known which approach is more effective.<ref name=Levy/> Screening tools include the [[Modified Checklist for Autism in Toddlers]] (M-CHAT), the Early Screening of Autistic Traits Questionnaire, and the First Year Inventory; initial data on [[Modified Checklist for Autism in Toddlers|M-CHAT]] and its predecessor, the [[Checklist for Autism in Toddlers]] (CHAT), on children aged 18–30 months suggests that it is best used in a clinical setting and that it has low [[Sensitivity (tests)|sensitivity]] (many false-negatives) but good [[Specificity (tests)|specificity]] (few false-positives).<ref name=Landa3/> It may be more accurate to precede these tests with a broadband screener that does not distinguish ASD from other developmental disorders.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Wetherby AM, Brosnan-Maddox S, Peace V, Newton L | title = Validation of the Infant–Toddler Checklist as a broadband screener for autism spectrum disorders from 9 to 24 months of age | journal = Autism | volume = 12 | issue = 5 | pages = 487–511 | year = 2008 | pmid = 18805944 | pmc = 2663025 | doi = 10.1177/1362361308094501 }}</ref> Screening tools designed for one culture's norms for behaviors like eye contact may be inappropriate for a different culture.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Wallis KE, Pinto-Martin J | title = The challenge of screening for autism spectrum disorder in a culturally diverse society | journal = Acta Paediatr | volume = 97 | issue = 5 | pages = 539–40 | year = 2008 | pmid = 18373717 | doi = 10.1111/j.1651-2227.2008.00720.x }}</ref> Although [[genetic screening]] for autism is generally still impractical, it can be considered in some cases, such as children with neurological symptoms and [[dysmorphic feature]]s.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Lintas C, Persico AM | title = Autistic phenotypes and genetic testing: state-of-the-art for the clinical geneticist | journal = Journal of Medical Genetics | volume = 46 | issue = 1 | pages = 1–8 | year = 2009 | pmid = 18728070 | pmc = 2603481 | doi = 10.1136/jmg.2008.060871 | url = http://jmg.bmj.com/content/46/1/1.long | archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20131030000423/http://jmg.bmj.com/content/46/1/1.long | archivedate = 30 October 2013 }}</ref> ==Prevention== Infection with [[rubella]] during [[pregnancy]] causes fewer than 1% of cases of autism;<ref name=Duchan/> [[rubella vaccine|vaccination against rubella]] can prevent many of those cases.<ref name=Lancet2015>{{cite journal|author=Lambert N, Strebel P, Orenstein W, Icenogle J, Poland GA|title=Rubella|journal=Lancet|date=7 January 2015|doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(14)60539-0|pmid=25576992|volume=385|pages=2297–307}}</ref> ==Management== {{main|Autism therapies}} [[File:Opening a window to the autistic brain.jpg|thumb|alt=A young child points, in front of a woman who smiles and points in the same direction.|A three-year-old with autism points to fish in an aquarium, as part of an experiment on the effect of intensive shared-attention training on language development.<ref name=Powell/>]] The main goals when treating children with autism are to lessen associated deficits and family distress, and to increase quality of life and functional independence. In general, higher IQs are correlated with greater responsiveness to treatment and improved treatment outcomes.<ref name=":0" /><ref>{{Cite journal|title = Meta-Analysis of Early Intensive Behavioral Intervention for Children With Autism|url = http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/15374410902851739|journal = Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology|date = 2009-05-19|issn = 1537-4416|pmid = 19437303|pages = 439–450|volume = 38|issue = 3|doi = 10.1080/15374410902851739|first = Sigmund|last = Eldevik|first2 = Richard P.|last2 = Hastings|first3 = J. Carl|last3 = Hughes|first4 = Erik|last4 = Jahr|first5 = Svein|last5 = Eikeseth|first6 = Scott|last6 = Cross}}</ref> No single treatment is best and treatment is typically tailored to the child's needs.<ref name=CCD/> Families and the educational system are the main resources for treatment.<ref name=Levy/> Studies of interventions have methodological problems that prevent definitive conclusions about [[efficacy]],<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Ospina MB, Krebs Seida J, Clark B, Karkhaneh M, Hartling L, Tjosvold L, Vandermeer B, Smith V | title = Behavioural and developmental interventions for autism spectrum disorder: a clinical systematic review | journal = PLoS ONE | volume = 3 | issue = 11 | pages = e3755 | year = 2008 | pmid = 19015734 | pmc = 2582449 | doi = 10.1371/journal.pone.0003755 | url = http://www.plosone.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pone.0003755 | author. = | archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20131105071310/http://www.plosone.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pone.0003755 | archivedate = 5 November 2013 }}</ref> however the development of evidence-based interventions has advanced in recent years.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|title = Evidence Base Update for Autism Spectrum Disorder|url = http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/15374416.2015.1077448|journal = Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology|date = 2015-11-02|issn = 1537-4416|pmid = 26430947|pages = 897–922|volume = 44|issue = 6|doi = 10.1080/15374416.2015.1077448|first = Tristram|last = Smith|first2 = Suzannah|last2 = Iadarola}}</ref> Although many [[psychosocial]] interventions have some positive evidence, suggesting that some form of treatment is preferable to no treatment, the methodological quality of [[systematic review]]s of these studies has generally been poor, their clinical results are mostly tentative, and there is little evidence for the relative effectiveness of treatment options.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Seida JK, Ospina MB, Karkhaneh M, Hartling L, Smith V, Clark B | title = Systematic reviews of psychosocial interventions for autism: an umbrella review | journal = Dev Med Child Neurol | volume = 51 | issue = 2 | pages = 95–104 | year = 2009 | pmid = 19191842 | doi = 10.1111/j.1469-8749.2008.03211.x }}</ref> Intensive, sustained [[special education]] programs and [[behavior therapy]] early in life can help children acquire self-care, social, and job skills,<ref name="CCD">{{cite journal | vauthors = Myers SM, Johnson CP | title = Management of children with autism spectrum disorders | journal = Pediatrics | volume = 120 | issue = 5 | pages = 1162–82 | year = 2007 | pmid = 17967921 | doi = 10.1542/peds.2007-2362 }}</ref> and often improve functioning and decrease symptom severity and maladaptive behaviors;<ref name="Rogers">{{cite journal | vauthors = Rogers SJ, Vismara LA | title = Evidence-based comprehensive treatments for early autism | journal = J Clin Child Adolesc Psychol | volume = 37 | issue = 1 | pages = 8–38 | year = 2008 | pmid = 18444052 | pmc = 2943764 | doi = 10.1080/15374410701817808 }}</ref> claims that intervention by around age three years is crucial are not substantiated.<ref name="HowlinCharman">{{cite journal | vauthors = Howlin P, Magiati I, Charman T | title = Systematic review of early intensive behavioral interventions for children with autism | journal = Am J Intellect Dev Disabil | volume = 114 | issue = 1 | pages = 23–41 | year = 2009 | pmid = 19143460 | doi = 10.1352/2009.114:23-41 }}</ref> Available approaches include [[applied behavior analysis]] (ABA), developmental models, [[TEACCH|structured teaching]], [[speech and language therapy]], [[social skills]] therapy, and [[occupational therapy]].<ref name=CCD/> Among these approaches, interventions either treat autistic features comprehensively, or focalize treatment on a specific area of deficit.<ref name=":0" /> There is some evidence that early intensive behavioral intervention (EIBI), an early intervention model based on ABA for 20 to 40&nbsp;hours a week for multiple years, is an effective treatment for some children with ASD.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Reichow B, Barton EE, Boyd BA, Hume K | title = Early intensive behavioral intervention (EIBI) for young children with autism spectrum disorders (ASD) | journal = Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews | volume = 10 | issue = | pages = CD009260 | year = 2012 | pmid = 23076956 | doi = 10.1002/14651858.CD009260.pub2 }}</ref> Two theoretical frameworks outlined for early childhood intervention include applied behavioral analysis (ABA) and developmental social pragmatic models (DSP).<ref name=":0" /> One interventional strategy utilizes a parent training model, which teaches parents how to implement various ABA and DSP techniques, allowing for parents to disseminate interventions themselves.<ref name=":0" /> Various DSP programs have been developed to explicitly deliver intervention systems through at-home parent implementation. Despite the recent development of parent training models, these interventions have demonstrated effectiveness in numerous studies, being evaluated as a probable efficacious mode of treatment.<ref name=":0" /> ===Education=== Educational interventions can be effective to varying degrees in most children: [[Early intensive behavioral intervention|intensive ABA treatment]] has demonstrated effectiveness in enhancing global functioning in preschool children<ref name="Eikeseth">{{cite journal | vauthors = Eikeseth S | title = Outcome of comprehensive psycho-educational interventions for young children with autism | journal = Res Dev Disabil | volume = 30 | issue = 1 | pages = 158–78 | year = 2009 | pmid = 18385012 | doi = 10.1016/j.ridd.2008.02.003 }}</ref> and is well-established for improving intellectual performance of young children.<ref name=Rogers/> Similarly, teacher-implemented intervention that utilizes an ABA combined with a developmental social pragmatic approach has been found to be a well-established treatment in improving social-communication skills in young children, although there is less evidence in its treatment of global symptoms.<ref name=":0" /> Neuropsychological reports are often poorly communicated to educators, resulting in a gap between what a report recommends and what education is provided.<ref name=Kanne/> It is not known whether treatment programs for children lead to significant improvements after the children grow up,<ref name=Rogers/> and the limited research on the effectiveness of adult residential programs shows mixed results.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Van Bourgondien ME, Reichle NC, Schopler E | title = Effects of a model treatment approach on adults with autism | journal = J Autism Dev Disord | volume = 33 | issue = 2 | pages = 131–40 | year = 2003 | pmid = 12757352 | doi = 10.1023/A:1022931224934 }}</ref> The appropriateness of including children with varying severity of autism spectrum disorders in the general education population is a subject of current debate among educators and researchers.<ref>{{cite journal |journal=Topics in Language Disorders |year=2003 |volume=23 |issue=2 |pages=116–133 |title=Inclusion of Learners with Autism Spectrum Disorders in General Education Settings | vauthors = Simpson RL, de Boer-Ott SR, Smith-Myles B|url=http://www.nursingcenter.com/pdf.asp?AID=520301 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110714215923/http://www.nursingcenter.com/pdf.asp?AID=520301 |archivedate=2011-07-14 |doi=10.1097/00011363-200304000-00005}}</ref> ===Medication=== Many medications are used to treat ASD symptoms that interfere with integrating a child into home or school when behavioral treatment fails.<ref name=Rapin/><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Leskovec TJ, Rowles BM, Findling RL | title = Pharmacological treatment options for autism spectrum disorders in children and adolescents | journal = Harv Rev Psychiatry | volume = 16 | issue = 2 | pages = 97–112 | year = 2008 | pmid = 18415882 | doi = 10.1080/10673220802075852 }}</ref> More than half of US children diagnosed with ASD are prescribed [[psychoactive drug]]s or [[anticonvulsant]]s, with the most common drug classes being [[antidepressant]]s, [[stimulant]]s, and [[antipsychotic]]s.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Oswald DP, Sonenklar NA | title = Medication use among children with autism spectrum disorders | journal = J Child Adolesc Psychopharmacol | volume = 17 | issue = 3 | pages = 348–55 | year = 2007 | pmid = 17630868 | doi = 10.1089/cap.2006.17303 }}</ref> Antipsychotics, such as [[risperidone]] and [[aripiprazole]], have been found to be useful for treating irritability, repetitive behavior, and sleeplessness that often occurs with autism, however their side effects must be weighed against their potential benefits, and people with autism may respond atypically.<ref>Ji N, Findling RL. An update on pharmacotherapy for autism spectrum disorder in children and adolescents. Curr Opin Psychiatry. 2015 Mar;28(2):91-101. Review. PMID 25602248 </ref> There is scant reliable research about the effectiveness or safety of drug treatments for adolescents and adults with ASD.<ref>Lack of research on drug treatments: * {{cite journal | vauthors = Angley M, Young R, Ellis D, Chan W, McKinnon R | title = Children and autism—part 1—recognition and pharmacological management | journal = Aust Fam Physician | volume = 36 | issue = 9 | pages = 741–4 | year = 2007 | pmid = 17915375 | url = http://www.racgp.org.au/afp/200709/200709angley.pdf | format = PDF | archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20130407205054/http://www.racgp.org.au/afp/200709/200709angley.pdf | archivedate = 7 April 2013 }} * {{cite journal | vauthors = Broadstock M, Doughty C, Eggleston M | title = Systematic review of the effectiveness of pharmacological treatments for adolescents and adults with autism spectrum disorder | journal = Autism | volume = 11 | issue = 4 | pages = 335–48 | year = 2007 | pmid = 17656398 | doi = 10.1177/1362361307078132 }}</ref> No known medication relieves autism's core symptoms of social and communication impairments.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Buitelaar JK | title = Why have drug treatments been so disappointing? | journal = Novartis Found Symp | volume = 251 | pages = 235–44; discussion 245–9, 281–97 | year = 2003 | pmid = 14521196 | doi = 10.1002/0470869380.ch14 | title. = }}</ref> Experiments in mice have reversed or reduced some symptoms related to autism by replacing or modulating gene function,<ref name=Walsh/><ref name="pmid18093519"/> suggesting the possibility of targeting therapies to specific rare mutations known to cause autism.<ref name=Betancur/><ref name="pmid20303363">{{cite journal | vauthors = Dölen G, Carpenter RL, Ocain TD, Bear MF | title = Mechanism-based approaches to treating fragile X | journal = Pharmacol Ther | volume = 127 | issue = 1 | pages = 78–93 | year = 2010 | pmid = 20303363 | doi = 10.1016/j.pharmthera.2010.02.008 }}</ref> ===Alternative medicine=== Although many [[Alternative therapies for developmental and learning disabilities|alternative therapies and interventions]] are available, few are supported by scientific studies.<ref name=Sigman/><ref>Lack of support for interventions: * {{cite journal | vauthors = Francis K | title = Autism interventions: a critical update | journal = Dev Med Child Neurol | volume = 47 | issue = 7 | pages = 493–9 | year = 2005 | pmid = 15991872 | doi = 10.1017/S0012162205000952 | url = http://journals.cambridge.org/production/action/cjoGetFulltext?fulltextid=313204 | format = PDF }} * {{cite journal | vauthors = Levy SE, Hyman SL | title = Complementary and alternative medicine treatments for children with autism spectrum disorders | journal = Child Adolesc Psychiatr Clin N Am | volume = 17 | issue = 4 | pages = 803–20, ix | year = 2008 | pmid = 18775371 | pmc = 2597185 | doi = 10.1016/j.chc.2008.06.004 }} * {{cite journal | vauthors = Rao PA, Beidel DC, Murray MJ | title = Social skills interventions for children with Asperger's syndrome or high-functioning autism: a review and recommendations | journal = J Autism Dev Disord | volume = 38 | issue = 2 | pages = 353–61 | year = 2008 | pmid = 17641962 | doi = 10.1007/s10803-007-0402-4 }} </ref> Treatment approaches have little empirical support in [[Quality of life|quality-of-life]] contexts, and many programs focus on success measures that lack predictive validity and real-world relevance.<ref name=Burgess/> Scientific evidence appears to matter less to service providers than program marketing, training availability, and parent requests.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Stahmer AC, Collings NM, Palinkas LA | title = Early intervention practices for children with autism: descriptions from community providers | journal = Focus Autism Other Dev Disabl | volume = 20 | issue = 2 | pages = 66–79 | year = 2005 | pmid = 16467905 | pmc = 1350798 | doi = 10.1177/10883576050200020301 }}</ref> Some alternative treatments may place the child at risk. A 2008 study found that compared to their peers, autistic boys have significantly thinner bones if on [[casein-free diet]]s;<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Hediger ML, England LJ, Molloy CA, Yu KF, Manning-Courtney P, Mills JL | title = Reduced bone cortical thickness in boys with autism or autism spectrum disorder | journal = J Autism Dev Disord | volume = 38 | issue = 5 | pages = 848–56 | year = 2008 | pmid = 17879151 | doi = 10.1007/s10803-007-0453-6 | laysummary = http://www.nih.gov/news/health/jan2008/nichd-29.htm | laydate = 29 January 2008 | laysource = NIH News }} {{Wayback|df=yes|url=http://www.nih.gov/news/health/jan2008/nichd-29.htm|date =20131001111904}}</ref> in 2005, botched [[chelation therapy]] killed a five-year-old child with autism.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Brown MJ, Willis T, Omalu B, Leiker R | title = Deaths resulting from hypocalcemia after administration of edetate disodium: 2003–2005 | journal = Pediatrics | volume = 118 | issue = 2 | pages = e534–6 | year = 2006 | pmid = 16882789 | doi = 10.1542/peds.2006-0858 | url = http://pediatrics.aappublications.org/cgi/content/full/118/2/e534 | archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20090727080307/http://pediatrics.aappublications.org:80/cgi/content/full/118/2/e534 | archivedate = 27 July 2009 }}</ref> There has been early research looking at [[Hyperbaric medicine|hyperbaric treatment]]s in children with autism.<ref>{{cite journal | title = Therapies for Children With Autism Spectrum Disorders | page = 8 | date = April 2011 | pmid = 21834171 | quote = Hyperbaric therapy, in which oxygen is administered in special chambers that maintain a higher air pressure, has shown possible effects in other chronic neurologic conditions and has also undergone preliminary exploration in ASDs. | vauthors=Warren Z, Veenstra-VanderWeele J, Stone W, ''et al.''}}</ref> Although popularly used as an [[complementary and alternative medicine|alternative treatment]] for people with autism, there is no good evidence that a [[gluten-free diet]] is of benefit.<ref name=Buie>{{cite journal |vauthors=Buie T |title=The relationship of autism and gluten |journal=Clin Ther |volume=35 |issue=5 |pages=578–83 |year=2013 |pmid=23688532 |doi=10.1016/j.clinthera.2013.04.011 |type=Review |quote=At this time, the studies attempting to treat symptoms of autism with diet have not been sufficient to support the general institution of a gluten-free or other diet for all children with autism.}}</ref><ref name=MariBausetZazpe>{{cite journal | vauthors = Marí-Bauset S, Zazpe I, Mari-Sanchis A, Llopis-González A, Morales-Suárez-Varela M| title = Evidence of the gluten-free and casein-free diet in autism spectrum disorders: a systematic review | journal = J Child Neurol | volume = 29| issue = 12| pages = 1718–27| date = Dec 2014| pmid = 24789114|doi = 10.1177/0883073814531330}}</ref><ref name="Millward2008">{{cite journal| author=Millward C, Ferriter M, Calver S, Connell-Jones G| title=Gluten- and casein-free diets for autistic spectrum disorder | journal=Cochrane Database Syst Rev | year= 2008 | issue= 2 | pages= CD003498 | pmid=18425890 | doi=10.1002/14651858.CD003498.pub3 | editor1-last=Ferriter| editor1-first=Michael | pmc=4164915}}</ref> In the subset of people who have [[non-celiac gluten sensitivity|gluten sensitivity]] there is limited evidence that suggests that a gluten free diet may improve some autistic behaviours.<ref name=Buie /><ref name=VoltaCaio>{{cite journal | vauthors = Volta U, Caio G, De Giorgio R, Henriksen C, Skodje G, Lundin KE| title = Non-celiac gluten sensitivity: a work-in-progress entity in the spectrum of wheat-related disorders | journal = Best Pract Res Clin Gastroenterol | volume = 29| issue = 3| pages = 477–91| date = Jun 2015| pmid = 26060112 | doi = 10.1016/j.bpg.2015.04.006 | quote= autism spectrum disorders (ASD) have been hypothesized to be associated with NCGS [47,48]. Notably, a gluten- and casein-free diet might have a positive effect in improving hyperactivity and mental confusion in some patients with ASD. This very exciting association between NCGS and ASD deserves further study before conclusions can be firmly drawn.}}</ref><ref name=SanMauroGaricano>{{cite journal | vauthors =San Mauro I, Garicano E, Collado L, Ciudad MJ | title = [Is gluten the great etiopathogenic agent of disease in the XXI century?] [Article in Spanish]| journal = Nutr Hosp | volume = 30| issue = 6| pages = 1203–10| date = Dec 2014 | pmid =25433099 | doi = 10.3305/nh.2014.30.6.7866}}</ref><ref name=CatassiBai>{{cite journal | vauthors = Catassi C, Bai JC, Bonaz B, Bouma G, Calabrò A, Carroccio A, Castillejo G, Ciacci C, Cristofori F, Dolinsek J, Francavilla R, Elli L, Green P, Holtmeier W, Koehler P, Koletzko S, Meinhold C, Sanders D, Schumann M, Schuppan D, Ullrich R, Vécsei A, Volta U, Zevallos V, Sapone A, Fasano A| title = Non-Celiac Gluten sensitivity: the new frontier of gluten related disorders | journal = Nutrients | volume = 5| issue = 10| pages = 3839–53| date = Sep 2013 | pmid =24077239 |pmc= 3820047| doi = 10.3390/nu5103839 | quote= The above data suggest that removing gluten from the diet may positively affect the clinical outcome in some children diagnosed with ASD, indicating that autism may be part of the spectrum of NCGS, at least in some cases. However, a word of caution is necessary to stress the fact that only a small, selected sub-group of children affected by ASD may benefit from an elimination diet. Additional investigations are required in order to identify phenotypes based on best- and non-response to dietary modifications and assess any biological correlates including anthropometry before considering a dietary intervention.}}</ref> ===Cost=== Treatment is expensive; indirect costs are more so. For someone born in 2000, a US study estimated an average lifetime cost of ${{Format price|{{inflation|US|3160384|2003}}}} ([[net present value]] in {{CURRENTYEAR}} dollars, inflation-adjusted from 2003 estimate),{{inflation-fn|US}} with about 10% [[medical care]], 30% extra education and other care, and 60% lost economic productivity.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Ganz ML | title = The lifetime distribution of the incremental societal costs of autism | journal = Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med | volume = 161 | issue = 4 | pages = 343–9 | year = 2007 | pmid = 17404130 | doi = 10.1001/archpedi.161.4.343 | url = http://archpedi.ama-assn.org/cgi/content/full/161/4/343 | laysummary = http://www.hsph.harvard.edu/news/press-releases/2006-releases/press04252006.html | laydate = 25 April 2006 | laysource = Harvard School of Public Health | archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20091212234601/http://archpedi.ama-assn.org:80/cgi/content/full/161/4/343 | archivedate = 12 December 2009 }}</ref> Publicly supported programs are often inadequate or inappropriate for a given child, and unreimbursed out-of-pocket medical or therapy expenses are associated with likelihood of family financial problems;<ref>{{cite journal |journal=J Fam Econ Iss |year=2007 |volume=28 |issue=2 |pages=247–64 |doi=10.1007/s10834-007-9059-6 |title=Financial issues associated with having a child with autism | vauthors = Sharpe DL, Baker DL }}</ref> one 2008 US study found a 14% average loss of annual income in families of children with ASD,<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Montes G, Halterman JS | title = Association of childhood autism spectrum disorders and loss of family income | journal = Pediatrics | volume = 121 | issue = 4 | pages = e821–6 | year = 2008 | pmid = 18381511 | doi = 10.1542/peds.2007-1594 | url = http://pediatrics.aappublications.org/cgi/content/full/121/4/e821 | archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20100304071520/http://pediatrics.aappublications.org:80/cgi/content/full/121/4/e821 | archivedate = 4 March 2010 }}</ref> and a related study found that ASD is associated with higher probability that [[child care]] problems will greatly affect parental employment.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Montes G, Halterman JS | title = Child care problems and employment among families with preschool-aged children with autism in the United States | journal = Pediatrics | volume = 122 | issue = 1 | pages = e202–8 | year = 2008 | pmid = 18595965 | doi = 10.1542/peds.2007-3037 | url = http://pediatrics.aappublications.org/cgi/content/full/122/1/e202 | archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20091206190622/http://pediatrics.aappublications.org:80/cgi/content/full/122/1/e202 | archivedate = 6 December 2009 }}</ref> US states increasingly require private health insurance to cover autism services, shifting costs from publicly funded education programs to privately funded health insurance.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Reinke T | title = States increasingly mandate special autism services | journal = Manag Care | volume = 17 | issue = 8 | pages = 35–6, 39 | year = 2008 | pmid = 18777788 | url = http://managedcaremag.com/archives/0808/0808.autism.html | archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20140324083435/http://managedcaremag.com/archives/0808/0808.autism.html | archivedate = 24 March 2014 }}</ref> After childhood, key treatment issues include residential care, job training and placement, sexuality, social skills, and [[estate planning]].<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Aman MG | title = Treatment planning for patients with autism spectrum disorders | journal = J Clin Psychiatry | volume = 66 | issue = Suppl 10 | pages = 38–45 | year = 2005 | pmid = 16401149 }}</ref> ==Society and culture== {{main|Sociological and cultural aspects of autism}} [[File:Autism spectrum infinity awareness symbol.svg|thumb|The rainbow-colored infinity is often used as a symbol for the diversity of the autism spectrum as well as neurodiversity in general.]] The emergence of the autism rights movement has served as an attempt to encourage people to be more tolerant of those with autism.<ref>{{cite web| last = Trivedi| first = Bijal| title = Autistic and proud of it| work = New Scientist| accessdate = 2015-11-10| url = https://www.newscientist.com/article/mg18625041-500-autistic-and-proud-of-it/}}</ref> Through this movement, people hope to cause others to think of autism as a difference instead of a disease. Proponents of this movement wish to seek “acceptance, not cures.”<ref>{{cite web| last = Shapiro| first = Joseph| title = Autism Movement Seeks Acceptance, Not Cures| work = NPR.org| accessdate = 2015-11-10| date = 2006-06-26| url = http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=5488463}}</ref> There have also been many worldwide events promoting autism awareness such as [[World Autism Awareness Day]], [[Light It Up Blue]], [[Autism Sunday]], [[Autistic Pride Day]], [[Autreat]], and others.<ref>{{cite web| title = World Autism Awareness Day, 2 April| work = United Nations| accessdate = 2015-11-17| url = http://www.un.org/en/events/autismday/}}</ref><ref>{{cite web| title = What is LIUB| work = Autism Speaks| accessdate = 2015-11-17| url = https://www.autismspeaks.org/liub/what-liub}}</ref><ref>{{cite web| last = Bascom| first = Julia| title = Autistic Pride Day 2015: A Message to the Autistic Community| accessdate = 2015-11-18| date = 2015-06-18| url = http://autisticadvocacy.org/2015/06/autistic-pride-day-2015-a-message-to-the-autistic-community/}}</ref><ref>{{cite web| title = Autism Sunday - Home| work = Autism Sunday| accessdate = 2015-11-17| date = 2010| url = http://www.autismsunday.co.uk/}}</ref><ref>{{cite web| title = About Autreat| work = Autreat.com| accessdate = 2015-11-17| date = 2013| url = http://www.autreat.com/autreat.html}}</ref> There have also been many organizations dedicated to increasing the awareness of autism and the effects that autism has on someone’s life. These organizations include [[Autism Speaks]], [[Autism National Committee]], [[Autism Society of America]], and many others.<ref>{{cite web| title = Other Autism Organizations| work = Autism Speaks| accessdate = 2015-11-17| date = 2012-07-25| url = https://www.autismspeaks.org/family-services/resource-library/other-autism-organizations}}</ref> Social-science scholars have had an increased focused on studying those with autism in hopes to learn more about “autism as a culture, transcultural comparisons… and research on social movements.”<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Silverman|first1=Chloe|title=Fieldwork on Another Planet: Social Science Perspectives on the Autism Spectrum|journal=BioSocieties|volume=3|issue=3|year=2008|pages=325–341|issn=1745-8552|doi=10.1017/S1745855208006236}}</ref> Media has had an influence on how the public perceives those with autism. ''[[Rain Man]]'', a film that won 4 Oscars, depicts a character with autism who has incredible talents and abilities.<ref>{{cite web| title = Rain Man (1988) - IMDb| work = IMDb| accessdate = 2015-11-17| url = http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0095953/?ref_=nv_sr_1}}</ref> While many autistics don't have these special abilities, there are some autistic individuals who have been successful in their fields.<ref>{{cite web| title = American RadioWorks: Fast Food and Animal Rights - Kill Them With Kindness, Page 1| work = American Public Media| accessdate = 2015-11-17| url = http://americanradioworks.publicradio.org/features/mcdonalds/grandin1.html}}</ref><ref>{{cite web| last = Page| first = Tim| title = Parallel Play| work = New Yorker| accessdate = 2015-11-17| date = 2007-08-20| url = http://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2007/08/20/parallel-play}}</ref><ref>{{cite web| title = Famous People With Autism Spectrum Disorder: Autistic Celebrities (List)| work = Mental Health Daily| accessdate = 2015-11-18| url = http://mentalhealthdaily.com/2015/09/19/famous-people-with-autism-spectrum-disorder-autistic-celebrities-list/}}</ref> ==Prognosis== There is no known cure.<ref name=CCD/><ref name=Levy/> Children recover occasionally, so that they lose their diagnosis of ASD;<ref name=Helt/> this occurs sometimes after intensive treatment and sometimes not. It is not known how often recovery happens;<ref name=Rogers/> reported rates in unselected samples of children with ASD have ranged from 3% to 25%.<ref name="Helt">{{cite journal | vauthors = Helt M, Kelley E, Kinsbourne M, Pandey J, Boorstein H, Herbert M, Fein D | title = Can children with autism recover? if so, how? | journal = Neuropsychol Rev | volume = 18 | issue = 4 | pages = 339–66 | year = 2008 | pmid = 19009353 | doi = 10.1007/s11065-008-9075-9 | author. = | title. = }}</ref> Most children with autism acquire language by age five or younger, though a few have developed communication skills in later years.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Pickett E, Pullara O, O'Grady J, Gordon B | title = Speech acquisition in older nonverbal individuals with autism: a review of features, methods, and prognosis | journal = Cogn Behav Neurol | volume = 22 | issue = 1 | pages = 1–21 | year = 2009 | pmid = 19372766 | doi = 10.1097/WNN.0b013e318190d185 }}</ref> Most children with autism lack [[social support]], meaningful relationships, future employment opportunities or [[Self-determination theory|self-determination]].<ref name="Burgess">{{cite journal | vauthors = Burgess AF, Gutstein SE |year=2007 |title=Quality of life for people with autism: raising the standard for evaluating successful outcomes |journal=Child Adolesc Ment Health |volume=12 |issue=2 |pages=80–6 |doi=10.1111/j.1475-3588.2006.00432.x |url=http://kingwoodpsychology.com/recent_publications/camh_432.pdf|format=PDF|archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/6M1hUAhUa |archivedate=21 December 2013 }}</ref> Although core difficulties tend to persist, symptoms often become less severe with age.<ref name=Rapin/> Few high-quality studies address long-term [[prognosis]]. Some adults show modest improvement in communication skills, but a few decline; no study has focused on autism after midlife.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Seltzer MM, Shattuck P, Abbeduto L, Greenberg JS | title = Trajectory of development in adolescents and adults with autism | journal = Ment Retard Dev Disabil Res Rev | volume = 10 | issue = 4 | pages = 234–47 | year = 2004 | pmid = 15666341 | doi = 10.1002/mrdd.20038 }}</ref> Acquiring language before age six, having an [[IQ]] above 50, and having a marketable skill all predict better outcomes; [[independent living]] is unlikely with severe autism.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Tidmarsh L, Volkmar FR | title = Diagnosis and epidemiology of autism spectrum disorders | journal = Can J Psychiatry | volume = 48 | issue = 8 | pages = 517–25 | year = 2003 | pmid = 14574827 | url = http://ww1.cpa-apc.org/Publications/Archives/CJP/2003/september/tidmarsh.asp}}</ref> Most people with autism face significant obstacles in transitioning to adulthood.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Hendricks DR, Wehman P | title = Transition From School to Adulthood for Youth With Autism Spectrum Disorders: Review and Recommendations | journal = Focus on Autism and Other Developmental Disabilities | date = 24 March 2009 | volume = 24 | issue = 2 | pages = 77–88 | doi = 10.1177/1088357608329827 }}</ref> ==Epidemiology== {{Main|Epidemiology of autism}} [[File:US-autism-6-17-1996-2007.png|thumb|left|alt=Bar chart versus time. The graph rises steadily from 1996 to 2007, from about 0.7 to about 5.3. The trend curves slightly upward.|Reports of autism cases per 1,000 children grew dramatically in the US from 1996 to 2007. It is unknown how much, if any, growth came from changes in rates of autism.]] Most recent [[review]]s tend to estimate a prevalence of 1–2 per 1,000 for autism and close to 6 per 1,000 for ASD,<ref name="Newschaffer">{{cite journal | vauthors = Newschaffer CJ, Croen LA, Daniels J, Giarelli E, Grether JK, Levy SE, Mandell DS, Miller LA, Pinto-Martin J, Reaven J, Reynolds AM, Rice CE, Schendel D, Windham GC | title = The epidemiology of autism spectrum disorders | journal = Annu Rev Public Health | volume = 28 | pages = 235–58 | year = 2007 | pmid = 17367287 | doi = 10.1146/annurev.publhealth.28.021406.144007 | url = http://idea.library.drexel.edu/bitstream/1860/2632/1/2006175339.pdf | author. = | format = PDF | archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20130903024137/http://idea.library.drexel.edu:80/bitstream/1860/2632/1/2006175339.pdf | archivedate = 3 September 2013 }}</ref> and 11 per 1,000 children in the United States for ASD as of 2008;<ref name=MMWR2012/><ref name=Duchan >{{cite journal | vauthors = Duchan E, Patel DR | title = Epidemiology of autism spectrum disorders | journal = Pediatr. Clin. North Am. | volume = 59 | issue = 1 | pages = 27–43, ix–x | year = 2012 | pmid = 22284791 | doi = 10.1016/j.pcl.2011.10.003 }}</ref> because of inadequate data, these numbers may underestimate ASD's true rate.<ref name=Caronna/> Globally, autism affects an estimated 21.7 million people as of 2013, while Asperger syndrome affects a further 31.1 million.<ref name="Collab" /> In 2012, the [[National Health Service|NHS]] estimated that the overall prevalence of autism among adults aged 18 years and over in the UK was 1.1%.<ref name=NHSEstimating>{{cite web |work= The Information Centre for Health and Social Care |publisher=National Health Service, UK |url=http://www.hscic.gov.uk/catalogue/PUB05061/esti-prev-auti-ext-07-psyc-morb-surv-rep.pdf |author= Brugha T, Cooper SA, McManus S |title= Estimating the prevalence of autism spectrum conditions in adults: extending the 2007 Adult Psychiatric Morbidity Survey |date= 31 January 2012 |accessdate= 29 December 2014|display-authors=etal}}</ref> Rates of [[PDD-NOS]]'s has been estimated at 3.7 per 1,000, Asperger syndrome at roughly 0.6 per 1,000, and [[childhood disintegrative disorder]] at 0.02 per 1,000.<ref name="Fombonne-2009">{{cite journal | vauthors = Fombonne E | title = Epidemiology of pervasive developmental disorders | journal = Pediatr Res | volume = 65 | issue = 6 | pages = 591–8 | year = 2009 | pmid = 19218885 | doi = 10.1203/PDR.0b013e31819e7203 }}</ref> CDC's most recent estimate is that 1 out of every 68 children, or 14.7 per 1,000, has an ASD as of 2010.<ref>[http://www.cdc.gov/ncbddd/autism/index.html CDC | Home | Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) | NCBDDD<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> The number of reported cases of autism increased dramatically in the 1990s and early 2000s. This increase is largely attributable to changes in diagnostic practices, referral patterns, availability of services, age at diagnosis, and public awareness,<ref name=Fombonne-2009/><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Wing L, Potter D | title = The epidemiology of autistic spectrum disorders: is the prevalence rising? | journal = Ment Retard Dev Disabil Res Rev | volume = 8 | issue = 3 | pages = 151–61 | year = 2002 | pmid = 12216059 | doi = 10.1002/mrdd.10029 | title. = }}</ref> though unidentified environmental risk factors cannot be ruled out.<ref name="Rutter">{{cite journal | vauthors = Rutter M | title = Incidence of autism spectrum disorders: changes over time and their meaning | journal = Acta Paediatr | volume = 94 | issue = 1 | pages = 2–15 | year = 2005 | pmid = 15858952 | doi = 10.1111/j.1651-2227.2005.tb01779.x }}</ref> The available evidence does not rule out the possibility that autism's true prevalence has increased;<ref name=Fombonne-2009/> a real increase would suggest directing more attention and funding toward changing environmental factors instead of continuing to focus on genetics.<ref name="Szpir">{{cite journal | vauthors = Szpir M | title = Tracing the origins of autism: a spectrum of new studies | journal = [[Environ Health Perspect]] | volume = 114 | issue = 7 | pages = A412–8 | year = 2006 | pmid = 16835042 | pmc = 1513312 | doi = 10.1289/ehp.114-a412 }}</ref> Boys are at higher risk for ASD than girls. The sex ratio averages 4.3:1 and is greatly modified by cognitive impairment: it may be close to 2:1 with intellectual disability and more than 5.5:1 without.<ref name=Newschaffer/> Several theories about the higher prevalence in males have been investigated, but the cause of the difference is unconfirmed;<ref name=Chaste/> one theory is that females are underdiagnosed.<ref>{{cite journal|author=Schaafsma SM, Pfaf DW|title=Etiologies underlying sex differences in Autism Spectrum Disorders|journal=Frontiers in neuroendocrinology|date=August 2014|volume=35|issue=3|pages=255–71|pmid=24705124|doi=10.1016/j.yfrne.2014.03.006}}</ref> Although the evidence does not implicate any single pregnancy-related risk factor as a cause of autism, the risk of autism is associated with advanced age in either parent, and with diabetes, bleeding, and use of psychiatric drugs in the mother during pregnancy.<ref name=Chaste/><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Gardener H, Spiegelman D, Buka SL | title = Prenatal risk factors for autism: comprehensive meta-analysis | journal = Br J Psychiatry | volume = 195 | issue = 1 | pages = 7–14 | year = 2009 | pmid = 19567888 | pmc = 3712619 | doi = 10.1192/bjp.bp.108.051672 }}</ref> The risk is greater with older fathers than with older mothers; two potential explanations are the known increase in mutation burden in older sperm, and the hypothesis that men marry later if they carry genetic liability and show some signs of autism.<ref name=Geschwind-2009/> Most professionals believe that race, ethnicity, and socioeconomic background do not affect the occurrence of autism.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Bertoglio K, Hendren RL | title = New developments in autism | journal = Psychiatr Clin North Am | volume = 32 | issue = 1 | pages = 1–14 | year = 2009 | pmid = 19248913 | doi = 10.1016/j.psc.2008.10.004 }}</ref> Several other conditions are common in children with autism.<ref name=Levy/> They include: * '''[[Genetic disorder]]s'''. About 10–15% of autism cases have an identifiable [[Mendelian]] (single-gene) condition, [[chromosome abnormality]], or other genetic syndrome,<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Folstein SE, Rosen-Sheidley B | title = Genetics of autism: complex aetiology for a heterogeneous disorder | journal = Nature Reviews Genetics | volume = 2 | issue = 12 | pages = 943–55 | year = 2001 | pmid = 11733747 | doi = 10.1038/35103559 }}</ref> and ASD is associated with several genetic disorders.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Zafeiriou DI, Ververi A, Vargiami E | title = Childhood autism and associated comorbidities | journal = Brain Dev | volume = 29 | issue = 5 | pages = 257–72 | year = 2007 | pmid = 17084999 | doi = 10.1016/j.braindev.2006.09.003 }}</ref> * '''[[Intellectual disability]]'''. The percentage of autistic individuals who also meet criteria for intellectual disability has been reported as anywhere from 25% to 70%, a wide variation illustrating the difficulty of assessing autistic intelligence.<ref>{{vcite book |chapter= Learning in autism |author= Dawson M, Mottron L, Gernsbacher MA |title= Learning and Memory: A Comprehensive Reference |volume=2 |pages=759–72 |editor= Byrne JH (ed.-in-chief), Roediger HL III (vol. ed.) |publisher= Academic Press |year=2008 |doi=10.1016/B978-012370509-9.00152-2 |isbn=978-0-12-370504-4 |chapterurl=http://psych.wisc.edu/lang/pdf/Dawson_AutisticLearning.pdf |accessdate=26 July 2008 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120303191513/http://psych.wisc.edu/lang/pdf/Dawson_AutisticLearning.pdf |archivedate= 3 March 2012}}</ref> In comparison, for PDD-NOS the association with intellectual disability is much weaker,<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Chakrabarti S, Fombonne E | title = Pervasive developmental disorders in preschool children | journal = JAMA | volume = 285 | issue = 24 | pages = 3093–9 | year = 2001 | pmid = 11427137 | doi = 10.1001/jama.285.24.3093 | url = http://jama.ama-assn.org/cgi/content/full/285/24/3093 | archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20100828195243/http://jama.ama-assn.org:80/cgi/content/full/285/24/3093 | archivedate = 28 August 2010 }}</ref> and by definition, the diagnosis of Asperger's excludes intellectual disability.<ref>{{vcite book | title=DSM-IV-TR Diagnostical and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders Fourth edition text revision | publisher=American Psychiatric Association, Washington DC | year=2000 | page=80}}</ref> * '''[[Anxiety disorder]]s''' are common among children with ASD; there are no firm data, but studies have reported prevalences ranging from 11% to 84%. Many anxiety disorders have symptoms that are better explained by ASD itself, or are hard to distinguish from ASD's symptoms.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = White SW, Oswald D, Ollendick T, Scahill L | title = Anxiety in children and adolescents with autism spectrum disorders | journal = Clin Psychol Rev | volume = 29 | issue = 3 | pages = 216–29 | year = 2009 | pmid = 19223098 | pmc = 2692135 | doi = 10.1016/j.cpr.2009.01.003 }}</ref> * '''[[Epilepsy]]''', with variations in risk of epilepsy due to age, cognitive level, and type of [[language disorder]].<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Spence SJ, Schneider MT | title = The role of epilepsy and epileptiform EEGs in autism spectrum disorders | journal = Pediatr Res | volume = 65 | issue = 6 | pages = 599–606 | year = 2009 | pmid = 19454962 | pmc = 2692092 | doi = 10.1203/PDR.0b013e31819e7168 }}</ref> * Several '''[[metabolic defect]]s''', such as [[phenylketonuria]], are associated with autistic symptoms.<ref name="Manzi">{{cite journal | vauthors = Manzi B, Loizzo AL, Giana G, Curatolo P | title = Autism and metabolic diseases | journal = J Child Neurol | volume = 23 | issue = 3 | pages = 307–14 | year = 2008 | pmid = 18079313 | doi = 10.1177/0883073807308698 }}</ref> * '''[[Minor physical anomalies]]''' are significantly increased in the autistic population.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Ozgen HM, Hop JW, Hox JJ, Beemer FA, van Engeland H | title = Minor physical anomalies in autism: a meta-analysis | journal = Mol Psychiatry | volume = 15 | issue = 3 | pages = 300–7 | year = 2010 | pmid = 18626481 | doi = 10.1038/mp.2008.75 }}</ref> * '''Preempted diagnoses'''. Although the DSM-IV rules out concurrent diagnosis of many other conditions along with autism, the full criteria for [[Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder|Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)]], [[Tourette syndrome]], and other of these conditions are often present and these [[Conditions comorbid to autism spectrum disorders|comorbid diagnoses]] are increasingly accepted.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Steyaert JG, De la Marche W | title = What's new in autism? | journal = Eur J Pediatr | volume = 167 | issue = 10 | pages = 1091–101 | year = 2008 | pmid = 18597114 | doi = 10.1007/s00431-008-0764-4 | title. = }}</ref> * '''Sleep problems''' affect about two-thirds of individuals with ASD at some point in childhood. These most commonly include symptoms of [[insomnia]] such as difficulty in falling asleep, frequent [[middle-of-the-night insomnia|nocturnal awakenings]], and early morning awakenings. Sleep problems are associated with difficult behaviors and family stress, and are often a focus of clinical attention over and above the primary ASD diagnosis.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Richdale AL, Schreck KA | title = Sleep problems in autism spectrum disorders: prevalence, nature, & possible biopsychosocial aetiologies | journal = Sleep Med Rev | volume = 13 | issue = 6 | pages = 403–11 | year = 2009 | pmid = 19398354 | doi = 10.1016/j.smrv.2009.02.003 }}</ref> ==History== {{further|History of Asperger syndrome}} [[File:Leo-Kanner.jpeg|thumb|upright|alt=Head and shoulders of a man in his early 60s in coat and tie, facing slightly to his right. He is balding and has a serious but slightly smiling expression.|[[Leo Kanner]] introduced the label ''early infantile autism'' in 1943.]] A few examples of autistic symptoms and treatments were described long before autism was named. The ''[[Table Talk (Luther)|Table Talk]]'' of [[Martin Luther]], compiled by his notetaker, Mathesius, contains the story of a 12-year-old boy who may have been severely autistic.<ref>{{cite journal |journal=Autism |volume=1 |issue=1 |pages=13–23 |year=1997 |doi=10.1177/1362361397011004 |title=The history of ideas on autism: legends, myths and reality | vauthors = Wing L | author-link1 = Lorna Wing }}</ref> Luther reportedly thought the boy was a soulless mass of flesh possessed by the devil, and suggested that he be suffocated, although a later critic has cast doubt on the veracity of this report.<ref>{{cite web |author=Miles M |year=2005 |title=Martin Luther and childhood disability in 16th century Germany: what did he write? what did he say? |title.= |publisher=Independent Living Institute |url=http://www.independentliving.org/docs7/miles2005b.html |accessdate=23 December 2008 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20131103210840/http://www.independentliving.org/docs7/miles2005b.html |archivedate=3 November 2013 }}</ref> The earliest well-documented case of autism is that of Hugh Blair of Borgue, as detailed in a 1747 court case in which his brother successfully petitioned to annul Blair's marriage to gain Blair's inheritance.<ref>{{vcite book |author=Houston R, Frith U |title=Autism in History: The Case of Hugh Blair of Borgue |year=2000 |publisher=Blackwell |isbn=978-0-631-22089-3 }}</ref> The [[Wild Boy of Aveyron]], a [[feral child]] caught in 1798, showed several signs of autism; the medical student [[Jean Marc Gaspard Itard|Jean Itard]] treated him with a behavioral program designed to help him form social attachments and to induce speech via imitation.<ref name="Wolff">{{cite journal | vauthors = Wolff S | title = The history of autism | journal = Eur Child Adolesc Psychiatry | volume = 13 | issue = 4 | pages = 201–8 | year = 2004 | pmid = 15365889 | doi = 10.1007/s00787-004-0363-5 }}</ref> The [[New Latin]] word ''autismus'' (English translation ''autism'') was coined by the [[Swiss]] psychiatrist [[Eugen Bleuler]] in 1910 as he was defining symptoms of [[schizophrenia]]. He derived it from the Greek word ''autós'' (αὐτός, meaning "self"), and used it to mean morbid self-admiration, referring to "autistic withdrawal of the patient to his fantasies, against which any influence from outside becomes an intolerable disturbance".<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Kuhn R | title = Eugen Bleuler's concepts of psychopathology | journal = Hist Psychiatry | volume = 15 | issue = 3 | pages = 361–6 | year = 2004 | pmid = 15386868 | doi = 10.1177/0957154X04044603 }} The quote is a translation of Bleuler's 1910 original.</ref> The word ''autism'' first took its modern sense in 1938 when [[Hans Asperger]] of the [[Vienna General Hospital|Vienna University Hospital]] adopted Bleuler's terminology ''autistic psychopaths'' in a lecture in German about [[child psychology]].<ref>{{cite journal | journal=Wien Klin Wochenschr |year=1938 |volume=51 |pages=1314–7 | title = Das psychisch abnormale Kind |trans_title=The psychically abnormal child | vauthors = Asperger H | author-link1 = Hans Asperger | language=German }}</ref> Asperger was investigating an ASD now known as [[Asperger syndrome]], though for various reasons it was not widely recognized as a separate diagnosis until 1981.<ref name=Wolff/> [[Leo Kanner]] of the [[Johns Hopkins Hospital]] first used ''autism'' in its modern sense in English when he introduced the label ''early infantile autism'' in a 1943 report of 11 children with striking behavioral similarities.<ref name="Kanner1943">{{cite journal | vauthors = Kanner L | author-link1 = Leo Kanner |title=Autistic disturbances of affective contact |journal=Nerv Child |volume=2 |pages=217–50 |year=1943 }} Reprinted in {{cite journal | vauthors = Kanner L | title = Autistic disturbances of affective contact | journal = Acta Paedopsychiatr | volume = 35 | issue = 4 | pages = 100–36 | year = 1968 | pmid = 4880460 }}</ref> Almost all the characteristics described in Kanner's first paper on the subject, notably "autistic aloneness" and "insistence on sameness", are still regarded as typical of the autistic spectrum of disorders.<ref name=HappeTime/> It is not known whether Kanner derived the term independently of Asperger.<ref name="Lyons">{{cite journal | vauthors = Lyons V, Fitzgerald M | title = Asperger (1906–1980) and Kanner (1894–1981), the two pioneers of autism | journal = J Autism Dev Disord | volume = 37 | issue = 10 | pages = 2022–3 | year = 2007 | pmid = 17922179 | doi = 10.1007/s10803-007-0383-3 }}</ref> Kanner's reuse of ''autism'' led to decades of confused terminology like ''infantile schizophrenia'', and child psychiatry's focus on maternal deprivation led to misconceptions of autism as an infant's response to "[[refrigerator mother]]s". Starting in the late 1960s autism was established as a separate syndrome by demonstrating that it is lifelong, distinguishing it from intellectual disability and schizophrenia and from other developmental disorders, and demonstrating the benefits of involving parents in active programs of therapy.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Fombonne E | title = Modern views of autism | journal = Can J Psychiatry | volume = 48 | issue = 8 | pages = 503–5 | year = 2003 | pmid = 14574825 | url = http://ww1.cpa-apc.org/Publications/Archives/CJP/2003/september/guesteditorial.asp}}</ref> As late as the mid-1970s there was little evidence of a genetic role in autism; now it is thought to be one of the most heritable of all psychiatric conditions.<ref>{{vcite book |chapter=Genetic epidemiology of autism spectrum disorders |author=[[Peter Szatmari|Szatmari P]], Jones MB |pages=157–78 |title=Autism and Pervasive Developmental Disorders |edition=2nd |editor=Volkmar FR |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2007 |isbn=978-0-521-54957-8 }}</ref> Although the rise of parent organizations and the destigmatization of childhood ASD have deeply affected how we view ASD,<ref name=Wolff/> parents continue to feel [[social stigma]] in situations where their child's autistic behavior is perceived negatively by others,<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Chambres P, Auxiette C, Vansingle C, Gil S | title = Adult attitudes toward behaviors of a six-year-old boy with autism | journal = J Autism Dev Disord | volume = 38 | issue = 7 | pages = 1320–7 | year = 2008 | pmid = 18297387 | doi = 10.1007/s10803-007-0519-5 }}</ref> and many [[primary care physician]]s and [[medical specialist]]s still express some beliefs consistent with outdated autism research.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Heidgerken AD, Geffken G, Modi A, Frakey L | title = A survey of autism knowledge in a health care setting | journal = J Autism Dev Disord | volume = 35 | issue = 3 | pages = 323–30 | year = 2005 | pmid = 16119473 | doi = 10.1007/s10803-005-3298-x }}</ref> The Internet has helped autistic individuals bypass nonverbal cues and emotional sharing that they find so hard to deal with, and has given them a way to form online communities and work remotely.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Biever C | title = Web removes social barriers for those with autism |journal=New Sci |issue=2610 |pages=26–7 |date=2007 |url=http://www.newscientist.com/article/mg19426106.100 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20121020165135/http://www.newscientist.com/article/mg19426106.100 |archivedate=20 October 2012 }}</ref> [[Sociological and cultural aspects of autism]] have developed: some in the community seek a cure, while others believe that [[Neurodiversity|autism is simply another way of being]].<ref name="Silverman">{{cite journal |journal=Biosocieties |year=2008 |volume=3 |issue=3 |pages=325–41 |title=Fieldwork on another planet: social science perspectives on the autism spectrum | vauthors = Silverman C |doi=10.1017/S1745855208006236 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |author=Harmon A |title=How about not 'curing' us, some autistics are pleading |date=20 December 2004 |work=The New York Times |url=http://www.nytimes.com/2004/12/20/health/20autism.html |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130511002649/http://www.nytimes.com/2004/12/20/health/20autism.html |archivedate=11 May 2013 }}</ref> ==References== {{reflist|32em}} ==Further reading== *{{vcite book|author=Sicile-Kira, C|title=Autism spectrum disorder: the complete guide to understanding autism|date=2014|publisher=Perigee|location=New York, New York|isbn=978-0-399-16663-1|edition=Revised Perigee trade paperback}} *{{vcite book|author=Waltz, M|title=Autism: A Social and Medical History|date=22 March 2013|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan|isbn=978-0-230-52750-8|edition=1st}} *{{vcite book|author=[[Steve Silberman|Silberman, S]]|title=NeuroTribes: The Legacy of Autism and How to Think Smarter About People Who Think Differently|date=2015|publisher=[[Allen & Unwin]]|location=Crows Nest, New South Wales|isbn=978-1-760-11363-6|edition=1st}} ==External links== {{Sister project links|d=Q38404|s=no|n=Category:Autism|wikt=autism|species=no|voy=no|m=no|mw=no|q=no|v=no}} * {{dmoz|Health/Mental_Health/Disorders/Neurodevelopmental/Autism_Spectrum}} {{featured article}} {{Pervasive developmental disorders}} {{Mental and behavioral disorders|selected = childhood}} {{Autism resources}} {{Autism films}} {{Portal bar|Pervasive developmental disorders}} [[Category:Autism| ]] [[Category:Communication disorders]] [[Category:Mental and behavioural disorders]] [[Category:Neurological disorders]] [[Category:Neurological disorders in children]] [[Category:Pervasive developmental disorders]] [[Category:Psychiatric diagnosis]] s63eaoxbv6r44zxfvr4d0kvgjebiys7 0 27 74467016 15898960 2006-09-08T04:18:56Z Rory096 750223 cat rd wikitext text/x-wiki #REDIRECT [[History of Albania]] {{R from CamelCase}} 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Did it miss something? Report bugs, errors, and suggestions at [[User talk:Bibcode Bot]] wikitext text/x-wiki {{Other uses}} {{Use dmy dates|date=June 2013}} [[File:Albedo-e hg.svg|thumb|Percentage of diffusely reflected sunlight in relation to various surface conditions]] '''Albedo''' ({{IPAc-en|æ|l|ˈ|b|iː|d|oʊ}}) or '''reflection coefficient''', derived from [[Latin]] ''albedo'' "whiteness" (or reflected sunlight) in turn from ''albus'' "white", is the [[diffuse reflection|diffuse reflectivity]] or reflecting power of a surface. It is the ratio of reflected radiation from the surface to incident radiation upon it. Its [[Dimensionless number|dimensionless]] nature lets it be expressed as a percentage and is measured on a scale from zero for no reflection of a perfectly black surface to 1 for perfect reflection of a white surface. NOTE: Since it is the ratio of all reflected radiation to incident radiation it will include the diffuse AND the specular radiation reflected. It is, however, common to assume a surface reflects in either a totally specular manner or a totally diffuse manner, as this can simplify calculations. Albedo depends on the [[frequency]] of the radiation. When quoted unqualified, it usually refers to some appropriate average across the spectrum of [[visible light]]. In general, the albedo depends on the directional distribution of incident radiation, except for [[Lambertian reflectance|Lambertian surfaces]], which scatter radiation in all directions according to a cosine function and therefore have an albedo that is independent of the incident distribution. In practice, a [[bidirectional reflectance distribution function]] (BRDF) may be required to accurately characterize the scattering properties of a surface, but albedo is very useful as a first approximation. The albedo is an important concept in [[climatology]], [[astronomy]], and calculating [[reflectivity]] of surfaces in [[Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design|LEED]] sustainable-rating systems for buildings. The average overall albedo of Earth, its ''planetary albedo'', is 30 to 35% because of cloud cover, but widely varies locally across the surface because of different geological and environmental features.<ref>Environmental Encyclopedia, 3rd ed., Thompson Gale, 2003, ISBN 0-7876-5486-8</ref> The term was introduced into optics by [[Johann Heinrich Lambert]] in his 1760 work ''[[Photometria]]''. ==Terrestrial albedo== {| class="wikitable" style="float:right; margin:10px" |+ Sample albedos |- ! Surface ! Typical<br>albedo |- | Fresh asphalt || 0.04<ref name="heat island">{{cite web | last=Pon | first=Brian | date=30 June 1999 | url=http://eetd.lbl.gov/HeatIsland/Pavements/Albedo/ | title=Pavement Albedo | publisher=Heat Island Group | accessdate=27 August 2007 | archiveurl= http://web.archive.org/web/20070829153207/http://eetd.lbl.gov/HeatIsland/Pavements/Albedo/| archivedate= 29 August 2007<!--Added by DASHBot-->}}</ref> |- | Worn asphalt || 0.12<ref name="heat island"/> |- | Conifer forest<br>(Summer) || 0.08,<ref name="Betts 1">{{Cite journal | author=Alan K. Betts | author2=John H. Ball | title=Albedo over the boreal forest | journal=Journal of Geophysical | date=1997 | volume=102 | issue=D24 | pages=28,901–28,910 | url=http://www.agu.org/pubs/crossref/1997/96JD03876.shtml | accessdate=27 August 2007 | doi=10.1029/96JD03876 |bibcode = 1997JGR...10228901B | archiveurl= http://web.archive.org/web/20070930184719/http://www.agu.org/pubs/crossref/1997/96JD03876.shtml| archivedate= 30 September 2007<!--Added by DASHBot-->}}</ref> 0.09 to 0.15<ref name="mmutrees"/> |- | [[Deciduous trees]] || 0.15 to 0.18<ref name="mmutrees"/> |- | Bare soil || 0.17<ref name="markvart">{{Cite book | author=Tom Markvart | author2=Luis CastaŁżer | date=2003 | title=Practical Handbook of Photovoltaics: Fundamentals and Applications | publisher=Elsevier | isbn=1-85617-390-9 }}</ref> |- | Green grass || 0.25<ref name="markvart"/> |- | Desert sand || 0.40<ref name="Tetzlaff">{{Cite book | first=G. | last=Tetzlaff | date=1983 | title=Albedo of the Sahara | work=Cologne University Satellite Measurement of Radiation Budget Parameters | pages=60–63 }}</ref> |- | New concrete || 0.55<ref name="markvart"/> |- | Ocean ice|| 0.5–0.7<ref name="markvart"/> |- | Fresh snow || 0.80–0.90<ref name="markvart"/> |} Albedos of typical materials in visible light range from up to 0.9 for fresh snow to about 0.04 for charcoal, one of the darkest substances. Deeply shadowed cavities can achieve an effective albedo approaching the zero of a [[black body]]. When seen from a distance, the ocean surface has a low albedo, as do most forests, whereas desert areas have some of the highest albedos among landforms. Most land areas are in an albedo range of 0.1 to 0.4.<ref name="PhysicsWorld">{{cite web|url=http://scienceworld.wolfram.com/physics/Albedo.html |title=Albedo – from Eric Weisstein's World of Physics |publisher=Scienceworld.wolfram.com |accessdate=19 August 2011}}</ref> The average albedo of [[Earth]] is about 0.3.<ref name="Goode"/> This is far higher than for the ocean primarily because of the contribution of clouds. [[File:Ceres 2003 2004 clear sky total sky albedo.png|thumb|200px|left|2003–2004 mean annual clear-sky and total-sky albedo]] Earth's surface albedo is regularly estimated via [[Earth observation]] satellite sensors such as [[NASA]]'s [[MODIS]] instruments on board the [[Terra (satellite)|Terra]] and [[Aqua (satellite)|Aqua]] satellites. As the total amount of reflected radiation cannot be directly measured by satellite, a [[mathematical model]] of the BRDF is used to translate a sample set of satellite reflectance measurements into estimates of [[directional-hemispherical reflectance]] and bi-hemispherical reflectance (e.g.<ref name="NASA"/>). Earth's average surface temperature due to its albedo and the [[greenhouse effect]] is currently about 15&nbsp;°C. If Earth were frozen entirely (and hence be more reflective) the average temperature of the planet would drop below −40&nbsp;°C.<ref name="washington" /> If only the continental land masses became covered by glaciers, the mean temperature of the planet would drop to about 0&nbsp;°C.<ref name="clim-past"/> In contrast, if the entire Earth is covered by water—a so-called aquaplanet—the average temperature on the planet would rise to just under 27&nbsp;°C.<ref name="Smith Robin"/> ===White-sky and black-sky albedo=== It has been shown that for many applications involving terrestrial albedo, the albedo at a particular [[solar zenith angle]] ''θ''_''i'' can reasonably be approximated by the proportionate sum of two terms: the directional-hemispherical reflectance at that solar zenith angle, <math>{\bar \alpha(\theta_i)}</math>, and the bi-hemispherical reflectance, <math>\bar{ \bar \alpha}</math> the proportion concerned being defined as the proportion of diffuse illumination <math>{D}</math>. Albedo <math>{\alpha}</math> can then be given as: :<math>{\alpha}= (1-D) \bar \alpha(\theta_i) + D \bar{ \bar \alpha}.</math> [[Directional-hemispherical reflectance]] is sometimes referred to as black-sky albedo and [[bi-hemispherical reflectance]] as white-sky albedo. These terms are important because they allow the albedo to be calculated for any given illumination conditions from a knowledge of the intrinsic properties of the surface.<ref name="BlueskyAlbedo"/> ==Astronomical albedo== The albedos of [[planet]]s, [[Natural satellite|satellites]] and [[asteroid]]s can be used to infer much about their properties. The study of albedos, their dependence on wavelength, lighting angle ("phase angle"), and variation in time comprises a major part of the astronomical field of [[photometry (astronomy)|photometry]]. For small and far objects that cannot be resolved by telescopes, much of what we know comes from the study of their albedos. For example, the absolute albedo can indicate the surface ice content of outer [[Solar System]] objects, the variation of albedo with phase angle gives information about [[regolith]] properties, whereas unusually high radar albedo is indicative of high metal content in [[asteroid]]s. [[Enceladus]], a moon of Saturn, has one of the highest known albedos of any body in the Solar System, with 99% of EM radiation reflected. Another notable high-albedo body is [[Eris (dwarf planet)|Eris]], with an albedo of 0.96.<ref name="sicardy"> {{cite journal | title = Size, density, albedo and atmosphere limit of dwarf planet Eris from a stellar occultation | journal = European Planetary Science Congress Abstracts | volume = 6 | date = 2011 | url = http://meetingorganizer.copernicus.org/EPSC-DPS2011/EPSC-DPS2011-137-8.pdf | accessdate = 14 September 2011 | bibcode = 2011epsc.conf..137S | author1 = Sicardy | first1 = B. | last2 = Ortiz | first2 = J. L. | last3 = Assafin | first3 = M. | last4 = Jehin | first4 = E. | last5 = Maury | first5 = A. | last6 = Lellouch | first6 = E. | last7 = Gil-Hutton | first7 = R. | last8 = Braga-Ribas | first8 = F. | last9 = Colas | first9 = F. | page = 137 | displayauthors=8 }} </ref> Many small objects in the outer Solar System<ref name="tnoalbedo">{{cite web |date=17 September 2008 |title=TNO/Centaur diameters and albedos |publisher=Johnston's Archive |author=Wm. Robert Johnston |url=http://www.johnstonsarchive.net/astro/tnodiam.html |accessdate=17 October 2008| archiveurl= http://web.archive.org/web/20081022223827/http://www.johnstonsarchive.net/astro/tnodiam.html| archivedate= 22 October 2008<!--Added by DASHBot-->}}</ref> and [[asteroid belt]] have low albedos down to about 0.05.<ref name="astalbedo">{{cite web |date=28 June 2003 |title=Asteroid albedos: graphs of data |publisher=Johnston's Archive |author=Wm. Robert Johnston |url=http://www.johnstonsarchive.net/astro/astalbedo.html |accessdate=16 June 2008| archiveurl= http://web.archive.org/web/20080517100307/http://www.johnstonsarchive.net/astro/astalbedo.html| archivedate= 17 May 2008<!--Added by DASHBot-->}}</ref> A typical [[comet nucleus]] has an albedo of 0.04.<ref name="dark">{{cite web |date=29 November 2001 |title=Comet Borrelly Puzzle: Darkest Object in the Solar System |publisher=Space.com |author=Robert Roy Britt |url=http://www.space.com/scienceastronomy/solarsystem/borrelly_dark_011129.html |accessdate=1 September 2012| archiveurl= http://web.archive.org/web/20090122074028/http://www.space.com/scienceastronomy/solarsystem/borrelly_dark_011129.html| archivedate= 22 January 2009}}</ref> Such a dark surface is thought to be indicative of a primitive and heavily [[space weathering|space weathered]] surface containing some [[organic compound]]s. The overall albedo of the [[Moon]] is measured to be around 0.136,<ref name="CERESmoon"> {{cite journal | title = Celestial body irradiance determination from an underfilled satellite radiometer: application to albedo and thermal emission measurements of the Moon using CERES | journal = Applied Optics | volume = 47(27) | date = 2008 | bibcode = 10.1364/AO.47.004981 | author1 = Matthews | first1 = G. | pages = 4981–4993 | displayauthors=1 |doi = 10.1364/AO.47.004981 }} </ref> but it is strongly directional and non-Lambertian, displaying also a strong [[opposition effect]].<ref name="medkeff" /> Although such reflectance properties are different from those of any terrestrial terrains, they are typical of the [[regolith]] surfaces of airless Solar System bodies. Two common albedos that are used in astronomy are the (V-band) [[geometric albedo]] (measuring brightness when illumination comes from directly behind the observer) and the [[Bond albedo]] (measuring total proportion of electromagnetic energy reflected). Their values can differ significantly, which is a common source of confusion. In detailed studies, the directional reflectance properties of astronomical bodies are often expressed in terms of the five [[Hapke parameters]] which semi-empirically describe the variation of albedo with [[phase angle (astronomy)|phase angle]], including a characterization of the opposition effect of [[regolith]] surfaces. The correlation between astronomical (geometric) albedo, [[Absolute magnitude#Absolute magnitude for planets (H)|absolute magnitude]] and diameter is:<ref name="bruton">{{cite web |title=Conversion of Absolute Magnitude to Diameter for Minor Planets |publisher=Department of Physics & Astronomy (Stephen F. Austin State University) |author=Dan Bruton |url=http://www.physics.sfasu.edu/astro/asteroids/sizemagnitude.html |accessdate=7 October 2008| archiveurl= http://web.archive.org/web/20081210190134/http://www.physics.sfasu.edu/astro/asteroids/sizemagnitude.html| archivedate= 10 December 2008<!--Added by DASHBot-->}}</ref> <math>A =\left ( \frac{1329\times10^{-H/5}}{D} \right ) ^2</math>, where <math>A</math> is the astronomical albedo, <math>D</math> is the diameter in kilometers, and <math>H</math> is the absolute magnitude. ==Examples of terrestrial albedo effects== ===Illumination=== Although the albedo–temperature effect is best known in colder, whiter regions on Earth, the maximum albedo is actually found in the tropics where year-round illumination is greater. The maximum is additionally in the northern hemisphere, varying between three and twelve degrees north.<ref name=Winston>{{cite journal| first=Jay |last=Winston |title=The Annual Course of Zonal Mean Albedo as Derived From ESSA 3 and 5 Digitized Picture Data |journal=Monthly Weather Review |volume=99 |pages=818–827| bibcode=1971MWRv...99..818W| date=1971| doi=10.1175/1520-0493(1971)099<0818:TACOZM>2.3.CO;2| issue=11}}</ref> The minima are found in the subtropical regions of the northern and southern hemispheres, beyond which albedo increases without respect to illumination.<ref name=Winston/> ===Insolation effects === The intensity of albedo temperature effects depend on the amount of albedo and the level of local [[insolation]] (solar irradiance); high albedo areas in the [[arctic]] and [[antarctic]] regions are cold due to low insolation, where areas such as the [[Sahara Desert]], which also have a relatively high albedo, will be hotter due to high insolation. [[Tropical]] and [[sub-tropical]] [[rain forest]] areas have low albedo, and are much hotter than their [[temperate forest]] counterparts, which have lower insolation. Because insolation plays such a big role in the heating and cooling effects of albedo, high insolation areas like the tropics will tend to show a more pronounced fluctuation in local temperature when local albedo changes. {{citation needed|date=November 2013}} ===Climate and weather=== Albedo affects [[climate]] and drives [[weather]]. All weather is a result of the uneven heating of Earth caused by different areas of the planet having different albedos. Essentially, for the driving of weather, there are two types of albedo regions on Earth: Land and ocean. Land and ocean regions produce the four basic different types of [[air masses]], depending on latitude and therefore [[insolation]]: Warm and dry, which form over tropical and sub-tropical land masses; warm and wet, which form over tropical and sub-tropical oceans; cold and dry which form over temperate, polar and sub-polar land masses; and cold and wet, which form over temperate, polar and sub-polar oceans. Different temperatures between the air masses result in different air pressures, and the masses develop into [[pressure systems]]. High pressure systems flow toward lower pressure, driving weather from north to south in the northern hemisphere, and south to north in the lower; however due to the spinning of Earth, the [[Coriolis effect]] further complicates flow and creates several weather/climate bands and the [[jet stream]]s. ===Albedo–temperature feedback=== When an area's albedo changes due to snowfall, a snow–temperature [[feedback]] results. A layer of snowfall increases local albedo, reflecting away sunlight, leading to local cooling. In principle, if no outside temperature change affects this area (e.g. a warm [[air mass]]), the raised albedo and lower temperature would maintain the current snow and invite further snowfall, deepening the snow–temperature feedback. However, because local [[weather]] is dynamic due to the change of [[season]]s, eventually warm air masses and a more direct angle of sunlight (higher [[insolation]]) cause melting. When the melted area reveals surfaces with lower albedo, such as grass or soil, the effect is reversed: the darkening surface lowers albedo, increasing local temperatures, which induces more melting and thus reducing the albedo further, resulting in still more heating. ===Snow=== Snow albedo is highly variable, ranging from as high as 0.9 for freshly fallen snow, to about 0.4 for melting snow, and as low as 0.2 for dirty snow.<ref>Hall, D.K. and Martinec, J. (1985), Remote sensing of ice and snow. Chapman and Hall, New York, 189 pp.</ref> Over [[Antarctica]] they average a little more than 0.8. If a marginally snow-covered area warms, snow tends to melt, lowering the albedo, and hence leading to more snowmelt because more radiation is being absorbed by the snowpack (the ice–albedo [[positive feedback]]). [[Cryoconite]], powdery windblown [[dust]] containing soot, sometimes reduces albedo on glaciers and ice sheets.<ref name = "Nat. Geo">[http://ngm.nationalgeographic.com/2010/06/melt-zone/jenkins-text/3 "Changing Greenland – Melt Zone"] page 3, of 4, article by Mark Jenkins in ''[[National Geographic (magazine)|National Geographic]]'' June 2010, accessed 8 July 2010</ref> Hence, small errors in albedo can lead to large errors in energy estimates, which is why it is important to measure the albedo of snow-covered areas through remote sensing techniques rather than applying a single value over broad regions. ===Small-scale effects=== Albedo works on a smaller scale, too. In sunlight, dark clothes absorb more heat and light-coloured clothes reflect it better, thus allowing some control over body temperature by exploiting the albedo effect of the colour of external clothing.<ref name="ranknfile-ue">{{cite web|url=http://www.ranknfile-ue.org/h&s0897.html |title=Health and Safety: Be Cool! (August 1997) |publisher=Ranknfile-ue.org |accessdate=19 August 2011}}</ref> === Solar photovoltaic effects === Albedo can affect the [[electrical energy]] output of solar [[photovoltaic system|photovoltaic device]]s. For example, the effects of a spectrally responsive albedo are illustrated by the differences between the spectrally weighted albedo of solar photovoltaic technology based on hydrogenated amorphous silicon (a-Si:H) and crystalline silicon (c-Si)-based compared to traditional spectral-integrated albedo predictions. Research showed impacts of over 10%.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Andrews | first1 = Rob W. | last2 = Pearce | first2 = Joshua M. | date = 2013 | title = The effect of spectral albedo on amorphous silicon and crystalline silicon solar photovoltaic device performance | journal = Solar Energy | volume = 91 | pages = 233–241 | doi = 10.1016/j.solener.2013.01.030 |bibcode = 2013SoEn...91..233A }}</ref> More recently, the analysis was extended to the effects of spectral bias due to the specular reflectivity of 22 commonly occurring surface materials (both human-made and natural) and analyzes the albedo effects on the performance of seven photovoltaic materials covering three common photovoltaic system topologies: industrial (solar farms), commercial flat rooftops and residential pitched-roof applications.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Brennan | first1 = M.P. | authorlink4 = J. M. Pearce | last2 = Abramase | first2 = A.L. | last3 = Andrews | first3 = R.W. | last4 = Pearce | first4 = J. M. | date = 2014 | title = Effects of spectral albedo on solar photovoltaic devices | journal = Solar Energy Materials and Solar Cells | volume = 124 | pages = 111–116 | doi = 10.1016/j.solmat.2014.01.046 }}</ref> ===Trees=== Because forests generally have a low albedo, (the majority of the ultraviolet and [[visible spectrum]] is absorbed through [[photosynthesis]]), some scientists have suggested that greater heat absorption by trees could offset some of the carbon benefits of afforestation (or offset the negative climate impacts of [[deforestation]]). In the case of evergreen forests with seasonal snow cover albedo reduction may be great enough for deforestation to cause a net cooling effect.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Betts | first1 = RA | date = 2000 | title = Offset of the potential carbon sink from boreal forestation by decreases in surface albedo | journal = Nature | volume = 408 | issue = 6809| pages = 187–190 | doi = 10.1038/35041545 | pmid=11089969|bibcode = 2000Natur.408..187B }}</ref> Trees also impact climate in extremely complicated ways through [[evapotranspiration]]. The water vapor causes cooling on the land surface, causes heating where it condenses, acts a strong greenhouse gas, and can increase albedo when it condenses into clouds<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Boucher | date = 2004 | title = Direct human influence of irrigation on atmospheric water vapour and climate | journal = Climate Dynamics | volume = 22 | issue = 6–7| pages = 597–603 | doi=10.1007/s00382-004-0402-4|display-authors=etal|bibcode = 2004ClDy...22..597B }}</ref> Scientists generally treat evapotranspiration as a net cooling impact, and the net climate impact of albedo and evapotranspiration changes from deforestation depends greatly on local climate <ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Bonan | first1 = GB | date = 2008 | title = Forests and Climate Change: Forcings, Feedbacks, and the Climate Benefits of Forests | journal = Science | volume = 320 | issue = 5882| pages = 1444–1449 | doi = 10.1126/science.1155121 | pmid=18556546|bibcode = 2008Sci...320.1444B }}</ref> In seasonally snow-covered zones, winter albedos of treeless areas are 10% to 50% higher than nearby forested areas because snow does not cover the trees as readily. [[Deciduous trees]] have an albedo value of about 0.15 to 0.18 whereas [[coniferous trees]] have a value of about 0.09 to 0.15.<ref name="mmutrees" /> Studies by the [[Hadley Centre]] have investigated the relative (generally warming) effect of albedo change and (cooling) effect of [[carbon sequestration]] on planting forests. They found that new forests in tropical and midlatitude areas tended to cool; new forests in high latitudes (e.g. Siberia) were neutral or perhaps warming.<ref name="Betts" /> ===Water=== Water reflects light very differently from typical terrestrial materials. The reflectivity of a water surface is calculated using the [[Fresnel equations]] (see graph). [[File:water reflectivity.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Reflectivity of smooth water at 20&nbsp;°C (refractive index=1.333)]] At the scale of the wavelength of light even wavy water is always smooth so the light is reflected in a locally [[specular reflection|specular manner]] (not [[Diffuse reflection|diffusely]]). The glint of light off water is a commonplace effect of this. At small [[angle of incidence (optics)|angles of incident]] light, [[waviness]] results in reduced reflectivity because of the steepness of the reflectivity-vs.-incident-angle curve and a locally increased average incident angle.<ref name="Fresnel" /> Although the reflectivity of water is very low at low and medium angles of incident light, it becomes very high at high angles of incident light such as those that occur on the illuminated side of Earth near the [[terminator (solar)|terminator]] (early morning, late afternoon, and near the poles). However, as mentioned above, waviness causes an appreciable reduction. Because light specularly reflected from water does not usually reach the viewer, water is usually considered to have a very low albedo in spite of its high reflectivity at high angles of incident light. Note that white caps on waves look white (and have high albedo) because the water is foamed up, so there are many superimposed bubble surfaces which reflect, adding up their reflectivities. Fresh 'black' ice exhibits Fresnel reflection. ===Clouds=== [[Cloud albedo]] has substantial influence over atmospheric temperatures. Different types of clouds exhibit different reflectivity, theoretically ranging in albedo from a minimum of near 0 to a maximum approaching 0.8. "On any given day, about half of Earth is covered by clouds, which reflect more sunlight than land and water. Clouds keep Earth cool by reflecting sunlight, but they can also serve as blankets to trap warmth."<ref name="livescience">{{cite web|url=http://www.livescience.com/environment/060124_earth_albedo.html |title=Baffled Scientists Say Less Sunlight Reaching Earth |publisher=LiveScience |date=24 January 2006 |accessdate=19 August 2011}}</ref> Albedo and climate in some areas are affected by artificial clouds, such as those created by the [[contrail]]s of heavy commercial airliner traffic.<ref>{{cite journal|title=Contrails reduce daily temperature range|url=http://facstaff.uww.edu/travisd/pdf/jetcontrailsrecentresearch.pdf|journal=Nature |accessdate=7 July 2015|archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20060503192714/http://facstaff.uww.edu/travisd/pdf/jetcontrailsrecentresearch.pdf|archivedate=3 May 2006|page=601|volume=418|format=PDF|date=8 August 2002|deadurl=yes|doi=10.1038/418601a|bibcode = 2002Natur.418..601T }}</ref> A study following the burning of the Kuwaiti oil fields during Iraqi occupation showed that temperatures under the burning oil fires were as much as 10&nbsp;°C colder than temperatures several miles away under clear skies.<ref name="harvard">{{cite journal |title=The Kuwait oil fires as seen by Landsat |publisher=Adsabs.harvard.edu |date=30 May 1991|bibcode=1992JGR....9714565C |author1=Cahalan |first1=Robert F. |volume=97 |page=14565 |journal=Journal of Geophysical Research |doi=10.1029/92JD00799}}</ref> ===Aerosol effects=== [[Aerosols]] (very fine particles/droplets in the atmosphere) have both direct and indirect effects on Earth's radiative balance. The direct (albedo) effect is generally to cool the planet; the indirect effect (the particles act as [[cloud condensation nuclei]] and thereby change cloud properties) is less certain.<ref name="girda">{{cite web|url=http://www.grida.no/climate/ipcc_tar/wg1/231.htm#671 |title=Climate Change 2001: The Scientific Basis |publisher=Grida.no |accessdate=19 August 2011| archiveurl= http://web.archive.org/web/20110629175429/http://www.grida.no/climate/ipcc_tar/wg1/231.htm| archivedate= 29 June 2011<!--Added by DASHBot-->}}</ref> As per <ref name="DOMINICK" /> the effects are: <blockquote> <!-- Aerosol radiative forcing. --> * ''Aerosol direct effect.'' Aerosols directly scatter and absorb radiation. The scattering of radiation causes atmospheric cooling, whereas absorption can cause atmospheric warming. * ''Aerosol indirect effect.'' Aerosols modify the properties of clouds through a subset of the aerosol population called [[cloud condensation nuclei]]. Increased nuclei concentrations lead to increased cloud droplet number concentrations, which in turn leads to increased cloud albedo, increased light scattering and radiative cooling (''first indirect effect''), but also leads to reduced precipitation efficiency and increased lifetime of the cloud (''second indirect effect''). </blockquote> ===Black carbon=== Another albedo-related effect on the climate is from [[black carbon]] particles. The size of this effect is difficult to quantify: the [[Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change]] estimates that the global mean radiative forcing for black carbon aerosols from fossil fuels is +0.2 W m⁻², with a range +0.1 to +0.4 W m⁻².<ref name="girda 1">{{cite web|url=http://www.grida.no/climate/ipcc_tar/wg1/233.htm |title=Climate Change 2001: The Scientific Basis |publisher=Grida.no |accessdate=19 August 2011| archiveurl= http://web.archive.org/web/20110629180154/http://www.grida.no/climate/ipcc_tar/wg1/233.htm| archivedate= 29 June 2011<!--Added by DASHBot-->}}</ref> Black carbon is a bigger cause of the melting of the polar ice cap in the Arctic than carbon dioxide due to its effect on the albedo.<ref>James Hansen & Larissa Nazarenko, ''Soot Climate Forcing Via Snow and Ice Albedos'', 101 Proc. of the Nat'l. Acad. of Sci. 423 (13 January 2004) ("The efficacy of this forcing is »2 (i.e. for a given forcing it is twice as effective as CO₂ in altering global surface air temperature)"); ''compare'' Zender Testimony, ''supra'' note 7, at 4 (figure 3); See J. Hansen & L. Nazarenko, ''supra'' note 18, at 426. ("The efficacy for changes of Arctic sea ice albedo is >3. In additional runs not shown here, we found that the efficacy of albedo changes in Antarctica is also >3."); ''See also'' Flanner, M.G., C.S. Zender, J.T. Randerson, and P.J. Rasch, ''Present-day climate forcing and response from black carbon in snow'', 112 J. GEOPHYS. RES. D11202 (2007) ("The forcing is maximum coincidentally with snowmelt onset, triggering strong snow-albedo feedback in local springtime. Consequently, the "efficacy" of black carbon/snow forcing is more than three times greater than forcing by CO₂.").</ref> ===Human activities=== Human activities (e.g. deforestation, farming, and urbanization) change the albedo of various areas around the globe. However, quantification of this effect on the global scale is difficult.{{citation needed|date=November 2013}} ==Other types of albedo== [[Single-scattering albedo]] is used to define scattering of electromagnetic waves on small particles. It depends on properties of the material ([[refractive index]]); the size of the particle or particles; and the wavelength of the incoming radiation. ==See also== <!-- Please keep entries in alphabetical order & add a short description [[WP:SEEALSO]] --> {{div col|colwidth=20em|small=yes}} * [[Cool roof]] * [[Daisyworld]] * [[Emissivity]] * [[Global dimming]] * [[Irradiance]] * [[Polar see-saw]] * [[Solar radiation management]] {{div col end}} <!-- please keep entries in alphabetical order --> ==References== {{Reflist|30em|refs= <ref name="Goode">{{Cite journal |last=Goode |first=P. R. |date=2001 |title=Earthshine Observations of the Earth's Reflectance |journal=[[Geophysical Research Letters]] |volume=28 |issue=9 |pages=1671–1674 |url=http://www.agu.org/journals/ABS/2001/2000GL012580.shtml |doi=10.1029/2000GL012580 |bibcode = 2001GeoRL..28.1671G |display-authors=etal}}</ref> <ref name="NASA">{{cite web|url=http://modis.gsfc.nasa.gov/data/atbd/atbd_mod09.pdf|title=MODIS BRDF/Albedo Product: Algorithm Theoretical Basis Document, Version 5.0|accessdate=2 June 2009| archiveurl= http://web.archive.org/web/20090601063932/http://modis.gsfc.nasa.gov/data/atbd/atbd_mod09.pdf| archivedate= 1 June 2009<!--Added by DASHBot-->}}</ref> <ref name="washington">{{cite web|url=http://www.atmos.washington.edu/~sgw/PAPERS/2002_Snowball.pdf|title=Snowball Earth: Ice thickness on the tropical ocean|accessdate=20 September 2009}}</ref> <ref name="clim-past">{{cite web|url=http://www.clim-past.net/2/31/2006/cp-2-31-2006.pdf|title=Effect of land albedo, CO2, orography, and oceanic heat transport on extreme climates|accessdate=20 September 2009}}</ref> <ref name="Smith Robin">{{cite web|url=http://www.mpimet.mpg.de/fileadmin/staff/smithrobin/IC_JClim-final.pdf|title=Global climate and ocean circulation on an aquaplanet ocean-atmosphere general circulation model|accessdate=20 September 2009| archiveurl= http://web.archive.org/web/20090920212836/http://www.mpimet.mpg.de/fileadmin/staff/smithrobin/IC_JClim-final.pdf| archivedate= 20 September 2009<!--Added by DASHBot-->}}</ref> <ref name="medkeff">{{cite web | url = http://jeff.medkeff.com/astro/lunar/obs_tech/albedo.htm | title = Lunar Albedo | first = Jeff | last = Medkeff | authorlink = Jeffrey S. Medkeff | date = 2002 | archiveurl = http://web.archive.org/web/20080523151225/http://jeff.medkeff.com/astro/lunar/obs_tech/albedo.htm | archivedate = 23 May 2008 | accessdate = 5 July 2010 }} </ref> <!-- <ref name="Dickinson">{{cite journal | last1 = Dickinson | first1 = R. E. | last2 = Kennedy | first2 = P. J. | date = 1992 | title = Impacts on regional climate of Amazon deforestation | url = | journal = Geophys. Res. Lett. | volume = 19 | issue = | pages = 1947–1950 | doi=10.1029/92gl01905 | bibcode=1992GeoRL..19.1947D}}</ref> --> <!-- <ref name="mit">[http://web.mit.edu/12.000/www/m2006/final/characterization/abiotic_water.html http://web.mit.edu/12.000/www/m2006/final/characterization/abiotic_water.html] Project Amazonia: Characterization – Abiotic – Water</ref> --> <ref name="mmutrees">{{cite web | url=http://www.ace.mmu.ac.uk/Resources/gcc/1-3-3.html | title=The Climate System | publisher=Manchester Metropolitan University | accessdate=11 November 2007| archiveurl= http://web.archive.org/web/20071121192518/http://www.ace.mmu.ac.uk/resources/gcc/1-3-3.html| archivedate= 21 November 2007<!--Added by DASHBot-->}}</ref> <ref name="Betts">{{cite journal | doi = 10.1038/35041545 | date = 2000 | last1 = Betts | first1 = Richard A. | journal = Nature | volume = 408 | issue = 6809 | pages = 187–190 | pmid = 11089969 | title = Offset of the potential carbon sink from boreal forestation by decreases in surface albedo |bibcode = 2000Natur.408..187B }}</ref> <ref name="Fresnel">{{cite web|url=http://vih.freeshell.org/pp/01-ONW-St.Petersburg/Fresnel.pdf |format=PDF |title=Spectral Approach To Calculate Specular reflection Of Light From Wavy Water Surface |publisher=Vih.freeshell.org |accessdate=2015-03-16}}</ref> <ref name="DOMINICK">{{cite journal | doi = 10.1098/rsta.2008.0201 | title = Boreal forests, aerosols and the impacts on clouds and climate | date = 2008 | last1 = Spracklen | first1 = D. V | last2 = Bonn | first2 = B. | last3 = Carslaw | first3 = K. S | journal = Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A | volume = 366 | issue = 1885 | pages = 4613–4626 |url=http://homepages.see.leeds.ac.uk/~eardvs/papers/spracklen08c.pdf | format = PDF|bibcode = 2008RSPTA.366.4613S | pmid=18826917}}</ref> <ref name="BlueskyAlbedo">{{Cite journal |last=Roman |first=M. O. |author2=C.B. Schaaf|author3=P. Lewis|author4=F. Gao|author5=G.P. Anderson|author6=J.L. Privette|author7=A.H. Strahler|author8=C.E. Woodcock|author9=M. Barnsley |date=2010 |title=Assessing the Coupling between Surface Albedo derived from MODIS and the Fraction of Diffuse Skylight over Spatially-Characterized Landscapes |journal=Remote Sensing of Environment |volume=114 |pages=738–760 |doi=10.1016/j.rse.2009.11.014 |issue=4 }}</ref>}} ==External links== {{wiktionary}} * [http://www.albedo-project.org/ Official Website of Albedo Project] * [http://www-c4.ucsd.edu/gap/ Global Albedo Project (Center for Clouds, Chemistry, and Climate)] * [http://www.eoearth.org/article/Albedo Albedo – Encyclopedia of Earth] * [http://www-modis.bu.edu/brdf/product.html NASA MODIS BRDF/albedo product site] * [http://www.eumetsat.int/Home/Main/Access_to_Data/Meteosat_Meteorological_Products/Product_List/SP_1125489019643?l=en Surface albedo derived from Meteosat observations] * [http://jeff.medkeff.com/astro/lunar/obs_tech/albedo.htm A discussion of Lunar albedos] * [http://www.tvu.com/metalreflectivityLR.jpg reflectivity of metals (chart)] {{Global warming}} [[Category:Climate forcing]] [[Category:Climatology]] [[Category:Electromagnetic radiation]] [[Category:Radiometry]] [[Category:Scattering, absorption and radiative transfer (optics)]] [[Category:Radiation]] hkc6g43xndv292d9f4vicair2qu26x2 0 40 308571542 74467202 2009-08-17T23:21:19Z DarknessBot 3145267 Fixing identified double redirect wikitext text/x-wiki #REDIRECT [[Afroasiatic languages]] {{R from CamelCase}} 52vi8qw6s9wx2s1vwlbld4qn0zb0lxz 0 42 626556798 598474108 2014-09-22T01:35:14Z Paine Ellsworth 9092818 add [[WP:RCAT|rcat]] wikitext text/x-wiki #REDIRECT [[Constructed language]] {{Redr|move|from misspelling|p2=<small>''(see also)''</small> [[Artificial language]]s|from CamelCase|up}} jo868dfnxaegf9qc5xpcu26cjjujqlt 0 46 46448989 15898973 2006-04-01T12:10:40Z Gurch 241822 {{R from CamelCase}} wikitext text/x-wiki #REDIRECT [[Abacus]] {{R from CamelCase}} dauf3wqco7dh05mx4p39rsbkns2yee0 0 47 693809230 46449028 2015-12-05T01:21:31Z Graham87 194203 1 revision imported from [[:nost:AbalonE]]: import old edit, see [[User:Graham87/Import]] wikitext text/x-wiki #REDIRECT [[Abalone]] {{R from CamelCase}} tti8rw1sjqexa6nz32pst88k2mgl2x6 0 48 504162108 46449054 2012-07-25T20:09:33Z AvicBot 11952314 Robot: Fixing double redirect to [[Abbadid dynasty]] wikitext text/x-wiki #REDIRECT [[Abbadid dynasty]] {{R from CamelCase}} tlsbxtg1doo0yb5lbqtqzuahnstez5k 0 49 46449096 15898976 2006-04-01T12:12:10Z Gurch 241822 {{R from CamelCase}} wikitext text/x-wiki #REDIRECT [[Abbess]] {{R from CamelCase}} fmfk64k56drq5f8daco9ip1nmt3qobf 0 50 382192358 372790875 2010-09-01T01:37:06Z Mclay1 1915689 already in sub-cat wikitext text/x-wiki #REDIRECT [[Abbeville]] {{R from CamelCase}} 14auongd2rt10ec7otrh0z185ipnnmz 0 51 46449123 15898978 2006-04-01T12:12:39Z Gurch 241822 {{R from CamelCase}} wikitext text/x-wiki #REDIRECT [[Abbey]] {{R from CamelCase}} ai3bkh98pkatrdda3w9q8sy4l9hgb1o 0 52 46449145 15898979 2006-04-01T12:13:02Z Gurch 241822 {{R from CamelCase}} wikitext text/x-wiki #REDIRECT [[Abbot]] {{R from CamelCase}} 2hlgxp6evd74hpssh54v6axs3xbhziv 0 53 74467345 15898980 2006-09-08T04:21:35Z Rory096 750223 cat rd wikitext text/x-wiki #REDIRECT [[Abbreviation]] {{R from plural}} 506whhqvb3qz3zkaxnf1jgm0xyv17ym 0 54 74467386 15898981 2006-09-08T04:21:52Z Rory096 750223 can rd wikitext text/x-wiki #REDIRECT [[Atlas Shrugged]] {{R from CamelCase}} dmgyvg5hvhktpxepsqmzmw9eo93s6to 0 56 364461663 39218442 2010-05-27T10:49:33Z Rich Farmbrough 82835 wikitext text/x-wiki #REDIRECT [[Constructed language]] {{R from CamelCase}} jemupiz6j3kdszew8fkhq53qriz948w 0 58 346112496 235224523 2010-02-24T16:34:51Z Neelix 1169106 [[WP:AES|←]]Redirected page to [[List of Atlas Shrugged characters]] wikitext text/x-wiki #REDIRECT [[List of Atlas Shrugged characters]] {{R from CamelCase}} 0315tw495mvfw6rly3mc9695ckpdgmv 0 59 74466244 46013242 2006-09-08T04:12:37Z Rory096 750223 cat rd wikitext text/x-wiki #REDIRECT [[Atlas Shrugged]] {{R from CamelCase}} 9y4gz0l2dwj48qzvflf5jzjlyxtho1b 0 60 74467467 74467441 2006-09-08T04:22:33Z Rory096 750223 fix wikitext text/x-wiki #REDIRECT [[Atlas Shrugged]] {{R from CamelCase}} {{R from phrase}} rbfotal4dqrib0j7x7co9nid8hbmv74 0 241 690433113 250311742 2015-11-13T09:31:59Z タチコマ robot 421426 Bot: Fixing double redirect to [[African Americans]] wikitext text/x-wiki #REDIRECT [[African Americans]] {{R from CamelCase}} n1w72cqk3j8xcwlan9k25g25gps5scm 0 242 234930509 234927829 2008-08-29T05:11:22Z Seba5618 2155335 Reverted 1 edit by [[Special:Contributions/75.111.240.218|75.111.240.218]] identified as [[WP:VAND|vandalism]] to last revision by [[User:Rory096|Rory096]]. 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The plural of the letter itself is rendered ''A''s, A's, ''a''s, or a's.<ref name=oed>{{harvnb|Simpson|Weiner|1989|p=1}}</ref>}}) is the first [[Letter (alphabet)|letter]] and the first [[vowel]] in the [[ISO basic Latin alphabet]].<ref name=oed/> It is similar to the Ancient Greek letter [[alpha]], from which it derives.<ref>{{harvnb|Kyle|1974}}{{page needed|date=May 2015}}</ref> The upper-case version consists of the two slanting sides of a triangle, crossed in the middle by a horizontal bar. The lower-case version can be written in two forms: the double-storey '''a''' and single-storey '''ɑ'''. The latter is commonly used in handwriting and fonts based on it, especially fonts intended to be read by children. It is also found in [[italic type]]. ==History== {| class="wikitable" |- style="background-color:#EEEEEE; text-align:center;" ! Egyptian{{ns|2}} ! Cretan ! Phoenician <br>''[[aleph]]'' ! Semitic <br> ! Greek <br>''[[Alpha]]'' ! Etruscan <br>A ! Roman/Cyrillic <br>A ! Boeotian<br> 800–700 BC ! Greek <br> Uncial ! Latin 300 AD <br> Uncial |- style="background-color:white; text-align:center;" | [[File:EgyptianA-01.svg|Egyptian hieroglyphic ox head]] | [[File:Cretan-1.jpg|35px|Early Crete version of the letter "A"]] | [[File:PhoenicianA-01.svg|40px|Phoenician aleph]] | [[File:Semitic-A2.jpg|35px|Semitic letter "A", version 1]] | [[File:Alpha uc lc.svg|45px|Greek alpha, version 1]] | [[File:EtruscanA.svg|30px|Etruscan A, version 1]] | [[File:RomanA-01.svg|30px|Roman A]] | [[File:Beoetian2.jpg|35px|Boeotian]] | [[File:Greek-uncial-1.jpg|35px|Greek Classical uncial, version 1]] | [[File:Latin-uncial-1.jpg|35px|Latin 300 AD uncial, version 1]] |- style="background-color:white; text-align:center;" | | [[File:Cretan-2.jpg|35px|Crete "A"]] | [[File:Phoenician1a.jpg|35px|Phoenician version of the "A"]] | [[File:Semitic-2.jpg|35px|Semitic "A", version 2]] | [[File:Greek-2.jpg|30px|Greek alpha, version 2]] | [[File:Etr2.jpg|35px|Etruscan A, version 2]] | [[File:Latin 4th cent BC.jpg|35px|Latin 4th century BC]] | [[File:Beoetian.jpg|45px|Boeotioan 800 BC]] | [[File:Greek-uncial-2.jpg|35px|Greek Classical uncial, version 2]] | [[File:Latin-uncial-2.jpg|35px|Latin 300 AD uncial, version 2]] |} The earliest certain ancestor of "A" is [[aleph]] (also written 'aleph), the first letter of the [[Phoenician alphabet]]<ref name="Britannica">{{harvnb|Hoiberg|2010|p=1}}</ref> (which consisted entirely of [[consonant]]s; for that reason, it is also called an [[abjad]] to distinguish it from a true [[alphabet]]). In turn, the ancestor of aleph may have been a [[pictogram]] of an ox head in [[proto-Sinaitic script]]<ref name=Coll>{{harvnb|Hall-Quest|1997|p=1}}</ref> influenced by [[Egyptian hieroglyphs]], styled as a triangular head with two horns extended. In 1600 B.C.E., the Phoenician alphabet letter had a linear form that served as the base for some later forms. Its name must have corresponded closely to the [[Hebrew alphabet|Hebrew]] or [[Arabic script|Arabic]] aleph. {| cellspacing="10" cellpadding="0" style="background-color: white; float: right;" |- align="center" |[[File:BlackletterA-01.png|Blackletter A]]<br />[[Blackletter]] A |[[File:UncialA-01.svg|Uncial A]]<br />[[Uncial script|Uncial]] A |[[File:Acap.svg|Another Capital A]]<br />Another Blackletter A&nbsp; |- align="center" |[[File:ModernRomanA-01.svg|64 px|Modern Roman A]]<br />Modern Roman A |[[File:Modern Italic A.svg|64 px|Modern Italic A]]<br />Modern Italic A |[[File:Modern Script A.svg|64 px|Modern Script A]]<br />Modern script A |} When the [[Ancient Greece|ancient Greeks]] adopted the alphabet, they had no use for the [[glottal stop]]—the consonant sound that the letter denoted in [[Phoenician language|Phoenician]] and other [[Semitic languages]], and that was the first [[phoneme]] of the Phoenician pronunciation of the letter—so they used their version of the sign to represent the vowel {{IPA|/a/}}, and called it by the similar name of [[alpha]]. In the earliest Greek inscriptions after the [[Greek Dark Ages]], dating to the 8th century BC, the letter rests upon its side, but in the [[Greek alphabet]] of later times it generally resembles the modern capital letter, although many local varieties can be distinguished by the shortening of one leg, or by the angle at which the cross line is set. The [[Etruscan civilization|Etruscans]] brought the Greek alphabet to their civilization in the [[Italian Peninsula]] and left the letter unchanged. The Romans later adopted the [[Old Italic script|Etruscan alphabet]] to write the [[Latin|Latin language]], and the resulting letter was preserved in the [[Latin script|Latin alphabet]] that would come to be used to write many languages, including English. ===Typographic variants=== [[File:A-small glyphs.svg|thumb|140px|Different [[glyphs]] of the lowercase letter A.]] During Roman times, there were many variant forms of the letter "A". First was the monumental or lapidary style, which was used when inscribing on stone or other "permanent" mediums. There was also a [[cursive]] style used for everyday or utilitarian writing, which was done on more perishable surfaces. Due to the "perishable" nature of these surfaces, there as not as many examples of this style as there are of the monumental, but there are still many surviving examples of different types of cursive, such as [[letter case|majuscule]] cursive, [[letter case|minuscule]] cursive, and semicursive minuscule. Variants also existed that were intermediate between the monumental and cursive styles. The known variants include the early [[Uncial script#Half-uncial|semi-uncial]], the uncial, and the later semi-uncial.<ref name=Americana>{{harvnb|Diringer|2000|p=1}}</ref> [[File:LowercaseA.svg|left|thumb|200px|Typographic variants include a double-storey '''a''' and single-storey '''ɑ'''.]]At the end of the [[Roman Empire]] (5th century AD), several variants of the cursive minuscule developed through Western Europe. Among these were the semicursive minuscule of [[Italy]], the [[Merovingian script]] in France, the [[Visigothic script]] in Spain, and the [[Insular script|Insular]] or Anglo-Irish semi-uncial or Anglo-Saxon majuscule, of Great Britain. By the 9th century, the [[Carolingian minuscule|Caroline script]], which was very similar to the present-day form, was the principal form used in book-making, before the advent of the printing press. This form was derived through a combining of prior forms.<ref name=Americana/> 15th-century Italy saw the formation of the two main variants that are known today. These variants, the ''Italic'' and ''Roman'' forms, were derived from the Caroline Script version. The Italic form, also called ''script a,'' is used in most current [[handwriting]] and consists of a circle and vertical stroke. This slowly developed from the fifth-century form resembling the Greek letter [[tau]] in the hands of medieval Irish and English writers.<ref name="Britannica"/> Most printed material uses the Roman form consisting of a small loop with an arc over it ("a").<ref name=Americana/> Both derive from the majuscule (capital) form. In Greek handwriting, it was common to join the left leg and horizontal stroke into a single loop, as demonstrated by the uncial version shown. Many fonts then made the right leg vertical. In some of these, the [[serif]] that began the right leg stroke developed into an arc, resulting in the printed form, while in others it was dropped, resulting in the modern handwritten form. [[Italic type]] is commonly used to mark emphasis or more generally to distinguish one part of a text from the rest (set in Roman type). However, there are also some other cases aside from this where ''script a'' ("ɑ"), also called [[Latin alpha]], is used in contrast with Latin "a" (such as in the [[International Phonetic Alphabet]]). ==Use in writing systems== ===English=== {{further|Pronunciation of English ⟨a⟩}} In modern [[English orthography]], the letter {{angbr|a}} represents seven different vowel sounds: *the [[near-open front unrounded vowel]] {{IPA|/æ/}} as in ''pad''; *the [[open back unrounded vowel]] {{IPA|/ɑː/}} as in ''father'', which is closer to its original Latin and Greek sound;<ref name=Coll/> *the [[diphthong]] {{IPA|/eɪ/}} as in ''ace'' and ''major'' (usually when {{vr|a}} is followed by one, or occasionally two, consonants and then another vowel letter) – this results from [[Middle English lengthening]] followed by the [[Great Vowel Shift]]; *the modified form of the above sound that occurs [[English-language vowel changes before historic /r/|before {{vr|r}}]], as in ''square'' and ''Mary''; *the rounded vowel of ''water''; *the shorter rounded vowel (not present in [[General American]]) in ''was'' and ''what'';<ref name="Britannica"/> *a [[schwa]], in many unstressed syllables, as in ''about'', ''comma'', ''solar''. The double {{angbr|aa}} sequence does not occur in native English words, but is found in some words derived from foreign languages such as ''Aaron'' and ''aardvark''.<ref>{{harvnb|Gelb|Whiting|1998|p=45}}</ref> However, {{vr|a}} occurs in [[List of Latin-script digraphs|many common digraphs]], all with their own sound or sounds, particularly {{vr|ai}}, {{vr|au}}, {{vr|aw}}, {{vr|ay}}, {{vr|ea}} and {{vr|oa}}. {{angbr|a}} is the third-most-commonly used letter in English (after {{angbr|e}} and {{angbr|t}}),<ref>{{harvnb|Anon|2004}}</ref> and the second most common in Spanish and French. In one study, on average, about 3.68% of letters used in English texts tend to be {{angbr|a}}, while the number is 6.22% in Spanish and 3.95% in French.<ref>{{harvnb|Anon|2006}}</ref> ===Other languages=== In most languages that use the Latin alphabet, {{angbr|a}} denotes an open unrounded vowel, such as {{IPA|/[[Open front unrounded vowel|a]]/}}, {{IPA|/[[Open central unrounded vowel|ä]]/}}, or {{IPA|/[[Open back unrounded vowel|ɑ]]/}}. An exception is [[Saanich dialect|Saanich]], in which {{angbr|a}} (and the glyph [[Á]]) stands for a [[close-mid front unrounded vowel]] {{IPA|/e/}}. ===Other systems=== In phonetic and phonemic notation: *in the [[International Phonetic Alphabet]], {{angbr|{{IPA|a}}}} is used for the [[open front unrounded vowel]], {{angbr|{{IPA|ä}}}} is used for the [[open central unrounded vowel]] and {{angbr|{{IPA|ɑ}}}} is used for the [[open back unrounded vowel]]. *in [[X-SAMPA]], {{angbr|a}} is used for the [[open front unrounded vowel]] and {{angbr|A}} is used for the [[open back unrounded vowel]]. ==Other uses== {{main|A (disambiguation)}} In [[algebra]], the letter "A" along with other letters at the beginning of the alphabet is used to represent known quantities, whereas the letters at the end of the alphabet (x,y,z) are used to denote unknown quantities. In [[geometry]], capital A, B, C etc. are used to denote [[Line segment|segment]]s, [[line (geometry)|line]]s, [[Line (geometry)#Ray|rays]], etc.<ref name=Americana/> A capital A is also typically used as one of the letters to represent an angle in a [[triangle]], the lowercase a representing the side opposite angle A.<ref name=Coll/> "A" is often used to denote something or someone of a better or more prestigious quality or status: A-, A or A+, the best grade that can be assigned by teachers for students' schoolwork; "A grade" for clean restaurants; [[A-list]] celebrities, etc. Such associations can have a [[motivation|motivating]] effect, as exposure to the letter A has been found to improve performance, when compared with other letters.<ref>{{harvnb|British Psychological Society|2010}}</ref> Finally, the letter A is used to denote size,{{where|date=October 2015}} as in a narrow size shoe,<ref name=Coll/> or a small cup size in a [[brassiere]].{{citation needed|date=October 2015}} ==Related characters== <!-- Please only list characters (symbols in a writing system, but not just convenience codepoints in Unicode) that are actually related in terms of origin to the letter that is the topic of this article. Characters that merely look subjectively similar need not apply. See https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability and https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Identifying_reliable_sources before adding more. --> ===Descendants and related characters in the Latin alphabet=== *Æ æ : [[Æ|Latin ''AE'']] ligature *A with [[diacritic]]s: [[Ring (diacritic)|Ḁ ḁ]] [[Ă|Ă ă]] [[Â|Â â]] [[Caron|Ǎ ǎ]] [[Bar (diacritic)|Ⱥ ⱥ]] [[Dot (diacritic)|Ȧ ȧ]] [[Dot (diacritic)|Ạ ạ]] [[Ä|Ä ä]] [[À|À à]] [[Á|Á á]] [[Ā|Ā ā]] [[Ã|Ã ã]] [[Å|Å å]] *[[Phonetic transcription#Alphabetic|Phonetic alphabet]] symbols related to A (the [[International Phonetic Alphabet]] only uses lowercase, but uppercase forms are used in some other writing systems): **Ɑ ɑ : [[Latin alpha|Latin letter alpha / script A]], which represents an [[open back unrounded vowel]] in the IPA **Ɐ ɐ : [[Turned A]], which represents a [[near-open central vowel]] in the IPA **Λ ʌ : [[turned V]] (also called a wedge, a caret, or a hat), which represents an [[open-mid back unrounded vowel]] in the IPA **Ɒ ɒ : Turned script A, which represents an [[open back rounded vowel]] in the IPA **ᴀ : Small capital A, an [[Obsolete and nonstandard symbols in the International Phonetic Alphabet|obsolete or non-standard symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet]] used to represent various sounds (mainly open vowels) ===Derived signs, symbols and abbreviations=== *<big>ª</big> : an [[ordinal indicator]] *∀ : a turned capital letter A, used in [[predicate logic]] to specify [[universal quantification]] ("for all") *@ : [[At sign]] *₳ : [[Argentine austral]] ===Ancestors and siblings in other alphabets=== *𐤀 : [[Phoenician alphabet|Semitic]] letter [[Aleph]], from which the following symbols originally derive **Α α : [[Greek alphabet|Greek]] letter [[Alpha]], from which the following letters derive ***А а : [[Cyrillic]] letter [[A (Cyrillic)|A]] ***{{Script|Copt|Ⲁ ⲁ}} : [[Coptic alphabet|Coptic]] letter Alpha ***𐌀 : [[Old Italic script|Old Italic]] A, which is the ancestor of modern Latin A ****{{Script|Runr|ᚨ}} : [[Runes|Runic]] letter [[Ansuz (rune)|ansuz]], which probably derives from old Italic A ***{{Script|Goth|𐌰}} : [[Gothic alphabet|Gothic]] letter aza/asks ==Computing codes== {{charmap | 0041 | 0061 | name1 = Latin Capital Letter A | name2 = Latin Small Letter A | map1 = [[EBCDIC]] family | map1char1 = C1 | map1char2 = 81 | map2 = [[ASCII]] ¹ | map2char1 = 41 | map2char2 = 61 }} : ¹ {{midsize|Also for encodings based on ASCII, including the DOS, Windows, ISO-8859 and Macintosh families of encodings.}} ==Other representations== {{Letter other reps |NATO=Alpha<!--don't change to official "alfa" until Commons images are moved to this spelling, or redirects are set up, as otherwise the table does not display the semaphore and flag images--> |Morse=·– |Character=A1 |Braille=⠁ }} ==Notes== {{reflist|group=nb}} ==Footnotes== {{reflist|2}} ==References== * {{cite web | author = Anon | year = 2004 | url = http://www.math.cornell.edu/~mec/2003-2004/cryptography/subs/frequencies.html | title = English Letter Frequency | accessdate = 28 May 2014 | archiveurl = http://www.webcitation.org/6Put1etCm | archivedate = 28 May 2014 | publisher = Cornell University | work = Math Explorer's Club | ref = harv }} * {{cite web | author = Anon | year = 2006 |archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20070125220315/http://starbase.trincoll.edu/~crypto/resources/LetFreq.html | url=http://starbase.trincoll.edu/~crypto/resources/LetFreq.html |archivedate=January 25, 2007 | title = Percentages of Letter frequencies per Thousand words | website = Trinity College | accessdate = 11 May 2015 | ref = harv }} * {{cite web | author = British Psychological Society| url = http://www.sciencealert.com.au/news/20100903-20689.html | title = Letters Affect Exam Results | date = 9 March 2010 | website = Science Alert | accessdate = 28 May 2014 | archiveurl = http://www.webcitation.org/6PutAuaJz | archivedate = 28 May 2014 | ref = harv }} * {{cite encyclopedia | last = Diringer | first = David | editor-last = Bayer | editor-first = Patricia | encyclopedia = Encyclopedia Americana | title = A | edition = First | year = 2000 | publisher = Grolier Incorporated | volume = I: A-Anjou | location = Danbury, CT | isbn = 0-7172-0133-3 | ref = harv }} * {{cite encyclopedia | last1 = Gelb | first1 = I. J. | last2 = Whiting | first2 = R. M. | editor-last = Ranson | editor-first = K. Anne | encyclopedia = Academic American Encyclopedia | title = A | edition = First | year = 1998 | publisher = Grolier Incorporated | volume = I: A–Ang | location = Danbury, CT | isbn = 0-7172-2068-0 | ref = harv }} * {{cite encyclopedia | last = Hall-Quest | first = Olga Wilbourne | editor-last = Johnston | editor-first = Bernard | encyclopedia = [[Collier's Encyclopedia]] | title = A | edition = First | year = 1997 | publisher = P.F. Collier | volume = I: A to Ameland | location = New York, NY | ref = harv }} * {{cite encyclopedia | editor-last = Hoiberg | editor-first = Dale H. | year = 2010 | title = A | encyclopedia = [[Encyclopædia Britannica]] | volume = 1: A-ak–Bayes | publisher = Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. | location = Chicago, IL | isbn = 978-1-59339-837-8 | ref = harv }} * {{cite journal | last = Kyle | first = McCarter P. | title = The Early Diffusion of the Alphabet | journal = The Biblical Archaeologist | date = September 1974 | volume = 37 | issue = 3 | pages = 54–56 | ref = harv}} * {{cite encyclopedia | editor-last1 = Simpson | editor-first1 = J. A. | editor-last2 = Weiner | editor-first2 = E.S.C. | year = 1989 | edition = 2nd | title = A | encyclopedia = The Oxford English Dictionary | isbn = 0-19-861213-3 | publisher = Oxford University Press | location = Oxford, UK | volume = I: A–Bazouki | ref = harv }} ==External links== {{Commons|A}} {{Wiktionary|A|a}} * [http://members.peak.org/~jeremy/dictionaryclassic/chapters/pix/alphabet.gif History of the Alphabet] * {{Wikisource-inline|list= ** "[[s:A Dictionary of the English Language/A|A]]" in ''[[s:A Dictionary of the English Language|A Dictionary of the English Language]]'' by [[Samuel Johnson]] ** Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). [[s:1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/A|"A"]] (entry). ''[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]'' (Eleventh ed.). Cambridge University Press. ** "[[s:The New Student's Reference Work/A|A]]". ''The New Student's Reference Work''. Chicago: F. E. Compton and Co. 1914. ** "[[s:Collier's New Encyclopedia (1921)/A|A]]". ''[[Collier's Encyclopedia|Collier's New Encyclopedia]]''. 1921. }} {{Latin alphabet|A|}} [[Category:ISO basic Latin letters]] [[Category:Vowel letters]] 7ayrjhyxjjn4pfvgk45ys8ks6iv03vr 0 291 160873567 15899029 2007-09-28T08:10:06Z Closedmouth 372693 R from CamelCase wikitext text/x-wiki #REDIRECT [[Anarcho-capitalism]]{{R from CamelCase}} oz281k4vxl58fpemb6fp7jjmpx48iqc 0 293 160873586 15899031 2007-09-28T08:10:15Z Closedmouth 372693 R from CamelCase wikitext text/x-wiki #REDIRECT [[anarcho-capitalism]]{{R from CamelCase}} jzf0phnf0o2m0o47hzoyhmk9x8z5k5s 0 296 256409318 131986456 2008-12-07T12:34:41Z Addbot 6569922 [[User:Addbot|BOT]]: Fixing double redirect wikitext text/x-wiki #REDIRECT [[Lists of actors]] {{R from CamelCase}} jqxt1d0v3d7j1ic5rnnsof8007nx2bw 0 299 160873704 15899037 2007-09-28T08:11:32Z Closedmouth 372693 R from CamelCase wikitext text/x-wiki #REDIRECT [[An American in Paris]]{{R from CamelCase}} qvannt5snoxgajogiatlpd7zh6zxakl 0 301 160873722 15899038 2007-09-28T08:11:44Z Closedmouth 372693 R from CamelCase wikitext text/x-wiki #REDIRECT [[Automorphism]]{{R from CamelCase}} 49yexs3nfabcphgu6px298ghwcukdey 0 302 160873735 61398382 2007-09-28T08:11:53Z Closedmouth 372693 R from CamelCase wikitext text/x-wiki #REDIRECT [[Action film]]{{R from CamelCase}} lf6qovyu074danqnski7dafu062csru 0 303 717329061 717319794 2016-04-27T02:12:55Z Spyder Monkey 1379000 Reverted to revision 716617705 by [[Special:Contributions/Fnlayson|Fnlayson]] ([[User talk:Fnlayson|talk]]): Reverting some missed vandalism. ([[WP:TW|TW]]) wikitext text/x-wiki {{about|the U.S. state||Alabama (disambiguation)}} {{pp-move-indef}} {{pp-move|small=yes}} {{Use mdy dates|date=January 2015}} {{Infobox U.S. state |Name = Alabama |Fullname = State of Alabama |Flag = Flag of Alabama.svg |Flaglink = [[Flag of Alabama|Flag]] |Seal = Seal of Alabama.svg |Seallink = [[Seal of Alabama|Seal]] |Coat of arms = Alabama-COA.png |Coatlink = [[Coat of arms of Alabama|Coat of arms]] |Map = Alabama in United States.svg |Nickname = The [[Northern flicker|Yellowhammer]] State, Heart of [[Dixie]], The Cotton State |Demonym = [[Adjectivals and demonyms for U.S. states|Alabaman or Alabamian]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.gettysburg.stonesentinels.com/Confederate/AL.php|title=State of Alabama|work=The Battle of Gettysburg|accessdate=July 21, 2015}}</ref> |Motto = [[Audemus jura nostra defendere]] ([[Latin]]) We dare defend our rights |Former = Alabama Territory |Capital = [[Montgomery, Alabama|Montgomery]] |OfficialLang = English |Languages = <small>As of 2010</small> *English 95.1% *Spanish 3.1% |LargestMetro = [[Birmingham, Alabama, metropolitan area|Greater Birmingham area]] |LargestCity = [[Birmingham, Alabama|Birmingham]] <br />212,038 <small>(2012 estimate)</small> |Governor = [[Robert J. Bentley]] ([[Republican Party (United States)|R]]) |Lieutenant Governor = [[Kay Ivey]] ([[Republican Party (United States)|R]]) |Legislature = [[Alabama Legislature]] |Upperhouse = [[Alabama Senate|Senate]] R-25, D-8 |Lowerhouse = [[Alabama House of Representatives|House of Representatives]] R-72, D-33 |Senators = [[Richard Shelby]] (R)<br />[[Jeff Sessions]] (R) |Representative = 6 Republicans, 1 Democrat |TradAbbreviation = Ala. |PostalAbbreviation = AL |AreaRank = 30th |TotalArea = 135,765 |TotalAreaUS = 52,419 |LandArea = 131,426 |LandAreaUS = 50,744 |WaterArea = 4,338 |WaterAreaUS = 1,675 |PCWater = 3.20 |PopRank = 24th |2010Pop = 4,858,979 (2015 est.)<ref name=PopEstUS/> |DensityRank = 27th |2010Density = 36.5 (2011 est.) |2010DensityUS = 94.7 (2011 est.) |MedianHouseholdIncome = $40,489 (2009) |IncomeRank = 46th |AdmittanceOrder = 22nd |AdmittanceDate = December 14, 1819 |TimeZone = [[Central Time Zone|Central]]: [[Coordinated Universal Time|UTC]] [[UTC−06:00|−6]]/[[UTC−05:00|−5]] |TZ1Where = [[Time in Alabama|most of state]] |TimeZone2 = [[Eastern Time Zone|Eastern]]: [[Coordinated Universal Time|UTC]] [[UTC−05:00|−5]]/[[UTC−04:00|−4]] |TZ2Where = [[Phenix City, Alabama]] area |Latitude = 30° 11′ N to 35° N |Longitude = 84° 53′ W to 88° 28′ W |Width = 305 |WidthUS = 190 |Length = 531 |LengthUS = 330 |LargestCounty = [[Baldwin County, Alabama|Baldwin County]] |HighestPoint = [[Mount Cheaha]]<ref>{{cite ngs|id=DG3595|designation= Cheehahaw|accessdate=October 20, 2011}}</ref><ref name=USGS>{{cite web|url=http://egsc.usgs.gov/isb/pubs/booklets/elvadist/elvadist.html|title=Elevations and Distances in the United States|publisher=United States Geological Survey|year=2001|accessdate=October 21, 2011}}</ref><ref name=NAVD88>Elevation adjusted to [[North American Vertical Datum of 1988]].</ref> |HighestElev = 735.5 |HighestElevUS = 2,413 |MeanElev = 150 |MeanElevUS = 500 |LowestPoint = [[Gulf of Mexico]]<ref name=USGS/> |LowestElev = 0 |LowestElevUS = 0 |ISOCode = US-AL |Website = Alabama.gov }} {{Infobox U.S. state symbols |Name= Alabama |Flag = Flag of Alabama.svg |Flaglink = [[Flag of Alabama|Flag]] |Seal = Seal of Alabama.svg |Seallink = [[Seal of Alabama|Seal]] |Amphibian= [[Red Hills salamander]] |Bird= [[Northern flicker|Yellowhammer]], [[wild turkey]]<!-- State game bird --> |Butterfly= [[Eastern tiger swallowtail]] |Fish= [[Largemouth bass]], [[Atlantic tarpon|fighting tarpon]] |Flower= [[Camellia]], [[Hydrangea quercifolia|oak-leaf hydrangea]] |Insect= [[Monarch butterfly]] |Mammal= [[American black bear]] |Reptile= [[Alabama red-bellied turtle]] |Tree= [[Longleaf pine]] |Beverage= [[Conecuh Ridge Whiskey]] |Colors= Red, white |Dance= [[Square dance]] |Food= [[Pecan]], [[blackberry]], [[peach]] |Fossil= ''[[Basilosaurus]]'' |Gemstone= [[Star blue quartz]] |Mineral= [[Hematite]] |Rock= [[Marble]] |Shell= [[Junonia|Johnstone's junonia]] |Slogan= ''Share The Wonder'',<br />''Alabama the beautiful'',<br />''Where America finds its voice'',<br />''[[Sweet Home Alabama]]'',<br />"[[Heart of Dixie]]" |Soil= [[Bama (soil)|Bama]] |Song= "[[Alabama (state song)|Alabama]]" |Other= [[Racking horse]]<!-- State horse --> |Route Marker= Alabama 3.svg |Quarter= 2003 AL Proof.png |QuarterReleaseDate= 2003 }} '''Alabama''' ({{IPAc-en|audio=en-us-Alabama.ogg|ˌ|æ|l|ə|ˈ|b|æ|m|ə}}) is a [[U.S. state|state]] located in the [[Southern United States|southeastern region]] of the [[United States]]. It is bordered by [[Tennessee]] to the north, [[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]] to the east, [[Florida]] and the [[Gulf of Mexico]] to the south, and [[Mississippi]] to the west. Alabama is the [[List of U.S. states and territories by area|30th-most extensive]] and the [[List of U.S. states and territories by population|24th-most populous]] of the [[List of U.S. states|50 United States]]. At {{convert|1300|mi|km}}, Alabama has one of the longest navigable inland waterways in the nation.<ref name="navwater">{{cite web|url=http://commerce.alabama.gov/content/media/publications/Transportation/TransportationInAlabama.pdf |title=Transportation in Alabama |publisher=Alabama Development Office |accessdate=October 5, 2012}}</ref> From the [[American Civil War]] until [[World War II]], Alabama, like many states in the [[Southern United States|South]], suffered economic hardship, in part because of continued dependence on agriculture. Despite the growth of major industries and urban centers, [[White American|White]] rural interests dominated the state legislature from 1901 to the 1960s, as it did not regularly reapportion the legislature from 1901 to 1961; urban interests and [[African Americans]] were markedly under-represented.<ref name="pjhwpa">{{cite web|url=http://elections.gmu.edu/Redistricting/AL.htm |archiveurl=//web.archive.org/web/20071017192719/http://elections.gmu.edu/Redistricting/AL.htm |archivedate=October 17, 2007 |title=George Mason University, United States Election Project: Alabama Redistricting Summary. Retrieved March 10, 2008 |publisher=Web.archive.org |accessdate=October 24, 2010}}</ref> African Americans and [[Poor Whites|poor whites]] were essentially [[Disfranchisement after Reconstruction era|disenfranchised]] altogether by the state constitution of 1901, a status that continued into the mid-1960s before being alleviated by federal legislation. Exclusion of minorities continued under [[at-large]] voting systems in most counties; some changes were made through a series of omnibus court cases in the late 1980s to establish different electoral systems. Following World War II, Alabama experienced growth as the economy of the state changed from one primarily based on agriculture to one with diversified interests. The power of the [[Solid South]] in Congress gained the establishment or expansion of multiple [[United States Armed Forces]] installations, which helped to bridge the gap between an agricultural and industrial economy during the mid-20th century. The state economy in the 21st century is based on management, automotive, finance, manufacturing, aerospace, mineral extraction, healthcare, education, retail, and technology.<ref name="alaindustrial">{{cite web |url=http://www2.dir.alabama.gov/projections/Occupational/Proj2018/Statewide/alabama2008_2018.pdf |title=Alabama Occupational Projections 2008-2018 |work=Alabama Department of Industrial Relations |publisher=State of Alabama |accessdate=September 22, 2012}}</ref> Alabama is nicknamed the ''[[northern flicker|Yellowhammer]] State'', after the [[List of U.S. state birds|state bird]]. Alabama is also known as the "Heart of [[Dixie]]" and the ''Cotton State''. The [[List of U.S. state trees|state tree]] is the [[longleaf pine]], and the [[List of U.S. state flowers|state flower]] is the [[camellia]]. The capital of Alabama is [[Montgomery, Alabama|Montgomery]]. The largest city by population is [[Birmingham, Alabama|Birmingham]],<ref name="quickcensus">{{cite web |url=http://quickfacts.census.gov/qfd/states/01000.html |title=Alabama |work=QuickFacts |publisher=United States Census Bureau |accessdate=September 22, 2012}}</ref> which has long been the most industrialized city, and largest city by total land area is [[Huntsville, Alabama|Huntsville]]. The oldest city is [[Mobile, Alabama|Mobile]], founded by French [[colonists]] in 1702 as the capital of French Louisiana.<ref name="pelican">{{cite book|last=Thomason|first=Michael|title=Mobile: The New History of Alabama's First City|year=2001|publisher=University of Alabama Press|location=Tuscaloosa|isbn=0-8173-1065-7|pages=2–21}}</ref> ==Etymology== [[File:Russell Cave Entrance RUCA9323.jpg|thumb|left|One of the entrances to [[Russell Cave National Monument|Russell Cave]] in Jackson County. Charcoal from indigenous camp fires in the cave has been dated as early as 6550 to 6145 BC.]] The European-American naming of the [[Alabama River]] and state originates from the [[Alabama people]], a [[Muskogean languages|Muskogean-speaking tribe]] whose members lived just below the confluence of the [[Coosa River|Coosa]] and [[Tallapoosa River|Tallapoosa]] rivers on the upper reaches of the river.<ref name="Read">{{Cite book|last=Read |first=William A. |title=Indian Place Names in Alabama |year=1984 |publisher=University of Alabama Press |isbn=0-8173-0231-X |oclc=10724679 }}</ref> In the [[Alabama language]], the word for an Alabama person is ''Albaamo'' (or variously ''Albaama'' or ''Albàamo'' in different dialects; the plural form is ''Albaamaha'').<ref>{{Cite book|author=Sylestine, Cora; Hardy; Heather; and [[Timothy Montler|Montler, Timothy]] |title=Dictionary of the Alabama Language |publisher=University of Texas Press |location=Austin |year=1993 |isbn=0-292-73077-2 |url=http://www.ling.unt.edu/~montler/Alabama/ |oclc=26590560 }}</ref> The word ''Alabama'' is believed to have come from the [[Alabama language]] and a suggestion that the name was borrowed from the [[Choctaw language]] is unlikely.<ref>"Alabama, n. and adj.". OED Online. March 2016. Oxford University Press. http://www.oed.com/view/Entry/248152?redirectedFrom=alabama& (accessed April 22, 2016)</ref><ref name="ADAH1">{{cite web|url=http://www.archives.alabama.gov/statenam.html |title=Alabama: The State Name |accessdate=August 2, 2007|work=All About Alabama |publisher=Alabama Department of Archives and History |archiveurl= //web.archive.org/web/20070628215841/http://www.archives.alabama.gov/statenam.html |archivedate= June 28, 2007 |deadurl= no}}</ref> The spelling of the word varies significantly among historical sources.<ref name="ADAH1"/> The first usage appears in three accounts of the [[Hernando de Soto]] expedition of 1540 with [[Garcilaso de la Vega (chronicler)|Garcilaso de la Vega]] using ''Alibamo'', while the Knight of Elvas and Rodrigo Ranjel wrote ''Alibamu'' and ''Limamu'', respectively, in efforts to [[Transliteration|transliterate]] the term.<ref name="ADAH1"/> As early as 1702, the French called the tribe the ''Alibamon,'' with French maps identifying the river as ''Rivière des Alibamons''.<ref name="Read"/> Other spellings of the appellation have included ''Alibamu'', ''Alabamo'', ''Albama'', ''Alebamon'', ''Alibama'', ''Alibamou'', ''Alabamu'', ''Allibamou''.<ref name="ADAH1"/><ref name="Wills">{{Cite book|last=Wills |first=Charles A. |title=A Historical Album of Alabama |year=1995 |publisher=The Millbrook Press |isbn=1-56294-591-2 |oclc=32242468 }}</ref><ref name="Griffith">{{Cite book|last=Griffith |first=Lucille |title=Alabama: A Documentary History to 1900|year=1972 |publisher=University of Alabama Press|isbn=0-8173-0371-5 |oclc=17530914 }}</ref><ref name="Weiss">and possibly ''Alabahmu''.{{citation needed|date=December 2014}}<!-- source might be in print only--> The use of state names derived from [[Indigenous languages of the Americas|Native American languages]] is common; an estimated 27&nbsp;states have names of Native American origin. {{Cite book|last=Weiss |first=Sonia |title= The Complete Idiot's Guide to Baby Names |year=1999 |publisher=Mcmillan USA |isbn=0-02-863367-9 |oclc=222611214 }}</ref> Sources disagree on the meaning of the word. Some scholars suggested the word comes from the Choctaw ''alba'' (meaning "plants" or "weeds") and ''amo'' (meaning "to cut", "to trim", or "to gather").<ref name="Rogers">{{Cite book|last=Rogers |first=William W.|author2=Robert D. Ward|author3=Leah R. Atkins|author4=Wayne Flynt |title=Alabama: the History of a Deep South State |year=1994 |publisher=University of Alabama Press |isbn=0-8173-0712-5 |oclc=28634588 }}</ref><ref name="ADAH1"/><ref name="Swanton1">{{Cite journal|last=Swanton |first=John R. |authorlink=John R. Swanton |year=1953 |title=The Indian Tribes of North America |journal=Bureau of American Ethnology Bulletin 145 |pages=153–174 |url=http://www.hiddenhistory.com/PAGE3/swsts/alabam-1.htm |accessdate=August 2, 2007 |archiveurl= //web.archive.org/web/20070804025900/http://www.hiddenhistory.com/PAGE3/swsts/alabam-1.htm |archivedate= August 4, 2007 |deadurl= no}}</ref> The meaning may have been "clearers of the thicket"<ref name="Rogers"/> or "herb gatherers",<ref name="Swanton1"/><ref name="Swanton2">{{Cite journal|last=Swanton |first=John R. |authorlink=John R. Swanton |year=1937 |title=Review of Read, Indian Place Names of Alabama|journal=American Speech|pages=212–215|issue=12 |doi=10.2307/452431 |volume=12 |jstor=452431}}</ref> referring to clearing land for cultivation<ref name="Wills"/> or collecting medicinal plants.<ref name="Swanton2"/> The state has numerous [[List of place names in Alabama of Native American origin|place names of Native American origin]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.archives.alabama.gov/tours/Previsit_Indian.pdf |title=Southeastern Indian Place Names in what is now Alabama |year=1994 |work=Indian Place Names in Alabama |author=William A. Read |publisher=Alabama Department of Archives and History |accessdate=October 3, 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=Native American placenames of the United States |last=Bright |first=William |year=2004 |publisher=University of Oklahoma Press |location= |isbn=0-8061-3576-X |pages=29–559 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5XfxzCm1qa4C&pg}}</ref> However, there are no correspondingly similar words in the Alabama language. An 1842 article in the ''Jacksonville Republican'' proposed that it meant "Here We Rest."<ref name="ADAH1"/> This notion was popularized in the 1850s through the writings of [[Alexander Beaufort Meek]].<ref name="ADAH1"/> Experts in the [[Muskogean languages]] have been unable to find any evidence to support such a translation.<ref name="Read"/><ref name="ADAH1"/> And, thus, this is probably erroneous. ==History== {{Main|History of Alabama}} <!---Please insert new material in main article before summarizing here. Also, look for opportunities to delete material here if you are inserting new material. This is long enough.---> ===Pre-European settlement=== [[Indigenous peoples]] of varying cultures lived in the area for thousands of years before European colonization. Trade with the northeastern tribes via the [[Ohio River]] began during the Burial Mound Period (1000&nbsp;BC–AD&nbsp;700) and continued until [[European colonization of the Americas|European contact]].<ref name="NewYorkTimesAlmanac">{{cite news |url= http://travel2.nytimes.com/2004/07/15/travel/NYT_ALMANAC_US_ALABAMA.html |title= Alabama |date= August 11, 2006 |work= The New York Times Almanac 2004 |accessdate= September 23, 2006 |archiveurl= //web.archive.org/web/20060926105134/http://travel2.nytimes.com/2004/07/15/travel/NYT_ALMANAC_US_ALABAMA.html |archivedate= September 26, 2006 |deadurl= no}}</ref> [[File:Moundville Archaeological Site Alabama.jpg|thumb|left|The [[Moundville Archaeological Site]] in Hale County. It was occupied by Native Americans of the [[Mississippian culture]] from 1000 to 1450 AD.]] The agrarian [[Mississippian culture]] covered most of the state from 1000 to 1600 AD, with one of its major centers built at what is now the [[Moundville Archaeological Site]] in [[Moundville, Alabama]].<ref>{{Cite book|last= Welch |first= Paul D. |title= Moundville's Economy |publisher= University of Alabama Press |year= 1991 |isbn= 0-8173-0512-2 |oclc= 21330955 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last= Walthall |first= John A. |title= Prehistoric Indians of the Southeast-Archaeology of Alabama and the Middle South |publisher= University of Alabama Press |year= 1990 |isbn= 0-8173-0552-1 |oclc= 26656858 }}</ref> This is the second-largest complex of the classic Middle Mississippian era, after [[Cahokia]] in present-day [[Illinois]], which was the center of the culture. Analysis of [[Artifact (archaeology)|artifacts]] recovered from [[archaeological]] excavations at Moundville were the basis of scholars' formulating the characteristics of the [[Southeastern Ceremonial Complex]] (SECC).<ref>{{Cite book|last= Townsend |first= Richard F. |title= [[Hero, Hawk, and Open Hand]] |publisher= Yale University Press |year= 2004 |isbn= 0-300-10601-7 |oclc= 56633574 }}</ref> Contrary to popular belief, the SECC appears to have no direct links to [[Mesoamerica]]n culture, but developed independently. The Ceremonial Complex represents a major component of the religion of the Mississippian peoples; it is one of the primary means by which their religion is understood.<ref>{{Cite book|editors= F. Kent Reilly and James Garber |title= [[Ancient Objects and Sacred Realms]] |publisher= University of Texas Press |year= 2004 |isbn= 978-0-292-71347-5 |author= edited by F. Kent Reilly III and James F. Garber ; foreword by Vincas P. Steponaitis. |oclc= 70335213 }}</ref> Among the historical tribes of Native American people living in the area of present-day Alabama at the time of European contact were the [[Cherokee]], an [[Iroquoian language]] people; and the [[Muskogean]]-speaking [[Alabama (people)|Alabama]] (''Alibamu''), [[Chickasaw]], [[Choctaw]], [[Creek people|Creek]], and [[Koasati]].<ref>{{cite web|url= http://www.accessgenealogy.com/native/alabama/ |title= Alabama Indian Tribes |accessdate =September 23, 2006 |year= 2006 |work= Indian Tribal Records |publisher= AccessGenealogy.com |archiveurl= //web.archive.org/web/20061012073735/http://www.accessgenealogy.com/native/alabama/ |archivedate= October 12, 2006 |deadurl= no}}</ref> While part of the same large language family, the Muskogee tribes developed distinct cultures and languages. ===European settlement=== With exploration in the 16th century, the Spanish were the first Europeans to reach Alabama. The expedition of [[Hernando de Soto]] passed through [[Mabila]] and other parts of the state in 1540. More than 160 years later, the French founded the first European settlement in the region at [[Old Mobile Site|Old Mobile]] in 1702.<ref name="US50">{{cite web|url= http://www.theus50.com/alabama/ |title= Alabama State History |accessdate=September 23, 2006 |publisher= theUS50.com |archiveurl= //web.archive.org/web/20060825052401/http://www.theus50.com/alabama/ |archivedate= August 25, 2006 |deadurl= no}}</ref> The city was moved to the current site of [[Mobile, Alabama|Mobile]] in 1711. This area was claimed by the French from 1702 to 1763 as part of [[La Louisiane]].<ref name=alahisttmln/> After the French lost to the British in the [[Seven Years' War]], it became part of British [[West Florida]] from 1763 to 1783. The subsequent immigration of British into the area displaced the original [[Alabama people]] (who were also pressured by the Choctaw in Mississippi to eventually move to Louisiana and Texas). After the United States victory in the [[American Revolutionary War]], the territory was divided between the United States and Spain. The latter retained control of this western territory from 1783 until the surrender of the Spanish garrison at Mobile to U.S. forces on April 13, 1813.<ref name=alahisttmln>{{cite web|title=Alabama History Timeline|url=http://www.archives.alabama.gov/timeline/al1801.html|publisher=Alabama Department of Archives and History|accessdate=July 27, 2013}}</ref><ref name="annexed1">{{cite book|last=Thomason|first=Michael|title=Mobile: The New History of Alabama's First City|year=2001|publisher=University of Alabama Press|location=Tuscaloosa|isbn=0-8173-1065-7|pages=61}}</ref> Thomas Bassett, a [[Loyalist (American Revolution)|loyalist]] to the British monarchy during the Revolutionary era, was one of the earliest White settlers in the state outside Mobile. He settled in the [[Tombigbee District]] during the early 1770s.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.archives.state.al.us/aha/markers/washington.html |title=Alabama Historical Association Marker Program: Washington County |publisher=Archives.state.al.us |accessdate=June 1, 2011}}</ref> The boundaries of the district were roughly limited to the area within a few miles of the [[Tombigbee River]] and included portions of what is today southern [[Clarke County, Alabama|Clarke County]], northernmost [[Mobile County, Alabama|Mobile County]], and most of [[Washington County, Alabama|Washington County]].<ref name="oldsw">{{cite book |title=The Old Southwest 1795–1830: Frontiers in Conflict |last=Clark |first=Thomas D. |author2=John D. W. Guice |year=1989 |publisher=University of New Mexico Press |location=Albuquerque |isbn=0-8061-2836-4 |pages=44–65, 210–257}}</ref><ref name="colonial mobile">{{cite book |title=Colonial Mobile: An Historical Study of the Alabama-Tombigbee Basin and the Old South West from the Discovery of the Spiritu Sancto in 1519 until the Demolition of Fort Charlotte in 1821 |last=Hamilton |first=Peter Joseph |year=1910 |publisher=Hougthon Mifflin |location=Boston |oclc=49073155 |pages=241–244}}</ref> What is now the counties of [[Baldwin County, Alabama|Baldwin]] and [[Mobile County, Alabama|Mobile]] became part of [[Spanish West Florida]] in 1783, part of the independent [[Republic of West Florida]] in 1810, and was finally added to the [[Mississippi Territory]] in 1812. Most of what is now the northern two-thirds of Alabama was known as the [[Yazoo lands]] beginning during the British colonial period. It was claimed by the [[Province of Georgia]] from 1767 onwards. Following the [[American Revolution|Revolutionary War]], it remained a part of [[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]], although heavily disputed.<ref>{{cite book|last=Cadle|first=Farris W|title=Georgia Land Surveying History and Law|year=1991|publisher=University of Georgia Press|location=Athens, Ga.|pages=}}</ref><ref name="pickett">{{cite book|last=Pickett|first=Albert James|title=History of Alabama and incidentally of Georgia and Mississippi, from the earliest period|year=1851|publisher=Walker and James|location=Charleston|pages=408–428}}</ref> [[File:Mississippiterritory.PNG|thumb|right|upright=0.9|Map showing the formation of the Mississippi and Alabama territories]] With the exception of the area around Mobile and the Yazoo lands, what is now the lower one-third Alabama was made part of the Mississippi Territory when it was organized in 1798. The Yazoo lands were added to the territory in 1804, following the [[Yazoo land scandal]].<ref name="pickett"/><ref>{{cite web|title=The Pine Barrens Speculation and Yazoo Land Fraud|url=http://www.aboutnorthgeorgia.com/ang/The_Pine_Barrens_Speculation_and_Yazoo_Land_Fraud|publisher=About North Georgia|accessdate=July 27, 2013}}</ref> Spain kept a claim on its former Spanish West Florida territory in what would become the coastal counties until the [[Adams–Onís Treaty]] officially ceded it to the United States in 1819.<ref name="annexed1"/> ===19th century=== Before the admission of [[Mississippi]] as a state on December 10, 1817, the more sparsely settled eastern half of the territory was separated and named the [[Alabama Territory]]. The Alabama Territory was created by the [[United States Congress]] on March 3, 1817. [[St. Stephens, Alabama|St. Stephens]], now abandoned, served as the territorial capital from 1817 to 1819.<ref name="eoaststephens">{{cite web |url=http://www.encyclopediaofalabama.org/face/Article.jsp?id=h-1674 |title=Old St. Stephens |work=Encyclopedia of Alabama |publisher=Auburn University |accessdate=June 21, 2011}}</ref> The U.S. Congress selected Huntsville as the site for the first Constitutional Convention of Alabama after it was approved to become the 22nd state. From July 5 to August 2, 1819, delegates met to prepare the new state constitution. Huntsville served as the temporary capital of Alabama from 1819 to 1820, when the seat of state government was moved to [[Cahaba, Alabama|Cahaba]] in [[Dallas County, Alabama|Dallas County]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Huntsville |url=http://www.encyclopediaofalabama.org/face/Article.jsp?id=h-2498 |work=The Encyclopedia of Alabama |publisher= Alabama Humanities Foundation |accessdate=January 22, 2013}}</ref> [[File:Thornhill 01.jpg|thumb|The main house, built in 1833, at [[Thornhill (Forkland, Alabama)|Thornhill]] in Greene County. It is a former [[Black Belt (region of Alabama)|Black Belt]] plantation.]] Cahaba, now a ghost town, was the first permanent state capital from 1820 to 1825.<ref name="Cahaw">{{cite web|title=Old Cahawba, Alabama's first state capital, 1820 to 1826|work=Old Cahawba: A Cahawba Advisory Committee Project|url=http://www.cahawba.com/|accessdate=September 22, 2012}}</ref> [[Alabama Fever]] was already underway when the state was admitted to the Union, with settlers and land speculators pouring into the state to take advantage of fertile land suitable for cotton cultivation.<ref name="fever">{{cite web |url=http://www.encyclopediaofalabama.org/face/Article.jsp?id=h-3155 |title=Alabama Fever |author=LeeAnna Keith |date=October 13, 2011 |work=Encyclopedia of Alabama |publisher=Auburn University |accessdate=September 22, 2012}}</ref><ref name="adahtalafvr">{{cite web |url=http://www.alabamaheritage.com/vault/kingcotton.htm |title=Alabama Fever |work=Alabama Department of Archives and History |publisher=State of Alabama |accessdate=September 22, 2012}}</ref> Part of the frontier in the 1820s and 1830s, its constitution provided for universal suffrage for white men.<ref name="SSpaces"/> Southeastern planters and traders from the [[Upper South]] brought [[History of slavery in Alabama|slaves]] with them as the cotton [[List of plantations in Alabama|plantations in Alabama]] expanded. The economy of the central [[Black Belt (region of Alabama)|Black Belt]] (named for its dark, productive soil) was built around large cotton [[Plantation complexes in the Southeastern United States|plantations]] whose owners' wealth grew largely from slave labor.<ref name="SSpaces"/> The area also drew many poor, disfranchised people who became [[subsistence farmers]]. Alabama had a population estimated at under 10,000 people in 1810, but it had increased to more than 300,000 people by 1830.<ref name="fever"/> Most Native American tribes were [[Indian removal|completely removed]] from the state within a few years of the passage of the [[Indian Removal Act]] by Congress in 1830.<ref name="ala">{{cite web |url=http://www.encyclopediaofalabama.org/face/Article.jsp?id=h-1598 |title=Alabama |author=Wayne Flynt |date=July 9, 2008 |work=Encyclopedia of Alabama |publisher=Auburn University |accessdate=September 22, 2012}}</ref> [[File:Oldalabamastatecapruinsintuscaloosa.png|thumb|left|Ruins of the former capitol building in Tuscaloosa. Designed by [[William Nichols (architect)|William Nichols]], it was built from 1827–29 and was destroyed by fire in 1923.]] From 1826 to 1846, [[Tuscaloosa, Alabama|Tuscaloosa]] served as the capital of Alabama. On January 30, 1846, the Alabama legislature announced that it had voted to move the capital city from Tuscaloosa to [[Montgomery, Alabama|Montgomery]]. The first legislative session in the new capital met in December 1847.<ref name="capitols">{{cite web |url=http://www.archives.state.al.us/capital/capitals.html |title=Capitals of Alabama |work=Alabama Department of Archives and History |accessdate=July 8, 2011 |archiveurl= //web.archive.org/web/20110716220255/http://www.archives.state.al.us/capital/capitals.html |archivedate= July 16, 2011 |deadurl= no}}</ref> A new capitol building was erected under the direction of [[Stephen Decatur Button]] of [[Philadelphia]]. The first structure burned down in 1849, but was rebuilt on the same site in 1851. This second capitol building in Montgomery remains to the present day. It was designed by Barachias Holt of [[Exeter, Maine]].<ref name="alcatalog">{{cite book |last= Gamble |first=Robert|year =1987|title =The Alabama Catalog: A Guide to the Early Architecture of the State|pages=144, 323–324|publisher =University of Alabama Press|location = University, AL|isbn =0-8173-0148-8 }}</ref><ref name="alarchitecture">{{cite book|last =Bowsher|first =Alice Meriwether|year =2001|title =Alabama Architecture|pages=90–91|publisher =University of Alabama Press|location = Tuscaloosa|isbn =0-8173-1081-9 }}</ref> By 1860, the population had increased to a total of 964,201 people, of which nearly half, 435,080 were enslaved African Americans, and 2,690 were [[free people of color]].<ref name="adahtmln">{{cite web |url=http://www.archives.alabama.gov/timeline/al1801.html |title=Alabama History Timeline |work=Alabama Department of Archives and History |publisher=State of Alabama |accessdate=September 22, 2012}}</ref> On January 11, 1861, Alabama declared its [[Secession in the United States|secession]] from the [[Union (American Civil War)|Union]]. After remaining an independent republic for a few days, it joined the [[Confederate States of America]]. The Confederacy's capital was initially located at [[Montgomery, Alabama|Montgomery]]. Alabama was heavily [[Alabama in the American Civil War|involved in the American Civil War]]. Although comparatively few battles were fought in the state, Alabama contributed about 120,000 soldiers to the war effort. [[File:Huntsville Courthouse Square 1864.jpg|thumb|[[Union Army]] troops occupying Courthouse Square in Huntsville, following its capture and occupation by federal forces in 1864.]] A company of cavalry soldiers from Huntsville, Alabama joined [[Nathan Bedford Forrest]]'s battalion in [[Hopkinsville, Kentucky]]. The company wore new uniforms with yellow trim on the sleeves, collar and coat tails. This led to them being greeted with "Yellowhammer", and the name later was applied to all Alabama troops in the Confederate Army.<ref>[http://www.archives.state.al.us/emblems/st_bird.html Official Symbols and Emblems of Alabama, State Bird of Alabama, Yellowhammer]. Alabama State Archives</ref> Alabama's slaves were freed by the 13th Amendment in 1865.<ref name="HistDocs">{{cite web|url= http://www.historicaldocuments.com/13thAmendment.htm |title= 13th Amendment to the U.S. Constitution: Abolition of Slavery (1865) |accessdate =September 23, 2006 |year= 2005 |work= Historical Documents |publisher= HistoricalDocuments.com}}</ref> Alabama was under military rule from the end of the war in May 1865 until its official restoration to the Union in 1868. From 1867 to 1874, with most White citizens barred temporarily from voting and freedmen enfranchised, many African Americans emerged as political leaders in the state. Alabama was represented in Congress during this period by three African-American congressmen: [[Jeremiah Haralson]], [[Benjamin S. Turner]], and [[James T. Rapier]].<ref name="alrecnstrctn">{{cite web |url=http://www.alabamamoments.alabama.gov/sec24.html |title=Reconstruction in Alabama: A Quick Summary |work=Alabama Moments in American History |publisher=Alabama Department of Archives and History |accessdate=September 22, 2012}}</ref> Following the war, the state remained chiefly agricultural, with an economy tied to cotton. During [[Reconstruction era of the United States|Reconstruction]], state legislators ratified a [[Constitution of Alabama|new state constitution]] in 1868 that created the state's first public school system and expanded women's rights. Legislators funded numerous public road and railroad projects, although these were plagued with allegations of fraud and misappropriation.<ref name="alrecnstrctn"/> Organized [[insurgent]], resistance groups tried to suppress the freedmen and Republicans. Besides the short-lived original [[Ku Klux Klan]], these included the Pale Faces, [[Knights of the White Camellia]], [[Red Shirts (Southern United States)|Red Shirts]], and the [[White League]].<ref name="alrecnstrctn"/> Reconstruction in Alabama ended in 1874, when the Democrats regained control of the legislature and governor's office through an election dominated by fraud and violence. They wrote another constitution in 1875,<ref name="alrecnstrctn"/> and the legislature passed the [[Blaine Amendment]], prohibiting public money from being used to finance religious-affiliated schools.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.schoolreport.com/schoolreport/articles/blaine_7_00.htm |title=A Blaine Amendment Update (July 00) |publisher=Schoolreport.com |accessdate=June 1, 2011 |archiveurl= //web.archive.org/web/20110716014339/http://www.schoolreport.com/schoolreport/articles/blaine_7_00.htm |archivedate= July 16, 2011 |deadurl= no}}</ref> The same year, legislation was approved that called for [[racial segregation|racially segregated]] schools.<ref name="jimcrowala">{{cite web |url=http://www.classroomhelp.com/till/jimcrowlaws/jimcrowalabama.html |title=Jim Crow Laws in Alabama |work=Emmett Till, It All Began with a Whistle |publisher=Classroomhelp |accessdate=September 22, 2012}}</ref> Railroad passenger cars were segregated in 1891.<ref name="jimcrowala"/> After disfranchising most African Americans and many poor whites in the 1901 constitution, the Alabama legislature passed more [[Jim Crow laws]] at the beginning of the 20th century to impose segregation in everyday life. ===20th century=== [[File:Birmingham Alabama skyline 1915.jpg|thumb|left|The developing skyline of Birmingham in 1915]] The new 1901 [[Constitution of Alabama]] included provisions for voter registration that effectively [[Disfranchisement after Reconstruction era|disenfranchised]] large portions of the population, including nearly all African Americans and Native Americans, and tens of thousands of poor whites, through making voter registration difficult, requiring a [[Poll tax (United States)|poll taxes]] and [[literacy test]].<ref>J. Morgan Kousser. ''The Shaping of Southern Politics: Suffrage Restriction and the Establishment of the One-Party South'', New Haven: Yale University Press, 1974</ref> By 1903, only 2,980 African Americans were registered in Alabama, although at least 74,000 were [[literate]]. This compared to more than 181,000 African Americans eligible to vote in 1900. The numbers dropped even more in later decades.<ref name="epzzsd"/> While the planter class had persuaded poor whites to vote for this legislative effort to suppress black voting, the new restrictions resulted in their disenfranchisement as well, due mostly to the imposition of a cumulative poll tax.<ref name="epzzsd"/> By 1941, whites constituted a slight majority of those disenfranchised by these laws: 600,000 Whites vs. 520,000 African-Americans.<ref name="epzzsd">Glenn Feldman. ''The Disfranchisement Myth: Poor Whites and Suffrage Restriction in Alabama''. Athens: University of Georgia Press, 2004, p. 136.</ref> Nearly all African Americans had lost the ability to vote. Despite numerous legal challenges that succeeded in overturning certain provisions, the state legislature would create new ones to maintain disenfranchisement. The exclusion of blacks from the political system persisted until after passage of federal civil rights legislation in the 1965 to enforce their constitutional rights as citizens. The 1901 constitution required racial segregation of public schools. It also restated that interracial marriage was illegal, as it had been prohibited in 1867. Into the 1950s, the state legislature passed additional racial segregation laws related to public facilities: jails were segregated in 1911; hospitals in 1915; toilets, hotels, and restaurants in 1928; and bus stop waiting rooms in 1945.<ref name="jimcrowala"/> The rural-dominated Alabama legislature consistently underfunded schools and services for the disenfranchised African Americans, but it did not relieve them of paying taxes.<ref name="SSpaces">{{cite web|url= http://southernspaces.org/2004/black-belt |title= The Black Belt |accessdate =September 23, 2006 |date= April 19, 2004 |work= Southern Spaces Internet Journal |publisher= Emory University}}</ref> Partially as a response to chronic underfunding of education for African Americans in the South, the [[Rosenwald Fund]] began funding the construction of what came to be known as [[Rosenwald School]]s. In Alabama these schools were designed and the construction partially financed with Rosenwald funds, which paid one-third of the construction costs. The fund required the local community and state to raise matching funds to pay the rest. Black residents effectively taxed themselves twice, by raising additional monies to supply matching funds for such schools, which were built in many rural areas. They often donated land and labor as well.<ref name="rosenwaldal">{{cite web|title=The Rosenwald School Building Fund and Associated Buildings MPS|work="National Register Information System" |url={{NRHP url|id=64500011}} |accessdate=October 3, 2012}}</ref> [[File:Mount Sinai School Autauga County July 2011 1.jpg|thumb|The former [[Mount Sinai School]] in rural Autauga County, completed in 1919. It was one of the 387 [[Rosenwald Schools]] built in the state.]] Beginning in 1913, the first 80 [[Rosenwald School]]s were built in Alabama for African-American children. A total of 387 schools, seven teachers' houses, and several vocational buildings were completed by 1937 in the state. Several of the [[The Rosenwald School Building Fund and Associated Buildings Multiple Property Submission|surviving school buildings]] in the state are now listed on the [[National Register of Historic Places]].<ref name="rosenwaldal"/> Continued racial discrimination and [[lynching]]s, agricultural depression, and the failure of the cotton crops due to [[boll weevil]] infestation led tens of thousands of African Americans from rural Alabama and other states to seek opportunities in northern and midwestern cities during the early decades of the 20th century as part of the [[Great Migration (African American)|Great Migration]] out of the South. Reflecting this emigration, the population growth rate in Alabama (see "Historical Populations" table below) dropped by nearly half from 1910 to 1920. At the same time, many rural people, both White and African American, migrated to the city of [[Birmingham, Alabama|Birmingham]] to work in new industrial jobs. Birmingham experienced such rapid growth that it was called the "Magic City". By the 1920s, Birmingham was the 19th-largest city in the United States and had more than 30% of the state's population. Heavy industry and mining were the basis of its economy. Its residents were under-represented for decades in the state legislature, which refused to redistrict after each decennial census according to population changes, as it was required by the state constitution. This did not change until the late 1960s following a lawsuit and court order. <blockquote>Beginning in the 1940s, when the courts started taking the first steps to recognize the voting rights of black voters, the Alabama legislature took several counter -steps designed to disfranchise black voters. The legislature passed, and the voters ratified [as these were mostly white voters], a state constitutional amendment that gave local registrars greater latitude to disqualify voter registration applicants. Black citizens in [[Mobile, Alabama|Mobile]] successfully challenged this amendment as a violation of the [[Fifteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution|Fifteenth Amendment]]. The legislature also changed the boundaries of [[Tuskegee, Alabama|Tuskegee]] to a 28-sided figure designed to fence out blacks from the city limits. The Supreme Court unanimously held that this racial "[[gerrymandering]]" violated the Constitution. In 1961, ... the Alabama legislature also intentionally diluted the effect of the black vote by instituting numbered place requirements for local elections.<ref name="vra">James Blacksher, Edward Still, Nick Quinton, Cullen Brown and Royal Dumas. [http://www.protectcivilrights.org/pdf/voting/AlabamaVRA.pdf ''Voting Rights in Alabama (1982-2006)''], Renew the VRA.org, July 2006, from discussion in Peyton McCrary, Jerome A. Gray, Edward Still, and Huey L. Perry, "Alabama" in ''Quiet Revolution in the South'', pp. 38-52, Chandler Davidson and Bernard Grofman, eds. 1994.</ref></blockquote> Industrial development related to the demands of World War II brought a level of prosperity to the state not seen since before the Civil War.<ref name="SSpaces"/> Rural workers poured into the largest cities in the state for better jobs and a higher standard of living. One example of this massive influx of workers occurred in Mobile. Between 1940 and 1943, more than 89,000 people moved into the city to work for war-related industries.<ref name="thomason2">Thomason, Michael. ''Mobile : The New History of Alabama's First City'', pages 213–217. Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 2001. ISBN 0-8173-1065-7.</ref> Cotton and other cash crops faded in importance as the state developed a manufacturing and service base. Despite massive population changes in the state from 1901 to 1961, the rural-dominated legislature refused to reapportion House and Senate seats based on population, as required by the state constitution to follow the results of decennial censuses. They held on to old representation to maintain political and economic power in agricultural areas. In addition, the state legislature gerrymandered the few Birmingham legislative seats to ensure election by persons living outside Birmingham. One result was that [[Jefferson County, Alabama|Jefferson County]], containing Birmingham's industrial and economic powerhouse, contributed more than one-third of all tax revenue to the state, but did not receive a proportional amount in services. Urban interests were consistently underrepresented in the legislature. A 1960 study noted that because of rural domination, "a minority of about 25 per cent of the total state population is in majority control of the Alabama legislature."<ref name="pjhwpa"/> A class action suit initiated on behalf of plaintiffs in [[Lowndes County, Alabama]] challenged the state legislature's lack of redistricting for congressional seats. In 1962 ''[[White v. Crook]]'', Judge [[Frank M. Johnson]] ordered the state to redistrict. United States Supreme Court cases of ''[[Baker v. Carr]]'' (1962) and ''[[Reynolds v. Sims]]'' (1964) ruled that the principle of "[[one man, one vote]]" needed to be the basis of both houses of state legislatures as well, and that their districts had to be based on population, rather than geographic counties, as Alabama had used for its senate. In 1972, for the first time since 1901, the legislature completed the first congressional redistricting based on the decennial census. This benefited the urban areas that had developed, as well as all in the population who had been underrepresented for more than 60 years.<ref name="pjhwpa"/> Other changes were made to implement representative state house and senate districts. African Americans continued to press in the 1950s and 1960s to end disenfranchisement and segregation in the state through the [[African-American Civil Rights Movement (1955–1968)|Civil Rights Movement]], including legal challenges. In 1954, the US Supreme Court ruled in ''[[Brown v. Board of Education]]'' that public schools had to be desegregated, but Alabama was slow to comply. During the 1960s, under Governor [[George Wallace]], Alabama resisted compliance with federal demands for [[desegregation]].The civil rights movement had notable events in Alabama, including the [[Montgomery Bus Boycott]] (1955–56), [[Freedom Rides]] in 1961, and 1965 [[Selma to Montgomery marches]]. These contributed to Congressional passage and enactment of the [[Civil Rights Act of 1964]]<ref name="cra64">{{cite web |url=http://finduslaw.com/civil_rights_act_of_1964_cra_title_vii_equal_employment_opportunities_42_us_code_chapter_21 |title=Civil Rights Act of 1964 |publisher=Finduslaw.com |accessdate=October 24, 2010 |archiveurl= //web.archive.org/web/20101021141154/http://finduslaw.com/civil_rights_act_of_1964_cra_title_vii_equal_employment_opportunities_42_us_code_chapter_21 |archivedate= October 21, 2010 |deadurl= no}}</ref> and [[Voting Rights Act of 1965]] by the U.S. Congress. Legal segregation ended in the states in 1964, but [[Jim Crow]] customs often continued until specifically challenged in court.<ref name="USDOJ">{{cite web|url= http://www.usdoj.gov/kidspage/crt/voting.htm |archiveurl= //web.archive.org/web/20070221054512/http://www.usdoj.gov/kidspage/crt/voting.htm |archivedate= February 21, 2007 |title= Voting Rights |accessdate =September 23, 2006 |date= January 9, 2002 |work= Civil Rights: Law and History |publisher= U.S.Department of Justice}}</ref> Despite recommendations of a 1973 Alabama Constitutional Commission, the state legislature did not approve an amendment to establish home rule for counties. There is very limited home rule, but the legislature is deeply involved in passing legislation that applies to county-level functions and policies. This both deprives local residents of the ability to govern themselves and distracts the legislature from statewide issues. Alabama has made some changes since the late 20th century and has used new types of voting to increase representation. In the 1980s, an omnibus redistricting case, ''[[Dillard v. Crenshaw County]],'' challenged the [[at-large]] voting for representative seats of 180 Alabama jurisdictions, including counties and school boards. At-large voting had diluted the votes of any minority in a county, as the majority tended to take all seats. Despite African Americans making up a significant minority in the state, they had been unable to elect any representatives in most of the at-large jurisdictions. As part of settlement of this case, five Alabama cites and counties, including [[Chilton County, Alabama|Chilton County]], adopted a system of [[proportional representation|cumulative voting]] for election of representatives in multi-seat jurisdictions. This has resulted in more proportional representation for voters. In another form of proportional representation, 23 jurisdictions use limited voting, as in [[Conecuh County, Alabama|Conecuh County]]. In 1982, limited voting was first tested in [[Conecuh County, Alabama|Conecuh County]]. Together use of these systems has increased the number of African Americans and women being elected to local offices, resulting in governments that are more representative of their citizens.<ref name="cum">[http://archive.fairvote.org/?page=516 "Cumulative Elections in Alabama (2004)"/"Proportional Voting in Alabama"], FairVote Archives, accessed January 11, 2015</ref> ==Geography== [[File:Map of Alabama terrain NA.jpg|thumb|A general map of Alabama]] {{Main|Geography of Alabama}} {{See also|List of Alabama counties|Geology of Alabama}} Alabama is the thirtieth-largest state in the United States with {{convert|52419|sqmi|km2|abbr=out|sp=us}} of total area: 3.2% of the area is water, making Alabama 23rd in the amount of surface water, also giving it the second-largest inland waterway system in the U.S.<ref>{{cite web |url= http://factfinder.census.gov/servlet/GCTTable?_bm=n&_lang=en&mt_name=DEC_2000_SF1_U_GCTPH1R_US9S&format=US-9S&_box_head_nbr=GCT-PH1-R&ds_name=DEC_2000_SF1_U&geo_id=01000US |title= GCT-PH1-R. Population, Housing Units, Area, and Density (areas ranked by population): 2000 |year=2000 |accessdate =September 23, 2006 |work=Geographic Comparison Table |publisher= U.S.Census Bureau}}</ref> About three-fifths of the land area is a gentle plain with a general descent towards the [[Mississippi River]] and the [[Gulf of Mexico]]. The [[North Alabama]] region is mostly mountainous, with the [[Tennessee River]] cutting a large valley and creating numerous creeks, streams, rivers, mountains, and lakes.<ref name="NetState">{{cite web |url= http://www.netstate.com/states/geography/al_geography.htm |title= The Geography of Alabama |work=Geography of the States |publisher=NetState.com |date= August 11, 2006 |accessdate=September 23, 2006 |archiveurl= //web.archive.org/web/20060917172224/http://www.netstate.com/states/geography/al_geography.htm |archivedate= September 17, 2006 |deadurl= no}}</ref> Alabama is bordered by the states of [[Tennessee]] to the north, [[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]] to the east, [[Florida]] to the south, and [[Mississippi]] to the west. Alabama has coastline at the Gulf of Mexico, in the extreme southern edge of the state.<ref name="NetState"/> The state ranges in elevation from sea level<ref name="usgs">{{cite web |date=April 29, 2005 |url=http://erg.usgs.gov/isb/pubs/booklets/elvadist/elvadist.html#Highest |title=Elevations and Distances in the United States |publisher=U.S Geological Survey |accessdate=November 3, 2006 |archiveurl=http://pubs.er.usgs.gov/publication/70037974/elvadist.html |archivedate= November 2, 2006 |deadurl= no}}</ref> at [[Mobile Bay]] to over 1,800&nbsp;feet (550&nbsp;m) in the [[Appalachian Mountains]] in the northeast. The highest point is [[Mount Cheaha]],<ref name="NetState"/> at a height of {{convert|2413|ft|0|abbr=on}}.<ref name=ngs>{{cite web |url=http://www.ngs.noaa.gov/cgi-bin/ds_mark.prl?PidBox=DG3595 |title=NGS Data Sheet for Cheaha Mountain |publisher=U.S. National Geodetic Survey |accessdate=June 8, 2011}}</ref> Alabama's land consists of {{convert|22|e6acre|km2}} of forest or 67% of total land area.<ref>[http://www.alabamaforests.org/Introduction/index.html Alabama Forest Owner's Guide to Information Resources, Introduction], Alabamaforests.org {{wayback|url=http://www.alabamaforests.org/Introduction/index.html |date=20150427181510 }}</ref> Suburban [[Baldwin County, Alabama|Baldwin County]], along the Gulf Coast, is the largest county in the state in both land area and water area.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://factfinder.census.gov/servlet/GCTTable?_bm=y&-context=gct&-ds_name=DEC_2000_SF1_U&-mt_name=DEC_2000_SF1_U_GCTPH1R_ST2S&-CONTEXT=gct&-tree_id=4001&-redoLog=true&-geo_id=04000US01&-format=ST-2 |title=Alabama County (geographies ranked by total population) |date= Census year 2000 |work=Geographic Comparison Table |publisher=U.S. Census Bureau |accessdate=May 14, 2007|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20081011232646/http://factfinder.census.gov/servlet/GCTTable?_bm=y&-context=gct&-ds_name=DEC_2000_SF1_U&-mt_name=DEC_2000_SF1_U_GCTPH1R_ST2S&-CONTEXT=gct&-tree_id=4001&-redoLog=true&-geo_id=04000US01&-format=ST-2|archivedate=October 11, 2008|deadurl=yes}}</ref> Areas in Alabama administered by the [[National Park Service]] include [[Horseshoe Bend National Military Park]] near [[Alexander City, Alabama|Alexander City]]; [[Little River Canyon National Preserve]] near [[Fort Payne, Alabama|Fort Payne]]; [[Russell Cave National Monument]] in [[Bridgeport, Alabama|Bridgeport]]; [[Tuskegee Airmen National Historic Site]] in [[Tuskegee, Alabama|Tuskegee]]; and [[Tuskegee Institute National Historic Site]] near Tuskegee.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://home.nps.gov/applications/parksearch/state.cfm?st=al |title=National Park Guide |accessdate=September 23, 2006 |work=Geographic Search |publisher=National Park Service – U.S. Department of the Interior |location=Washington, D.C |archiveurl= http://home.nps.gov/state/al/index.htm?program=parks |archivedate= September 30, 2006 |deadurl= no}}</ref> Additionally, Alabama has four [[United States National Forest|National Forests]]: [[Conecuh National Forest|Conecuh]], [[Talladega National Forest|Talladega]], [[Tuskegee National Forest|Tuskegee]], and [[William B. Bankhead National Forest|William B. Bankhead]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.fs.fed.us/r8/alabama/forests/ |title=National Forests in Alabama |accessdate=October 5, 2008 |work=USDA Forest Service |publisher=United States Department of Agriculture |archiveurl= //web.archive.org/web/20081007051917/http://www.fs.fed.us/r8/alabama/forests/ |archivedate= October 7, 2008 |deadurl= no}}</ref> Alabama also contains the [[Natchez Trace Parkway]], the [[Selma To Montgomery National Historic Trail]], and the [[Trail of Tears|Trail Of Tears National Historic Trail]]. A notable natural wonder in Alabama is [[Natural Bridge, Alabama|"Natural Bridge"]] rock, the longest [[natural bridge]] east of the [[Rocky Mountains|Rockies]], located just south of [[Haleyville, Alabama|Haleyville]]. A {{convert|5|mi|km|0|adj=on}}-wide meteorite impact crater is located in [[Elmore County, Alabama|Elmore County]], just north of Montgomery. This is the [[Wetumpka crater]], the site of "Alabama's greatest natural disaster." A {{convert|1000|ft|m|sing=on}}-wide meteorite hit the area about 80&nbsp;million years ago.<ref name="mlvguh">{{cite Earth Impact DB |name= Wetumpka |accessdate =August 20, 2009 |nocat=1}}</ref> The hills just east of downtown [[Wetumpka]] showcase the eroded remains of the impact crater that was blasted into the bedrock, with the area labeled the Wetumpka crater or astrobleme ("star-wound") because of the concentric rings of fractures and zones of shattered rock that can be found beneath the surface.<ref>"The Wetumpka Astrobleme" by John C. Hall, Alabama Heritage, Fall 1996, Number 42.</ref> In 2002, Christian Koeberl with the Institute of Geochemistry University of Vienna published evidence and established the site as the 157th recognized impact crater on Earth.<ref>{{cite web |last=King |first=David T., Jr. |title=Wetumpka Crater |url=http://www.encyclopediaofalabama.org/face/Article.jsp?id=h-1035 |work=Encyclopedia of Alabama |accessdate=December 13, 2011 |date=April 23, 2010}}</ref> ===Climate=== {{Main|Climate of Alabama}} [[File:Autumn_tree_in_Birmingham_Nov_2011.jpg|thumb|upright|Autumn tree in Birmingham]] The state is classified as [[humid subtropical climate|humid subtropical]] (''Cfa'') under the [[Humid temperate climate|Koppen Climate Classification]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.encyclopediaofalabama.org/face/Article.jsp?id=h-1283 |title=Encyclopedia of Alabama: Climate |date=August 17, 2007 |publisher=University of Alabama}}</ref> The average annual temperature is 64&nbsp;°F (18&nbsp;°C). Temperatures tend to be warmer in the southern part of the state with its proximity to the Gulf of Mexico, while the northern parts of the state, especially in the Appalachian Mountains in the northeast, tend to be slightly cooler.<ref name="cprgsw">{{cite web|url=http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-78303/Alabama |title=Alabama Climate |work=Encyclopædia Britannica |accessdate=October 24, 2010}}</ref> Generally, Alabama has very hot summers and mild winters with copious precipitation throughout the year. Alabama receives an average of {{convert|56|in|mm}} of rainfall annually and enjoys a lengthy growing season of up to 300&nbsp;days in the southern part of the state.<ref name="cprgsw"/> Summers in Alabama are among the hottest in the U.S., with high temperatures averaging over {{convert|90|°F}} throughout the summer in some parts of the state. Alabama is also prone to [[tropical storm]]s and even [[hurricane]]s. Areas of the state far away from the Gulf are not immune to the effects of the storms, which often dump tremendous amounts of rain as they move inland and weaken. South Alabama reports many [[thunderstorms]]. The Gulf Coast, around Mobile Bay, averages between 70 and 80 days per year with thunder reported. This activity decreases somewhat further north in the state, but even the far north of the state reports thunder on about 60&nbsp;days per year. Occasionally, thunderstorms are severe with frequent [[lightning]] and large [[hail]]; the central and northern parts of the state are most vulnerable to this type of storm. Alabama ranks ninth in the number of deaths from lightning and tenth in the number of deaths from lightning strikes per capita.<ref>[http://www.lightningsafety.noaa.gov/stats/04-13state_fatality_rates.pdf Lightning Fatalities, Injuries and Damages in the United States, 2004-2013]. NLSI. Retrieved April 26, 2014.</ref> [[File:Phil Campbell tornado damage.jpg|thumb|left|Tornado damage in [[Phil Campbell, Alabama|Phil Campbell]] following the statewide [[2011 Super Outbreak|April 27, 2011 tornado outbreak]].]] Alabama, along with [[Oklahoma]], has the most reported [[Enhanced Fujita scale|EF5 tornadoes]] of any state, according to statistics from the [[National Climatic Data Center]] for the period January 1, 1950, to June 2013.<ref>[http://www.newsnet5.com/weather/weather-news/kshb-list-states-with-the-most-ef5-tornadoes LIST: States with the most F5/EF5 tornadoes since 1950; Ohio high on list]. Retrieved April 26, 2014.</ref> Several long-tracked F5/EF5 tornadoes have contributed to Alabama reporting more tornado fatalities than any other state. The state was affected by the [[1974 Super Outbreak]] and was devastated tremendously by the [[2011 Super Outbreak]]. The 2011 Super Outbreak produced a record amount of tornadoes in the state. The tally reached 62.<ref>{{cite web |last=Oliver |first=Mike |title=April 27's record tally: 62 tornadoes in Alabama |url=http://blog.al.com/spotnews/2011/08/april_27s_record_tally_62_torn.html |work= |publisher=al.com |accessdate=November 4, 2012}}</ref> [[File:Birmingham city hall alabama 2010.jpg|thumb|Snowfall outside Birmingham City Hall in February 2010]] The peak season for tornadoes varies from the northern to southern parts of the state. Alabama is one of the few places in the world that has a secondary tornado season in November and December, along with the spring severe weather season. The northern part of the state—along the Tennessee Valley—is one of the areas in the U.S. most vulnerable to violent tornadoes. The area of Alabama and Mississippi most affected by tornadoes is sometimes referred to as [[Dixie Alley]], as distinct from the [[Tornado Alley]] of the Southern Plains. Winters are generally mild in Alabama, as they are throughout most of the southeastern U.S., with average January low temperatures around {{convert|40|°F}} in Mobile and around {{convert|32|°F}} in Birmingham. Although snow is a rare event in much of Alabama, areas of the state north of Montgomery may receive a dusting of snow a few times every winter, with an occasional moderately heavy snowfall every few years. Historic snowfall events include [[New Year's Eve 1963 snowstorm]] and the [[1993 Storm of the Century]]. The annual average snowfall for the Birmingham area is {{convert|2|in|mm}} per year. In the southern Gulf coast, snowfall is less frequent, sometimes going several years without any snowfall. Alabama's highest temperature of {{convert|112|°F}} was recorded on September 5, 1925 in the unincorporated community of [[Centerville, Alabama|Centerville]]. The record low of {{convert|-27|°F}} occurred on January 30, 1966 in [[New Market, Alabama|New Market]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.accuracyproject.org/recordtemps.html |title=Record high and low temperatures for all 50 states |work=Internet Accuracy Project |publisher=accuracyproject.org |accessdate=November 3, 2012}}</ref> {{Alabama weatherbox}} ===Flora and fauna=== [[File:CahabaRiverNWR1.jpg|thumb|A stand of [[Hymenocallis coronaria|Cahaba lilies]] (''Hymenocallis coronaria'') in the [[Cahaba River]], within the [[Cahaba River National Wildlife Refuge]].]] {{Main|List of amphibians of Alabama|List of mammals of Alabama|List of reptiles of Alabama|Alabama Champion Tree Program|l4=Trees of Alabama}} Alabama is home to a diverse array of [[flora]] and [[fauna]], due largely to a variety of habitats that range from the [[Tennessee Valley]], [[Appalachian Plateau]], and [[Ridge-and-Valley Appalachians]] of the north to the [[Piedmont (United States)|Piedmont]], [[Canebrake (region of Alabama)|Canebrake]] and [[Black Belt (region of Alabama)|Black Belt]] of the central region to the [[Gulf Coastal Plain]] and beaches along the [[Gulf of Mexico]] in the south. The state is usually ranked among the top in nation for its range of overall [[biodiversity]].<ref name="alawildlife">{{cite book |title=Alabama Wildlife: Volume One |last=Mirarchi |first=Ralph E. |year=2004 |publisher=University of Alabama Press |location=Tuscaloosa, Alabama |isbn=978-0-81735-1304 |pages=1–3, 60 }}</ref><ref name="outalawildlife">{{cite web |url=http://www.outdooralabama.com/watchable-wildlife/what/ |title=Alabama Wildlife and their Conservation Status |work=Outdoor Alabama |publisher=Alabama Department of Conservation and Natural Resources |accessdate=October 16, 2012}}</ref> Alabama is in the subtropical coniferous forest biome and once boasted huge expanses of pine forest, which still form the largest proportion of forests in the state.<ref name="alawildlife"/> It currently ranks fifth in the nation for the diversity of its flora. It is home to nearly 4,000 [[pteridophyte]] and [[spermatophyte]] plant species.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.floraofalabama.org/ |title=About the Atlas |work=Alabama Plant Atlas |publisher=Alabama Herbarium Consortium and University of West Alabama |accessdate=October 16, 2012}}</ref> [[Indigenous (ecology)|Indigenous]] animal species in the state include 62 [[mammal]] [[species]],<ref name="outalamam">{{cite web |url=http://www.outdooralabama.com/watchable-wildlife/what/Mammals/ |title=Mammals |work=Outdoor Alabama |publisher=Alabama Department of Conservation and Natural Resources |accessdate=October 16, 2012}}</ref> 93 reptile species,<ref name="outalarep">{{cite web |url=http://www.outdooralabama.com/watchable-wildlife/what/reptiles/ |title=Reptiles |work=Outdoor Alabama |publisher=Alabama Department of Conservation and Natural Resources |accessdate=October 16, 2012}}</ref> 73 [[amphibian]] species,<ref name="outalaamphi">{{cite web |url=http://www.outdooralabama.com/watchable-wildlife/what/Amphibians/ |title=Amphibians |work=Outdoor Alabama |publisher=Alabama Department of Conservation and Natural Resources |accessdate=October 16, 2012}}</ref> roughly 307 native [[freshwater fish]] species,<ref name="alawildlife"/> and 420 bird species that spend at least part of their year within the state.<ref name="outalabird">{{cite web |url=http://www.outdooralabama.com/watchable-wildlife/what/birds/ |title=Birds |work=Outdoor Alabama |publisher=Alabama Department of Conservation and Natural Resources |accessdate=October 16, 2012}}</ref> Invertebrates include 83 [[crayfish]] species and 383 [[mollusk]] species. 113 of these mollusk species have never been collected outside the state.<ref name="outalamollusk">{{cite web |url=http://www.outdooralabama.com/watchable-wildlife/what/inverts/mollusks/ |title=Alabama Snails and Mussels |work=Outdoor Alabama |publisher=Alabama Department of Conservation and Natural Resources |accessdate=October 16, 2012}}</ref><ref name="outalacray">{{cite web |url=http://www.outdooralabama.com/watchable-wildlife/what/inverts/crayfish/ |title=Crayfish |work=Outdoor Alabama |publisher=Alabama Department of Conservation and Natural Resources |accessdate=October 16, 2012}}</ref> ==Demographics== [[File:Alabama population map.png|thumb|left|Alabama's population density]] {{Main|Demographics of Alabama}} {{US Census population |1800= 1250 |1810= 9046 |1820= 127901 |1830= 309527 |1840= 590756 |1850= 771623 |1860= 964201 |1870= 996992 |1880= 1262505 |1890= 1513401 |1900= 1828697 |1910= 2138093 |1920= 2348174 |1930= 2646248 |1940= 2832961 |1950= 3061743 |1960= 3266740 |1970= 3444165 |1980= 3893888 |1990= 4040587 |2000= 4447100 |2010= 4779745 |estimate= 4858979 |estyear= 2015 |align-fn=center |footnote=Sources: 1910–2010<ref>{{cite web|author=Resident Population Data |url=http://2010.census.gov/2010census/data/apportionment-pop-text.php |title=Resident Population Data – 2010 Census |publisher=2010.census.gov |accessdate=June 1, 2011 |archiveurl= //web.archive.org/web/20110519131122/http://2010.census.gov/2010census/data/apportionment-pop-text.php |archivedate= May 19, 2011 |deadurl= no}}</ref><br />2015 estimate<ref name=PopEstUS/> }} The [[United States Census Bureau]] estimates that the population of Alabama was 4,858,979 on July 1, 2015,<ref name=PopEstUS>{{cite web|url=http://www.census.gov/popest/data/state/totals/2015/tables/NST-EST2015-01.csv|format=CSV|title=Table 1. Annual Estimates of the Resident Population for the United States, Regions, States, and Puerto Rico: April 1, 2010 to July 1, 2015|date=December 26, 2015|publisher=[[U.S. Census Bureau]]|accessdate=December 26, 2015}}</ref> which represents an increase of 79,243, or 1.66%, since the [[2010 United States Census|2010 Census]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.census.gov/2010census/popmap/ipmtext.php?fl=01 |title=2010 Census Interactive Population Search |publisher=2010.census.gov |accessdate=December 29, 2014}}</ref> This includes a natural increase since the last census of 121,054 people (that is 502,457 births minus 381,403 deaths) and an increase due to net migration of 104,991 people into the state.<ref name=census_cum>{{cite web |title=Annual Estimates of the Population for the United States, Regions, States, and Puerto Rico: April 1, 2010 to July 1, 2012 |url=http://www.census.gov/popest/data/national/totals/2012/index.html |publisher=U.S. Census Bureau |format=[[comma-separated values|CSV]] |accessdate=December 24, 2012 |archiveurl=//web.archive.org/web/20090205023552/http://www.census.gov/popest/states/tables/NST-EST2008-04.csv |archivedate= February 5, 2009 |deadurl= no}}</ref> [[Immigration to the United States|Immigration]] from outside the U.S. resulted in a net increase of 31,180 people, and migration within the country produced a net gain of 73,811 people.<ref name=census_cum/> The state had 108,000 foreign-born (2.4% of the state population), of which an estimated 22.2% were illegal immigrants (24,000). The [[center of population]] of Alabama is located in [[Chilton County, Alabama|Chilton County]], outside the town of [[Jemison, Alabama|Jemison]].<ref>{{cite web|title= Population and Population Centers by State – 2000 |publisher= United States Census Bureau |accessdate =December 3, 2008 |url= http://www.census.gov/geo/www/cenpop/statecenters.txt |archiveurl= //web.archive.org/web/20081218235101/http://www.census.gov/geo/www/cenpop/statecenters.txt |archivedate= December 18, 2008 |deadurl= no}}</ref> ===Race and ancestry=== According to the [[2010 United States Census|2010 Census]], Alabama had a population of 4,779,736. The racial composition of the state was 68.5% [[White American|White]] (67.0% [[Non-Hispanic White]] and 1.5% [[Hispanic White]]), 26.2% [[African American|Black or African American]], 3.9% [[Hispanic and Latino Americans|Hispanic or Latino]] of any race, 1.1% Asian, 0.6% [[Native Americans in the United States|American Indian and Alaska Native]], 0.1% [[Native Hawaiians|Native Hawaiian]] and Other [[Pacific Islander]], 2.0% from Some Other Race, and 1.5% from Two or More Races.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://factfinder2.census.gov/faces/tableservices/jsf/pages/productview.xhtml?pid=DEC_10_PL_QTPL&prodType=table |title=American FactFinder |publisher=Factfinder2.census.gov |date=October 5, 2010 |accessdate=June 1, 2011 |archiveurl= //web.archive.org/web/20110520164400/http://factfinder2.census.gov/faces/tableservices/jsf/pages/productview.xhtml?pid=DEC_10_PL_QTPL&prodType=table |archivedate= May 20, 2011 |deadurl= no}}</ref> In 2011, 46.6% of Alabama's population younger than age 1 were minorities.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.cleveland.com/datacentral/index.ssf/2012/06/americas_under_age_1_populatio.html |title=Americans under age 1 now mostly minorities, but not in Ohio: Statistical Snapshot |last=Exner |first=Rich |work=The Plain Dealer |date=June 3, 2012 |accessdate= }}</ref> The largest reported ancestry groups in Alabama are: African American (26.2%), [[English American|English]] (23.6%), [[Irish American|Irish]] (7.7%), [[German American|German]] (5.7%), and [[Scots-Irish American|Scots-Irish]] (2.0%).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://docs.google.com/viewer?a=v&q=cache:WJGw9z2RkkYJ:www.uen.org/Lessonplan/downloadFile.cgi%3Ffile%3D1041-6-15955-AF_Census_Data.pdf%26filename%3DAF_Census_Data.pdf+49,598,035&hl=en&gl=uk&pid=bl&srcid=ADGEESgyigzsjZP7yBWdThzodFWP_t7GiFtOGi5W12qTf5nLj_yFzQ0YIKJn2pSyS1TIT-ZjvBx0s057h5mpwrf39HOZmlg3VzoOdaoPrNTdS6x-0SbHnwGXfzVLkDYTyIg7k4E_Zsn8&sig=AHIEtbTzro9GQY6LB1-9ZG9n2r46Epyyaw |title=Data on selected ancestry groups |publisher=Google |accessdate=June 1, 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.census.gov/population/censusdata/pc80-s1-10/tab02.pdf |title=1980 United States Census |format=PDF |accessdate=June 1, 2011 |archiveurl= //web.archive.org/web/20110604160009/http://www.census.gov/population/censusdata/pc80-s1-10/tab02.pdf |archivedate= June 4, 2011 |deadurl= no}}</ref><ref name="factfinder.census.gov">{{cite web |publisher= Factfinder.census.gov |url= http://factfinder.census.gov/servlet/ADPTable?_bm=y&-geo_id=04000US01&-qr_name=ACS_2008_3YR_G00_DP3YR2&-ds_name=&-_lang=en&-redoLog=false |title=Alabama – Selected Social Characteristics in the United States: 2006–2008 |accessdate=October 24, 2010}}</ref> Those citing "American" ancestry in Alabama are generally of English or British ancestry; many [[English American|Anglo-Americans]] identify as having American ancestry because their roots have been in North America for so long, in some cases since the 1600s. Demographers estimate that a minimum of 20–23% of people in Alabama are of predominantly English ancestry and that the figure is likely higher. In the 1980 census, 41% of the people in Alabama identified as being of English ancestry, making them the largest ethnic group at the time.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.census.gov/population/www/censusdata/files/pc80-s1-10/tab03.pdf |title=Ancestry of the Population by State: 1980 – Table 3 |format=PDF |accessdate=February 10, 2012}}</ref><ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=SVoAXh-dNuYC&pg=PA57&dq=Sharing+the+dream:+white+males+in+multicultural+America++english+ancestry&cd=1#v=onepage&q=&f=false Dominic J. Pulera, ''Sharing the Dream: White Males in a Multicultural America''].</ref><ref>Reynolds Farley, "The New Census Question about Ancestry: What Did It Tell Us?", ''Demography'', Vol. 28, No. 3 (August 1991), pp. 414, 421.</ref><ref>Stanley Lieberson and Lawrence Santi, "The Use of Nativity Data to Estimate Ethnic Characteristics and Patterns", ''Social Science Research'', Vol. 14, No. 1 (1985), pp. 44–6.</ref><ref>Stanley Lieberson and Mary C. Waters, "Ethnic Groups in Flux: The Changing Ethnic Responses of American Whites", ''Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science'', Vol. 487, No. 79 (September 1986), pp. 82–86.</ref> {| class="wikitable sortable collapsible" style="font-size: 90%;" |+ '''Alabama Racial Breakdown of Population''' |- ! Racial composition !! 1990<ref>[http://www.census.gov/population/www/documentation/twps0056/twps0056.html Historical Census Statistics on Population Totals By Race, 1790 to 1990, and By Hispanic Origin, 1970 to 1990, For The United States, Regions, Divisions, and States]</ref> !! 2000<ref>{{cite web|url=http://censusviewer.com/state/AL|title=Population of Alabama - Census 2010 and 2000 Interactive Map, Demographics, Statistics, Quick Facts - CensusViewer|work=censusviewer.com|accessdate=July 21, 2015}}</ref>!! 2010<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.census.gov/2010census/data/|title=2010 Census Data|author=Center for New Media and Promotions(C2PO)|work=census.gov|accessdate=July 21, 2015}}</ref> |- | [[White American|White]] || 73.6% || 71.1% || 68.5% |- | [[African American|Black]] || 25.3% || 26.0% || 26.2% |- | [[Asian American|Asian]] || 0.5% || 0.7% || 1.1% |- | [[Native Americans in the United States|Native]] || 0.4% || 0.5% || 0.6% |- | [[Native Hawaiian]] and <br />[[Pacific Islander|other Pacific Islander]] || - || - || 0.1% |- | [[Race and ethnicity in the United States Census|Other race]] || 0.1% || 0.6% || 2.0% |- | [[Multiracial American|Two or more races]] || - || 1.0% || 1.5% |} Based on historic migration and settlement patterns in the southern colonies and states, demographers estimated there are more people in Alabama of Scots-Irish origins than self-reported.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://factfinder.census.gov/servlet/ADPTable?_bm=y&-geo_id=04000US01&-qr_name=ACS_2008_3YR_G00_DP3YR2&-ds_name=&-_lang=en&-redoLog=false |title=American FactFinder |publisher=Factfinder.census.gov |accessdate=February 10, 2012}}</ref> Many people in Alabama claim Irish ancestry because of the term Scots-Irish but, based on historic immigration and settlement, their ancestors were more likely Protestant Scots-Irish coming from northern Ireland, where they had been for a few generations as part of the English colonization.<ref name="census-ancestries">[[Media:Census-2000-Data-Top-US-Ancestries-by-County.jpg|Census 2000 Map – Top U.S. Ancestries by County]]</ref> The Scots-Irish were the largest non-English immigrant group from the British Isles before the American Revolution, and many settled in the South, later moving into the Deep South as it was developed.<ref>David Hackett Fischer, Albion's Seed: Four British Folkways in America, New York: Oxford University Press, 1989, pp.361–368</ref> In 1984, under the Davis–Strong Act, the state legislature established the [[Alabama Indian Affairs Commission]].<ref name="aiac">[http://www.aiac.state.al.us/tribes.aspx "Alabama Indian Affairs Commission"], State of Alabama, accessed September 28, 2013</ref> Native American groups within the state had increasingly been demanding recognition as ethnic groups and seeking an end to discrimination. Given the long history of slavery and associated racial segregation, the Native American peoples, who have sometimes been of mixed race, have insisted on having their cultural identification respected. In the past, their self-identification was often overlooked as the state tried to impose a binary breakdown of society into white and black. The state has [[State recognized tribes in the United States|officially recognized]] nine American Indian tribes in the state, descended mostly from the [[Five Civilized Tribes]] of the American Southeast. These are:<ref>{{cite web |url=http://aiac.alabama.gov/ByLaws.aspx |title=AIAC Bylaws |work=Alabama Indian Affairs Commission |publisher=State of Alabama |accessdate=September 22, 2012}}</ref> * [[Poarch Band of Creek Indians]] (who also have federal recognition), * [[MOWA Band of Choctaw Indians]], * Star Clan of [[Muscogee Creek people|Muscogee Creeks]], * Echota Cherokee Tribe of Alabama, * [[Cherokee Tribe of Northeast Alabama]], * Cher-O-Creek Intra Tribal Indians, * ''Ma-Chis'' Lower Creek Indian Tribe, * ''Piqua'' [[Shawnee]] Tribe, and * ''Ani-Yun-Wiya'' Nation. The state government has promoted recognition of Native American contributions to the state, including the designation in 2000 for Columbus Day to be jointly celebrated as American Indian Heritage Day.<ref>[http://www.aiac.state.al.us/ProcIndianHeritageDay.aspx "American Indian Heritage Day", Alabama Indian Affairs Commission, 2000, accessed 28 September 2013]</ref> ===Population centers=== [[File:Birmingham, Alabama Skyline.jpg|thumb|[[Birmingham, Alabama|Birmingham]], largest city and metropolitan area]] [[File:Downtown Huntsville, Alabama cropped.jpg|thumb|[[Huntsville, Alabama|Huntsville]], second-largest metropolitan area]] [[File:Downtown Mobile 2008 01.jpg|thumb|[[Mobile, Alabama|Mobile]], third-largest metropolitan area]] [[File:Montgomery Alabama panorama.jpg|thumb|[[Montgomery, Alabama|Montgomery]], fourth-largest metropolitan area]] {{Main|List of cities and towns in Alabama|List of metropolitan areas of Alabama}} {| class="wikitable" |- ! Rank ! Metropolitan Area ! Population <br />(2014 Census estimate) ! Counties |- |1 | [[Birmingham, Alabama, metropolitan area|Birmingham-Hoover]] |align=center |1,143,772 | [[Bibb County, Alabama|Bibb]], [[Blount County, Alabama|Blount]], [[Chilton County, Alabama|Chilton]], [[Jefferson County, Alabama|Jefferson]], [[St. Clair County, Alabama|St. Clair]], [[Shelby County, Alabama|Shelby]], [[Walker County, Alabama|Walker]] |- |2 | [[Huntsville Metropolitan Area|Huntsville]] |align=center |441,086 | [[Limestone County, Alabama|Limestone]], [[Madison County, Alabama|Madison]] |- |3 | [[Mobile metropolitan area|Mobile]] |align=center |415,123 | [[Mobile County, Alabama|Mobile]] |- |4 | [[Montgomery Metropolitan Area|Montgomery]] |align=center |373,141 | [[Autauga County, Alabama|Autauga]], [[Elmore County, Alabama|Elmore]], [[Lowndes County, Alabama|Lowndes]], [[Montgomery County, Alabama|Montgomery]] |- |5 | [[Tuscaloosa metropolitan area|Tuscaloosa]] |align=center |237,761 | [[Hale County, Alabama|Hale]], [[Pickens County, Alabama|Pickens]], [[Tuscaloosa County, Alabama|Tuscaloosa]] |- |6 | [[Mobile Metropolitan Area|Daphne-Fairhope]] |align=center |200,111 | [[Baldwin County, Alabama|Baldwin]] |- |7 | [[Auburn Metropolitan Area|Auburn-Opelika]] |align=center |154,255 | [[Lee County, Alabama|Lee]] |- |8 | [[Decatur, Alabama Metropolitan Area|Decatur]] |align=center |153,084 | [[Lawrence County, Alabama|Lawrence]], [[Morgan County, Alabama|Morgan]] |- |9 | [[Dothan metropolitan area|Dothan]] |align=center |148,095 | [[Geneva County, Alabama|Geneva]], [[Henry County, Alabama|Henry]], [[Houston County, Alabama|Houston]] |- |10 | [[Florence-Muscle Shoals Metropolitan Area|Florence-Muscle Shoals]] |align=center |147,639 | [[Colbert County, Alabama|Colbert]], [[Lauderdale County, Alabama|Lauderdale]] |- |11 | [[Anniston-Oxford Metropolitan Area|Anniston-Oxford-Jacksonville]] |align=center |115,916 | [[Calhoun County, Alabama|Calhoun]] |- |12 | [[Gadsden Metropolitan Statistical Area|Gadsden]] |align=center |103,531 | [[Etowah County, Alabama|Etowah]] |- | |align=right |Total |align=center |3,633,514 | |} Sources: Census.gov<ref>{{cite web |url=http://factfinder.census.gov/faces/tableservices/jsf/pages/productview.xhtml?src=CF |title=Annual Estimates of the Resident Population: Metropolitan and Micropolitan Statistical Area (table) |publisher=U.S. Census Bureau |date= July 2014}}</ref> {| class="wikitable" |- ! Rank !! City !! Population <br />(2010 Census) !! County |- |style="text-align:center;" |1 | [[Birmingham, Alabama|Birmingham]] |style="text-align:center;"|212,247 | [[Jefferson County, Alabama|Jefferson]] |- |style="text-align:center;" |2 | [[Montgomery, Alabama|Montgomery]] |style="text-align:center;" |200,481 | [[Montgomery County, Alabama|Montgomery]] |- |style="text-align:center;" |3 | [[Mobile, Alabama|Mobile]] |style="text-align:center;" |194,889 | [[Mobile County, Alabama|Mobile]] |- |style="text-align:center;" |4 | [[Huntsville, Alabama|Huntsville]] |style="text-align:center;" |191,008 | [[Madison County, Alabama|Madison]] <br />[[Limestone County, Alabama|Limestone]] |- |style="text-align:center;" |5 | [[Tuscaloosa, Alabama|Tuscaloosa]] |style="text-align:center;" |95,334 | [[Tuscaloosa County, Alabama|Tuscaloosa]] |- |style="text-align:center;" |6 | [[Hoover, Alabama|Hoover]] |style="text-align:center;" |84,126 |Jefferson <br />[[Shelby County, Alabama|Shelby]] |- |style="text-align:center;" |7 | [[Dothan, Alabama|Dothan]] |style="text-align:center;" |65,496 | [[Houston County, Alabama|Houston]] |- |style="text-align:center;" |8 | [[Decatur, Alabama|Decatur]] |style="text-align:center;" |55,816 | [[Morgan County, Alabama|Morgan]] <br /> Limestone |- |style="text-align:center;" |9 | [[Auburn, Alabama|Auburn]] |style="text-align:center;" |60,258 | [[Lee County, Alabama|Lee]] |- |style="text-align:center;" |10 | [[Madison, Alabama|Madison]] |style="text-align:center;" |46,450 |Madison <br />Limestone |- |style="text-align:center;" |11 | [[Florence, Alabama|Florence]] |style="text-align:center;" |40,059 | [[Lauderdale County, Alabama|Lauderdale]] |- |style="text-align:center;" |12 | [[Gadsden, Alabama|Gadsden]] |style="text-align:center;" |36,295 | [[Etowah County, Alabama|Etowah]] |- |style="text-align:center;" |13 | [[Vestavia Hills, Alabama|Vestavia Hills]] |style="text-align:center;" |34,018 |Jefferson |- |style="text-align:center;" |14 | [[Prattville, Alabama|Prattville]] |style="text-align:center;" |35,229 | [[Autauga County, Alabama|Autauga]] |- |style="text-align:center;" |15 | [[Phenix City, Alabama|Phenix City]] |style="text-align:center;" |37,498 | [[Russell County, Alabama|Russell]] |} Sources: Census.gov<ref>{{cite web|url=http://factfinder.census.gov/faces/tableservices/jsf/pages/productview.xhtml?src=bkmk|title=American FactFinder - Results|author=Data Access and Dissemination Systems (DADS)|work=census.gov|accessdate=July 21, 2015}}</ref> ===Language=== 95.1% of all Alabama residents five years old or older spoke only English at home in 2010, a minor decrease from 96.1% in 2000. Alabama English is predominantly [[Southern American English|Southern]],<ref name="city-data.com">{{cite web|url=http://www.city-data.com/states/Alabama-Languages.html|title=Alabama - Languages|work=city-data.com|accessdate=July 21, 2015}}</ref> and is related to South Midland speech which was taken across the border from [[Tennessee]]. In the major Southern speech region, there is the decreasing loss of the final /r/, for example the /boyd/ pronunciation of 'bird.' In the northern third of the state, there is a South Midland 'arm' and 'barb' rhyming with 'form' and 'orb.' Unique words in Alabama English include: redworm (earthworm), peckerwood (woodpecker), snake doctor and snake feeder (dragonfly), tow sack (burlap bag), plum peach (clingstone), French harp (harmonica), and dog irons (andirons).<ref name="city-data.com"/> {|class="wikitable sortable" style="margin-left:1em; float:center" |+ '''Top 10 Non-English Languages Spoken in Alabama''' |- ! Language !! Percentage of population<br /><small>({{as of|2010|lc=y}})</small><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.city-data.com/states/Alabama-Languages.html"|title=Alabama - Languages|work=city-data.com|accessdate=July 21, 2015}}</ref> |- | Spanish|| 2.2% |- | German || 0.4% |- | French (incl. Patois, Cajun) || 0.3% |- | Chinese, [[Vietnamese language|Vietnamese]], [[Korean language|Korean]], [[Arabic language|Arabic]], [[African languages]], Japanese, and Italian (tied)|| 0.1% |} ===Religion=== [[File:Highlands UMC Birmingham Dec 2012 2.jpg|thumb|Highlands United Methodist Church in Birmingham, part of the Five Points South Historic District]] [[File:Briarwood Presbyterian Church in Birmingham, AL.jpg|thumb|[[Briarwood Presbyterian Church]] in Birmingham]] [[File:Temple B'Nai Shalom Dec2009 01.jpg|thumb|[[Temple B'nai Sholom (Huntsville, Alabama)|Temple B'Nai Sholom]] in Huntsville, established in 1876. It is the oldest synagogue building in continuous use in the state.]] [[File:Islamic Center of Tuscaloosa.jpg|thumb|The Islamic Center of Tuscaloosa, one of the Islamic centers that contain a mosque and facilities for the cultural needs of Muslims in the state.]] In the 2008 [[American Religious Identification Survey]], 86% of Alabama respondents reported their religion as Christian, including 6% Catholic, and 11% as having no religion.<ref name=ARIS2008>{{cite web |url=http://b27.cc.trincoll.edu/weblogs/AmericanReligionSurvey-ARIS/reports/ARIS_Report_2008.pdf |format=PDF |title=AMERICAN RELIGIOUS IDENTIFICATION SURVEY (ARIS) 2008 |author=Barry A. Kosmin and Ariela Keysar |year=2009 |publisher=Trinity College |location=Hartford, Connecticut, USA |page=20 |accessdate=May 8, 2009 |archiveurl= //web.archive.org/web/20090407053149/http://b27.cc.trincoll.edu/weblogs/AmericanReligionSurvey-ARIS/reports/ARIS_Report_2008.pdf |archivedate= April 7, 2009 |deadurl= no}}</ref> The composition of other traditions is 0.5% Mormon, 0.5% Jewish, 0.5% Muslim, 0.5% Buddhist, and 0.5% Hindu.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://religions.pewforum.org/maps|title=Religion in America: U.S. Religious Data, Demographics and Statistics - Pew Research Center|date=May 11, 2015|work=Pew Research Center's Religion & Public Life Project|accessdate=July 21, 2015}}</ref> {| class="wikitable sortable" font-size:80%;" |+ style="font-size:100%" | Religious affiliation in Alabama (2014)<ref>[http://www.pewforum.org/religious-landscape-study/state/alabama/]</ref> |- ! Affiliation ! colspan="2"|% of U.S. population |- | [[Christianity|Christian]] |align=right| '''{{bartable|87.5||2||background:darkblue}} |- | style="text-align:left; text-indent:15px;"| [[Protestant]] |align=right| '''{{bartable|78||2||background:mediumblue}} |- | style="text-align:left; text-indent:30px;"| [[Evangelical Protestant]] |align=right| '''{{bartable|49||2||background:lightblue}} |- | style="text-align:left; text-indent:30px;"| [[Mainline Protestant]] |align=right| '''{{bartable|13||2||background:lightblue}} |- | style="text-align:left; text-indent:30px;"| [[Black church]] |align=right| '''{{bartable|16||2||background:lightblue}} |- | style="text-align:left; text-indent:15px;"| [[Catholic]] |align=right| '''{{bartable|7||2||background:mediumblue}} |- | style="text-align:left; text-indent:15px;"| [[Mormon]] |align=right| '''{{bartable|1||2||background:mediumblue}} |- | style="text-align:left; text-indent:15px;"| [[Jehovah's Witnesses]] |align=right| '''{{bartable|0.5||2||background:mediumblue}} |- | style="text-align:left; text-indent:15px;"| [[Eastern Orthodox]] |align=right| '''{{bartable|0.5||2||background:mediumblue}} |- | style="text-align:left; text-indent:15px;"| Other Christian |align=right| '''{{bartable|0.5||2||background:mediumblue}} |- | [[Irreligion|Unaffiliated]] |align=right| '''{{bartable|12||2||background:purple}} |- | style="text-align:left; text-indent:15px;"| Nothing in particular |align=right| '''{{bartable|9||2||background:#A020F0}} |- | style="text-align:left; text-indent:15px;"| [[Agnosticism|Agnostic]] |align=right| '''{{bartable|1||2||background:#A020F0}} |- | style="text-align:left; text-indent:15px;"| [[Atheism|Atheist]] |align=right| '''{{bartable|1||2||background:#A020F0}} |- | Non-Christian faiths |align=right| '''{{bartable|1||2||background:darkgreen}} |- | style="text-align:left; text-indent:15px;"| [[Jewish]] |align=right| '''{{bartable|0.2||2||background:lightgreen}} |- | style="text-align:left; text-indent:15px;"| [[Muslim]] |align=right| '''{{bartable|0.2||2||background:lightgreen}} |- | style="text-align:left; text-indent:15px;"| [[Buddhist]] |align=right| '''{{bartable|0.2||2||background:lightgreen}} |- | style="text-align:left; text-indent:15px;"| [[Hindu]] |align=right| '''{{bartable|0.2||2||background:lightblue}} |- | style="text-align:left; text-indent:15px;"| Other Non-Christian faiths |align=right| '''{{bartable|0.2||2||background:lightgreen}} |- | Don't know/refused answer |align=right| '''{{bartable|1||2||background:#A020F0}} |- | '''Total''' || '''{{bartable|100||2||background:grey}}''' |} ====Christianity==== {{Details3|[[History of Baptists in Alabama]], [[List of Baptist churches in Alabama|Baptist churches in Alabama]], [[Episcopal Diocese of Alabama]], [[Episcopal Diocese of the Central Gulf Coast]], [[Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Mobile]], [[Roman Catholic Diocese of Birmingham in Alabama|Roman Catholic Diocese of Birmingham]], and [[The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints in Alabama]]|Christianity in Alabama}} Alabama is located in the middle of the [[Bible Belt]], a region of numerous Protestant Christians. Alabama has been identified as one of the most religious states in the United States, with about 58% of the population attending church regularly.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.signonsandiego.com/uniontrib/20060502/news_lz1n2thelist.html|title=Church or synagogue attendance by state - The San Diego Union-Tribune|work=signonsandiego.com|accessdate=July 21, 2015}}</ref> A majority of people in the state identify as Evangelical Protestant. {{as of|2010}}, the three largest denominational groups in Alabama are the [[Southern Baptist Convention]], [[The United Methodist Church]], and [[Nondenominational Christianity|non-denominational]] Evangelical Protestant.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.thearda.com/rcms2010/r/s/01/rcms2010_01_state_name_2010.asp |title=The Association of Religion Data Archives &#124; State membership Report |publisher=www.thearda.com |accessdate=November 7, 2013}}</ref> In Alabama, the [[Southern Baptist Convention]] has the highest number of adherents with 1,380,121; this is followed by the [[United Methodist Church]] with 327,734 adherents, non-denominational Evangelical Protestant with 220,938 adherents, and the Catholic Church with 150,647 adherents. Many Baptist and Methodist congregations became established in the [[Great Awakening]] of the early 19th century, when preachers proselytized across the South. The [[Assemblies of God]] had almost 60,000 members, the [[Churches of Christ]] had nearly 120,000 members. The [[Presbyterian church]]es, strongly associated with Scots-Irish immigrants of the 18th century and their descendants, had a combined membership around 75,000 ([[Presbyterian Church in America|PCA]]-28,009 members in 108 congregations, [[PC(USA)]]-26,247 members in 147 congregations,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.thearda.com/rcms2010/r/s/01/rcms2010_01_state_name_2010.asp|title=The Association of Religion Data Archives - Maps & Reports|work=thearda.com|accessdate=July 21, 2015}}</ref> the [[Cumberland Presbyterian Church]]-6,000 members in 59 congregations, the [[Cumberland Presbyterian Church in America]]-5,000 members and 50 congregations plus the [[Edgewater Presbyterian Church|EPC]] and Associate Reformed Presbyterians with 230 members and 9 congregations).<ref name="thearda">{{cite web |url=http://www.thearda.com/mapsReports/reports/state/01_2000.asp |title=State Membership Reports |year= 2000 |accessdate=June 15, 2010 |publisher= thearda.com}}</ref> In a 2007 survey, nearly 70% of respondents could name all four of the Christian [[Canonical Gospels|Gospels]]. Of those who indicated a religious preference, 59% said they possessed a "full understanding" of their faith and needed no further learning.<ref>{{Cite news |first=Kirsten |last=Campbell |work=Mobile Register |title=Alabama rates well in biblical literacy |date=March 25, 2007 |page=A1 |publisher=Advance Publications, Inc}}</ref> In a 2007 poll, 92% of Alabamians reported having at least some confidence in churches in the state.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.myaea.org/PDFfile/Confidence+in+State+Institutions07.pdf |archiveurl=//web.archive.org/web/20070809021852/http://www.myaea.org/PDFfile/Confidence+in+State+Institutions07.pdf |archivedate=August 9, 2007 |title=Confidence in State and Local Institutions Survey |work=Capital Survey Research Center |accessdate=June 2, 2007 |format=PDF}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |first=David |last=White |title=Poll says we feel good about state Trust in government, unlike some institutions, hasn't fallen |date=April 1, 2007 |work=Birmingham News |page=13A}}</ref> ====Other faiths==== Although in much smaller numbers, many other religious faiths are represented in the state as well, including [[Judaism]], [[Islam]], [[Hinduism]], [[Buddhism]], [[Sikhism]], the [[Bahá'í Faith]], and [[Unitarian Universalism]].<ref name="thearda"/> Jews have been present in what is now Alabama since 1763, during the colonial era of Mobile, when [[Sephardic Jews]] immigrated from London.<ref name="shomayim">{{cite book |title=The Gates of Heaven : Congregation Sha'arai Shomayim, the first 150 years, Mobile, Alabama, 1844-1994 |last=Zietz |first=Robert |year=1994 |publisher=Congregation Sha'arai Shomayim|location=Mobile, Alabama |isbn= |pages=1–7 }}</ref> The oldest Jewish congregation in the state is [[Congregation Sha'arai Shomayim (Mobile, Alabama)|Congregation Sha'arai Shomayim]] in Mobile. It was formally recognized by the state legislature on January 25, 1844.<ref name="shomayim"/> Later immigrants in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries tended to be [[Ashkenazy Jews]] from eastern Europe. Jewish denominations in the state include two [[Orthodox Judaism|Orthodox]], four [[Conservative Judaism|Conservative]], ten [[Reform Judaism|Reform]], and one [[Humanistic Judaism|Humanistic]] synagogue.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.kosherdelight.com/USA/Alabama/AlabamaSynagogues.shtml |title=Synagogues in Alabama |publisher=Kosher Delight |accessdate=September 8, 2012}}</ref> Muslims have been increasing in Alabama, with 31 mosques built by 2011, many by African-American converts.<ref name="2011muslim">{{cite news |title=Survey: U.S. Muslims grow by 30 percent since 2000 |author= Kay Campbell |url=http://www.al.com/living/index.ssf/2012/02/survey_us_muslims_grow_by_30_p.html |newspaper=The Huntsville Times |date=February 29, 2012 |accessdate=September 8, 2012}}</ref> Islam was a traditional religion in West Africa, from where many [[Slavery in the United States|slaves]] were brought to the colonies and the United States during the centuries of the slave trade. Several Hindu temples and cultural centers in the state have been founded by [[Indian people|Indian]] immigrants and their descendants, the most well-known being the Shri Swaminarayan Mandir in [[Birmingham, Alabama|Birmingham]], the Hindu Temple and Cultural Center of Birmingham in [[Pelham, Alabama|Pelham]], the Hindu Cultural Center of North Alabama in [[Capshaw, Alabama|Capshaw]], and the Hindu Mandir and Cultural Center in [[Tuscaloosa, Alabama|Tuscaloosa]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.garamchai.com/templesSE.htm |title=Hindu Temples in the South East: catering to the needs of NRI and Indians in US |work=GaramChai |accessdate=September 22, 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://hindumandir.cc/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=33&Itemid=42 |title=History of Hindu Mandir & Cultural Center |work=Hindu Mandir & Cultural Center |accessdate=September 22, 2012}}</ref> There are six [[Dharma centre|Dharma centers]] and organizations for [[Theravada]] [[Buddhists]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.manjushri.com/Centers/alabama.htm |title=Dharma Centers and Organizations in Alabama |work=Manjushri Buddhist Community |publisher=AcuMaestro |accessdate=September 22, 2012}}</ref> Most monastic Buddhist temples are concentrated in southern Mobile County, near [[Bayou La Batre, Alabama|Bayou La Batre]]. This area has attracted an [[Indochina refugee crisis|influx of refugees from Cambodia, Laos, and Vietnam]] during the 1970s and thereafter.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.journalofamericanhistory.org/projects/katrina/Gaillard.html |title=After the Storms: Tradition and Change in Bayou La Batre |author=Frye Gaillard |date=December 2007 |work=Journal of American History |publisher=Organization of American Historians |accessdate=September 22, 2012}}</ref> The four temples within a ten-mile radius of Bayou La Batre, include Chua Chanh Giac, Wat Buddharaksa, and Wat Lao Phoutthavihan.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://blog.al.com/living-press-register/2011/10/for_vietnamese_buddhists_in_so.html |title=For Vietnamese Buddhists In South Alabama, A Goddess Of Mercy Is A Powerful Figure |author=Roy Hoffman |newspaper=Press-Register |date=October 22, 2011 |accessdate=September 22, 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=http://blog.al.com/living-press-register/2009/08/a_welcome_gateway_to_the_far_e.html |title=A Welcome Gateway to the Far East |author=Debbie M. Lord |newspaper=Press-Register |date=August 29, 2009 |accessdate=September 22, 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=http://blog.al.com/live/2012/05/buddhist_monk_killed_temple_le.html |title=Buddhist Monk Killed Temple Leader During Argument Over Food, Prosecutor Says |author= Katherine Sayre |newspaper=Press-Register |date=May 17, 2012 |accessdate=September 22, 2012}}</ref> The first community of adherents of the [[Baha'i Faith]] in Alabama was founded in 1896 by Paul K. Dealy who moved from Chicago to [[Fairhope]] to participate in the growth of Fairhope as a [[Fairhope Single Tax Corporation|utopian community]]. The first community of Baha'is in Alabama was racially integrated from the beginning due to the Faith's principles. Today there is an exhibit honoring Dealy in [[Haifa]], Israel at the world center of the [[Baha'i Faith]]. Baha'i Centers in Alabama exist in [[Birmingham, Alabama]], [[Huntsville, Alabama]], and [[Florence, Alabama]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.shoalsbahais.com/About-Us.html|title=Bahais of the Shoals|work=shoalsbahais.com|accessdate=July 21, 2015}}</ref> ===Health=== A [[Centers for Disease Control and Prevention]] study in 2008 showed that obesity in Alabama was a problem, with most counties having over 29% of adults obese, except for ten which had a rate between 26% and 29%.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.cdc.gov/diabetes/pubs/factsheets/countylvlestimates.htm |title=County Level Estimates of Obesity – State Maps |year=2008|publisher=Centers for Disease Control and Prevention }}</ref> Residents of the state, along with those in five other states, were least likely in the nation to be physically active during leisure time.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.cdc.gov/media/releases/2011/p0216_physicalinactivity.html |title=Highest Rates of Leisure-Time Physical Inactivity in Appalachia and South |year=2008 |publisher=Centers for Disease Control and Prevention }}</ref> Alabama, and the southeastern U.S. in general, has one of the highest incidences of adult onset [[diabetes type II|diabetes]] in the country, exceeding 10% of adults.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://apps.nccd.cdc.gov/DDTSTRS/Index.aspx?stateId=1&state=Alabama&cat=prevalence&Data=data&view=TO&trend=prevalence&id=1 |title=Alabama - Percentage of Adults(aged 18 years or older) with Diagnosed Diabetes, 1994 - 2010 |year=2010|publisher=Centers for Disease Control and Prevention }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://apps.nccd.cdc.gov/DDT_STRS2/NationalDiabetesPrevalenceEstimates.aspx?mode=DBT |title=CDC national chart on diabetes |publisher=Apps.nccd.cdc.gov |accessdate=June 1, 2011}}</ref> ==Economy== {{See also|Alabama locations by per capita income}} The state has invested in aerospace, education, health care, banking, and various heavy industries, including automobile manufacturing, mineral extraction, steel production and [[fabrication (metal)|fabrication]]. By 2006, crop and animal production in Alabama was valued at $1.5 billion. In contrast to the primarily agricultural economy of the previous century, this was only about 1% of the state's gross domestic product. The number of private farms has declined at a steady rate since the 1960s, as land has been sold to developers, timber companies, and large farming conglomerates.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://encyclopediaofalabama.org/face/Article.jsp?id=h-2330 |title=Food Production in Alabama |last1=Ijaz |first1=Ahmad |last2=Addy |first2=Samuel N. |date=July 6, 2009 |work=The Encyclopedia of Alabama |publisher=Auburn University |accessdate=September 22, 2012}}</ref> Non-agricultural employment in 2008 was 121,800 in management occupations; 71,750 in business and financial operations; 36,790 in computer-related and mathematical occupation; 44,200 in architecture and engineering; 12,410 in life, physical, and social sciences; 32,260 in community and social services; 12,770 in legal occupations; 116,250 in education, training, and library services; 27,840 in art, design and media occupations; 121,110 in healthcare; 44,750 in fire fighting, law enforcement, and security; 154,040 in food preparation and serving; 76,650 in building and grounds cleaning and maintenance; 53,230 in personal care and services; 244,510 in sales; 338,760 in office and administration support; 20,510 in farming, fishing, and forestry; 120,155 in construction and mining, gas, and oil extraction; 106,280 in installation, maintenance, and repair; 224,110 in production; and 167,160 in transportation and material moving.<ref name="alaindustrial"/> According to the U.S. [[Bureau of Economic Analysis]], the 2008 total [[gross state product]] was $170&nbsp;billion, or $29,411 per capita. Alabama's 2012 GDP increased 1.2% from the previous year. The single largest increase came in the area of information.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bea.gov/newsreleases/regional/gdp_state/gsp_newsrelease.htm |title=GDP by State (2008) |date=June 2, 2009 |work=Bureau of Economic Analysis, Regional Economic Accounts |accessdate=October 9, 2009 }} [http://www.bea.gov/newsreleases/regional/gdp_state/2009/pdf/gsp0609.pdf full release with tables]</ref>{{failed verification|date=April 2014}} In 2010, per capita income for the state was $22,984.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://quickfacts.census.gov/qfd/states/01000.html |title=United States Census Bureau |accessdate=February 25, 2012 |work=State and County Quick Facts }}</ref> The state's seasonally adjusted unemployment rate was 5.8% in April 2015.<ref>{{cite web|title=Local Area Unemployment Statistics – Alabama|work=Bureau of Labor Statistics|url=http://data.bls.gov/cgi-bin/surveymost?la+01|accessdate=June 15, 2013}}</ref> This compared to a nationwide seasonally adjusted rate of 5.4%.<ref>{{cite web|title=Bureau of Labor Statistics Data|url=http://data.bls.gov/cgi-bin/surveymost?bls|publisher=United States Department of Labor|accessdate=6 July 2015}}</ref> Alabama has no state minimum wage and uses the federal minimum wage of $7.25. In February 2016, the state passed legislation that prevents Alabama municipalities from raising the minimum wage in their locality. The legislation voids a Birmingham city ordinance that was to raise the city's minimum wage to $10.10.<ref>http://www.theguardian.com/us-news/2016/feb/26/alabama-passes-law-banning-minimum-wage-increase</ref> ===Largest employers=== [[File:Enterprise lifted.jpg|thumb|The [[Space Shuttle Enterprise|Space Shuttle ''Enterprise'']] being tested at Marshall Space Flight Center in 1978.]] [[File:Hyundai Motor Manufacturing Alabama Highsmith 01.jpg|thumb|Hyundai Motor Manufacturing Alabama in Montgomery in 2010]] [[File:Shelbyhallcomputing.JPG|thumb|Shelby Hall, School of Computing, at the [[University of South Alabama]] in Mobile]] The five employers that employed the most employees in Alabama in April 2011 were:<ref name="bbjournal">Aneesa McMillan. "[http://www.bizjournals.com/birmingham/blog/2011/04/top-of-the-list-alabamas-largest.html Top of the List: Alabama's largest employers]" (April 22, 2011). ''Birmingham Business Journal''.</ref> {| class="wikitable" |- ! Employer ! Employees |- | [[Redstone Arsenal]] | 25,373 |- | [[University of Alabama at Birmingham]] (includes [[UAB Hospital]]) | 18,750 |- | [[Maxwell Air Force Base]] | 12,280 |- | [[State of Alabama]] | 9,500 |- | [[Mobile County Public School System]] | 8,100 |} The next twenty largest employers, {{as of|2011|lc=y}}, included:<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.americanregistry.com/recognition/alabamas-largest-employers/116523 |title=Alabama's Largest Employers |date=April 2011 |work=Birmingham Business Journal |publisher=American Registry |accessdate=September 19, 2012}}</ref> {| class="wikitable" |- ! Employer ! Location |- | [[Anniston Army Depot]] | [[Anniston, Alabama|Anniston]] |- | [[AT&T Inc.|AT&T]] | Multiple |- | [[Auburn University]] | [[Auburn, Alabama|Auburn]] |- | [[Baptist Medical Center South]] | [[Montgomery, Alabama|Montgomery]] |- | [[Birmingham City Schools]] | [[Birmingham, Alabama|Birmingham]] |- | [[Birmingham, Alabama|City of Birmingham]] | Birmingham |- | [[DCH Health System]] | Tuscaloosa |- | [[Huntsville City Schools]] | [[Huntsville, Alabama|Huntsville]] |- | [[Huntsville Hospital System]] | Huntsville |- | [[Hyundai Motor Manufacturing Alabama]] | Montgomery |- | [[Infirmary Health System]] | [[Mobile, Alabama|Mobile]] |- | [[Jefferson County Schools (Alabama)|Jefferson County Board of Education]] | Birmingham |- | [[Marshall Space Flight Center]] | Huntsville |- | [[Mercedes-Benz U.S. International]] | [[Vance, Alabama|Vance]] |- | [[Montgomery Public Schools]] | Montgomery |- | [[Regions Financial Corporation]] | Multiple |- | [[Boeing]] | Multiple |- | [[University of Alabama]] | [[Tuscaloosa, Alabama|Tuscaloosa]] |- | [[University of South Alabama]] | Mobile |- | [[Walmart]] | Multiple |} ===Agriculture=== Alabama's agricultural outputs include poultry and eggs, cattle, fish, plant nursery items, peanuts, cotton, grains such as [[Corn production in the United States|corn]] and [[sorghum]], vegetables, milk, [[soybean]]s, and peaches. Although known as "[[List of U.S. state nicknames|The Cotton State]]", Alabama ranks between eighth and tenth in [[Cotton production in the United States|national cotton production]], according to various reports,<ref>{{cite web|url= http://cber.cba.ua.edu/pdf/ab2005q4.pdf |title= Alabama and CBER: 75 Years of Change |accessdate =September 23, 2006 |year = 2005 |work= Alabama Business |publisher= Center for Business and Economic Research, Culverhouse College of Commerce, The University of Alabama|format=PDF| archiveurl= //web.archive.org/web/20060927141609/http://cber.cba.ua.edu/pdf/ab2005q4.pdf| archivedate= September 27, 2006 | deadurl= no}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url= http://www.aces.edu/dept/nass/bulletin/2005/pg05.pdf |title= State Highlights for 2004–2005 |accessdate =September 23, 2006 |year= 2005 |work= Alabama Cooperative Extension System |publisher= USDA, NASS, Alabama Statistical Office|format=PDF| archiveurl= //web.archive.org/web/20060921005808/http://www.aces.edu/dept/nass/bulletin/2005/pg05.pdf| archivedate= September 21, 2006 | deadurl= no}}</ref> with [[Texas]], [[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]] and [[Mississippi]] comprising the top three. ===Industry=== Alabama's industrial outputs include iron and steel products (including cast-iron and steel pipe); paper, [[lumber]], and wood products; mining (mostly coal); plastic products; cars and trucks; and [[apparel]]. In addition, Alabama produces [[aerospace]] and [[electronics|electronic]] products, mostly in the [[Huntsville, Alabama|Huntsville]] area, the location of [[NASA]]'s [[George C. Marshall Space Flight Center]] and the [[United States Army Materiel Command|U.S. Army Materiel Command]], headquartered at [[Redstone Arsenal]]. [[File:Mercedes Benz US International 01.jpg|thumb|[[Mercedes-Benz U.S. International]] in Tuscaloosa County was the first automotive facility to locate within the state.]] A great deal of Alabama's economic growth since the 1990s has been due to the state's expanding automotive manufacturing industry. Located in the state are [[Honda Manufacturing of Alabama]], [[Hyundai Motor Manufacturing Alabama]], [[Mercedes-Benz U.S. International]], and [[Toyota Motor Manufacturing Alabama]], as well as their various suppliers. Since 1993, the automobile industry has generated more than 67,800 new jobs in the state. Alabama currently ranks 4th in the nation for vehicle exports.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www1.eere.energy.gov/vehiclesandfuels/facts/2008_fotw539.html |title=Vehicle Technologies Program: Fact #539: October 6, 2008 Light Vehicle Production by State |publisher=.eere.energy.gov |date=October 6, 2008 |accessdate=October 24, 2010|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20081006202740/http://www1.eere.energy.gov/vehiclesandfuels/facts/2008_fotw539.html|archivedate=October 6, 2006|deadurl=yes}}</ref> Automakers accounted for approximately a third of the industrial expansion in the state in 2012.<ref>{{cite news|last=McCreless|first=Patrick|title=Automakers account for about a third of the state's industrial expansion |url=http://www.annistonstar.com/view/full_story/20677539/article-Automakers-account-for-about-a-third-of-the-state-s-industrial-expansion?instance=home_news#ixzz2DioLu4sx |newspaper=The Anniston Star |date=October 31, 2012 |accessdate=June 15, 2013}}</ref> The eight models produced at the state's auto factories totaled combined sales of 74,335 vehicles for 2012. The strongest model sales during this period were the [[Hyundai Elantra]] compact car, the [[Mercedes-Benz GL-Class]] sport utility vehicle and the [[Honda Ridgeline]] sport utility truck.<ref>{{cite news |last=Kent|first=Dawn|title=U.S. auto sales see gains in March, as Alabama-made models rise 4 percent |url=http://www.al.com/business/index.ssf/2013/04/us_auto_sales_see_gains_in_mar.html#incart_river |accessdate=June 15, 2013 |work= |publisher=AL.com |date=April 2, 2013}}</ref> [[File:Airbus Mobile Engineering Center.jpg|thumb|left|Airbus Mobile Engineering Center at the Brookley Aeroplex in Mobile]] Steel producers [[Outokumpu]], [[Nucor]], [[SSAB]], [[ThyssenKrupp]], and [[U.S. Steel]] have facilities in Alabama and employ over 10,000 people. In May 2007, German steelmaker ThyssenKrupp selected [[Calvert, Alabama|Calvert]] in [[Mobile County, Alabama|Mobile County]] for a 4.65 billion combined [[stainless steel|stainless]] and [[carbon steel]] processing facility.<ref>{{Cite news |url=http://blog.al.com/live/2007/05/mobile_county_wins_thyssenkrup.html |title=ThyssenKrupp's Alabama incentive package tops $811&nbsp;million |newspaper= Press-Register |date= May 11, 2007 |accessdate=July 22, 2011 |archiveurl= //web.archive.org/web/20110726144848/http://blog.al.com/live/2007/05/mobile_county_wins_thyssenkrup.html |archivedate= July 26, 2011 |deadurl= no}}</ref> ThyssenKrupp's stainless steel division, Inoxum, including the stainless portion of the Calvert plant, was sold to Finnish stainless steel company Outokumpu in 2012.<ref>{{cite news|title=New owners of ThyssenKrupp stainless steel division plan visit in June |work=Press-Register |date=May 31, 2012 |url=http://blog.al.com/press-register-business/2012/05/new_owners_of_thyssenkrupp_sta.html |accessdate=June 15, 2013}}</ref> The remaining portion of the ThyssenKrupp plant had final bids submitted by [[ArcelorMittal]] and [[Nippon Steel]] for $1.6 billion in March 2013. [[Companhia Siderúrgica Nacional]] submitted a combined bid for the mill at Calvert, plus a majority stake in the ThyssenKrupp mill in Brazil, for $3.8 billion.<ref>{{cite news|title=Report: ThyssenKrupp gets final bids for Steel Americas plants |work= |publisher=AL.com |date=March 1, 2013 |url=http://www.al.com/business/index.ssf/2013/03/report_thyssenkrupp_gets_final.html |accessdate=June 15, 2013}}</ref> In July 2013, the plant was sold to ArcelorMittal and Nippon Steel.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.stahl-online.de/index.php/alabama-ende-2014-bei-voller-kapazitaet/|title=Alabama: Ende 2014 bei voller Kapazität - stahl-online.de|work=stahl-online.de|accessdate=July 21, 2015}}</ref> The [[Hunt Refining Company]], a subsidiary of Hunt Consolidated, Inc., is based in Tuscaloosa and operates a refinery there. The company also operates terminals in Mobile, Melvin, and [[Moundville, Alabama|Moundville]].<ref>"[http://www.linkedin.com/company/hunt-refining-company Hunt Refining Company]." Linkedin.</ref> [[JVC|JVC America, Inc.]] operates an [[optical disc]] replication and packaging plant in Tuscaloosa.<ref>"[http://www.jvc-america.com/about/plant_locations.aspx Company Overview]." JVC America, Inc.</ref> The [[Goodyear Tire and Rubber Company]] operates a large plant in [[Gadsden, Alabama|Gadsden]] that employs about 1,400 people. It has been in operation since 1929. Construction of an [[Airbus A320 family]] aircraft assembly plant in Mobile was formally announced by [[Airbus]] CEO [[Fabrice Brégier]] from the Mobile Convention Center on July 2, 2012. The plans include a $600 million factory at the [[Brookley Aeroplex]] for the assembly of the A319, A320 and A321 aircraft. Construction began in 2013, with plans for it to become operable by 2015 and produce up to 50 aircraft per year by 2017.<ref name="apconfirm">{{cite news|title=Airbus to Build 1st US Assembly Plant in Alabama |agency=Associated Press |author=Melissa Nelson-Gabriel |date=July 2, 2012 |url=http://abcnews.go.com/US/wireStory/officials-ala-airbus-plant-employ-1000-16690789#.T_HRzJHhcqN |accessdate=July 2, 2012}}</ref><ref name="bbcconfirm">{{cite news|title=Airbus confirms its first US factory to build A320 jet |work=BBC News |date=July 2, 2012 |url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/business-18675711 |accessdate=July 2, 2012}}</ref> The assembly plant is the company's first factory to be built within the United States.<ref>{{cite news|title=EADS to Build United States Assembly Line for Airbus A320|url=http://www.nytimes.com/2012/07/03/business/global/eads-to-build-airbus-assembly-line-in-mobile-ala.html|work=The New York Times|accessdate=July 2, 2012|author=Nicola Clark}}</ref> It was announced on February 1, 2013 that Airbus had hired Alabama-based [[Hoar Construction]] to oversee construction of the facility.<ref name=airbusasby>{{cite web|title=Airbus Appoints Program Manager for its Mobile Assembly Line|url=http://www.airbus.com/newsevents/news-events-single/detail/airbus-appoints-program-manager-for-its-mobile-assembly-line/|publisher=Airbus|accessdate=February 7, 2013}}</ref> ===Tourism=== [[File:GulfShoresAlBeachJuly08B.jpg|thumb|right|Alabama's beaches are one of the state's major tourist destinations.]] An estimated 20 million tourists visit the state each year. Over 100,000 of these are from other countries, including from Canada, the United Kingdom, Germany and Japan. In 2006, 22.3 million tourists spent $8.3 billion providing an estimated 162,000 jobs in the state.<ref>[http://www.encyclopediaofalabama.org/face/Article.jsp?id=h-1268 Encyclopedia of Alabama]. Alabama Tourism Department (ATD)</ref><ref>{{Cite news |url= |first=David A. |last=Fahrenthold |title=Obama to survey environmental damage in gulf |publisher=Washington Pose |location=Washington, DC |page= A6 |date=May 2, 2010}}</ref> ===Healthcare=== [[UAB Hospital]] is the only [[trauma center|Level I trauma center]] in Alabama.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.facs.org/trauma/verified.html |title=Verified Trauma Centers |date=December 30, 2010 |work=American College of Surgeons, Verified Trauma Centers |accessdate=January 9, 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://webspace.utexas.edu/jas5349/Research_Data.htm |title=College Research Data |work=University of Texas |accessdate=April 18, 2012 |deadurl=no}}</ref> UAB is the largest state government employer in Alabama, with a workforce of about 18,000.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.uab.edu/humanresources/home/|title=UAB - Human Resources - Home|work=uab.edu|accessdate=July 21, 2015}}</ref> ===Banking=== [[File:Birmingham skyscrapers Nov 2011.jpg|thumb|[[Regions-Harbert Plaza]], [[Regions Center (Birmingham)|Regions Center]], and [[Wells Fargo Tower (Birmingham)|Wells Fargo Tower]] in Birmingham's financial district.]] Alabama has the headquarters of [[Regions Financial Corporation]], [[BBVA Compass]], [[Superior Bancorp]] and the former [[Colonial Bancgroup]]. Birmingham-based Compass Banchshares was acquired by Spanish-based [[BBVA]] in September 2007, although the headquarters of BBVA Compass remains in Birmingham. In November 2006, Regions Financial completed its merger with [[AmSouth Bancorporation]], which was also headquartered in Birmingham. [[SouthTrust Corporation]], another large bank headquartered in Birmingham, was acquired by [[Wachovia]] in 2004 for $14.3 billion. The city still has major operations for Wachovia and its now post-operating bank [[Wells Fargo]], which includes a regional headquarters, an operations center campus and a $400 million data center. Nearly a dozen smaller banks are also headquartered in the Birmingham, such as Superior Bancorp, [[ServisFirst]] and New South Federal Savings Bank. Birmingham also serves as the headquarters for several large investment management companies, including [[Harbert Management Corporation]]. ===Electronics=== Telecommunications provider [[AT&T Inc.|AT&T]], formerly [[BellSouth]], has a major presence in Alabama with several large offices in Birmingham. The company has over 6,000 employees and more than 1,200 contract employees. Many commercial technology companies are headquartered in Huntsville, such as the network access company [[ADTRAN]], computer graphics company [[Intergraph]], design and manufacturer of IT infrastructure [[Avocent]], and telecommunications provider [[Deltacom]]. [[Cinram]] manufactures and distributes 20th Century Fox DVDs and Blu-ray Discs out of their Huntsville plant. ===Construction=== Rust International has grown to include [[Brasfield & Gorrie]], [[BE&K]], [[Hoar Construction]] and [[B.L. Harbert International]], which all routinely are included in the Engineering News-Record lists of top design, international construction, and engineering firms. (Rust International was acquired in 2000 by [[Washington Group International]], which was in turn acquired by San-Francisco based [[URS Corporation]] in 2007.){{clear}} ==Law and government== ===State government=== [[File:Alabama Capitol Building.jpg|thumb|The [[Alabama State Capitol|State Capitol Building]] in Montgomery, completed in 1851]] {{Main|Government of Alabama}} The foundational document for Alabama's government is the [[Alabama Constitution]], which was ratified in 1901. At almost 800 amendments and 310,000 words, it is by some accounts the world's longest constitution and is roughly forty times the length of the [[United States Constitution]].<ref>Tim Lockette, [http://www.annistonstar.com/article_c928bd51-fbf1-5056-a30c-1bf4b19eb012.html?mode=jqm Is the Alabama Constitution the longest constitution in the world?Truth Rating: 4 out of 5], ''Anniston Star''.</ref><ref>Campbell Robertson, [http://www.nytimes.com/2012/10/31/us/alabama-simmers-before-vote-on-its-constitutions-racist-language.html?pagewanted=all Alabama Simmers Before Vote on Its Constitution's Racist Language], ''New York Times'', October 10, 2012.</ref><ref name="Washington Post">{{Cite news|url=http://www.washingtonpost.com/ac2/wp-dyn/A16443-2004Nov27?language=printer |last=Roig-Franzia |first=Manuel |title=Alabama Vote Opens Old Racial Wounds |work=The Washington Post |date=November 28, 2004 |accessdate=September 22, 2006 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100506180832/http://www.washingtonpost.com/ac2/wp-dyn/A16443-2004Nov27?language=printer |archivedate=6 May 2010 }}</ref><ref name="Constitution">{{cite web |url= http://www.legislature.state.al.us/CodeOfAlabama/Constitution/1901/Constitution1901_toc.htm |title= Constitution of Alabama – 1901 |work= The Alabama Legislative Information System |accessdate= September 22, 2006 |archiveurl= //web.archive.org/web/20060923081542/http://www.legislature.state.al.us/CodeOfAlabama/Constitution/1901/Constitution1901_toc.htm |archivedate= September 23, 2006 |deadurl= no}}</ref> There has been a significant movement to rewrite and modernize Alabama's constitution.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.constitutionalreform.org/ |title=Alabama Citizens for Constitutional Reform |publisher=Constitutionalreform.org |accessdate=October 24, 2010| archiveurl= //web.archive.org/web/20100915165938/http://www.constitutionalreform.org/ |archivedate= September 15, 2010 |deadurl= no}}</ref> Critics suggest that Alabama's constitution highly centralizes power in Montgomery and leaves practically no power in local hands. Most counties do not have home rule. Any policy changes proposed around the state must be approved by the entire Alabama legislature and, frequently, by state referendum. One criticism of the current constitution claims that its complexity and length intentionally codify segregation and racism. [[File:Ala Supreme Court Building Feb 2012 01.jpg|thumb|The [[Alabama Judicial Building]] in Montgomery. It houses the [[Alabama Supreme Court]], [[Alabama Court of Civil Appeals]], and [[Alabama Court of Criminal Appeals]].]] Alabama's government is divided into three coequal branches. The [[legislative branch]] is the [[Alabama Legislature]], a [[bicameral]] assembly composed of the [[Alabama House of Representatives]], with 105 members, and the [[Alabama Senate]], with 35 members. The Legislature is responsible for writing, debating, passing, or defeating state legislation. The [[United States Republican Party|Republican Party]] currently holds a majority in both houses of the [[Alabama Legislature|Legislature]]. The Legislature has the power to override a gubernatorial veto by a simple majority (most state Legislatures require a two-thirds majority to override a veto). Until 1964, the state elected state senators by county, with one per county. It had not redistricted congressional districts since passage of its constitution in 1901; as a result, urbanized areas were grossly underrepresented. It had not changed legislative districts to reflect the decennial censuses, either. In ''[[Reynolds v. Sims]]'' (1964), the US Supreme Court implemented the principle of "[[one man, one vote]]", ruling that congressional districts had to be reapportioned based on censuses (as the state already had in its constitution but had not implemented.) Further, it ruled that both houses of bicameral state legislatures had to be apportioned by population, as there was no constitutional basis for states to have geographically based systems. At that time, Alabama and many other states had to change their legislative districting, as many across the country had systems that underrepresented urban areas and districts. This had caused decades of underinvestment in such areas. For instance, Birmingham and Jefferson County taxes had supplied one-third of the state budget, but Jefferson County received only 1/67th of state services in funding. Through the legislative delegations, the Alabama legislature kept control of county governments. The [[executive branch]] is responsible for the execution and oversight of laws. It is headed by the [[Governor of Alabama]]. Other members of executive branch include the cabinet, the [[Attorney General of Alabama]], the [[Alabama Secretary of State]], the [[Alabama State Treasurer]], and the [[State Auditor of Alabama]]. The current [[Governor of Alabama|governor]] of the state is [[Republican Party (United States)|Republican]] [[Robert J. Bentley|Robert Bentley]]. The [[List of Lieutenant Governors of Alabama|lieutenant governor]] is Republican [[Kay Ivey]]. The [[Judiciary|judicial branch]] is responsible for interpreting the [[Alabama Constitution|Constitution]] and applying the law in state criminal and civil cases. The [[State supreme court|state's highest court]] is the [[Supreme Court of Alabama]]. Alabama uses partisan elections to choose judges, and since the 1980s judicial campaigns have become increasingly politicized.<ref name="AJS">[http://www.judicialselection.us/judicial_selection/index.cfm?state=AL Judicial Selection in the States: Alabama], American Judicature Society.</ref> The current [[chief justice]] of the Alabama Supreme Court is Republican [[Roy Moore]]. All sitting justices on the Alabama Supreme Court are members of the Republican Party. There are two intermediate [[appellate court]]s, the Court of Civil Appeals and the Court of Criminal Appeals, and four [[trial court]]s: the circuit court (trial court of general jurisdiction), and the district, probate, and municipal courts.<ref name="AJS"/> The members of the Legislature take office immediately after the November elections. Statewide officials such as the governor, lieutenant governor, attorney general, and other constitutional officers take office the following January.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.legislature.state.al.us/misc/legislativeprocess/legislativeprocess_ml.html|title= Alabama's Legislative Process |first= McDowell |last= Lee|year= 2009|publisher= State of Alabama}}</ref> ===Taxes=== Alabama levies a 2, 4, or 5 percent [[State income tax|personal income tax]], depending upon the amount earned and filing status. Taxpayers are allowed to deduct their [[Income tax in the United States|federal income tax]] from their Alabama state tax, and can do so even if taking the [[standard deduction]]. Taxpayers who file itemized deductions are also allowed to deduct the [[Federal Insurance Contributions Act tax]] (Social Security and Medicare tax). The state's general sales tax rate is 4%.<ref>{{Wayback|date=20070520231150 |url=http://www.taxadmin.org/fta/rate/sl_sales.html |title=Comparison of State and Local Retail Sales Taxes}}. taxadmin.org, July 2004, Retrieved December 18, 2013.</ref> Sales tax rates for cities and counties are also added to purchases.<ref>[http://revenue.alabama.gov/publications/business-taxes/sales/Sales_Tax--Sales_Tax_Brochure.pdf Sales Tax Brochure]. State of Alabama. Retrieved December 18, 2013.</ref> For example, the total sales tax rate in Mobile is 10% and there is an additional restaurant tax of 1%, which means that a diner in Mobile would pay an 11% tax on a meal. {{As of|1999}}, sales and excise taxes in Alabama account for 51% of all state and local revenue, compared with an average of about 36% nationwide.<ref name="cbpp.org"/> Alabama is one of seven states that levy a tax on food at the same rate as other goods, and one of two states (the other being neighboring Mississippi) which fully taxes groceries without any offsetting relief for low-income families. (Most states exempt groceries from sales tax or apply a lower tax rate.)<ref>[http://www.cbpp.org/files/3-16-06sfp3.pdf Which States Tax the Sale of Food for Home Consumption in 2009?], Center on Budget and Policy Priorities, November 4, 2009.</ref> Alabama's income tax on poor working families is among the highest in the United States.<ref name="cbpp.org"/> Alabama is the only state that levies income tax on a family of four with income as low as $4,600, which is barely one-quarter of the federal poverty line.<ref name="cbpp.org"/> Alabama's threshold is the lowest among the 41 states and the District of Columbia with income taxes.<ref name="cbpp.org">{{cite web|url=http://www.cbpp.org/cms/index.cfm?fa=view&id=1812 |title=Reducing Alabama's Income Tax on Working-Poor Families: Two Options |date= April 14, 1999 |publisher=Cbpp.org |accessdate=October 24, 2010}}</ref> The corporate income tax rate is currently 6.5%. The overall federal, state, and local tax burden in Alabama ranks the state as the second least tax-burdened state in the country.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.taxfoundation.org/files/sl_burden_alabama-2007-04-04.pdf |title=Alabama State Local Tax Burden Compared to U.S. Average (1970–2007) |accessdate=May 30, 2007 |format=PDF |work=Tax Foundation|archiveurl= //web.archive.org/web/20070605100516/http://www.taxfoundation.org/files/sl_burden_alabama-2007-04-04.pdf| archivedate= June 5, 2007 | deadurl= no}}</ref> [[Property tax]]es are the lowest in the U.S. The current state constitution requires a voter referendum to raise property taxes. Since Alabama's tax structure largely depends on consumer spending, it is subject to high variable budget structure. For example, in 2003 Alabama had an annual budget deficit as high as $670&nbsp;million. ===County and Local governments=== {{Alabama County Labelled Map|align=right|width=300}} {{see also|List of counties in Alabama}} Alabama has 67 [[county (United States)|counties]]. Each county has its own elected legislative branch, usually called the county commission. It also has limited executive authority in the county. Because of the constraints of the [[Alabama Constitution]], only seven counties (Jefferson, Lee, Mobile, Madison, Montgomery, Shelby, and Tuscaloosa) in the state have limited [[home rule]]. Instead, most counties in the state must lobby the Local Legislation Committee of the state legislature to get simple local policies approved, ranging from waste disposal to land use zoning. The cumbersome process results in local jurisdictions being unable to manage their problems, and the state legislators are buried in local county issues. The state legislature has retained power over local governments by refusing to pass a constitutional amendment establishing [[home rule]] for counties, as recommended by the 1973 Alabama Constitutional Commission.<ref name="home"/> Legislative delegations retain certain powers over each county. United States Supreme Court decisions in ''[[Baker v. Carr]]'' (1964) required that both houses have districts established on the basis of population, and redistricted after each census, in order to implement the principle of "one man, one vote". Before that, each county was represented by one state senator, leading to underrepresentation in the state senate for more urbanized, populous counties. "The lack of home rule for counties in Alabama has resulted in the proliferation of local legislation permitting counties to do things not authorized by the state constitution. Alabama's constitution has been amended more than 700 times, and almost one-third of the amendments are local in nature, applying to only one county or city. A significant part of each legislative session is spent on local legislation, taking away time and attention of legislators from issues of statewide importance."<ref name="home">[http://www.encyclopediaofalabama.org/article/h-1153#sthash.CMEMRNbK.dpuf Albert P. Brewer, "Home Rule"], ''Encyclopedia of Alabama'', 2007, accessed 3 February 2015</ref> On November 9, 2011, Jefferson County, which was $4 billion in debt at the time, declared bankruptcy. This is the second-largest [[Chapter 9, Title 11, United States Code|Chapter 9]] (municipal) bankruptcy in the United States, after the [[Detroit bankruptcy]]. Jefferson County emerged from bankruptcy in December 2013 following the approval of a bankruptcy plan by the [[United States bankruptcy court]] for the [[United States District Court for the Northern District of Alabama|Northern District of Alabama]].<ref>[http://www.al.com/jeffco/ Jefferson County bankruptcy] articles from the ''Huntsville Times''.</ref><ref>Associated Press, [http://www.tuscaloosanews.com/article/20131204/NEWS/131209934 Jefferson County emerges from bankruptcy], December 4, 2013.</ref><ref>Shelly Sigo, [http://www.bondbuyer.com/issues/123_1/bankruptcy-over-but-jefferson-county-ala-will-remain-in-the-news-1058616-1.html "Bankruptcy Over, But Jefferson County, Ala., Will Remain in the News"], ''Bond Buyer'', December 31, 2013.</ref> Alabama is an [[alcoholic beverage control state]], meaning that the state government holds a monopoly on the sale of alcohol. The [[Alabama Alcoholic Beverage Control Board]] controls the sale and distribution of alcoholic beverages in the state. Twenty-five of the 67 counties are "[[Dry county|dry counties]]" which ban the sale of alcohol, and there are many dry municipalities even in counties which permit alcohol sales.<ref>[http://abcboard.alabama.gov/%28S%28s1j4zjl5nddpfshvrhppmpsb%29%29/wet_dry_map.aspx Wet-Dry Map], Alabama Alcoholic Beverage Control Board.</ref> {| class="wikitable" |- ! Rank !! County !! Population <br />(2010 Census) !! Seat !! Largest city |- | style="text-align:center;"| 1 | [[Jefferson County, Alabama|Jefferson]] | style="text-align:center;"| 658,466 | style="text-align:center;"| [[Birmingham, Alabama|Birmingham]] | style="text-align:center;"| Birmingham |- | style="text-align:center;"| 2 | [[Mobile County, Alabama|Mobile]] | style="text-align:center;"| 412,992 | style="text-align:center;"| [[Mobile, Alabama|Mobile]] | style="text-align:center;"| Mobile |- | style="text-align:center;"| 3 | [[Madison County, Alabama|Madison]] | style="text-align:center;"| 334,811 | style="text-align:center;"| [[Huntsville, Alabama|Huntsville]] | style="text-align:center;"| Huntsville |- | style="text-align:center;"| 4 | [[Montgomery County, Alabama|Montgomery]] | style="text-align:center;"| 229,363 | style="text-align:center;"| [[Montgomery, Alabama|Montgomery]] | style="text-align:center;"| Montgomery |- | style="text-align:center;"| 5 | [[Shelby County, Alabama|Shelby]] | style="text-align:center;"| 195,085 | style="text-align:center;"| [[Columbiana, Alabama|Columbiana]] | style="text-align:center;"| [[Hoover, Alabama|Hoover]] (part) <br /> [[Alabaster, Alabama|Alabaster]] |- | style="text-align:center;"| 6 | [[Tuscaloosa County, Alabama|Tuscaloosa]] | style="text-align:center;"| 194,656 | style="text-align:center;"| [[Tuscaloosa, Alabama|Tuscaloosa]] | style="text-align:center;"| Tuscaloosa |- | style="text-align:center;"| 7 | [[Baldwin County, Alabama|Baldwin]] | style="text-align:center;"| 182,265 | style="text-align:center;"| [[Bay Minette, Alabama|Bay Minette]] | style="text-align:center;"| [[Daphne, Alabama|Daphne]] |- | style="text-align:center;"| 8 | [[Lee County, Alabama|Lee]] | style="text-align:center;"| 140,247 | style="text-align:center;"| [[Opelika, Alabama|Opelika]] | style="text-align:center;"| [[Auburn, Alabama|Auburn]] |- | style="text-align:center;"| 9 | [[Morgan County, Alabama|Morgan]] | style="text-align:center;"| 119,490 | style="text-align:center;"| [[Decatur, Alabama|Decatur]] | style="text-align:center;"| Decatur |- | style="text-align:center;"| 10 | [[Calhoun County, Alabama|Calhoun]] | style="text-align:center;"| 118,572 | style="text-align:center;"| [[Anniston, Alabama|Anniston]] | style="text-align:center;"| Anniston |- | style="text-align:center;"| 11 | [[Etowah County, Alabama|Etowah]] | style="text-align:center;"| 104,303 | style="text-align:center;"| [[Gadsden, Alabama|Gadsden]] | style="text-align:center;"| Gadsden |- | style="text-align:center;"| 12 | [[Houston County, Alabama|Houston]] | style="text-align:center;"| 101,547 | style="text-align:center;"| [[Dothan, Alabama|Dothan]] | style="text-align:center;"| Dothan |- | style="text-align:center;"| 13 | [[Marshall County, Alabama|Marshall]] | style="text-align:center;"| 93,019 | style="text-align:center;"| [[Guntersville, Alabama|Guntersville]] | style="text-align:center;"| [[Albertville, Alabama|Albertville]] |- | style="text-align:center;"| 14 | [[Lauderdale County, Alabama|Lauderdale]] | style="text-align:center;"| 92,709 | style="text-align:center;"| [[Florence, Alabama|Florence]] | style="text-align:center;"| Florence |- | style="text-align:center;"| 15 | [[St. Clair County, Alabama|St. Clair]] | style="text-align:center;"| 83,593 | style="text-align:center;"| [[Ashville, Alabama|Ashville]] & <br /> [[Pell City, Alabama|Pell City]] | style="text-align:center;"| Pell City |} ===Politics=== [[File:Robert Bentley.jpg|thumb|upright=0.75|[[Robert J. Bentley]], governor since January 17, 2011]] [[File:Kay Ivey.jpg|thumb|upright=0.75|[[Kay Ivey]], lieutenant governor]] During [[Reconstruction era of the United States|Reconstruction]] following the [[American Civil War]], Alabama was occupied by federal troops of the [[Third Military District]] under [[John Pope (military officer)|General John Pope]]. In 1874, the political coalition of white Democrats known as the [[Redeemers]] took control of the state government from the Republicans, in part by suppressing the African-American vote through violence, fraud and intimidation. After 1890, a coalition of White Democratic politicians passed laws to [[racial segregation|segregate]] and disenfranchise African American residents, a process completed in provisions of the 1901 constitution. Provisions which disenfranchised African Americans resulted in excluding many poor Whites. By 1941 more Whites than African Americans had been disenfranchised: 600,000 to 520,000. The total effects were greater on the African-American community, as almost all of its citizens were disfranchised and relegated to separate and unequal treatment under the law. From 1901 through the 1960s, the state did not redraw election districts as population grew and shifted within the state during urbanization and industrialization of certain areas. As counties were the basis of election districts, the result was a rural minority that dominated state politics through nearly three-quarters of the century, until a series of federal court cases required redistricting in 1972 to meet equal representation. Alabama state politics gained nationwide and international attention in the 1950s and 1960s during the [[African-American Civil Rights Movement (1955–1968)|American Civil Rights Movement]], when Whites bureaucratically, and at times, violently resisted protests for electoral and social reform. Democrat [[George Wallace]], the state's only four-term governor, was a controversial figure who vowed to maintain segregation. Only after passage of the Federal [[Civil Rights Act of 1964]]<ref name="cra64"/> and [[Voting Rights Act]] of 1965 did African Americans regain the ability to exercise suffrage, among other civil rights. In many jurisdictions, they continued to be excluded from representation by [[at-large]] electoral systems, which allowed the majority of the population to dominate elections. Some changes at the county level have occurred following court challenges to establish [[single-member districts]] that enable a more diverse representation among county boards. In 2007, the [[Alabama Legislature]] passed, and Republican Governor [[Bob Riley]] signed a resolution expressing "profound regret" over slavery and its lingering impact. In a symbolic ceremony, the bill was signed in the [[Alabama State Capitol]], which housed Congress of the [[Confederate States of America]].<ref>{{Cite news |first=Phillip |last=Rawls |title=Alabama offers an apology for slavery |work=The Virginian Pilot |publisher=Landmark Communications |date=June 1, 2007}}</ref> In 2010, Republicans won control of both houses of the legislature for the first time in 136 years, after a nearly complete realignment of political parties, who represent different visions in the 21st century. ===Elections=== {{main|Elections in Alabama}} ====State elections==== With the [[Disfranchisement after Reconstruction era|disfranchisement of African Americans]] in 1901, the state became part of the "[[Solid South]]", a system in which the [[Democratic Party (United States)|Democratic Party]] operated as effectively the only viable political party in every Southern state. For nearly 100&nbsp;years, local and state elections in Alabama were decided in the Democratic Party [[primary election|primary]], with generally only token [[United States Republican Party|Republican]] challengers running in the General Election. Since the mid to late-20th century, however, there has been a realignment among the two major political parties, and white conservatives started shifting to the Republican Party. In Alabama, majority-white districts are now expected to regularly elect Republican candidates to federal, state and local office. Members of the nine seats on the [[Alabama Supreme Court]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://blog.al.com/spotnews/2009/05/sue_bell_cobb_considering_runn.html |title=Sue Bell Cobb considering running for governor |work=The Birmingham News |date=May 2, 2009 |accessdate=August 7, 2009}}</ref> and all ten seats on the state appellate courts are elected to office. Until 1994, no Republicans held any of the court seats. In that general election, the then-incumbent Chief Justice of Alabama, [[Ernest C. Hornsby]], refused to leave office after losing the election by approximately 3,000 votes to Republican [[Perry O. Hooper, Sr.]]. Hornsby sued Alabama and defiantly remained in office for nearly a year before finally giving up the seat after losing in court. This ultimately led to a collapse of support for Democrats at the ballot box in the next three or four election cycles. The Democrats lost the last of the nineteen court seats in August 2011 with the resignation of the last Democrat on the bench. In the early 21st century, Republicans hold all seven of the [[Political party strength in Alabama|statewide elected executive]] branch offices. Republicans hold six of the eight elected seats on the [[Alabama State Board of Education]]. In 2010, Republicans took large majorities of both chambers of the state legislature, giving them control of that body for the first time in 136 years. The last remaining statewide Democrat, who served on the Alabama Public Service Commission was defeated in 2012.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.psc.state.al.us/commissioners.htm |title=Commissioners |publisher=Psc.state.al.us |accessdate=August 7, 2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|author=Special |url=http://blog.al.com/spotnews/2008/11/lucy_baxley_wins_alabama_publi.html |title= Lucy Baxley wins Alabama Public Service Commission presidency, but recount possible |publisher=Birmingham News via al.com |date=November 5, 2008 |accessdate=August 7, 2009| archiveurl= //web.archive.org/web/20090802212747/http://blog.al.com/spotnews/2008/11/lucy_baxley_wins_alabama_publi.html| archivedate= August 2, 2009 | deadurl= no}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|author=Jeff Amy, Press-Register |url=http://blog.al.com/live/2010/11/public_service_commission.html |title=Public Service Commission: Twinkle Cavanaugh, Terry Dunn join GOP sweep |publisher= al.com |accessdate=June 1, 2011| archiveurl= //web.archive.org/web/20110513135614/http://blog.al.com/live/2010/11/public_service_commission.html| archivedate= May 13, 2011 | deadurl= no}}</ref> Only two Republican Lieutenant Governors have been elected since the end of Reconstruction, when Republicans generally represented Reconstruction government, including the newly emancipated [[freedmen]] who had gained the franchise. The two GOP Lt. Governors were Steve Windom (1999-2003) and the current Lt. Governor, [[Kay Ivey]], who was elected in 2010 and re-elected in 2014. ====Local elections==== Many local offices (County Commissioners, Boards of Education, Tax Assessors, Tax Collectors, etc.) in the state are still held by Democrats. Many rural counties have voters who are majority Democrats, resulting in local elections being decided in the Democratic primary. Similarly many metropolitan and suburban counties are majority-Republican and elections are effectively decided in the Republican Primary, although there are exceptions.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://uselectionatlas.org/RESULTS/state.php?fips=1&year=2006&f=0&off=5&elect=1 |title=2006 Gubernatorial Democratic Primary Election Results – Alabama |publisher=Uselectionatlas.org |accessdate=August 7, 2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://uselectionatlas.org/RESULTS/state.php?fips=1&year=2006&f=0&off=5&elect=2 |title=2006 Gubernatorial Republican Primary Election Results – Alabama |publisher=Uselectionatlas.org |date=February 15, 2007 |accessdate=August 7, 2009}}</ref> Alabama's 67 County Sheriffs are elected in partisan, [[at-large]] races, and Democrats still retain the narrow majority of those posts. The current split is 35 [[Alabama Democratic Party|Democrats]], 31 [[Alabama Republican Party|Republicans]], and one Independent Fayette).<ref name="ASA">[http://www.alabamasheriffs.com/pages?id=41 Alabama Sheriffs Association]</ref> However, most of the Democratic sheriffs preside over rural and less populated counties. The majority of Republican sheriffs have been elected in the more urban/suburban and heavily populated counties.{{citation needed|date=November 2015}} {{as of|2015}}, the state of Alabama has one female sheriff, in [[Morgan County, Alabama]], and ten African-American sheriffs.<ref name="ASA"/> ====Federal elections==== The state's two [[United States Senate|U.S. senators]] are [[Jeff Sessions|Jefferson B. Sessions III]] and [[Richard Shelby|Richard C. Shelby]], both Republicans. Shelby was originally elected to the Senate as a Democrat in 1986 and re-elected in 1992, but switched parties immediately following the November 1994 general election. In the [[U.S. House of Representatives]], the state is represented by seven members, six of whom are Republicans: ([[Bradley Byrne]], [[Mike D. Rogers]], [[Robert Aderholt]], [[Morris J. Brooks]], [[Martha Roby]], and [[Gary Palmer (politician)|Gary Palmer]]) and one Democrat: [[Terri Sewell]]. {{further|United States presidential election in Alabama, 2004}} ==Education== {{Main|Education in Alabama}} ===Primary and secondary education=== [[File:Vestavia Hills High School.jpg|thumb|right|[[Vestavia Hills High School]] in the suburbs of Birmingham]] Public primary and secondary education in Alabama is under the purview of the [[Alabama State Board of Education]] as well as local oversight by 67 county school boards and 60 city boards of education. Together, 1,496 individual schools provide education for 744,637 elementary and secondary students.<ref name="qfacts">{{cite web|url= http://www.alsde.edu/sec/comm/Pages/quickfacts-item.aspx?FilterField1=ID&FilterValue1=7 |title= Alabama Education Quick Facts 2012-13 |accessdate =April 29, 2014 |format= PDF}}</ref> Public school funding is appropriated through the Alabama Legislature through the Education Trust Fund. In FY 2006–2007, Alabama appropriated $3,775,163,578 for primary and secondary education. That represented an increase of $444,736,387 over the previous fiscal year. In 2007, over 82&nbsp;percent of schools made adequate yearly progress (AYP) toward student proficiency under the National [[No Child Left Behind]] law, using measures determined by the state of Alabama. While Alabama's public education system has improved in recent decades, it lags behind in achievement compared to other states. According to U.S. Census data, Alabama's high school graduation rate—75%—is the fourth lowest in the U.S. (after Kentucky, Louisiana and Mississippi).<ref>http://www.census.gov/prod/2003pubs/c2kbr-24.pdf</ref> The largest educational gains were among people with some college education but without degrees.<ref>[http://www.censusscope.org/us/s1/chart_education.html Education Statistics]. CensusScope.org</ref> ===Colleges and universities=== {{Main|List of colleges and universities in Alabama}} [[File:Harrison-plaza2.jpg|thumb|left|Harrison Plaza at the [[University of North Alabama]] in Florence. The school was chartered as LaGrange College by the [[Alabama Legislature]] in 1830.]] Alabama's programs of higher education include 14 four-year public universities, two-year community colleges, and 17 private, undergraduate and graduate universities. In the state are four medical schools (as of fall 2015) ([[University of Alabama School of Medicine]], [[University of South Alabama]] and [[Alabama College of Osteopathic Medicine]] and The Edward Via College of Osteopathic Medicine - Auburn Campus), two veterinary colleges ([[Auburn University]] and [[Tuskegee University]]), a dental school ([[University of Alabama School of Dentistry]]), an optometry college ([[University of Alabama at Birmingham]]), two pharmacy schools ([[Auburn University]] and [[Samford University]]), and five law schools ([[University of Alabama School of Law]], [[Birmingham School of Law]], [[Cumberland School of Law]], [[Miles Law School]], and the [[Thomas Goode Jones School of Law]]). Public, post-secondary education in Alabama is overseen by the [[Alabama Commission on Higher Education]] and the [[Alabama Department of Postsecondary Education]]. Colleges and universities in Alabama offer degree programs from two-year associate degrees to a multitude of doctoral level programs.<ref name="ache">{{cite web|work= Alabama Commission on Higher Education |title= Directory of Alabama Colleges and Universities |url= http://www.ache.alabama.gov/Colleges&Universities/Directory.htm |accessdate=July 28, 2013}}</ref> [[File:William J. Samford Hall.jpg|thumb|right|William J. Samford Hall at [[Auburn University]] in Auburn]] The largest single campus is the [[University of Alabama]], located in [[Tuscaloosa, Alabama|Tuscaloosa]], with 33,602 enrolled for fall 2012.<ref>[http://www.tuscaloosanews.com/article/20120912/NEWS/120919931/1291?Title=University-of-Alabama-sees-record-student-enrollment-for-2012 University of Alabama sees record student enrollment for 2012]. TuscaloosaNews.com (September 12, 2012). Retrieved on July 12, 2013.</ref> [[Troy University]] was the largest institution in the state in 2010, with an enrollment of 29,689 students across four Alabama campuses ([[Troy, Alabama|Troy]], [[Dothan, Alabama|Dothan]], [[Montgomery, Alabama|Montgomery]], and [[Phenix City, Alabama|Phenix City]]), as well as sixty learning sites in seventeen other states and eleven other countries. The oldest institutions are the public [[University of North Alabama]] in [[Florence, Alabama|Florence]] and the Catholic Church-affiliated [[Spring Hill College]] in [[Mobile, Alabama|Mobile]], both founded in 1830.<ref name="una">{{cite web |url=http://www.una.edu/makinghistory/ |title=History in the making |publisher=University of North Alabama |accessdate=July 22, 2011 |archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/61742e5Ls |archivedate=August 21, 2011 |deadurl=no}}</ref><ref name="shc">{{cite web |url=http://www.shc.edu/about-shc/employment/hiring/the-mission-statement-of-spring-hill-college/ |title=The Mission Statement of Spring Hill College: History |publisher=Spring Hill College |accessdate=July 22, 2011 |archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/61746iAFs |archivedate=August 21, 2011 |deadurl=no}}</ref> Accreditation of academic programs is through the [[Southern Association of Colleges and Schools]] (SACS) as well as other subject-focused national and international accreditation agencies such as the [[Association for Biblical Higher Education]] (ABHE),<ref>{{cite web |url=http://directory.abhe.org/default.aspx?status=Member |title=Members |publisher=Association for Biblical Higher Education |accessdate=June 24, 2011 |archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/6174AJ383 |archivedate=August 21, 2011 |deadurl=no}}</ref> the [[Council on Occupational Education]] (COE),<ref>{{cite web|title=Membership Directory|url=http://www.council.org/forms/acc_membership.pdf|format=PDF|publisher=Council on Operational Education|accessdate=August 5, 2011|archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/60iiYeIyB|archivedate=August 5, 2011|date=November 2010|deadurl=no}}</ref> and the [[Accrediting Council for Independent Colleges and Schools]] (ACICS).<ref>{{cite web|title=ACICS Website Directory|url=http://www.acics.org/uploadedFiles/Publications/7_20_09.pdf|format=PDF|publisher=Accrediting Council for Independent Colleges and Schools|accessdate=August 5, 2011|archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/60iiMuVRG|archivedate=August 5, 2011|date=July 20, 2009|deadurl=no}}</ref> According to the 2011 [[U.S. News & World Report]], Alabama had three universities ranked in the top 100 Public Schools in America (University of Alabama at 31, [[Auburn University]] at 36, and [[University of Alabama at Birmingham]] at 73).<ref>{{cite web|title=Top Public Schools|url=http://colleges.usnews.rankingsandreviews.com/best-colleges/rankings/national-universities/top-public/spp%2B50|publisher=U.S. News & World Report|accessdate=September 17, 2011|archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/61mTinjiN|archivedate=September 17, 2011}}</ref> According to the 2012 U.S. News & World Report, Alabama had four tier 1 universities ([[University of Alabama]], [[Auburn University]], [[University of Alabama at Birmingham]] and [[University of Alabama in Huntsville]]).<ref>[http://colleges.usnews.rankingsandreviews.com/best-colleges/rankings/national-universities/page+29 National University Rankings | Top National Universities | US News Best Colleges]. Colleges.usnews.rankingsandreviews.com. Retrieved on July 12, 2013.</ref> ==Sports== ===College=== [[File:Bryant-Denny Stadium by Highsmith 01.jpg|thumb|right|[[Bryant-Denny Stadium]] at the [[University of Alabama]] in Tuscaloosa]] College football is popular in Alabama, particularly the [[University of Alabama]] [[Alabama Crimson Tide|Crimson Tide]] and [[Auburn University]] [[Auburn Tigers|Tigers]], rivals in the [[Southeastern Conference]]. In the 2013 season, Alabama averaged over 100,000 fans per game and Auburn averaged over 80,000 fans, both numbers among the top 20 in the nation in average attendance.<ref>[http://fs.ncaa.org/Docs/stats/football_records/Attendance/2013.pdf 2013 NATIONAL COLLEGE FOOTBALL ATTENDANCE], NCAA.org. Retrieved August 18, 2014.</ref> Bryant-Denny Stadium is the home of the Alabama football team, and has a [[seating capacity]] of 101,821,<ref>{{cite web|title=Bryant-Denny Stadium|url=http://www.rolltide.com/facilities/bryant-denny.html|work=RollTide.com|publisher=University of Alabama|accessdate=July 28, 2013}}</ref> and is the fifth largest stadium in America.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.worldstadiums.com/stadium_menu/stadium_list/100000.shtml |title=Stadium List: 100 000+ Stadiums |publisher=World Stadiums |accessdate=February 10, 2012}}</ref> Jordan-Hare Stadium is the home field of the Auburn football team and seats up to 87,451.<ref>{{cite web|title=Jordan-Hare Stadium|url=http://www.auburntigers.com/facilities/jordan_hare_stadium.html|work=Auburn Athletics|publisher=Auburn University|accessdate=July 28, 2013}}</ref> Legion Field is home for the [[UAB Blazers]] football program and the [[Papajohns.com Bowl]]. It seats 80,601.<ref>{{cite web|title=Legion Field|url=http://www.uabsports.com/tickets/albr-tickets-legion.html#Info|work=UABSports.com|publisher=University of Alabama at Birmingham|accessdate=July 28, 2013}}</ref> [[Ladd-Peebles Stadium]] in [[Mobile, Alabama|Mobile]] is the home of the [[University of South Alabama]] football team, and serves as the home of the [[Senior Bowl|NCAA Senior Bowl]], [[GoDaddy.com Bowl]], and Alabama-Mississippi All Star Classic; the stadium seats 40,646.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.laddpeeblesstadium.com/ |title=Welcome to Ladd Peebles Stadium |publisher=Laddpeeblesstadium.com |date=January 23, 2012 |accessdate=February 10, 2012}}</ref> In 2009, Bryant-Denny Stadium and Jordan-Hare Stadium became the homes of the [[Alabama High School Athletic Association]] state football championship games, after previously being held at Legion Field in Birmingham.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://blog.al.com/sentell/2009/04/super_6_byebye_birmingham.html |title=Super 6 leaving Birmingham for Bryant-Denny, Jordan-Hare stadiums &#124; al.com |publisher=Blog.al.com |accessdate=February 10, 2012}}</ref> ===Professional=== {{Main|List of professional sports teams in Alabama}} [[File:Hoover Met CIMG6404.JPG|thumb|[[Regions Park]] in Hoover]] [[File:Hank Aaron Stadium.jpg|thumb|[[Hank Aaron Stadium]] in Mobile]] Alabama has several professional and semi-professional sports teams, including four [[minor league baseball]] teams. {| class="sortable wikitable" |- ! Club ! City ! Sport ! League ! Venue |- | [[Alabama Hammers]] | [[Huntsville, Alabama|Huntsville]] | [[Indoor American football|Indoor football]] | [[Southern Indoor Football League]] | [[Von Braun Center]] |- | [[Birmingham Barons]] | Birmingham | Baseball | [[Southern League (baseball)|Southern League]] (AA) | [[Regions Field]] |- | [[Birmingham Sabers]] | Birmingham | Basketball | [[Continental Basketball League]] | [[Altamont School]] |- | [[Huntsville Havoc]] | Huntsville | [[Ice hockey]] | [[Southern Professional Hockey League]] | [[Von Braun Center]] |- | [[Mobile BayBears]] | Mobile | Baseball | [[Southern League (baseball)|Southern League]] (AA) | [[Hank Aaron Stadium]] |- | [[Mobile Bay Hurricanes]] | Mobile | Basketball | [[American Basketball Association (2000–present)|American Basketball Association]] | [[Davidson High School (Mobile, Alabama)|Davidson High School]] |- | [[Montgomery Biscuits]] | Montgomery | Baseball | [[Southern League (baseball)|Southern League]] (AA) | [[Montgomery Riverwalk Stadium]] |- | [[Birmingham Hammers]] | Birmingham | Soccer | [[National Premier Soccer League]] | Sicard Hollow Athletic Complex |- | [[Tennessee Valley Tigers]] | Huntsville | [[American Football|Football]] | [[Independent Women's Football League]] | [[Milton Frank Stadium]] |- |} The [[Talladega Superspeedway]] motorsports complex hosts a series of [[NASCAR]] events. It has a seating capacity of 143,000 and is the thirteenth largest stadium in the world and sixth largest stadium in America. Also, the [[Barber Motorsports Park]] has hosted [[IndyCar Series]] and [[Rolex Sports Car Series]] races. The [[ATP Birmingham]] was a [[World Championship Tennis]] tournament held from 1973 to 1980. Alabama has hosted several professional golf tournaments, such as the 1984 and 1990 [[PGA Championship]] at [[Shoal Creek Golf and Country Club|Shoal Creek]] ([[PGA Tour]]), the [[Mobile LPGA Tournament of Champions]], [[Airbus LPGA Classic]] and [[Yokohama Tire LPGA Classic]] ([[LPGA Tour]]), and [[The Tradition]] ([[Champions Tour]]). ==Transportation== [[File:Montgomery Regional Airport New Terminal.JPG|thumb|Terminal at the [[Montgomery Regional Airport]] in Montgomery.]] [[File:I20I59Birmingham.JPG|thumb|[[Interstate 59]] (co-signed with [[Interstate 20]]) approaching [[Interstate 65]] in downtown Birmingham.]] [[File:Mobile Alabama harbor aerial view.jpg|thumb|Aerial view of the port of Mobile.]] {{Main|Transportation in Alabama}} ===Aviation=== {{Main|Aviation in Alabama}} Major airports with sustained commercial operations in Alabama include [[Birmingham-Shuttlesworth International Airport]] (BHM), [[Huntsville International Airport]] (HSV), [[Dothan Regional Airport]] (DHN), [[Mobile Regional Airport]] (MOB), [[Montgomery Regional Airport]] (MGM), and [[Northwest Alabama Regional Airport|Muscle Shoals – Northwest Alabama Regional Airport]] (MSL). ===Rail=== For rail transport, [[Amtrak]] schedules the [[Crescent (train)|Crescent]], a daily passenger train, running from New York to New Orleans with stops at Anniston, Birmingham, and Tuscaloosa. ===Roads=== Alabama has five major interstate roads that cross the state: [[Interstate 65 in Alabama|Interstate&nbsp;65]] (I-65) travels north–south roughly through the middle of the state; [[Interstate 20 in Alabama|I-20]]/[[Interstate 59 in Alabama|I-59]] travel from the central west Mississippi state line to Birmingham, where I-59 continues to the north-east corner of the state and I-20 continues east towards Atlanta; [[Interstate 85 in Alabama|I-85]] originates in Montgomery and travels east-northeast to the Georgia state line, providing a main thoroughfare to Atlanta; and [[Interstate 10 in Alabama|I-10]] traverses the southernmost portion of the state, traveling from west to east through Mobile. Another interstate, [[Interstate 22 in Alabama|I-22]], is currently under construction. When completed, it will connect Birmingham with [[Memphis, Tennessee]]. In addition, there are currently five auxiliary interstate routes in the state: [[Interstate 165|I-165]] in Mobile, [[Interstate 359|I-359]] in Tuscaloosa, [[Interstate 459|I-459]] around Birmingham, [[Interstate 565|I-565]] in Decatur and Huntsville, and [[Interstate 759|I-759]] in Gadsden. A sixth route, [[Interstate 685|I-685]], will be formed when I-85 is rerouted along a new southern bypass of Montgomery. A proposed northern bypass of Birmingham will be designated as [[Interstate 422|I-422]]. Since a direct connection from I-22 to I-422 will not be possible, [[Interstate 222|I-222]] has been proposed, as well. Several U.S. Highways also pass through the state, such as [[U.S. Route 11 in Alabama|U.S. Route&nbsp;11]] (US-11), [[U.S. Route 29 in Alabama|US-29]], [[U.S. Route 31 in Alabama|US-31]], [[U.S. Route 43 in Alabama|US-43]], [[U.S. Route 45 in Alabama|US-45]], [[U.S. Route 72 in Alabama|US-72]], [[U.S. Route 78 in Alabama|US-78]], [[U.S. Route 80 in Alabama|US-80]], [[U.S. Route 82 in Alabama|US-82]], [[U.S. Route 84 in Alabama|US-84]], [[U.S. Route 90 in Alabama|US-90]], [[U.S. Route 98 in Alabama|US-98]], [[U.S. Route 231 in Alabama|US-231]], [[U.S. Route 278 in Alabama|US-278]], [[U.S. Route 280 in Alabama|US-280]], [[U.S. Route 331 in Alabama|US-331]], [[U.S. Route 411 in Alabama|US-411]], and [[U.S. Route 431 in Alabama|US-431]]. There are four toll roads in the state: Montgomery Expressway in [[Montgomery, Alabama|Montgomery]]; Tuscaloosa Bypass in [[Tuscaloosa, Alabama|Tuscaloosa]]; Emerald Mountain Expressway in [[Wetumpka, Alabama|Wetumpka]]; and Beach Express in [[Orange Beach, Alabama|Orange Beach]]. ===Ports=== The [[Port of Mobile]], Alabama's only saltwater port, is a large seaport on the [[Gulf of Mexico]] with inland waterway access to the [[Midwestern United States|Midwest]] by way of the [[Tennessee-Tombigbee Waterway]]. The Port of Mobile was ranked 12th by tons of traffic in the United States during 2009.<ref name="tonstraffic">{{cite web|title=Table 1086. Top U.S. Ports by Tons of Traffic: 2009 |work=U.S. Army Corps of Engineers | url=http://www.census.gov/compendia/statab/2012/tables/12s1087.pdf | accessdate=July 22, 2013}}</ref> The newly expanded [[container terminal]] at the Port of Mobile was ranked as the 25th busiest for container traffic in the nation during 2011.<ref name="containers">{{cite web|title=U.S. Waterborne Container Traffic by Port/Waterway in 2011 (Loaded and Empty TEUS) |work=U.S. Army Corps of Engineers| url=http://www.navigationdatacenter.us/wcsc/by_porttons11.html |accessdate=July 22, 2013}}</ref> The state's other ports are on rivers with access to the Gulf of Mexico. Water ports of Alabama, listed from north to south: {| class="wikitable" |+ ! Port name ! Location ! Connected to |- | Port of [[Florence, Alabama|Florence]] ||''[[Florence, Alabama|Florence]]/[[Muscle Shoals, Alabama|Muscle Shoals]]'', on ''[[Pickwick Lake]]''||[[Tennessee River]] |- | [[Port of Decatur]] || ''[[Decatur, Alabama|Decatur]]'', on ''[[Wheeler Lake]]''||Tennessee River |- | Port of [[Guntersville, Alabama|Guntersville]] ||''[[Guntersville, Alabama|Guntersville]]'', on ''[[Lake Guntersville]]''||Tennessee River |- | Port of [[Birmingham, Alabama|Birmingham]] || ''[[Birmingham, Alabama|Birmingham]]'', on ''[[Black Warrior River]]'' || [[Tennessee–Tombigbee Waterway|Tenn-Tom Waterway]] |- | Port of [[Tuscaloosa, Alabama|Tuscaloosa]] ||''[[Tuscaloosa, Alabama|Tuscaloosa]]'', on ''Black Warrior River''||Tenn-Tom Waterway |- | Port of [[Montgomery, Alabama|Montgomery]] || ''[[Montgomery, Alabama|Montgomery]]'', on ''[[R.E."Bob" Woodruff Lake|Woodruff Lake]]'' || [[Alabama River]] |- | [[Port of Mobile]] || ''[[Mobile, Alabama|Mobile]]'', on ''[[Mobile Bay]]'' || [[Gulf of Mexico]] |} {{clear}} ==See also== {{portal|Alabama}} * [[Outline of Alabama]] – organized list of topics about Alabama * [[Index of Alabama-related articles]] * [[LGBT rights in Alabama]]{{Relevance inline|material|date=February 2016}} * [[Gun laws in Alabama|Gun rights in Alabama]]{{Relevance inline|material|date=February 2016}} * [[Right-to-work law|Right to work in Alabama]]{{Relevance inline|material|date=February 2016}} ==References== {{reflist|30em}} ==Further reading== :''For a detailed bibliography, see the [[History of Alabama]].'' * Atkins, Leah Rawls, Wayne Flynt, William Warren Rogers, and David Ward. ''Alabama: The History of a Deep South State'' (1994) * Flynt, Wayne. ''Alabama in the Twentieth Century'' (2004) * Owen Thomas M. ''History of Alabama and Dictionary of Alabama Biography'' 4 vols. 1921. * Jackson, Harvey H. ''Inside Alabama: A Personal History of My State'' (2004) * Mohl, Raymond A. "Latinization in the Heart of Dixie: Hispanics in Late-twentieth-century Alabama" ''Alabama Review'' 2002 55(4): 243–274. {{ISSN|0002-4341}} * Peirce, Neal R. ''The Deep South States of America: People, Politics, and Power in the Seven Deep South States'' (1974). Information on politics and economics 1960–72. * Williams, Benjamin Buford. ''A Literary History of Alabama: The Nineteenth Century'' 1979. * WPA. ''Guide to Alabama'' (1939) ==External links== <!------------------------ {{No more links}} ----------------------------- | PLEASE BE CAUTIOUS IN ADDING MORE LINKS TO THIS ARTICLE. Wikipedia | | is not a collection of links nor should it be used for advertising. | | | | Excessive or inappropriate links WILL BE DELETED. | | See [[Wikipedia:External links]] & [[Wikipedia:Spam]] for details. | | | | If there are already plentiful links, please propose additions or | | replacements on this article's discussion page, or submit your link | | to the relevant category at the Open Directory Project (dmoz.org) | | and link back to that category using the {{dmoz}} template. | --------------------------- {{No more links}}-----------------------------> {{Sister project links|voy=Alabama|Alabama|s=Wikisource:Alabama}} * [http://www.alabama.gov/ Alabama.gov – Official State Government web site] * [http://www.loc.gov/rr/program/bib/states/alabama/index.html Alabama State Guide, from the Library of Congress] * [http://www.archives.state.al.us/aaa.html All About Alabama], at the [[Alabama Department of Archives and History]] * {{DMOZ|Regional/North_America/United_States/Alabama}} * [http://www.alarc.org/ Alabama Association of Regional Councils] * [http://tonto.eia.doe.gov/state/state_energy_profiles.cfm?sid=AL Energy Data & Statistics for Alabama from the U.S. Department of Energy] * [http://www.touralabama.org/ TourAlabama.org] – Alabama Department of Tourism and Travel * [http://www.alabamamosaic.org/ AlabamaMosaic], a digital repository of materials on Alabama's history, culture, places, and people * [http://www.legislature.state.al.us/CodeofAlabama/1975/coatoc.htm Code of Alabama 1975] – at the Alabama Legislature site * [http://www.usgs.gov/state/state.asp?State=AL USGS real-time, geographic, and other scientific resources of Alabama] * [http://quickfacts.census.gov/qfd/states/01000.html Alabama QuickFacts] from the U.S. Census Bureau * [http://www.ers.usda.gov/data-products/state-fact-sheets/state-data.aspx?StateFIPS=01&StateName=Alabama#.U1_e6Ffvg9s Alabama State Fact Sheet] from the U.S. Department of Agriculture * {{osmrelation-inline|161950}} {{Geographic location |Northwest = |North= {{flag|Tennessee}} |Northeast = |West= {{flag|Mississippi}} |Centre= '' Alabama'': [[Outline of Alabama|Outline]] • [[Index of Alabama-related articles|Index]] |East= {{flag|Georgia (U.S. state)|name=Georgia}} |Southwest= [[Gulf of Mexico]] |South= {{flag|Florida}} |Southeast = }} {{s-start}} {{s-bef|before=[[Illinois]]}} {{s-ttl|title=[[List of U.S. states by date of admission to the Union]]|years=Admitted on December 14, 1819 (22nd)}} {{s-aft|after=[[Maine]]}} {{s-end}} {{Alabama}} {{Navboxes|title= Topics related to Alabama |list = {{Alabama cities and mayors of 100,000 population}} {{Confederate States of America}} {{Protected areas of Alabama}} {{United States political divisions}} {{United States topics}} }} {{Authority control}} {{Coord|32.7|-86.7|type:adm2nd_dim:1000000_source:USGS|display=title}}<!-- geographic center of state --> [[Category:Alabama| ]] [[Category:Southern United States]] [[Category:States and territories established in 1819]] [[Category:States of the Confederate States of America]] [[Category:States of the Gulf Coast of the United States]] [[Category:States of the United States]] [[Category:U.S. states with multiple time zones]] [[Category:1819 establishments in the United States]] 0ix1tbp4red8vjw8a4xztrqmw1qkdt3 0 304 234930323 234928481 2008-08-29T05:09:56Z Seba5618 2155335 Reverted 1 edit by [[Special:Contributions/75.111.240.218|75.111.240.218]]. ([[WP:TW|TW]]) wikitext text/x-wiki #REDIRECT [[Africa]] {{R from CamelCase}} 0qswh9oyl5ued23ikcgzn8ydbh3zq8e 0 305 717452435 717452405 2016-04-27T20:04:40Z ClueBot NG 13286072 Reverting possible vandalism by [[Special:Contribs/71.13.13.194|71.13.13.194]] to version by Deor. [[WP:CBFP|Report False Positive?]] Thanks, [[WP:CBNG|ClueBot NG]]. (2637144) (Bot) wikitext text/x-wiki {{Redirect|Achilleus|the emperor with this name|Achilleus (emperor)|other uses|Achilles (disambiguation)}} {{Use dmy dates|date=June 2013}} [[File:Achilles departure Eretria Painter CdM Paris 851.jpg|thumb|350px|Achilles and the [[Nereid]] Cymothoe: Attic red-figure [[kantharos]] from [[Volci]] ([[Cabinet des Médailles]], Bibliothèque nationale, Paris)]] [[File:Achilles-01.jpg|thumb|Head of Achilles depicted on a 4th-century BC coin from [[Pelasgia, Phthiotis|Kremaste]], [[Phthia]]. Reverse: [[Thetis]], wearing [[Chiton (costume)|chiton]] and holding shield of Achilles with his AX monogram.]] {{Greek myth}} In [[Greek mythology]], '''Achilles''' ({{IPAc-en|ə|ˈ|k|ɪ|l|iː|z}}; {{lang-grc|Ἀχιλλεύς}}, ''Akhilleus'', {{IPA-el|akʰilːéu̯s|pron}}) was a [[Greeks|Greek]] hero of the [[Trojan War]] and the central character and greatest warrior of [[Homer]]'s ''[[Iliad]]''. His mother was the [[nymph]] [[Thetis]], and his father, [[Peleus]], was the king of the [[Myrmidons]]. Achilles’ most notable feat during the Trojan War was the slaying of the Trojan hero [[Hector]] outside the gates of [[Troy]]. Although the death of Achilles is not presented in the ''Iliad'', other sources concur that he was killed near the end of the Trojan War by [[Paris (mythology)|Paris]], who shot him in the heel with an arrow. Later legends (beginning with a poem by [[Statius]] in the 1st century AD) state that Achilles was invulnerable in all of his body except for his heel. Because of his death from a small wound in the heel, the term ''[[Achilles' heel]]'' has come to mean a person's point of weakness. == Etymology == Achilles' name can be analyzed as a combination of {{lang|grc|ἄχος}} (''akhos'') "grief" and {{lang|grc|λαός}} (''laos'') "a people, tribe, nation." In other words, Achilles is an embodiment of the grief of the people, grief being a theme raised numerous times in the ''Iliad'' (frequently by Achilles). Achilles' role as the hero of grief forms an ironic juxtaposition with the conventional view of Achilles as the hero of κλέος ''kleos'' ("glory", usually glory in war). ''Laos'' has been construed by [[Gregory Nagy]],<ref>{{cite web|last1=Nagy|first1=Gregory|title=The best of the Achaeans|url=http://chs.harvard.edu/CHS/article/display/5442|website=http://chs.harvard.edu|publisher=The Center for Hellenic Studies|accessdate=19 March 2015}}</ref> following Leonard Palmer, to mean "a corps of soldiers", a [[muster (military)|muster]]. With this derivation, the name would have a double meaning in the poem: when the hero is functioning rightly, his men bring grief to the enemy, but when wrongly, his men get the grief of war. The poem is in part about the misdirection of anger on the part of leadership. [[Robert S. P. Beekes|R. S. P. Beekes]] has suggested a [[Pre-Greek]] origin of the name.<ref>[[Robert S. P. Beekes|R. S. P. Beekes]], ''Etymological Dictionary of Greek'', Brill, 2009, pp. 183–4.</ref> The name Achilleus was a common and attested name among the Greeks soon after the 7th century BC.<ref>[http://epigraphy.packhum.org/inscriptions/search?patt=*AXIL&first=250 Epigraphical database] gives 476 matches for Ἀχιλ-.The earliest ones: [http://epigraphy.packhum.org/inscriptions/oi?ikey=27810&bookid=6&region=2&subregion=1 Corinth 7th c. BC],[http://epigraphy.packhum.org/inscriptions/oi?ikey=238250&bookid=118&region=3&subregion=7 Delphi 530 BC], Attica and Elis 5th c. BC.</ref> It was also turned into the female form Ἀχιλλεία (''Achilleía'') attested in Attica in the 4th century BC ([[Inscriptiones Graecae|IG]] II² 1617) and, in the form ''Achillia'', on a [[Female gladiator#Halicarnassus|stele in Halicarnassus]] as the name of a female gladiator fighting an "Amazon". == Birth == [[File:Peter Paul Rubens 181.jpg|thumb|''Thetis Dipping the Infant Achilles into the River Styx'' (ca. 1625), [[Peter Paul Rubens]]]] Achilles was the son of the [[Nereid]] [[Thetis]] and [[Peleus]], the king of the [[Myrmidons]]. [[Zeus]] and [[Poseidon]] had been rivals for the hand of Thetis until [[Prometheus]], the fore-thinker, warned Zeus of a prophecy that Thetis would bear a son greater than his father. For this reason, the two gods withdrew their pursuit, and had her wed Peleus.<ref>[[Aeschylus]], ''Prometheus Bound'' 755–768; [[Pindar]], ''Nemean'' 5.34–37, ''Isthmian'' 8.26–47; ''[[Poeticon astronomicon]]'' (ii.15)</ref> There is a tale which offers an alternative version of these events: in ''[[Argonautica]]'' (iv.760) Zeus' sister and wife [[Hera]] alludes to Thetis' chaste resistance to the advances of Zeus, that Thetis was so loyal to Hera's marriage bond that she coolly rejected him. Thetis, although a daughter of the sea-god [[Nereus]], was also brought up by Hera, further explaining her resistance to the advances of Zeus.<!--the following psychological interpretation has no counterpart in the myths:"Zeus was furious and decreed that she would never marry an immortal. So Hera recommended that she marry [[Peleus]], as he was as near to a mortal as she was ever going to get."--> [[File:The Education of Achilles, by James Barry.jpg|thumb|left|''The Education of Achilles'' (ca. 1772), by [[James Barry (painter)|James Barry]]]] According to the ''[[Achilleid]]'', written by [[Statius]] in the 1st century AD, and to no surviving previous sources, when Achilles was born Thetis tried to make him immortal, by dipping him in the river [[Styx]]. However, he was left vulnerable at the part of the body by which she held him, his heel<ref>{{cite book| last = Burgess| first = Jonathan S.| title = The Death and Afterlife of Achilles| url = https://books.google.com/?id=Ko_YAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA9| accessdate = 5 February 2010| year = 2009| publisher = Johns Hopkins University Press| location = Baltimore| isbn = 0-8018-9029-2| page = 9 }}</ref> (see [[Achilles heel]], [[Achilles' tendon]]). It is not clear if this version of events was known earlier. In another version of this story, Thetis anointed the boy in [[ambrosia]] and put him on top of a fire, to burn away the mortal parts of his body. She was interrupted by Peleus and abandoned both father and son in a rage.<ref>[[Apollonius of Rhodes]], ''[[Argonautica]]'' 4.869–879.</ref> However, none of the sources before Statius makes any reference to this general invulnerability. To the contrary, in the ''Iliad'' Homer mentions Achilles being wounded: in Book 21 the [[Paeonian]] hero [[Asteropaeus]], son of Pelagon, challenged Achilles by the river Scamander. He cast two spears at once, one grazed Achilles' elbow, "drawing a spurt of blood". Also, in the fragmentary poems of the [[Epic Cycle]] in which we can find description of the hero's death, ''[[Cypria]]'' (unknown author), ''[[Aithiopis]]'' by [[Arctinus of Miletus]], ''[[Little Iliad]]'' by Lesche of Mytilene, ''[[Iliou persis]]'' by [[Arctinus of Miletus]], there is no trace of any reference to his general invulnerability or his famous weakness (heel); in the later vase paintings presenting Achilles' death, the arrow (or in many cases, arrows) hit his body. Peleus entrusted Achilles to [[Chiron]] the [[Centaur]], on Mt. [[Pelion]], to be reared.<ref>[[Hesiod]], ''Catalogue of Women'', fr. 204.87–89 MW; ''Iliad'' 11.830-32</ref> == Achilles in the Trojan War == [[File:The Rage of Achilles by Giovanni Battista Tiepolo.jpeg|thumb|''The Rage of Achilles'', by [[Giovanni Battista Tiepolo]]]] The first two lines of the ''Iliad'' read: :{{lang|grc|μῆνιν ἄειδε θεὰ Πηληϊάδεω Ἀχιλῆος}} :{{lang|grc|οὐλομένην, ἣ μυρί' Ἀχαιοῖς ἄλγε' ἔθηκεν,}} :Sing, Goddess, of the rage of Peleus' son Achilles, :the accursed rage that brought great suffering to the [[Achaeans (Homer)|Achaeans]]. Achilles' consuming rage is at times wavering, but at other times he cannot be cooled. Thetis foretold that her son's fate was either to gain glory and die young, or to live a long but uneventful life in obscurity. Achilles chose the former, and decided to take part in the Trojan war.<ref>Illiad 9.410,&c.</ref> According to the ''Iliad'', Achilles arrived at Troy with 50 ships, each carrying 50 [[Myrmidons]] (Book 2). He appointed five leaders (each leader commanding 500 Myrmidons): Menesthius, Eudorus, Peisander, Phoenix and Alcimedon (Book 16). === Telephus === When the Greeks left for the Trojan War, they accidentally stopped in [[Mysia]], ruled by King [[Telephus]]. In the resulting battle, Achilles gave Telephus a wound that would not heal; Telephus consulted an oracle, who stated that "he that wounded shall heal". Guided by the oracle, he arrived at [[Argos]], where Achilles healed him in order that he might become their guide for the voyage to Troy.<ref name="Library of Mythology Epitome 3.20">{{cite web|last1=Apollodorus|title=Library of Mythology Epitome 3.20|url=http://www.theoi.com/Text/ApollodorusE.html#69|website=theoi.com|ref=69}}</ref> According to other reports in [[Euripides]]' lost play about Telephus, he went to [[Aulis (ancient Greece)|Aulis]] pretending to be a beggar and asked Achilles to heal his wound. Achilles refused, claiming to have no medical knowledge. Alternatively, Telephus held [[Orestes (mythology)|Orestes]] for ransom, the ransom being Achilles' aid in healing the wound. [[Odysseus]] reasoned that the spear had inflicted the wound; therefore, the spear must be able to heal it. Pieces of the spear were scraped off onto the wound and Telephus was healed.<ref name="Library of Mythology Epitome 3.20"/> === Troilus === According to the ''[[Cypria]]'' (the part of the Epic Cycle that tells the events of the Trojan War before Achilles' Wrath), when the [[Achaeans (Homer)|Achaeans]] desired to return home, they were restrained by Achilles, who afterwards attacked the cattle of [[Aeneas]], sacked neighboring cities and killed [[Troilus]].<ref name="stoa.org">{{cite web|url=http://www.stoa.org/hopper/text.jsp?doc=Stoa:text:2003.01.0004 |title=Proclus' Summary of the Cypria |publisher=Stoa.org |date= |accessdate=9 March 2010}}</ref> In [[Dares Phrygius]]' ''Account of the Destruction of Troy'',<ref>{{cite web|url=http://homepage.mac.com/cparada/GML/DaresTW.html |title=Dares' account of the destruction of Troy, Greek Mythology Link |publisher=Homepage.mac.com |date= |accessdate=9 March 2010| archiveurl= http://web.archive.org/web/20091229022803/http://homepage.mac.com/cparada/GML/DaresTW.html| archivedate= 29 December 2009<!--Added by DASHBot-->}}</ref> the Latin summary through which the story of Achilles was transmitted to medieval Europe, [[Troilus]] was a young Trojan prince, the youngest of King [[Priam]]'s (or sometimes [[Apollo]]) and [[Hecuba]]'s five legitimate sons. Despite his youth, he was one of the main Trojan war leaders. Prophecies linked Troilus' fate to that of Troy and so he was ambushed in an attempt to capture him. Yet Achilles, struck by the beauty of both Troilus and his sister [[Polyxena]], and overcome with lust, directed his sexual attentions on the youth&nbsp;– who, refusing to yield, instead found himself decapitated upon an altar-omphalos of Apollo. Later versions of the story suggested Troilus was accidentally killed by Achilles in an over-ardent lovers' embrace. In this version of the myth, Achilles' death therefore came in retribution for this sacrilege.<ref>James Davidson, [http://www.lrb.co.uk/v29/n14/davi02_.html "Zeus Be Nice Now"] in ''London Review of Books;'' 19 July 2007, access date 23 October 2007</ref> Ancient writers treated Troilus as the epitome of a dead child mourned by his parents. Had Troilus lived to adulthood, the [[First Vatican Mythographer]] claimed, Troy would have been invincible. === Achilles in the ''Iliad'' === {{main|Iliad}} [[File:AmbrosianIliadPict47Achilles.jpg|thumb|Achilles sacrificing to [[Zeus]], from the [[Ambrosian Iliad]], a 5th-century illuminated manuscript]] Homer's ''Iliad'' is the most famous narrative of Achilles' deeds in the Trojan War. Achilles' wrath is the central theme of the poem. The Homeric epic only covers a few weeks of the war, and does not narrate Achilles' death. It begins with Achilles' withdrawal from battle after he is dishonored by [[Agamemnon]], the commander of the [[Achaeans (Homer)|Achaean]] forces. Agamemnon had taken a woman named [[Chryseis]] as his slave. Her father [[Chryses]], a priest of [[Apollo]], begs Agamemnon to return her to him. Agamemnon refuses and Apollo sends a plague amongst the Greeks. The prophet [[Calchas]] correctly determines the source of the troubles but will not speak unless Achilles vows to protect him. Achilles does so and Calchas declares Chryseis must be returned to her father. Agamemnon consents, but then commands that Achilles' battle prize [[Briseis]] be brought to him to replace Chryseis. Angry at the dishonor of having his plunder and glory taken away (and as he says later, because he loved Briseis),<ref>''Iliad'' 9.334–343.</ref> with the urging of his mother Thetis, Achilles refuses to fight or lead his troops alongside the other Greek forces. At this same time, burning with rage over Agamemnon's theft, Achilles prays to Thetis to convince Zeus to help the Trojans gain ground in the war, so that he may regain his honor. As the battle turns against the Greeks, thanks to the influence of Zeus, [[Nestor (mythology)|Nestor]] declares that the Trojans are winning because Agamemnon has angered Achilles, and urges the king to appease the warrior. Agamemnon agrees and sends [[Odysseus]] and two other chieftains, [[Ajax (mythology)|Ajax]] and [[Phoenix (son of Amyntor)|Phoenix]], to Achilles with the offer of the return of Briseis and other gifts. Achilles rejects all Agamemnon offers him, and simply urges the Greeks to sail home as he was planning to do. The Trojans, led by [[Hector]], subsequently push the Greek army back toward the beaches and assault the Greek ships. With the Greek forces on the verge of absolute destruction, [[Patroclus]] leads the [[Myrmidons]] into battle wearing Achilles' armor, though Achilles remains at his camp. Patroclus succeeds in pushing the Trojans back from the beaches, but is killed by Hector before he can lead a proper assault on the city of Troy. [[File:Triumph of Achilles in Corfu Achilleion.jpg|thumb|left|300px|Triumphant Achilles dragging Hector's lifeless body in front of the Gates of [[Troy]] (from a [[panoramic]] [[fresco]] on the upper level of the main hall of the [[Achilleion (Corfu)|Achilleion]]).]] After receiving the news of the death of Patroclus from [[Antilochus]], the son of Nestor, Achilles grieves over his beloved companion's death. His mother Thetis comes to comfort the distraught Achilles. She persuades [[Hephaestus]] to make new armor for him, in place of the armor that Patroclus had been wearing which was taken by Hector. The new armor includes the [[Shield of Achilles]], described in great detail in the poem. Enraged over the death of Patroclus, Achilles ends his refusal to fight and takes the field killing many men in his rage but always seeking out Hector. Achilles even engages in battle with the river god [[Scamander]] who becomes angry that Achilles is choking his waters with all the men he has killed. The god tries to drown Achilles but is stopped by [[Hera]] and Hephaestus. Zeus himself takes note of Achilles' rage and sends the gods to restrain him so that he will not go on to sack Troy itself before the time allotted for its destruction, seeming to show that the unhindered rage of Achilles can defy fate itself. Finally, Achilles finds his prey. Achilles chases Hector around the wall of Troy three times before [[Athena]], in the form of Hector's favorite and dearest brother, [[Deiphobus]], persuades Hector to stop running and fight Achilles face to face. After Hector realizes the trick, he knows the battle is inevitable. Wanting to go down fighting, he charges at Achilles with his only weapon, his sword, but misses. Accepting his fate, Hector begs Achilles, not to spare his life, but to treat his body with respect after killing him. Achilles tells Hector it is hopeless to expect that of him, declaring that "my rage, my fury would drive me now to hack your flesh away and eat you raw – such agonies you have caused me".<ref>"The Iliad", Fagles translation. Penguin Books, 1991, p. 553.</ref> Achilles then kills Hector and drags his corpse by its heels behind his chariot. After having a dream where Patroclus begs Achilles hold his funeral, Achilles hosts a series of funeral games in his honor.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Lattimore |first1=Richmond |title=The Illiad of Homer |date=2011 |publisher=The University of Chicago |location=Chicago |isbn=978-0-226-46937-9}}</ref> With the assistance of the god [[Hermes]], Hector's father, [[Priam]], goes to Achilles' tent to plead with Achilles for the return of Hector's body so that he can be buried. Achilles relents and promises a truce for the duration of the funeral. The poem ends with a description of Hector's funeral, with the doom of Troy and Achilles himself still to come. === Penthesilea === Achilles, after his temporary truce with Priam, fought and killed the [[Amazons|Amazonian]] warrior queen [[Penthesilea]], but later grieved over her death. At first, he was so distracted by her beauty, he did not fight as intensely as usual. Once he realized that his distraction was endangering his life, he refocused and killed her. === Memnon, and the fall of Achilles === [[File:Achilles thniskon in Corfu.jpg|thumb|Achilles dying in the gardens of the [[Achilleion (Corfu)|Achilleion]] in [[Corfu]]]] Following the death of Patroclus, Achilles' closest companion was Nestor's son [[Antilochus]]. When [[Memnon (mythology)|Memnon]], king of [[Ethiopia (mythology)|Ethiopia]] slew Antilochus, Achilles once more obtained revenge on the battlefield, killing Memnon. The fight between Achilles and Memnon over Antilochus echoes that of Achilles and Hector over Patroclus, except that Memnon (unlike Hector) was also the son of a goddess. Many Homeric scholars argued that episode inspired many details in the ''Iliad'''s description of the death of Patroclus and Achilles' reaction to it. The episode then formed the basis of the [[Epic Cycle|cyclic epic]] ''[[Aethiopis]]'', which was composed after the ''Iliad'', possibly in the 7th century B.C. The ''Aethiopis'' is now lost, except for scattered fragments quoted by later authors. {{anchor|Fatalwound}} The death of Achilles, as predicted by [[Hector]] with his dying breath, was brought about by [[Paris (mythology)|Paris]] with an arrow (to the heel according to Statius). In some versions, the god [[Apollo]] guided Paris' arrow. Some retellings also state that Achilles was scaling the gates of Troy and was hit with a poisoned arrow. [[File:Aias body Akhilleus Staatliche Antikensammlungen 1884.jpg|thumb|Ajax carries off the body of Achilles: [[Attica|Attic]] black-figure ''[[lekythos]]'', ca. 510 BC, from Sicily ([[Staatliche Antikensammlungen]], Munich)]] All of these versions deny Paris any sort of valor, owing to the common conception that Paris was a coward and not the man his brother Hector was, and Achilles remained undefeated on the battlefield. His bones were mingled with those of [[Patroclus]], and funeral games were held. He was represented in the ''Aethiopis'' as living after his death in the island of [[Leuke]] at the mouth of the river [[Danube]]. Another version of Achilles' death is that he fell deeply in love with one of the Trojan princesses, [[Polyxena]]. Achilles asks Priam for Polyxena's hand in marriage. Priam is willing because it would mean the end of the war and an alliance with the world's greatest warrior. But while Priam is overseeing the private marriage of Polyxena and Achilles, Paris, who would have to give up Helen if Achilles married his sister, hides in the bushes and shoots Achilles with a divine arrow, killing him. In the Odyssey, Agamemnon informs Achilles of his burial mound while they are receiving the dead suitors in Hades. He claims they built a massive burial mound on the beach of Ilion that could be seen by anyone approaching from the Ocean.<ref>{{Cite book | title = The Odyssey of Homer | last = Lattimore | first = Richmond | publisher = Harper Perennial | year = 2007 | isbn = 978-0-06-124418-6 | location = New York | pages = 347 }}</ref> Achilles was cremated and his ashes buried in the same urn as those of Patroclus.<ref>Hamilton E. Mythology, New York: Penguin Books; 1969</ref> Paris was later killed by [[Philoctetes]] using the enormous bow of [[Heracles]]. === Fate of Achilles' armor === Achilles' armor was the object of a feud between [[Odysseus]] and [[Ajax (mythology)|Telamonian Ajax]] (Ajax the greater). They competed for it by giving speeches on why they were the bravest after Achilles to their Trojan prisoners, who after considering both men came to a consensus in favor of Odysseus. Furious, Ajax cursed Odysseus, which earned the ire of Athena. Athena temporarily made Ajax so mad with grief and anguish that he began killing sheep, thinking them his comrades. After a while, when Athena lifted his madness and Ajax realized that he had actually been killing sheep, Ajax was left so ashamed that he committed suicide. Odysseus eventually gave the armor to [[Neoptolemus]], the son of Achilles. A relic claimed to be Achilles' bronze-headed spear was for centuries preserved in the temple of Athena on the acropolis of [[Phaselis]], Lycia, a port on the Pamphylian Gulf. The city was visited in 333 BC by [[Alexander the Great]], who envisioned himself as the new Achilles and carried the ''Iliad'' with him, but his court biographers do not mention the spear.<ref>"Alexander came to rest at Phaselis, a coastal city which was later renowned for the possession of Achilles' original spear." Robin Lane Fox, ''Alexander the Great'' 1973.144.</ref> However, it was shown in the time of [[Pausanias (geographer)|Pausanias]] in the 2nd century AD.<ref>Pausanias, iii.3.6; see Christian Jacob and Anne Mullen-Hohl, "The Greek Traveler's Areas of Knowledge: Myths and Other Discourses in Pausanias' Description of Greece", ''Yale French Studies'' '''59''': Rethinking History: Time, Myth, and Writing (1980:65–85) esp. p. 81.</ref> [[File:Achilles Ajax dice Louvre MNB911.jpg|thumb|left|upright=.75|Achilles and Ajax playing the board game ''Petteia''. (Black-figure Attic [[lekythos]], ''ca.'' 500 BC)]] ===Achilles, Ajax and a game of ''petteia''=== Numerous paintings on pottery have suggested a tale not mentioned in the literary traditions. At some point in the war, Achilles and [[Ajax (mythology)|Ajax]] were playing a [[board game]] (''petteia'').<ref>[http://www.personal.psu.edu/wxk116/roma/petteia.html "Petteia".]</ref><ref>[http://www.gamesmuseum.uwaterloo.ca/Archives/Austin/index.html "Greek Board Games".]</ref> They were absorbed in the game and oblivious to the surrounding battle.<ref>[http://www.personal.psu.edu/users/w/x/wxk116/roma/latruncu.html "Latrunculi".]</ref> The Trojans attacked and reached the heroes, who were saved only by an intervention of Athena.<ref>[[Ioannis Kakridis|Kakridis, I.]] (1988). Ελληνική Μυθολογία [Greek mythology]. Athens: Ekdotiki Athinon. Vol. 5, p. 92.</ref> == Achilles and Patroclus == {{main|Achilles and Patroclus}} The exact nature of Achilles' relationship with Patroclus has been a subject of dispute in both the classical period and modern times. In the ''Iliad'', it appears to be the model of a deep and loyal friendship. [[Homer]] does not suggest that Achilles and his close friend Patroclus were lovers.<ref name= "Fox 2011">{{cite book |title= The Tribal Imagination: Civilization and the Savage Mind |last= Fox |first= Robin |year= 2011 |publisher= Harvard University Press |isbn=9780674060944 |quote= There is certainly no evidence in the text of the Iliad that Achilles and Patroclus were lovers. |page= 223}}</ref><ref name="Martin 2012">{{cite book |title= Alexander the Great : the story of an ancient life|last= Martin |first= Thomas R |year= 2012 |publisher= Cambridge University Press |isbn= 0521148448 |quote= The ancient sources do not report, however, what modern scholars have asserted: that Alexander and his very close friend Hephaestion were lovers. Achilles and his equally close friend Patroclus provided the legendary model for this friendship, but Homer in the Iliad never suggested that they had sex with each other. (That came from later authors.) If Alexander and Hephaestion did have a sexual relationship, it would have been transgressive by majority Greek standards... |pages=99–100}}</ref> Despite there being no direct evidence in the text of the Iliad that Achilles and Patroclus were lovers, this theory was expressed by some later authors.<ref name="Martin 2012" /> Commentators from [[classical antiquity]] to the present have often interpreted the relationship through the lens of their own cultures. In 5th-century BC Athens, the intense bond was often viewed in light of the [[Pederasty in ancient Greece|Greek custom of ''paiderasteia'']]. In Plato's ''Symposium'', the participants in a dialogue about love assume that Achilles and Patroclus were a couple; Phaedrus argues that Achilles was the younger and more beautiful one so he was the beloved and Patroclus was the lover.<ref>[[Plato]], ''[[Symposium (Plato)|Symposium]]'', [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Plat.+Sym.+180a 180a]; the beauty of Achilles was a topic already broached at ''Iliad'' 2.673–4.</ref> But ancient Greek had no words to distinguish [[heterosexual]] and homosexual,<ref>[[Kenneth Dover]], ''Greek Homosexuality'' (Harvard University Press, 1978, 1989), p. 1 ''et passim''.</ref> and it was assumed that a man could both desire handsome young men and have sex with women. == Worship of Achilles in antiquity == [[File:Wenceslas Hollar - Briseis and Achilles.jpg|thumb|right|Achilles and Briseis]] [[File:Achilles killing the Amazon Queen Penthesilea.jpg|thumb|right|Penthesilea brought her Amazon warriors to help the Trojans defend their city but was killed in combat by Achilles. Here, Achilles looms above her as she sinks to the ground.]] There was an archaic [[heroic cult]] of Achilles on the [[Snake Island (Black Sea)|White Island, ''Leuce'']], in the [[Black Sea]] off the modern coasts of [[Romania]] and [[Ukraine]], with a temple and an [[oracle]] which survived into the Roman period.<ref>Guy Hedreen, "The Cult of Achilles in the Euxine" ''Hesperia'' '''60'''.3 (July 1991), pp. 313–330.</ref> In the lost epic '' [[Aithiopis]]'', a continuation of the ''Iliad'' attributed to [[Arctinus|Arktinus of Miletos]], Achilles’ mother Thetis returned to mourn him and removed his ashes from the pyre and took them to Leuce at the mouths of the Danube. There the Achaeans raised a [[tumulus]] for him and celebrated funeral games. [[Pliny the Elder|Pliny's]] ''[[Natural History (Pliny)|Natural History]]''<ref>IV.27.1</ref> mentions a tumulus that is no longer evident (''Insula Akchillis tumulo eius viri clara''), on the island consecrated to him, located at a distance of fifty Roman miles from [[Peuce]] by the [[Danube Delta]], and the temple there. [[Pausanias (geographer)|Pausanias]] has been told that the island is "covered with forests and full of animals, some wild, some tame. In this island there is also Achilles’ temple and his statue".<ref>III.19.11</ref> Ruins of a square temple 30 meters to a side, possibly that dedicated to Achilles, were discovered by Captain Kritzikly in 1823, but there has been no modern archeological work done on the island. [[Pomponius Mela]] tells that Achilles is buried in the island named Achillea, between Boristhene and Ister.<ref>''De situ orbis'', II, 7</ref> The Greek geographer Dionysius Periegetus of Bithynia, who lived at the time of Domitian, writes that the island was called ''Leuce'' "because the wild animals which live there are white. It is said that there, in Leuce island, reside the souls of Achilles and other heroes, and that they wander through the uninhabited valleys of this island; this is how Jove rewarded the men who had distinguished themselves through their virtues, because through virtue they had acquired everlasting honor".<ref>''Orbis descriptio'', v. 541, quoted in Densuşianu 1913</ref> The ''[[Periplus Ponti Euxini|Periplus of the Euxine Sea]]'' gives the following details: "It is said that the goddess Thetis raised this island from the sea, for her son Achilles, who dwells there. Here is his temple and his statue, an archaic work. This island is not inhabited, and goats graze on it, not many, which the people who happen to arrive here with their ships, sacrifice to Achilles. In this temple are also deposited a great many holy gifts, craters, rings and precious stones, offered to Achilles in gratitude. One can still read inscriptions in Greek and Latin, in which Achilles is praised and celebrated. Some of these are worded in Patroclus’ honor, because those who wish to be favored by Achilles, honor Patroclus at the same time. There are also in this island countless numbers of sea birds, which look after Achilles’ temple. Every morning they fly out to sea, wet their wings with water, and return quickly to the temple and sprinkle it. And after they finish the sprinkling, they clean the hearth of the temple with their wings. Other people say still more, that some of the men who reach this island, come here intentionally. They bring animals in their ships, destined to be sacrificed. Some of these animals they slaughter, others they set free on the island, in Achilles’ honor. But there are others, who are forced to come to this island by sea storms. As they have no sacrificial animals, but wish to get them from the god of the island himself, they consult Achilles’ oracle. They ask permission to slaughter the victims chosen from among the animals that graze freely on the island, and to deposit in exchange the price which they consider fair. But in case the oracle denies them permission, because there is an oracle here, they add something to the price offered, and if the oracle refuses again, they add something more, until at last, the oracle agrees that the price is sufficient. And then the victim doesn’t run away any more, but waits willingly to be caught. So, there is a great quantity of silver there, consecrated to the hero, as price for the sacrificial victims. To some of the people who come to this island, Achilles appears in dreams, to others he would appear even during their navigation, if they were not too far away, and would instruct them as to which part of the island they would better anchor their ships". (quoted in Densuşianu) The heroic cult of Achilles on Leuce island was widespread in antiquity, not only along the sea lanes of the [[Black Sea|Pontic Sea]] but also in maritime cities whose economic interests were tightly connected to the riches of the Black Sea. Achilles from Leuce island was venerated as ''Pontarches'' the lord and master of the Pontic Sea, the protector of sailors and navigation. Sailors went out of their way to offer sacrifice. To Achilles of Leuce were dedicated a number of important commercial port cities of the Greek waters: Achilleion in Messenia ([[Stephanus Byzantinus]]), Achilleios in Laconia ([[Pausanias (geographer)|Pausanias]], III.25,4) [[Nicolae Densuşianu]] (Densuşianu 1913) even though he recognized Achilles in the name of [[Aquileia]] and in the north arm of the Danube delta, the arm of Chilia ("Achileii"), though his conclusion, that Leuce had sovereign rights over Pontos, evokes modern rather than archaic sea-law." Leuce had also a reputation as a place of healing. Pausanias (III.19,13) reports that the [[Delphi|Delphic Pythia]] sent a lord of Croton to be cured of a chest wound. [[Ammianus Marcellinus]] (XXII.8) attributes the healing to waters (''aquae'') on the island. === Worship of Achilles in modern times: The Achilleion in Corfu === In the region of Gastouri (Γαστούρι) to the south of the city of [[Corfu]] Greece, Empress of Austria [[Elisabeth of Bavaria]] also known as Sissi built in 1890 a summer palace with Achilles as its central theme and it is a monument to [[platonism|platonic]] [[romanticism]]. The palace, naturally, was named after Achilles: ''[[Achilleion (Corfu)|Achilleion]]'' (Αχίλλειον). This elegant structure abounds with paintings and statues of Achilles both in the main hall and in the lavish gardens depicting the heroic and tragic scenes of the [[Trojan war]]. == Other stories == [[File:Achilles in Corfu.jpg|thumb|left|Achilles as guardian of the palace in the gardens of the [[Achilleion (Corfu)|Achilleion]] in Corfu. He gazes northward toward the city. The inscription in Greek reads: ΑΧΙΛΛΕΥΣ i.e. Achilles]] {{main|Achilles on Skyros}} Some post-Homeric sources claim that in order to keep Achilles safe from the war, Thetis (or, in some versions, Peleus) hides the young man at the court of [[Lycomedes]], king of [[Skyros]]. There, Achilles is disguised as a girl and lives among Lycomedes' daughters, perhaps under the name "Pyrrha" (the red-haired girl). With Lycomedes' daughter [[Deidamia (mythology)|Deidamia]], whom in the account of Statius he rapes, Achilles there fathers a son, [[Neoptolemus]] (also called Pyrrhus, after his father's possible alias). According to this story, Odysseus learns from the prophet [[Calchas]] that the Achaeans would be unable to capture Troy without Achilles' aid. Odysseus goes to Skyros in the guise of a peddler selling women's clothes and jewelry and places a shield and spear among his goods. When Achilles instantly takes up the spear, Odysseus sees through his disguise and convinces him to join the Greek campaign. In another version of the story, Odysseus arranges for a trumpet alarm to be sounded while he was with Lycomedes' women; while the women flee in panic, Achilles prepares to defend the court, thus giving his identity away.<ref>[[Philostratus III|Philostratus Junior]], ''Imagines'' i; Scholiast on Homer's Iliad, xix. 326; [[Ovid]], ''Metamorphoses'' 13.162ff., Pseudo-Apollodorus, ''[[Bibliotheca (Pseudo-Apollodorus)|Bibliotheca]]'' iii. 13. 8, [[Statius]], [[Achilleid]], ii. 167ff.</ref> In book 11 of Homer's ''[[Odyssey]]'', Odysseus sails to the underworld and converses with the shades. One of these is Achilles, who when greeted as "blessed in life, blessed in death", responds that he would rather be a slave to the worst of masters than be king of all the dead. But Achilles then asks Odysseus of his son's exploits in the Trojan war, and when Odysseus tells of Neoptolemus' heroic actions, Achilles is filled with satisfaction. This leaves the reader with an ambiguous understanding of how Achilles felt about the heroic life. Achilles was worshipped as a sea-god in many of the [[Greek colonies]] on the Black Sea, the location of the mythical "White Island" which he was said to inhabit after his death, together with many other heroes. The kings of the [[Despotate of Epirus|Epirus]] claimed to be descended from Achilles through his son, Neoptolemus. [[Alexander the Great]], son of the Epirote princess [[Olympias]], could therefore also claim this descent, and in many ways strove to be like his great ancestor. He is said to have visited the tomb of Achilles at [[Achilleion (Troad)#Tomb of Achilles|Achilleion]] while passing Troy.<ref>[[Arrian]], ''[[Anabasis Alexandri]]'' 1.12.1, [[Cicero]], ''Pro Archia Poeta'' 24.</ref> In AD 216 the Roman Emperor [[Caracalla]], while on his way to war against [[Parthia]], emulated Alexander by holding games around Achilles' tumulus.<ref>[[Dio Cassius]] 78.16.7.</ref> Achilles fought and killed the [[Amazons|Amazon]] [[Helene (Amazon)|Helene]]. Some also said he married [[Medea]], and that after both their deaths they were united in the Elysian Fields of Hades&nbsp;– as Hera promised Thetis in [[Apollonius of Rhodes|Apollonius]]' ''[[Argonautica]]''. In some versions of the myth, Achilles has a relationship with his captive [[Briseis]]. == Achilles in Greek tragedy == {{main|Achilleis (trilogy)}} The [[tragedy|Greek tragedian]] [[Aeschylus]] wrote a trilogy of plays about Achilles, given the title ''Achilleis'' by modern scholars. The tragedies relate the deeds of Achilles during the Trojan War, including his defeat of [[Hector]] and eventual death when an arrow shot by [[Paris (mythology)|Paris]] and guided by [[Apollo]] punctures his heel. Extant fragments of the ''Achilleis'' and other Aeschylean fragments have been assembled to produce a workable modern play. The first part of the ''Achilleis'' trilogy, ''The Myrmidons'', focused on the relationship between Achilles and chorus, who represent the Achaean army and try to convince Achilles to give up his quarrel with Agamemnon; only a few lines survive today.<ref>Pantelis Michelakis, ''Achilles in Greek Tragedy'', 2002, p. 22</ref> In Plato's ''Symposium'', Phaedrus points out that Aeschylus portrayed Achilles as the lover and Patroclus as the beloved; Phaedrus argues that this is incorrect because Achilles, being the younger and more beautiful of the two, was the beloved, who loved his lover so much that he chose to die to revenge him.<ref>Plato, ''Symposium'', translated Benjamin Jowett, Dover Thrift Editions, page 8</ref> The tragedian [[Sophocles]] also wrote ''The Lovers of Achilles'', a play with Achilles as the main character. Only a few fragments survive.<ref>S. Radt. ''Tragicorum Graecorum fragmenta'', vol. 4, (Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1977) frr. 149–157a.</ref> Towards the end of the 5th century BC, a more negative view of Achilles emerges in Greek drama; Euripides refers to Achilles in a bitter or ironic tone in ''[[Hecuba (play)|Hecuba]]'', ''[[Electra (Euripides)|Electra]]'', and ''[[Iphigenia in Aulis]]''.<ref name="Latacz 2010">Latacz 2010</ref> == Achilles in Greek philosophy == The philosopher [[Zeno of Elea]] centered one of [[Zeno's paradoxes|his paradoxes]] on an imaginary footrace between "[[Epithets in Homer#Individuals|swift-footed]]" [[Zeno's paradoxes#Achilles and the tortoise|Achilles and a tortoise]], by which he attempted to show that Achilles could not catch up to a tortoise with a head start, and therefore that motion and change were impossible. As a student of the monist Parmenides and a member of the Eleatic school, Zeno believed time and motion to be illusions. == Achilles in Roman and medieval literature == The Romans, who traditionally traced their lineage to Troy, took a highly negative view of Achilles.<ref name="Latacz 2010"/> [[Virgil]] refers to Achilles as a savage and a merciless butcher of men,<ref>''Aeneid'', 2.29; 1.30; 3.87</ref> while [[Horace]] portrays Achilles ruthlessly slaying women and children.<ref>''Odes'', 4.6.17–20</ref> Other writers, such as [[Catullus]], [[Propertius]], and [[Ovid]], represent a second strand of disparagement, with an emphasis on Achilles' erotic career. This strand continues in Latin accounts of the Trojan War by writers such as [[Dictys Cretensis]] and [[Dares Phrygius]] and in [[Benoît de Sainte-Maure]]'s ''[[Roman de Troie]]'' and [[Guido delle Colonne]]'s ''[[Historia destructionis Troiae]]'', which remained the most widely read and retold versions of the [[Matter of Troy]] until the 17th century. Achilles was described by the Byzantine chronicler [[Leo the Deacon]], not as [[Hellenes|Hellene]], but as [[Scythians|Scythian]], while according to the Byzantine author [[John Malalas]], his army was made up of a tribe previously known as Myrmidons and later as [[Bulgars]].<ref>{{cite book|last1=Ekonomou|first1=Andrew|title=Byzantine Rome and the Greek Popes|date=2007|publisher=Lexington Books|location=UK|page=123|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zomZk6DbFTIC&pg=PA123&dq=john+malalas+myrmidons+achilles&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0CBwQ6AEwAGoVChMI6Kfx5bH2xwIVgawsCh291wLv#v=onepage&q=john%20malalas%20myrmidons%20achilles&f=false|accessdate=14 September 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Jeffreys|first1=Elizabeth|last2=Croke|first2=Brian|title=Studies in John Malalas|location=Australian Association for Byzantine Studies, Department of Modern Greek, University of Sydney,|page=206|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=p55mAAAAMAAJ&q=john+malalas+myrmidons+achilles&dq=john+malalas+myrmidons+achilles&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0CCIQ6AEwAWoVChMI6Kfx5bH2xwIVgawsCh291wLv|accessdate=14 September 2015}}</ref> ==Popular culture== [[File:Leon Benouville The Wrath of Achilles.jpg|thumb|''The Wrath of Achilles'', by [[François-Léon Benouville]] (1821–1859) ([[Musée Fabre]]).]] * Achilles is portrayed as a former hero who has become lazy and devoted to the love of Patroclus, in [[William Shakespeare]]'s ''[[Troilus and Cressida]]''. * Achilles appears in Dante's ''[[Inferno (Dante)|Inferno]]''. He is seen in [[Hell]]'s Circle of Lust. * Achilles is the subject of the poem ''[[Achilleïs]]'', a fragment by [[Johann Wolfgang von Goethe]]. * Achilles is a major character in [[Madeline Miller]]'s debut novel, ''[[The Song of Achilles]]'' (2011), which won the 2012 [[Orange Prize for Fiction]]. The novel explores the relationship between Patroclus and Achilles from boyhood to the fateful events of the ''[[Iliad]]''. * Achilles is a central and playable character in [[Tecmo Koei|KOEI]]'s ''[[Warriors: Legends of Troy]]''. He is later a special guest character in ''[[Warriors Orochi 3]]''. * Achilles is mentioned in Tennyson's "[[Ulysses (poem)|Ulysses]]": "...we shall touch the happy isles and meet there the great Achilles whom we knew." * Achilles (Akhilles) is killed by a poisoned Kentaur arrow shot by Kassandra in [[Marion Zimmer Bradley]]'s novel ''[[The Firebrand]]'' (1987). * In Disney's ''[[Hercules (1997 film)|Hercules]]'', Achilles was mentioned to have been a student of Philoctetes and a reference to his heel being his weakness was made. Later in the film, some people of Thebes mock Philoctetes for his training of Achilles. ** Achilles appears in ''[[Hercules (1998 TV series)|Hercules]]'' episode "Achilles and the Living Legend," voiced by [[Dom Irrera]]. He is shown as a washed-out has-been ever since he was defeated. * Achilles appears in the light novel ''[[Fate/Apocrypha]]'' as the Rider of Red. * Achilles is one of various 'narrators' in [[Colleen McCullough]]'s novel ''[[The Song of Troy]]'' (1998). * Achilles is the main character in [[David Malouf]]'s novel ''[[Ransom (Malouf novel)|Ransom]]'' (2009). * The [[ghost]] of Achilles appears in [[Rick Riordan]]'s ''[[The Last Olympian]]'' (2009). He warns Percy Jackson about the Curse of Achilles and its side effects. * Achilles is one of the main characters in [[Dan Simmons]]'s novels ''[[Ilium (novel)|Ilium]]'' (2003) and ''[[Olympos (novel)|Olympos]]'' (2005). * Achilles' armor appears as downloadable content in the 2013 video game, ''[[God of War: Ascension]]''. * In the web series, ''[[RWBY]]'', the character Pyrrha Nikos (voiced by Jen Brown) alludes to Achilles. Like him, she is a very skilled warrior, wielding a javelin called Miló, which can also turn into a rifle and a xiphos, and a shield called Akoúo̱. In the finale of Volume 3, before she is killed by Cinder Fall, Pyrrha is crippled with an arrow at the right heel, alluding to Achilles' death. * In the video game, [[Halo 5: Guardians|Halo 5: Guardians,]] The Achilles Armor and Helmet are the most challenging cosmetic items to obtain. The description for the armor "Only Spartans who have mastered themselves, bound their wrath and passion within a shell of hyper-dense steel fueled by star-fire, are granted access to the Achilles. Lesser warriors will lose themselves in a storm of blood." The role of Achilles has been played in film by: * [[Piero Lulli]] in ''Ulysses'' (1955) * [[Stanley Baker]] in ''[[Helen of Troy (film)|Helen of Troy]]'' (1956) * [[Riley Ottenhof]] in ''Something about Zeus'' (1958) * [[Arturo Dominici]] in ''[[Guerra di Troia|La Guerra di Troia]]'' (1962) * [[Gordon Mitchell]] in ''[[The Fury of Achilles]]'' (1962) * [[Steve Davislim]] in ''[[La Belle Hélène (TV movie)|La Belle Hélène]]'' (TV, 1996) * [[Richard Trewett]] in the miniseries ''[[The Odyssey (TV miniseries)|The Odyssey]]'' (TV, 1997) * Joe Montana in ''[[Helen of Troy (TV miniseries)|Helen of Troy]]'' (TV, 2003) * [[Brad Pitt]] in ''[[Troy (film)|Troy]]'' (2004) Achilles has frequently been mentioned in music: * [[Achilles (band)|Achilles]] is a [[hardcore punk|hardcore]] band. * "Achilles" is an [[oratorio]] by German composer [[Max Bruch]] (1885). * "Achilles, Agony & Ecstasy In Eight Parts", by [[Manowar (band)|Manowar]] (''[[The Triumph of Steel]]'', 1992). * "[[Achilles Last Stand]]" is a song by [[Led Zeppelin]] (''[[Presence (album)|Presence]]'', 1976). * "Achilles' Revenge" is a song by [[Warlord (band)|Warlord]]. * "Achilles' Wrath" is a concert piece by [[Sean O'Loughlin]]. * Achilles is referred to in [[Bob Dylan]]'s song "Temporary Like Achilles". * "Cry of Achilles" is the lead track off of [[Alter Bridge]]'s fourth album, ''Fortress''. == Namesakes == * The name of Achilles has been used for at least nine Royal Navy warships since 1744 - both as [[HMS Achilles|HMS ''Achilles'']] and with the French spelling [[HMS Achille|HMS ''Achille'']]. A 60-gun ship of that name served at the Battle of Belleisle in 1761 while a 74-gun ship served at the [[Battle of Trafalgar]]. Other battle honours include Walcheren 1809. An armored cruiser of that name served in the Royal Navy during the First World War. * [[HMNZS Achilles (70)|HMNZS ''Achilles'']] was a [[Leander class cruiser (1931)|''Leander''-class cruiser]] which served with the [[Royal New Zealand Navy]] in World War II. It became famous for its part in the [[Battle of the River Plate]], alongside {{HMS|Ajax|22|6}} and {{HMS|Exeter|68|6}}. In addition to earning the battle honour 'River Plate', HMNZS Achilles also served at Guadalcanal 1942–43 and Okinawa in 1945. After returning to the [[Royal Navy]], the ship was sold to the [[Indian Navy]] in 1948 but when she was scrapped parts of the ship were saved and preserved in New Zealand. * [[François Capois|Capois La Mort]], a slave who fought in the Haitian Revolution, was nicknamed the Black Achilles because of his heroic performance during the last battle against the French. * Prince Achileas-Andreas of Greece and Denmark was the grandson of the deposed [[Greece|Greek]] king, [[Constantine II of the Hellenes|Constantine II]]. * The character Achilles in [[Ender's Shadow]], by Orson Scott Card, shares his namesake's cunning mind and ruthless attitude. * In the ''[[Star Trek universe]]'', the Achilles Class is an advanced type of Federation battleship brought into service at the outbreak of the [[Dominion War]], though not seen in any of the canonical ''Star Trek'' TV series. * Achilles armor and valor are included in the video games ''[[Titan Quest]]'' and ''TQ Immortal Throne''. * The 2005 video game ''[[Spartan Total Warrior]]'' features two campaign missions located in the fictional buried city of Troy, with the story arc for this segment of the game culminating in the discovery of the Tomb of Achilles and the acquisition of the Spear of Achilles. == Notes == {{Reflist|30em}} == References == * [[Homer]], ''[[Iliad]]'' * Homer, [[Odyssey|''Odyssey'' XI]], 467–540 * Pseudo-Apollodorus, ''[[Bibliotheca (Pseudo-Apollodorus)|Bibliotheca]]'' III, xiii, 5–8 * Apollodorus, [[Epitome III|''Epitome'' III]], 14-V, 7 * [[Ovid]], ''[[Metamorphoses]]'' XI, 217–265; XII, 580-XIII, 398 * [[Ovid]], [[Heroides|''Heroides'' III]] * [[Apollonius Rhodius]], [[Argonautica|''Argonautica'' IV]], 783–879 * [[Dante Alighieri]], ''[[The Divine Comedy]]'', Inferno, V. == Bibliography == * Ileana Chirassi Colombo, "Heroes Achilleus—Theos Apollon." In ''Il Mito Greco'', ed. Bruno Gentili & Giuseppe Paione, Rome, 1977; * Anthony Edwards: ** "Achilles in the Underworld: Iliad, Odyssey, and Æthiopis", ''Greek, Roman, and Byzantine Studies'', 26 (1985): pp.&nbsp;215–227 ; ** "Achilles in the Odyssey: Ideologies of Heroism in the Homeric Epic", ''Beiträge zur klassischen Philologie'', 171, Meisenheim, 1985; ** "Kleos Aphthiton and Oral Theory," ''Classical Quarterly'', 38 (1988): pp.&nbsp;25–30; * {{PWRE|I,1|221|245|Achilleus 1|Jakob Escher-Bürkli|RE:Achilleus 1}} * {{cite journal | author=Hedreen, Guy | title= The Cult of Achilles in the Euxine | journal=Hesperia | year=1991 | volume=60 | issue=3 | pages= 313–330 | doi= 10.2307/148068 | jstor=148068 | publisher=American School of Classical Studies at Athens}} * {{cite book | last=Kerenyi | first=Karl | authorlink=Károly Kerényi | title=The Heroes of the Greeks | publisher=Thames and Hudson | location=New York/London | year=1959}} * {{cite encyclopedia |last=Latacz |first=Joachim |authorlink=Joachim Latacz |editor1-first=Anthony |editor1-last=Grafton |editor1-link=Anthony Grafton |editor2-first=Glenn |editor2-last=Most |editor2-link=Glenn W. Most |editor3-first=Salvatore |editor3-last=Settis |editor3-link= |encyclopedia=The Classical Tradition |title=Achilles |url= |accessdate= |edition= |date= |year=2010 |publisher=[[Harvard University Press]] |location=Cambridge, MA |id= |isbn=978-0-674-03572-0 |oclc= |doi= |pages=3–5 |quote=|ref=}} * Hélène Monsacré, ''Les larmes d'Achille. Le héros, la femme et la souffrance dans la poésie d'Homère'', Paris, Albin Michel, 1984 * [[Gregory Nagy]]: ** ''The Best of The Acheans: Concepts of the Hero in Archaic Greek Poetry'', Johns Hopkins University, 1999 (rev. edition); ** ''The Name of Achilles: Questions of Etymology and 'Folk Etymology''', ''Illinois Classical Studies'', 19, 1994; * Dale S. Sinos, ''The Entry of Achilles into Greek Epic'', Ph.D. thesis, Johns Hopkins University; * Jonathan S. Burgess,'' The Death and Afterlife of Achilles'' (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2009). == External links == {{Wikisource1911Enc}} {{Commons category|Achilles}} * [http://www.historyguide.org/ancient/troy.html Trojan War Resources] * [http://ancientrome.ru/art/artworken/result.htm?alt=Achilles&pnumber=20 Gallery of the Ancient Art: Achilles] {{Characters in the Iliad}} {{Authority control}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Achilles}} [[Category:Characters in the Iliad]] [[Category:Demigods of Classical mythology]] [[Category:Kings of the Myrmidons]] [[Category:Greek mythological hero cult]] [[Category:People of the Trojan War]] [[Category:Thessalians in the Trojan War]] f83qmzmuxv9v5p0grhmkooxuxh6ar54 0 306 160873796 107069253 2007-09-28T08:12:23Z Closedmouth 372693 R from CamelCase wikitext text/x-wiki #REDIRECT [[Statistics]]{{R from CamelCase}} j87srp61db4304lwr1qy5gfpdatwz30 0 307 717901482 717006432 2016-04-30T11:58:04Z Alanscottwalker 7131173 /* Early life and family ancestry */ neutrality and undue wikitext text/x-wiki {{About|the American president}} {{pp-protected|small=yes}} {{pp-move-indef}} {{Use mdy dates|date=January 2015}} {{Infobox officeholder | name = Abraham Lincoln | image = Abraham Lincoln O-77 matte collodion print.jpg | alt = An iconic photograph of a bearded Abraham Lincoln showing his head and shoulders. | caption = Lincoln in 1863 at the age of 54 | order = [[List of Presidents of the United States|16th]] | office = President of the United States | vicepresident = [[Hannibal Hamlin]] <small>(1861–1865)</small><br />[[Andrew Johnson]] <small>(1865)</small> | term_start = March 4, 1861 | term_end = April 15, 1865 | predecessor1 = [[James Buchanan]] | successor1 = [[Andrew Johnson]] | state2 = [[Illinois]] | district2 = [[Illinois' 7th congressional district|7th]] | term_start2 = March 4, 1847 | term_end2 = March 3, 1849 | predecessor2 = [[John Henry (representative)|John Henry]] | successor2 = [[Thomas L. Harris]] | state_house3 = Illinois | office3 = [[Illinois House of Representatives|Member of the Illinois House of Representatives]] | term_start3 = 1834 | term_end3 = 1842 | birth_date = {{birth date|1809|2|12}} | birth_place = [[Hodgenville, Kentucky]], U.S. | death_date = {{death date and age|1865|4|15|1809|2|12}} | death_place = [[Petersen House (Washington, D.C.)|Petersen House]],<br />[[Washington, D.C.]], U.S. | restingplace = [[Lincoln Tomb]], [[Oak Ridge Cemetery]]<br />[[Springfield, Illinois]], U.S. | nationality = American | party = [[Whig Party (United States)|Whig]] <small>(1834–1854)</small><br />[[Republican Party (United States)|Republican]] <small>(1854–1865)</small><br />[[National Union Party (United States)|National Union]] <small>(1864–1865)</small> | spouse = {{marriage|[[Mary Todd Lincoln|Mary Todd]]|November 4, 1842|1865|reason=his death}} | children = [[Robert Todd Lincoln|Robert]], [[Edward Baker Lincoln|Edward]], [[William Wallace Lincoln|Willie]], and [[Tad Lincoln|Tad]] | religion = See: [[Abraham Lincoln and religion]] | profession = Lawyer<br />Politician | signature = Abraham Lincoln 1862 signature.svg | signature_alt = Cursive signature in ink | branch = Illinois Militia | serviceyears = 3 months<br />{{small|(April 21, 1832 – July 10, 1832)}} | rank = {{Plainlist}} * [[Captain (US Army)|Captain]]<br />{{small|(April 21, 1832 – May 27, 1832)}} * [[Private (United States)|Private]]<br />{{small|(May 28, 1832 – July 10, 1832)}} {{small|OBS:.}} Discharged from his command and re-enlisted as a Private. | battles = [[Black Hawk War]] }} {{LincolnSeries}} '''Abraham Lincoln''' ({{IPAc-en|audio=GeoTrinity_Abraham_Lincoln.ogg|ˈ|eɪ|b|r|ə|h|æ|m|_|ˈ|l|I|ŋ|k|ən}}; February 12, 1809 – April 15, 1865) was the [[List of Presidents of the United States|16th President of the United States]], serving from March 1861 until [[Assassination of Abraham Lincoln|his assassination in April 1865]]. Lincoln led the United States through its [[American Civil War|Civil War]]—its bloodiest war and an event often considered its greatest moral, constitutional, and political crisis.<ref>{{cite book|author=William A. Pencak|title=Encyclopedia of the Veteran in America|url=https://books.google.com/?id=yyvmcMsNnB4C&pg=PA222|year=2009|publisher=ABC-CLIO|page=222|isbn=978-0-313-08759-2}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author1=Paul Finkelman|author2=Stephen E. Gottlieb|title=Toward a Usable Past: Liberty Under State Constitutions|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xJuXT1sVhFcC&pg=PA388|year=2009|publisher=U of Georgia Press|page=388|isbn=978-0-8203-3496-7}}</ref> In doing so, he preserved the [[Union (American Civil War)|Union]], abolished slavery, strengthened the federal government, and modernized the economy. Born in [[Hodgenville, Kentucky]], Lincoln grew up on the [[American frontier|western frontier]] in [[Kentucky]] and [[Indiana]]. Largely self-educated, he became a lawyer in [[Illinois]], a [[Whig Party (United States)|Whig Party leader]], and a member of the [[Illinois House of Representatives]], in which he served for twelve years. Elected to the [[United States House of Representatives]] in 1846, Lincoln promoted rapid modernization of the economy through banks, tariffs, and railroads. Because he had originally agreed not to run for a second term in Congress, and because his opposition to the [[Mexican–American War]] was unpopular among Illinois voters, Lincoln returned to [[Springfield, Illinois|Springfield]] and resumed his successful law practice. Reentering politics in 1854, he became a leader in building the new [[History of the Republican Party (United States)|Republican Party]], which had a statewide majority in Illinois. In 1858, while taking part in a [[Lincoln–Douglas debates|series of highly publicized debates]] with his opponent and rival, Democrat [[Stephen A. Douglas]], Lincoln spoke out against the expansion of slavery, but lost the U.S. Senate race to Douglas. In 1860, Lincoln secured the Republican Party presidential nomination as a moderate from a swing state. Though he gained very little support in the slaveholding states of the South, he swept the North and was [[United States presidential election, 1860|elected president in 1860]]. Lincoln's victory prompted seven southern slave states to form the [[Confederate States of America]] before he moved into the [[White House]] - no compromise or reconciliation was found regarding slavery and secession. Subsequently, on April 12, 1861, a Confederate attack on [[Fort Sumter]] inspired the North to enthusiastically rally behind the [[Union (American Civil War)|Union]] in a declaration of war. As the leader of the moderate faction of the Republican Party, Lincoln confronted Radical Republicans, who demanded harsher treatment of the South, [[War Democrats]], who called for more compromise, anti-war Democrats (called [[Copperhead (politics)|Copperheads]]), who despised him, and irreconcilable secessionists, who plotted his assassination. Politically, Lincoln fought back by pitting his opponents against each other, by carefully planned political [[patronage]], and by appealing to the American people with his powers of oratory.<ref>Randall (1947), pp. 65–87.</ref> His [[Gettysburg Address]] became an iconic endorsement of the principles of nationalism, republicanism, equal rights, liberty, and democracy. Lincoln initially concentrated on the military and political dimensions of the war. His primary goal was to reunite the nation. He suspended [[habeas corpus]], leading to the controversial ''[[ex parte Merryman]]'' decision, and he averted potential British intervention in the war by defusing the [[Trent Affair]] in late 1861. Lincoln closely supervised the war effort, especially the selection of top generals, including his most successful general, [[Ulysses S. Grant]]. He also made major decisions on Union war strategy, including a naval blockade that shut down the South's normal trade, moves to take control of Kentucky and Tennessee, and using gunboats to gain control of the southern river system. Lincoln tried repeatedly to capture the Confederate capital at [[Richmond, Virginia|Richmond]]; each time a general failed, Lincoln substituted another, until finally Grant succeeded. As the war progressed, his complex moves toward ending slavery included the [[Emancipation Proclamation]] of 1863; Lincoln used the U.S. Army to protect escaped slaves, encouraged the [[Border States (American Civil War)|border states]] to outlaw slavery, and pushed through Congress the [[Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution]], which permanently outlawed slavery. An exceptionally astute politician deeply involved with power issues in each state, Lincoln reached out to the War Democrats and managed his own re-election campaign in the [[United States presidential election, 1864|1864 presidential election]]. Anticipating the war's conclusion, Lincoln pushed a moderate view of [[Reconstruction Era of the United States|Reconstruction]], seeking to reunite the nation speedily through a policy of generous reconciliation in the face of lingering and bitter divisiveness. On April 14, 1865, five days after the April 9th surrender of Confederate commanding general [[Robert E. Lee]], Lincoln was assassinated by [[John Wilkes Booth]], a Confederate sympathizer. Lincoln has been consistently [[Historical rankings of Presidents of the United States#Scholar survey results|ranked]] both by scholars<ref name="Ranking Our Presidents">[http://history-world.org/pres.pdf "Ranking Our Presidents"]. James Lindgren. November 16, 2000. International World History Project.</ref> and the public<ref name=gallup>[http://www.gallup.com/poll/146183/Americans-Say-Reagan-Greatest-President.aspx "Americans Say Reagan Is the Greatest President"]. Gallup Inc. February 28, 2011.</ref> as one of the three greatest U.S. presidents. ==Family and childhood== ===Early life and family ancestry=== {{Main|Early life and career of Abraham Lincoln}} Abraham Lincoln was born February 12, 1809, the second child of [[Thomas Lincoln|Thomas]] and [[Nancy Lincoln|Nancy Hanks Lincoln]], in a one-room log cabin on the [[Sinking Spring Farm]] in [[Hardin County, Kentucky|Hardin County]], Kentucky<ref>Donald (1996), pp. 20–22.</ref> (now [[LaRue County, Kentucky|LaRue County]]). He was a descendant of [[Samuel Lincoln]], who migrated from [[Norfolk]], England to [[Hingham, Massachusetts|Hingham]], Massachusetts, in 1638. Samuel's grandson and great-grandson began the family's western migration, which passed through [[New Jersey]], [[Pennsylvania]], and [[Virginia]].<ref>{{cite book|author=Louis A. Warren|title=Lincoln's Youth: Indiana Years, Seven to Twenty-One, 1816–1830|publisher=Indiana Historical Society|location=Indianapolis |year=1991|pages=3–4| isbn=0-87195-063-4}}</ref><ref>[[#Donald|Donald (1996)]], p. 20.</ref> Lincoln's paternal grandfather and namesake, [[Abraham Lincoln (captain)|Captain Abraham Lincoln]], moved the family from Virginia to [[Jefferson County, Kentucky]] in the 1780s.<ref>Warren, p. 4.</ref> Captain Lincoln was killed in an [[Northwest Indian War|Indian raid]] in 1786. His children, including six-year-old Thomas, the future president's father, witnessed the attack.<ref>{{cite book | author =Michael Burlingame | title =Abraham Lincoln: A Life | publisher =Johns Hopkins University Press | series = | volume =I | edition = | year =2008 | location =Baltimore, MD | pages=1–2| url = | isbn =978-0-8018-8993-6}}</ref><ref name="white-12_13">White, pp. 12–13.</ref> After his father's murder, Thomas was left to make his own way on the frontier, working at odd jobs in Kentucky and in [[Tennessee]], before settling with members of his family in Hardin County, Kentucky, in the early 1800s.<ref>Warren, p. 5.</ref><ref>Donald (1996), p. 21.</ref> Lincoln's mother, Nancy, is widely assumed to have been the daughter of Lucy Hanks, although no record of Nancy Hanks' birth has ever been found.<ref name=Bartelt79>{{cite book|author=William E. Bartelt|title=There I Grew Up: Remembering Abraham Lincoln's Indiana Youth|publisher=Indiana Historical Society Press |location=Indianapolis |year=2008 |page=79 |isbn=978-0-87195-263-9}}</ref> According to William Ensign Lincoln's book ''The Ancestry of Abraham Lincoln'', Nancy was the daughter of Joseph Hanks;<ref>{{cite book|last=Lincoln|first=Eilliam Ensign|title=The Ancestry of Abraham Lincoln|date=1909|publisher=Houghton Mifflin Co.|location=Boston|page=85}}</ref> however, the debate continues over whether she was born out of wedlock. Still another researcher, Adin Baber, claims that Nancy Hanks was the daughter of Abraham Hanks and Sarah Harper of Virginia.<ref name=Baber>{{cite book|author=Adin Baber|title=The Hanks Family of Virginia and Westward: a genealogical record from the early 1600s, including charts of families in Arkansas, the Carolina, Georgia, Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Kentucky, Missouri, Oklahoma, Ohio, Pennsylvania, Texas, and west to the Pacific Ocean and beyond|publisher=Nancy Baber McNeil |location=Carpenterina, CA |year=2004 |page=154 |isbn=0-87062-334-6}}</ref> Thomas Lincoln and Nancy Hanks were married on June 12, 1806, in Washington County, and moved to [[Elizabethtown, Kentucky]], following their marriage.<ref>Warren, p. 9.</ref> They became the parents of three children: Sarah, born on February 10, 1807; Abraham, on February 12, 1809; and another son, Thomas, who died in infancy.<ref>Warren, p. 9–10.</ref> Thomas Lincoln bought or leased several farms in Kentucky, including the Sinking Spring farm, where Abraham was born; however, a land title dispute soon forced the Lincolns to move.<ref>Bartelt, p. 14.</ref><ref name=Warren12>Warren, p. 12.</ref> In 1811 the family moved eight miles north, to [[Knob Creek Farm]], where Thomas acquired title to {{convert|230| acre|ha}} of land. In 1815 a claimant in another land dispute sought to eject the family from the farm.<ref name=Warren12/> Of the 816.5 acres that Thomas held in Kentucky, he lost all but {{convert|200|acre|ha}} of his land in court disputes over property titles.<ref name="sandberg-20"/> Frustrated over the lack of security provided by Kentucky courts, Thomas sold the remaining land he held in Kentucky in 1814, and began planning a move to [[Indiana]], where the land survey process was more reliable and the ability for an individual to retain land titles was more secure.<ref name=Warren13>Warren, p. 13.</ref> In 1816 the family moved north across the [[Ohio River]] to [[Indiana]], a free, non-slaveholding territory, where they settled in an "unbroken forest"<ref>Warren, p. 26.</ref> in Hurricane Township, [[Perry County, Indiana#History|Perry County]]. (Their land in southern Indiana became part of [[Spencer County, Indiana]], when the county was established in 1818.)<ref>Warren, p. 16 and 43.</ref><ref>Bartelt, p. 3, 5, and 16.</ref> The farm is preserved as part of the [[Lincoln Boyhood National Memorial]]. In 1860 Lincoln noted that the family's move to Indiana was "partly on account of slavery"; but mainly due to land title difficulties in Kentucky.<ref name="sandberg-20">Sandburg (1926), p. 20.</ref><ref>Donald (1996), p. 23–24.</ref> During the family's years in Kentucky and Indiana, Thomas Lincoln worked as a farmer, cabinetmaker, and carpenter.<ref>Bartelt, p. 34 and 156.</ref> He owned farms, several town lots and livestock, paid taxes, sat on juries, appraised estates, served on country slave patrols, and guarded prisoners. Thomas and Nancy Lincoln were also members of a [[Separate Baptists]] church, which had restrictive moral standards and opposed alcohol, dancing, and slavery.<ref>Donald (1996), pp. 22–24.</ref> Within a year of the family's arrival in Indiana, Thomas claimed title to {{convert|160|acre|ha}} of Indiana land. Despite some financial challenges he eventually obtained clear title to {{convert|80|acre|ha}} of land in what became known as the [[Little Pigeon Creek Community]] in Spencer County.<ref>Bartelt, p. 24 and 104.</ref> Prior to the family's move to Illinois in 1830, Thomas had acquired an additional twenty acres of land adjacent to his property.<ref>Bartelt, p. 25 and 71.</ref> [[File:Young Lincoln By Charles Keck.JPG|thumb|250px|The young Lincoln in sculpture at Senn Park, Chicago.|alt=A statue of young Lincoln sitting on a stump, holding a book open on his lap]] Several significant family events took place during Lincoln's youth in Indiana. On October 5, 1818, Nancy Lincoln died of [[milk sickness]], leaving eleven-year-old [[Sarah Lincoln Grigsby|Sarah]] in charge of a household that included her father, nine-year-old Abraham, and Dennis Hanks, Nancy's nineteen-year-old orphaned cousin.<ref>Bartelt, p. 22–23, and 77.</ref> On December 2, 1819, Lincoln's father married [[Sarah Bush Lincoln|Sarah "Sally" Bush Johnston]], a widow from Elizabethtown, Kentucky, with three children of her own.<ref>Bartelt, p. 23 and 83.</ref> Abraham became very close to his stepmother, whom he referred to as "Mother".<ref>Donald (1996), pp. 26–27.</ref><ref>Bartelt, p. 10.</ref> Those who knew Lincoln as a teenager later recalled him being very distraught over his sister Sarah's death on January 20, 1828, while giving birth to a [[stillborn]] son.<ref>Donald (1996), p. 20, 30–33.</ref><ref>Bartelt, p. 37.</ref> As a youth, Lincoln disliked the hard labor associated with frontier life. Some of his neighbors and family members thought for a time that he was lazy for all his "reading, scribbling, writing, ciphering, writing Poetry, etc.",<ref>{{cite book | author=William Lee Miller| title = Lincoln's Virtues: An Ethical Biography | publisher =Random House/Vintage Books | series = | volume = | edition =Vintage Books | year =2002 | location =New York | page =31 | url = | isbn =0-375-40158-X}}</ref><ref>White, pp. 25, 31, and 47.</ref><ref>Donald (1996), p. 33.</ref> and must have done it to avoid manual labor. His stepmother also acknowledged he did not enjoy "physical labor", but loved to read.<ref>Bartelt, p. 66.</ref> Lincoln was largely self-educated. His formal schooling from several itinerant teachers was intermittent, the aggregate of which may have amounted to less than a year; however, he was an avid reader and retained a lifelong interest in learning.<ref>Bartelt, p. 10 and 33.</ref><ref>{{cite book | author=James H. Madison | title =Hoosiers: A New History of Indiana | publisher =Indiana University Press and Indiana Historical Society Press | series = | volume = | edition = | year =2014 | location =Bloomington and Indianapolis | page =110 | url = | isbn =978-0-253-01308-8}}</ref> Family, neighbors, and schoolmates of Lincoln's youth recalled that he read and reread the ''[[King James Bible]]'', ''[[Aesop's Fables]]'', [[John Bunyan|Bunyan]]'s ''[[The Pilgrim's Progress]]'', [[Daniel Defoe|Defoe]]'s ''[[Robinson Crusoe]]'', Weems's ''The Life of Washington'', and [[Benjamin Franklin|Franklin]]'s ''Autobiography'', among others.<ref>Donald (1996), pp.&nbsp;29–31, 38–43</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Merrill D. Peterson|title=Lincoln in American Memory|url=https://books.google.com/?id=EADk9ZIMJXEC&pg=PA110|year=1995|publisher=Oxford U.P.|page=110|isbn=978-0-19-988002-7}}</ref><ref>Bartelt, p. 118, 143, and 148.</ref><ref>Warren, p. xix, 30, 46, and 48.</ref> As he grew into his teens, Lincoln took responsibility for the chores expected of him as one of the boys in the household. He also complied with the customary obligation of a son giving his father all earnings from work done outside the home until the age of twenty-one.<ref name="donald-1996-p30-33">Donald (1996), pp. 30–33.</ref> Abraham became adept at using an axe. Tall for his age, Lincoln was also strong and athletic.<ref>Warren, p. 134–35.</ref> He attained a reputation for brawn and audacity after a very competitive wrestling match with the renowned leader of a group of ruffians known as "the Clary's Grove boys".<ref>Donald (1996), p. 41.</ref> In early March 1830, fearing a [[milk sickness]] outbreak along the Ohio River, the Lincoln family moved west to Illinois, a non-slaveholding state. They settled on a site in [[Macon County, Illinois]], {{convert|10|mi|km}} west of [[Decatur, Illinois|Decatur]].<ref>Donald (1996), p. 36.</ref><ref>Bartelt, p. 41 and 63.</ref> Historians disagree on who initiated the move.<ref>Bartelt, p. 38–40.</ref> After the family relocated to Illinois, Abraham became increasingly distant from his father,<ref name=Bartelt71>Bartelt, p. 71.</ref> in part because of his father's lack of education, and occasionally lent him money.<ref>Donald (1996), p. 28 and 152.</ref> In 1831, as Thomas and other members of the family prepared to move to a [[Lincoln Log Cabin State Historic Site|new homestead]] in [[Coles County, Illinois]], Abraham was old enough to make his own decisions and struck out on his own.<ref name=Oates15-17>{{cite book | author=Stephen B. Oates| title=With Malice Toward None: The Life of Abraham Lincoln | publisher =HarperPerennial | series = | volume = | edition =|year=1994 | location =New York |pages=15–17| url = | isbn = 978-0-06-092471-3}}</ref> Traveling down the [[Sangamon River]], he ended up in the village of [[Lincoln's New Salem|New Salem]] in [[Sangamon County, Illinois|Sangamon County]].<ref>Thomas (2008), pp. 23–53</ref> Later that spring, [[Denton Offutt]], a New Salem merchant, hired Lincoln and some friends to take goods by [[flatboat]] from New Salem to New Orleans via the Sangamon, Illinois, and Mississippi rivers. After arriving in New Orleans—and witnessing slavery firsthand—Lincoln returned to New Salem, where he remained for the next six years.<ref>Sandburg (1926), pp. 22–23.</ref><ref>Donald (1996), p. 38.</ref> ===Marriage and children=== {{further|Lincoln family tree|Medical and mental health of Abraham Lincoln|Sexuality of Abraham Lincoln}} {{multiple image | direction=horizontal | width= | footer= | width1=180 | image1=A&TLincoln.jpg | alt1=A seated Lincoln holding a book as his young son looks at it | caption1=1864 photo of President Lincoln with youngest son, [[Tad Lincoln|Tad]] | width2=164 | image2=Mary Todd Lincoln 1846-1847 restored cropped.png | alt2=Black and white photo of Mary Todd Lincoln's shoulders and head | caption2=[[Mary Todd Lincoln]], wife of Abraham Lincoln, age 28 }} Lincoln's first romantic interest was [[Ann Rutledge]], whom he met when he first moved to New Salem; by 1835, they were in a relationship but not formally engaged. She died at the age of 22 on August 25, 1835, most likely of [[typhoid fever]].<ref>Donald (1996), pp. 55–58.</ref> In the early 1830s, he met Mary Owens from Kentucky when she was visiting her sister.<ref name="Donald 1996 pp. 67">Donald (1996), pp. 67–69; Thomas (2008), pp. 56–57, 69–70.</ref> Late in 1836, Lincoln agreed to a match with Mary if she returned to New Salem. Mary did return in November 1836, and Lincoln courted her for a time; however, they both had second thoughts about their relationship. On August 16, 1837, Lincoln wrote Mary a letter suggesting he would not blame her if she ended the relationship. She never replied and the courtship ended.<ref name="Donald 1996 pp. 67"/> In 1840, Lincoln became engaged to [[Mary Todd Lincoln|Mary Todd]], who was from a wealthy slave-holding family in [[Lexington, Kentucky|Lexington]], Kentucky.<ref>Lamb, p. 43.</ref> They met in [[Springfield, Illinois|Springfield]], Illinois, in December 1839<ref name="Sandburg4648">Sandburg (1926), pp. 46–48.</ref> and were engaged the following December.<ref>Donald (1996), p. 86.</ref> A wedding set for January 1, 1841, was canceled when the two broke off their engagement at Lincoln's initiative.<ref name="Sandburg4648"/><ref>Donald (1996), p. 87.</ref> They later met again at a party and married on November 4, 1842, in the Springfield mansion of Mary's married sister.<ref>Sandburg (1926), pp. 50–51.</ref> While preparing for the nuptials and feeling anxiety again, Lincoln, when asked where he was going, replied, "To hell, I suppose."<ref>Donald (1996), p. 93.</ref> In 1844, the couple bought [[Lincoln Home National Historic Site|a house]] in Springfield near Lincoln's law office. Mary Todd Lincoln kept house, often with the help of a relative or hired servant girl.<ref>Baker, p. 142.</ref> He was an affectionate, though often absent, husband and father of four children. [[Robert Todd Lincoln]] was born in 1843 and [[Edward Baker Lincoln]] (Eddie) in 1846. Edward died on February 1, 1850, in Springfield, probably of tuberculosis. [[William Wallace Lincoln|"Willie" Lincoln]] was born on December 21, 1850, and died of a fever on February 20, 1862. The Lincolns' fourth son, [[Tad Lincoln|Thomas "Tad" Lincoln]], was born on April 4, 1853, and died of heart failure at the age of 18 on July 16, 1871.<ref>White, pp. 179–181, 476.</ref> Robert was the only child to live to adulthood and have children. His last descendant, great-grandson [[Robert Todd Lincoln Beckwith]], died in 1985.<ref>{{cite book|author=Jason Emerson|title=Giant in the Shadows: The Life of Robert T. Lincoln|url=https://books.google.com/?id=tPqgC3RS-7sC&pg=PA420|year=2012|publisher=SIU Press|page=420|isbn=978-0-8093-3055-3}}</ref> Lincoln "was remarkably fond of children",<ref>White, p. 126.</ref> and the Lincolns were not considered to be strict with their own.<ref>Baker, p. 120.</ref> The deaths of their sons had profound effects on both parents. Later in life, Mary struggled with the stresses of losing her husband and sons, and Robert Lincoln committed her temporarily to a mental health asylum in 1875.<ref>Steers, p. 341.</ref> Abraham Lincoln suffered from "[[History of depression|melancholy]]", a condition which now is referred to as [[Major depressive disorder|clinical depression]].<ref name="Atlanticoct2005">{{cite web|url=http://www.theatlantic.com/doc/200510/lincolns-clinical-depression|title=Lincoln's Great Depression|first=Joshua Wolf|last=Shenk|date=October 2005|work=The Atlantic|publisher=The Atlantic Monthly Group|archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/62a4fProj |archivedate=October 20, 2011|deadurl=}}</ref> Lincoln's father-in-law and others of the Todd family were either slave owners or slave traders. Lincoln was close to the Todds, and he and his family occasionally visited the Todd estate in Lexington.<ref>Foner (1995), pp. 440–447.</ref> During his term as President of the United States of America, Mary was known to cook for Lincoln often. Since she was raised by a wealthy family, her cooking abilities were simple, but satisfied Lincoln's tastes, which included, particularly, imported oysters.<ref>{{Cite web|title = The Food Timeline--Presidents food favorites|url = http://www.foodtimeline.org/presidents.html#lincoln|website = www.foodtimeline.org|access-date = 2016-02-12|first = Lynne|last = Olver}}</ref> ==Early career and militia service== {{Further|Early life and career of Abraham Lincoln|Abraham Lincoln in the Black Hawk War}} [[File:Lincoln protecting Potawatomi.jpg|thumb|150px|Lincoln depicted protecting a Native American from his own men in a scene often related about Lincoln's service during the [[Black Hawk War]].]] In 1832, at age 23, Lincoln and a partner bought a small general store on credit in [[Lincoln's New Salem|New Salem]], Illinois.<ref>{{cite book|author=Kenneth J. Winkle|title=The Young Eagle: The Rise of Abraham Lincoln|url=https://books.google.com/?id=JcEVAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA77|year=2001|publisher=Taylor |pages=72–79|isbn=978-1-4617-3436-9}}</ref> Although the economy was booming in the region, the business struggled and Lincoln eventually sold his share. That March he began his political career with his first campaign for the [[Illinois General Assembly]]. He had attained local popularity and could draw crowds as a natural [[raconteur]] in New Salem, though he lacked an education, powerful friends, and money, which may be why he lost. He advocated navigational improvements on the Sangamon River.<ref>[[#Donald|Donald (1996)]], [https://books.google.com/?id=fuTY3mxs9awC&pg=PA41&dq=%22New%20Salem%20debating%20club%22 pp. 40–42].</ref><ref>[[s:Life and Works of Abraham Lincoln/Volume 3/The Improvement of Sangamon River]]</ref> Before the election, Lincoln served as a captain in the Illinois Militia during the [[Black Hawk War]].<ref>Winkle, pp. 86–95.</ref> Following his return, Lincoln continued his campaign for the August 6 election for the Illinois General Assembly. At {{convert|6|ft|4|in|cm|0}},<ref>Sandburg (2002), p. 14</ref> he was tall and "strong enough to intimidate any rival". At his first speech, when he saw a supporter in the crowd being attacked, Lincoln grabbed the assailant by his "neck and the seat of his trousers" and threw him.<ref>Donald (1996), p. 46.</ref> Lincoln finished eighth out of 13 candidates (the top four were elected), though he received 277 of the 300 votes cast in the New Salem precinct.<ref>Winkle, pp. 114–116.</ref> Lincoln served as New Salem's postmaster and later as county surveyor, all the while reading voraciously. He then decided to become a lawyer and began teaching himself law by reading [[William Blackstone|Blackstone]]'s ''[[Commentaries on the Laws of England]]'' and other law books. Of his learning method, Lincoln stated: "I studied with nobody".<ref>Donald (1996), pp. 53–55.</ref> His second campaign in 1834 was successful. He won election to the state legislature; though he ran as a [[Whig Party (United States)|Whig]], many Democrats favored him over a more powerful Whig opponent.<ref>White, p. 59.</ref> [[Admission to the bar in the United States|Admitted to the bar]] in 1836,<ref>Donald (1996), p. 64.</ref> he moved to Springfield, Illinois, and began to practice law under [[John T. Stuart]], Mary Todd's cousin.<ref>White, pp. 71, 79, 108.</ref> Lincoln became an able and successful lawyer with a reputation as a formidable adversary during cross-examinations and closing arguments. He partnered with [[Stephen T. Logan]] from 1841 until 1844. Then Lincoln began [[Lincoln-Herndon Law Offices State Historic Site|his practice]] with [[William Herndon (lawyer)|William Herndon]], whom Lincoln thought "a studious young man".<ref>Donald (1948), p. 17.</ref> Successful on his second run for office, Lincoln served four successive terms in the [[Illinois House of Representatives]] as a Whig representative from Sangamon County.<ref>Simon, p. 283.</ref> He supported the construction of the [[Illinois and Michigan Canal]], which he remained involved with later as a Canal Commissioner.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://abrahamlincolnsclassroom.org/abraham-lincoln-in-depth/abraham-lincoln-and-internal-improvements/#imc|title=Abraham Lincoln and Internal Improvements|author=Jesse William Weik, The Real Lincoln; A Portrait|work=Abraham Lincoln's Classroom}}</ref> In the 1835–36 legislative session, he voted to expand suffrage to white males, whether landowners or not.<ref>Simon, p. 130.</ref> He was known for his "free soil" stance of opposing both slavery and [[Abolitionism in the United States|abolitionism]]. He first articulated this in 1837, saying, "[The] Institution of slavery is founded on both injustice and bad policy, but the promulgation of abolition doctrines tends rather to increase than abate its evils."<ref>Donald (1996), p. 134.</ref> His stance closely followed [[Henry Clay]] in supporting the [[American Colonization Society]] program of making the abolition of slavery practical by its advocation and helping the freed slaves to settle in [[Liberia]] in Africa.<ref>Foner (2010), pp. 17–19, 67.</ref> ==U.S. House of Representatives, 1847–49== [[File:Abraham Lincoln by Nicholas Shepherd, 1846-crop.jpg|thumb|250px|alt=Middle aged clean shaven Lincoln from the hips up.|Lincoln in his late 30s as a member of the [[U.S. House of Representatives]]. Photo taken by one of Lincoln's law students around 1846.]] From the early 1830s, Lincoln was a steadfast Whig and professed to friends in 1861 to be, "an old line Whig, a disciple of Henry Clay".<ref>Donald (1996), p. 222.</ref> The party, including Lincoln, favored economic modernization in banking, protective tariffs to fund [[internal improvements]] including railroads, and espoused urbanization as well.<ref>Boritt (1994), pp. 137–153.</ref> In 1846, Lincoln was elected to the [[United States House of Representatives|U.S. House of Representatives]], where he served one two-year term. He was the only Whig in the Illinois delegation, but he showed his party loyalty by participating in almost all votes and making speeches that echoed the party line.<ref>Oates, p. 79.</ref> Lincoln, in collaboration with abolitionist Congressman [[Joshua R. Giddings]], wrote a bill to abolish slavery in the [[Washington, District of Columbia|District of Columbia]] with compensation for the owners, enforcement to capture fugitive slaves, and a popular vote on the matter. He abandoned the bill when it failed to garner sufficient Whig supporters.<ref>Harris, p. 54; Foner (2010), p. 57.</ref> On foreign and military policy, Lincoln spoke out against the [[Mexican–American War]], which he attributed to [[James K. Polk|President Polk]]'s desire for "military glory—that attractive rainbow, that rises in showers of blood".<ref>Heidler (2006), pp. 181–183.</ref> Lincoln also supported the [[Wilmot Proviso]], which, if it had been adopted, would have banned slavery in any U.S. territory won from Mexico.<ref>Holzer, p. 63.</ref> Lincoln emphasized his opposition to Polk by drafting and introducing his [[Spot Resolutions]]. The war had begun with a Mexican slaughter of American soldiers in territory disputed by Mexico and the U.S. Polk insisted that Mexican soldiers had "invaded ''our territory'' and shed the blood of our fellow-citizens on our ''own soil''{{-"}}.<ref>Oates, pp. 79–80.</ref><ref name="Basler1pp199—202">Basler (1946), pp. 199–202.</ref> Lincoln demanded that Polk show Congress the exact spot on which blood had been shed and prove that the spot was on American soil.<ref name="Basler1pp199—202"/> Congress never enacted the resolution or even debated it, the national papers ignored it, and it resulted in a loss of political support for Lincoln in his district. One Illinois newspaper derisively nicknamed him "spotty Lincoln".<ref name="McGovern, p. 33">McGovern, p. 33.</ref><ref>Basler (1946), p. 202.</ref><ref name="MuellerSchamel">{{cite web|url=http://www.archives.gov/education/lessons/lincoln-resolutions/|title=Lincoln's Spot Resolutions|publisher=National Archives|archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/62a5gtE9P|archivedate=October 20, 2011|deadurl=}}</ref> Lincoln later regretted some of his statements, especially his attack on the presidential war-making powers.<ref>Donald (1996), p. 128.</ref> Realizing Clay was unlikely to win the presidency, Lincoln, who had pledged in 1846 to serve only one term in the House, supported General [[Zachary Taylor]] for the Whig nomination in the [[United States presidential election, 1848|1848 presidential election]].<ref>Donald (1996), pp. 124–126.</ref> Taylor won and Lincoln hoped to be appointed Commissioner of the [[General Land Office]], but that lucrative patronage job went to an Illinois rival, [[Justin Butterfield]], considered by the administration to be a highly skilled lawyer, but in Lincoln's view, an "old fossil".<ref>Donald (1996), p. 140.</ref> The administration offered him the consolation prize of secretary or governor of the [[Oregon Territory]]. This distant territory was a Democratic stronghold, and acceptance of the post would have effectively ended his legal and political career in Illinois, so he declined and resumed his law practice.<ref>Harris, pp. 55–57.</ref> ==Prairie lawyer== [[File:Abraham Lincoln by Hesler, 1857.jpg|thumb|left|Lincoln in 1857.]] Lincoln returned to practicing law in Springfield, handling "every kind of business that could come before a prairie lawyer".<ref>Donald (1996), p. 96.</ref> Twice a year for 16 years, 10 weeks at a time, he appeared in county seats in the midstate region when the county courts were in session.<ref>Donald (1996), pp. 105–106, 158.</ref> Lincoln handled many transportation cases in the midst of the nation's western expansion, particularly the conflicts arising from the operation of river barges under the many new railroad bridges. As a riverboat man, Lincoln initially favored those interests, but ultimately represented whoever hired him.<ref>Donald (1996), pp. 142–143.</ref> In fact, he later represented a bridge company against a riverboat company in a [[Hurd v. Rock Island Bridge Company|landmark case]] involving a canal boat that sank after hitting a bridge.<ref>[http://www.archives.gov/publications/prologue/2004/summer/bridge.html Bridging the Mississippi]. Archives.gov (October 19, 2011). Retrieved on 2013-08-17.</ref><ref>* Brian McGinty, ''Lincoln's Greatest Case: The River, the Bridge, and the Making of America'' (2015)</ref> In 1849, he received [[Abraham Lincoln's patent|a patent for a flotation device]] for the movement of boats in shallow water. The idea was never commercialized, but Lincoln is the only president to hold a patent.<ref>White, p. 163.</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://americanhistory.si.edu/collections/object.cfm?key=35&objkey=19|title=Abraham Lincoln's Patent Model: Improvement for Buoying Vessels Over Shoals|publisher=Smithsonian Institution|archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/62a7AMeAa|archivedate=October 20, 2011|deadurl=}}</ref> In 1851, he represented the [[Alton Railroad|Alton & Sangamon Railroad]] in a dispute with one of its shareholders, James A. Barret, who had refused to pay the balance on his pledge to buy shares in the railroad on the grounds that the company had changed its original train route.<ref name="Donald p. 155">Donald (1996), p. 155.</ref><ref>Dirck (2007), p. 92.</ref> Lincoln successfully argued that the railroad company was not bound by its original charter extant at the time of Barret's pledge; the charter was amended in the public interest to provide a newer, superior, and less expensive route, and the corporation retained the right to demand Barret's payment. The decision by the [[Supreme Court of Illinois|Illinois Supreme Court]] has been cited by numerous other courts in the nation.<ref name="Donald p. 155"/> Lincoln appeared before the Illinois Supreme Court in 175 cases, in 51 as sole counsel, of which 31 were decided in his favor.<ref>Handy, p. 440.</ref> From 1853 to 1860, another of Lincoln's largest clients was the [[Illinois Central Railroad]].<ref>Donald (1996), pp. 155–156, 196–197.</ref> Lincoln's reputation with clients gave rise to his nickname "Honest Abe."<ref>{{cite book | author=Philosophical Library| title =The Wisdom of Abraham Lincoln| publisher =Open Road Media| year =2010| page =1828| isbn =1-4532-0281-1}}</ref> Lincoln's most notable criminal trial occurred in 1858 when he defended [[William "Duff" Armstrong]], who was on trial for the murder of James Preston Metzker.<ref name="Donald150151">Donald (1996), pp. 150–151.</ref> The case is famous for Lincoln's use of a fact established by [[judicial notice]] in order to challenge the credibility of an eyewitness. After an opposing witness testified seeing the crime in the moonlight, Lincoln produced a ''[[Farmers' Almanac]]'' showing the moon was at a low angle, drastically reducing visibility. Based on this evidence, Armstrong was acquitted.<ref name="Donald150151"/> Lincoln rarely raised objections in the courtroom; but in an 1859 case, where he defended a cousin, Peachy Harrison, who was accused of stabbing another to death, Lincoln angrily protested the judge's decision to exclude evidence favorable to his client. Instead of holding Lincoln in contempt of court as was expected, the judge, a Democrat, reversed his ruling, allowing the evidence and acquitting Harrison.<ref name="Donald150151"/><ref>Harrison (1935), p. 270.</ref> ==Republican politics 1854–60== ===Slavery and a "House Divided"=== {{further|Slave and free states|Abraham Lincoln and slavery}} By the 1850s, slavery was still legal in the southern United States, but had been generally outlawed in the northern states, including Illinois, whose original 1818 Constitution forbade slavery, as required by the [[Northwest Ordinance]].<ref>{{cite web|title=The Peculiar Institution|url=http://publications.newberry.org/lincoln/exhibits/show/alwayshatedslavery/peculiarinstitution|publisher=Newberry Library and Chicago History Museum|archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/62dB0ccYV|archivedate=October 22, 2011|accessdate=January 5, 2012}}</ref> Lincoln disapproved of slavery, and the spread of slavery to new U.S. territory in the west.<ref>{{cite web|title=Lincoln Speaks Out|url=http://publications.newberry.org/lincoln/exhibits/show/alwayshatedslavery/speaksout|publisher=Newberry Library and Chicago History Museum|archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/62dBlWFGi|archivedate=October 22, 2011|accessdate=January 5, 2012}}</ref> He returned to politics to oppose the pro-slavery [[Kansas–Nebraska Act]] (1854); this law repealed the slavery-restricting [[Missouri Compromise]] (1820). Senior Senator [[Stephen A. Douglas]] of Illinois had incorporated [[Popular sovereignty in the United States#Emergence of the term "popular sovereignty" and its pejorative connotation|popular sovereignty]] into the Act. Douglas' provision, which Lincoln opposed, specified settlers had the right to determine locally whether to allow slavery in new U.S. territory, rather than have such a decision restricted by the national Congress.<ref>McGovern, pp. 36–37.</ref> [[Eric Foner]] (2010) contrasts the abolitionists and anti-slavery Radical Republicans of the Northeast who saw slavery as a sin, with the conservative Republicans who thought it was bad because it hurt white people and blocked progress. Foner argues that Lincoln was a moderate in the middle, opposing slavery primarily because it violated the [[Republicanism in the United States|republicanism principles]] of the [[Founding Fathers]], especially the equality of all men and democratic self-government as expressed in the [[United States Declaration of Independence|Declaration of Independence]].<ref>Foner (2010), pp. 84–88.</ref> [[File:DredScott.jpg|alt=Painting|thumb|upright|A portrait of [[Dred Scott]]. Lincoln denounced the Supreme Court decision in ''Dred Scott v. Sandford'' as part of a conspiracy to extend slavery.]] On October 16, 1854, in his "[[Abraham Lincoln Peoria speech|Peoria Speech]]", Lincoln declared his opposition to slavery, which he repeated en route to the presidency.<ref>Thomas (2008), pp. 148–152.</ref> Speaking in his Kentucky accent, with a very powerful voice,<ref>White, p. 199.</ref> he said the Kansas Act had a "''declared'' indifference, but as I must think, a covert ''real'' zeal for the spread of slavery. I cannot but hate it. I hate it because of the monstrous injustice of slavery itself. I hate it because it deprives our republican example of its just influence in the world&nbsp;..."<ref>Basler (1953), p. 255.</ref> In late 1854, Lincoln ran as a Whig for the U.S. Senate seat from Illinois. At that time, senators were elected by the state legislature.<ref>Oates, p. 119.</ref> After leading in the first six rounds of voting in the Illinois assembly, his support began to dwindle, and Lincoln instructed his backers to vote for [[Lyman Trumbull]], who defeated opponent [[Joel Aldrich Matteson]].<ref>White, pp. 205–208.</ref> The Whigs had been irreparably split by the Kansas–Nebraska Act. Lincoln wrote, "I think I am a Whig, but others say there are no Whigs, and that I am an abolitionist [...] I do no more than oppose the ''extension'' of slavery."<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/?id=wecyqmIs6voC&pg=PA16&q=%22I%20think%20I%20am%20a%20Whig%22 |title=Lincoln Looks West: From the Mississippi to the Pacific |editor=Richard W. Etulain|<!-- author2=Robert W. Johannsen -->|page=16|publisher=Southern Illinois University |date= March 5, 2010|accessdate=May 4, 2014|isbn=978-0-8093-2961-8}}</ref> Drawing on remnants of the old Whig party, and on disenchanted [[Free Soil Party|Free Soil]], [[Liberty Party (United States, 1840)|Liberty]], and [[Democratic Party (United States)|Democratic Party]] members, he was instrumental in forging the shape of the new [[Republican Party (United States)|Republican Party]].<ref>McGovern, pp. 38–39.</ref> At the [[1856 Republican National Convention]], Lincoln placed second in the contest to become the party's candidate for vice president.<ref>Donald (1996), p. 193.</ref> In 1857–1858, Douglas broke with President [[James Buchanan]], leading to a fight for control of the Democratic Party. Some eastern Republicans even favored the reelection of Douglas for the Senate in 1858, since he had led the opposition to the [[Lecompton Constitution]], which would have admitted Kansas as a [[slave state]].<ref>Oates, pp. 138–139.</ref> In March 1857, the Supreme Court issued its decision in ''[[Dred Scott v. Sandford]]''; Chief Justice [[Roger B. Taney]] opined that blacks were not citizens, and derived no rights from the Constitution. Lincoln denounced the decision, alleging it was the product of a conspiracy of Democrats to support the [[Slave Power]].<ref>Zarefsky, pp. 69–110.</ref> Lincoln argued, "The authors of the Declaration of Independence never intended 'to say all were equal in color, size, intellect, moral developments, or social capacity', but they 'did consider all men created equal—equal in certain inalienable rights, among which are life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness'."<ref>Jaffa, pp. 299–300.</ref> After the state Republican party convention nominated him for the U.S. Senate in 1858, Lincoln delivered his [[Lincoln's House Divided Speech|House Divided Speech]], drawing on {{bibleref|Mark|3:25|9}}, "A house divided against itself cannot stand. I believe this government cannot endure permanently half slave and half free. I do not expect the Union to be dissolved—I do not expect the house to fall—but I do expect it will cease to be divided. It will become all one thing, or all the other."<ref>White, p. 251.</ref> The speech created an evocative image of the danger of disunion caused by the slavery debate, and rallied Republicans across the North.<ref>Harris, p. 98.</ref> The stage was then set for the campaign for statewide election of the Illinois legislature which would, in turn, select Lincoln or Douglas as its U.S. senator.<ref>Donald (1996), p. 209.</ref> ===Lincoln–Douglas debates and Cooper Union speech=== {{Further|Lincoln–Douglas debates|Cooper Union speech}} [[File:Abraham Lincoln by Byers, 1858 - crop.jpg|thumb|250px|Lincoln in 1858, the year of [[Lincoln–Douglas debates|his debates]] with [[Stephen A. Douglas|Stephen Douglas]] over slavery.]] The Senate campaign featured the seven [[Lincoln–Douglas debates]] of 1858, the most famous political debates in American history.<ref>McPherson (1993), p. 182.</ref> The principals stood in stark contrast both physically and politically. Lincoln warned that "[[The Slave Power]]" was threatening the values of republicanism, and accused Douglas of distorting the values of the Founding Fathers that [[all men are created equal]], while Douglas emphasized his [[Freeport Doctrine]], that local settlers were free to choose whether to allow slavery or not, and accused Lincoln of having joined the abolitionists.<ref>Donald (1996), pp. 214–224.</ref> The debates had an atmosphere of a prize fight and drew crowds in the thousands. Lincoln stated Douglas' [[popular sovereignty]] theory was a threat to the nation's morality and that Douglas represented a conspiracy to extend slavery to free states. Douglas said that Lincoln was defying the authority of the U.S. Supreme Court and the ''Dred Scott'' decision.<ref>Donald (1996), p. 223.</ref> Though the Republican legislative candidates won more popular votes, the Democrats won more seats, and the legislature re-elected Douglas to the Senate. Despite the bitterness of the defeat for Lincoln, his articulation of the issues gave him a national political reputation.<ref>Carwardine (2003), pp. 89–90.</ref> In May 1859, Lincoln purchased the ''Illinois Staats-Anzeiger,'' a German-language newspaper which was consistently supportive; most of the state's 130,000 German Americans voted Democratic but there was Republican support that a German-language paper could mobilize.<ref>Donald (1996), pp. 242, 412.</ref> On February 27, 1860, New York party leaders invited Lincoln to give a [[Cooper Union speech|speech at Cooper Union]] to a group of powerful Republicans. Lincoln argued that the Founding Fathers had little use for popular sovereignty and had repeatedly sought to restrict slavery. Lincoln insisted the moral foundation of the Republicans required opposition to slavery, and rejected any "groping for some middle ground between the right and the wrong".<ref>Jaffa, p. 473.</ref> Despite his inelegant appearance—many in the audience thought him awkward and even ugly<ref>Holzer, pp. 108–111.</ref>—Lincoln demonstrated an intellectual leadership that brought him into the front ranks of the party and into contention for the Republican presidential nomination. Journalist [[Noah Brooks]] reported, "No man ever before made such an impression on his first appeal to a New York audience."<ref>Carwardine (2003), p. 97.</ref><ref>Holzer, p. 157.</ref> Historian [[David Herbert Donald|Donald]] described the speech as a "superb political move for an unannounced candidate, to appear in one rival's ([[William H. Seward]]) own state at an event sponsored by the second rival's ([[Salmon P. Chase]]) loyalists, while not mentioning either by name during its delivery".<ref>Donald (1996), p. 240.</ref> In response to an inquiry about his presidential intentions, Lincoln said, "The taste ''is'' in my mouth a little."<ref>Donald (1996), p. 241.</ref> ===1860 Presidential nomination and campaign=== {{Main|Electoral history of Abraham Lincoln|United States presidential election, 1860}} [[File:The Rail Candidate.jpg|thumb|350px|alt=Lincoln being carried by two men on a long board.|"The Rail Candidate"—Lincoln's 1860 candidacy is depicted as held up by the slavery issue—a slave on the left and party organization on the right.]] On May 9–10, 1860, the Illinois Republican State Convention was held in Decatur.<ref>Donald (1996), p. 244.</ref> Lincoln's followers organized a campaign team led by [[David Davis (Supreme Court justice)|David Davis]], [[Norman B. Judd|Norman Judd]], [[Leonard Swett]], and Jesse DuBois, and Lincoln received his first endorsement to run for the presidency.<ref>Oates, pp. 175–176.</ref> Exploiting the embellished legend of his frontier days with his father (clearing the land and splitting fence rails with an ax), Lincoln's supporters adopted the label of "The Rail Candidate".<ref>Donald (1996), p. 245.</ref> In 1860 Lincoln described himself : "I am in height, six feet, four inches, nearly; lean in flesh, weighing, on an average, one hundred and eighty pounds; dark complexion, with coarse black hair, and gray eyes." His biographers added that he had a: :Large head, with high crown of skull; thick, bushy hair; large and deep eye-caverns; heavy eyebrows; a large nose; large ears; large mouth; thin upper and somewhat thick under lip; very high and prominent cheek-bones; cheeks thin and sunken; strongly developed jawbone; chin slightly upturned; a thin but sinewy neck, rather long; long arms; large hands; chest thin and narrow as compared with his great height; legs of more than proportionate length, and large feet.<ref>{{cite book|author=, John G. Nicolay|title=Lincoln's personal appearance|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tKb8PBhNESYC&pg=PA932|year=1891|publisher=The Century vol 42|pages=932–38}}</ref> On May 18, at the [[1860 Republican National Convention|Republican National Convention]] in Chicago, Lincoln's friends promised and manipulated and won the nomination on the third ballot, beating candidates such as William H. Seward and Salmon P. Chase. A former Democrat, [[Hannibal Hamlin]] of Maine, was nominated for Vice President to balance the ticket. Lincoln's success depended on his reputation as a moderate on the slavery issue, and his strong support for Whiggish programs of internal improvements and the protective tariff.<ref>Luthin, pp. 609–629.</ref> On the third ballot Pennsylvania put him over the top. Pennsylvania iron interests were reassured by his support for protective tariffs.<ref>Hofstadter, pp. 50–55.</ref> Lincoln's managers had been adroitly focused on this delegation as well as the others, while following Lincoln's strong dictate to "Make no contracts that bind me".<ref>Donald (1996), pp. 247–250.</ref> Most Republicans agreed with Lincoln that the North was the aggrieved party, as the Slave Power tightened its grasp on the national government with the ''Dred Scott'' decision and the presidency of James Buchanan. Throughout the 1850s, Lincoln doubted the prospects of civil war, and his supporters rejected claims that his election would incite secession.<ref>Boritt (1994), pp. 10, 13, 18.</ref> Meanwhile, Douglas was selected as the candidate of the Northern Democrats. Delegates from 11 slave states walked out of the [[1860 Democratic National Convention|Democratic convention]], disagreeing with Douglas' position on popular sovereignty, and ultimately selected [[John C. Breckinridge]] as their candidate.<ref>Donald (1996), p. 253.</ref> The [[Wide Awake Parade]] was formed in 1860 by Republicans in the Northern states to help nominate Abraham Lincoln as the [[President of the United States]]. As Lincoln's ideas of abolishing [[slavery]] grew, so did his supporters. People of the Northern states knew the Southern states would vote against Lincoln because of his ideas of anti-slavery and took action to rally supporters for Lincoln.<ref name="murrin">Murrin, John. ''Liberty, Equality, Power: A History of the American People''. Belmont: Clark Baxter, 2006.</ref> As Douglas and the other candidates went through with their campaigns, Lincoln was the only one of them who gave no speeches. Instead, he monitored the campaign closely and relied on the enthusiasm of the Republican Party. The party did the leg work that produced majorities across the North, and produced an abundance of campaign posters, leaflets, and newspaper editorials. There were thousands of Republican speakers who focused first on the party platform, and second on Lincoln's life story, emphasizing his childhood poverty. The goal was to demonstrate the superior power of "free labor", whereby a common farm boy could work his way to the top by his own efforts.<ref>Donald (1996), pp. 254–256.</ref> The Republican Party's production of campaign literature dwarfed the combined opposition; a ''Chicago Tribune'' writer produced a pamphlet that detailed Lincoln's life, and sold 100,000 to 200,000 copies.<ref>Donald (1996), p. 254.</ref> ==Presidency== {{main|Presidency of Abraham Lincoln}} ===1860 election and secession=== {{Main|United States presidential election, 1860|Baltimore Plot}} {{multiple image | align=right | direction=horizontal | width= | footer= | width1=350 | image1=ElectoralCollege1860.svg | alt1=Map of the U.S. showing Lincoln winning the North-east and West, Breckinridge winning the South, Douglas winning Missouri, and Bell winning Virginia, West Virginia, and Kentucky. | caption1=In 1860, northern and western [[Electoral College (United States)|electoral]] votes (shown in red) put Lincoln into the White House. | width2=250 | image2=Abraham lincoln inauguration 1861.jpg | alt2=A large crowd in front of a large building with many pillars. | caption2=1861 inaugural at the [[U.S. Capitol Building|Capitol]]. The rotunda was still under construction. }} On November 6, 1860, Lincoln was elected the 16th president of the United States, beating Democrat Stephen A. Douglas, John C. Breckinridge of the Southern Democrats, and [[John Bell (Tennessee politician)|John Bell]] of the new [[Constitutional Union Party (United States)|Constitutional Union Party]]. He was the first president from the Republican Party. His victory was entirely due to the strength of his support in the North and West; no ballots were cast for him in 10 of the 15 Southern slave states, and he won only two of 996 counties in all the Southern states.<ref>Mansch, p. 61.</ref> Lincoln received 1,866,452 votes, Douglas 1,376,957 votes, Breckinridge 849,781 votes, and Bell 588,789 votes. Turnout was 82.2&nbsp;percent, with Lincoln winning the free Northern states, as well as California and Oregon. Douglas won Missouri, and split New Jersey with Lincoln.<ref>Harris, p. 243.</ref> Bell won Virginia, Tennessee, and Kentucky, and Breckinridge won the rest of the South.<ref>White, p. 350.</ref> Although Lincoln won only a plurality of the popular vote, his victory in the [[United States Electoral College|electoral college]] was decisive: Lincoln had 180 and his opponents added together had only 123. There were [[Electoral fusion|fusion tickets]] in which all of Lincoln's opponents combined to support the same slate of Electors in New York, New Jersey, and Rhode Island, but even if the anti-Lincoln vote had been combined in every state, Lincoln still would have won a majority in the Electoral College.<ref>Nevins, ''Ordeal of the Union'' vol 4. p. 312.</ref> [[File:Abraham Lincoln O-55, 1861-crop.jpg|thumb|250px|The first photographic image of the new president]] As Lincoln's election became evident, secessionists made clear their intent to leave the Union before he took office the next March.<ref>Edgar, p. 350.</ref> On December 20, 1860, South Carolina took the lead by adopting an ordinance of secession; by February 1, 1861, Florida, Mississippi, Alabama, Georgia, Louisiana, and Texas followed.<ref name="Donald, p. 267"/><ref>Potter, p. 498.</ref> Six of these states then adopted a constitution and declared themselves to be a sovereign nation, the [[Confederate States of America]].<ref name="Donald, p. 267">Donald (1996), p. 267.</ref> The upper South and border states (Delaware, Maryland, Virginia, North Carolina, Tennessee, Kentucky, Missouri, and Arkansas) listened to, but initially rejected, the secessionist appeal.<ref>White, p. 362.</ref> President Buchanan and President-elect Lincoln refused to recognize the Confederacy, declaring secession illegal.<ref>Potter, pp. 520, 569–570.</ref> The Confederacy selected [[Jefferson Davis]] as its provisional President on February 9, 1861.<ref>White, p. 369.</ref> There were attempts at compromise. The [[Crittenden Compromise]] would have extended the [[Missouri Compromise]] line of 1820, dividing the territories into slave and free, contrary to the Republican Party's free-soil platform.<ref name=White360-361>White, pp. 360–361.</ref> Lincoln rejected the idea, saying, "I will suffer death before I consent&nbsp;... to any concession or compromise which looks like buying the privilege to take possession of this government to which we have a constitutional right."<ref>Donald (1996), p. 268.</ref> Lincoln, however, did tacitly support the proposed [[Corwin Amendment]] to the Constitution, which passed Congress before Lincoln came into office and was then awaiting ratification by the states. That proposed amendment would have protected slavery in states where it already existed and would have guaranteed that Congress would not interfere with slavery without Southern consent.<ref>Vorenberg, p. 22.</ref><ref name=Vile_pp280>Vile (2003), ''Encyclopedia of Constitutional Amendments: Proposed Amendments, and Amending Issues 1789–2002'' pp.&nbsp;280–281</ref> A few weeks before the war, Lincoln sent a letter to every governor informing them Congress had passed a joint resolution to amend the Constitution.<ref name=Lupton_2006>Lupton (2006), [http://www.lib.niu.edu/2006/ih060934.html Abraham Lincoln and the Corwin Amendment], Retrieved January 13, 2013</ref> Lincoln was open to the possibility of a constitutional convention to make further amendments to the Constitution.<ref name=Vile_p281>Vile (2003), ''Encyclopedia of Constitutional Amendments: Proposed Amendments, and Amending Issues 1789–2002'' p.&nbsp;281</ref> En route to his inauguration by train, Lincoln addressed crowds and legislatures across the North.<ref>Donald (1996), pp. 273–277.</ref> The president-elect then [[Baltimore Plot|evaded possible assassins]] in Baltimore, who were uncovered by Lincoln's head of security, [[Allan Pinkerton]]. On February 23, 1861, he arrived in disguise in Washington, D.C., which was placed under substantial military guard.<ref>Donald (1996), pp. 277–279.</ref> Lincoln directed his [[Lincoln's first inaugural address|inaugural address]] to the South, proclaiming once again that he had no intention, or inclination, to abolish slavery in the Southern states: {{quote|Apprehension seems to exist among the people of the Southern States that by the accession of a Republican Administration their property and their peace and personal security are to be endangered. There has never been any reasonable cause for such apprehension. Indeed, the most ample evidence to the contrary has all the while existed and been open to their inspection. It is found in nearly all the published speeches of him who now addresses you. I do but quote from one of those speeches when I declare that "I have no purpose, directly or indirectly, to interfere with the institution of slavery in the States where it exists. I believe I have no lawful right to do so, and I have no inclination to do so."|[[Lincoln's first inaugural address|First inaugural address]], 4 March 1861<ref>Sandburg (2002), p. 212.</ref>}} The President ended his address with an appeal to the people of the South: "We are not enemies, but friends. We must not be enemies&nbsp;... The mystic chords of memory, stretching from every battlefield, and patriot grave, to every living heart and hearthstone, all over this broad land, will yet swell the chorus of the Union, when again touched, as surely they will be, by the better angels of our nature."<ref>Donald (1996), pp. 283–284.</ref> The failure of the [[Peace Conference of 1861]] signaled that legislative compromise was impossible. By March 1861, no leaders of the insurrection had proposed rejoining the Union on any terms. Meanwhile, Lincoln and the Republican leadership agreed that the dismantling of the Union could not be tolerated.<ref>Donald (1996), pp. 268, 279.</ref> Lincoln said as the war was ending: :Both parties deprecated war, but one of them would make war rather than let the Nation survive, and the other would accept war rather than let it perish, and the war came.<ref>March 4, 1865, [[Lincoln's second inaugural address]].</ref> ===Beginning of the war=== {{Main|American Civil War|Battle of Fort Sumter}} [[File:Major Robert Anderson.jpg|alt=portrait|thumb|150px|[[Robert Anderson (Civil War)|Major Anderson]], Ft. Sumter commander]] The commander of Fort Sumter, South Carolina, [[Robert Anderson (Civil War)|Major Robert Anderson]], sent a request for provisions to Washington, and the execution of Lincoln's order to meet that request was seen by the secessionists as an act of war. On April 12, 1861, Confederate forces fired on Union troops at [[Battle of Fort Sumter|Fort Sumter]], forcing them to surrender, and began the war. Historian [[Allan Nevins]] argued that the newly inaugurated Lincoln made three miscalculations: underestimating the gravity of the crisis, exaggerating the strength of Unionist sentiment in the South, and not realizing the Southern Unionists were insisting there be no invasion.<ref>Allan Nevins, Ordeal of the Union'' (1959) vol 5 p 29</ref> [[William Tecumseh Sherman]] talked to Lincoln during inauguration week and was "sadly disappointed" at his failure to realize that "the country was sleeping on a volcano" and that the South was preparing for war.<ref>Sherman, pp. 185–186.</ref> Donald concludes that, "His repeated efforts to avoid collision in the months between inauguration and the firing on Ft. Sumter showed he adhered to his vow not to be the first to shed fraternal blood. But he also vowed not to surrender the forts. The only resolution of these contradictory positions was for the confederates to fire the first shot; they did just that."<ref>Donald (1996), p. 293.</ref> On April 15, Lincoln called on all the states to send detachments totaling 75,000 troops to recapture forts, protect Washington, and "preserve the Union", which, in his view, still existed intact despite the actions of the seceding states. This call forced the states to choose sides. Virginia declared its secession and was rewarded with the Confederate capital, despite the exposed position of [[Richmond, Virginia|Richmond]] so close to Union lines. North Carolina, Tennessee, and Arkansas also voted for secession over the next two months. Secession sentiment was strong in Missouri and Maryland, but did not prevail; Kentucky tried to be neutral.<ref name="Oates, p. 226">Oates, p. 226.</ref> The Confederate attack on Fort Sumter rallied Americans north of the [[Mason-Dixon line]] to the defense of the American nation. Historian Allan Nevins says: :The thunderclap of Sumter produced a startling crystallization of Northern sentiment&nbsp;... Anger swept the land. From every side came news of mass meetings, speeches, resolutions, tenders of business support, the muster of companies and regiments, the determined action of governors and legislatures."<ref>Allan Nevins, ''The War for the Union: The Improvised War 1861–1862'' (1959) pp.&nbsp;74–75</ref><ref>Russell McClintock, ''Lincoln and the Decision for War: The Northern Response to Secession'' (2008) pp.&nbsp;254–74 provides details of support across the North</ref> States sent Union regiments south in response to Lincoln's call to save the capital and confront the rebellion. On April 19, mobs in Baltimore, which controlled the rail links, [[Baltimore riot of 1861|attacked Union troops]] who were changing trains, and local leaders' groups later burned critical rail bridges to the capital. The Army responded by arresting [[Maryland in the American Civil War#Imposition of martial law|local Maryland]] officials. Lincoln suspended the writ of ''[[Habeas corpus in the United States#Suspension during the Civil War|habeas corpus]]'' in areas the army felt it needed to secure for troops to reach Washington.<ref>Heidler (2000), p. 174.</ref> [[John Merryman]], a Maryland official involved in hindering the U.S. troop movements, petitioned Supreme Court Chief Justice and Marylander, [[Roger B. Taney]], author of the controversial pro-slavery ''Dred Scott'' opinion, to issue a writ of ''habeas corpus,'' and in June Taney, acting as a circuit judge and not speaking for the Supreme Court, issued the writ, because in his opinion only Congress could suspend the writ. Lincoln continued the army policy that the writ was suspended in limited areas despite the [[Ex parte Merryman]] ruling.<ref>William C. Harris, ''Lincoln and the Border States: Preserving the Union'' (University Press of Kansas, 2011) pp.&nbsp;59–71</ref><ref>{{cite book|authorlink=Mark E. Neely Jr.|last=Neely |first=Mark E. |title=The Fate of Liberty: Abraham Lincoln and Civil Liberties |year=1992|pages=3–31}}</ref> ===Assuming command for the Union in the war=== After the [[Battle of Fort Sumter]], Lincoln realized the importance of taking immediate executive control of the war and making an overall strategy to put down the rebellion. Lincoln encountered an unprecedented political and military crisis, and he responded as [[commander-in-chief]], using unprecedented powers. He expanded his war powers, and imposed a blockade on all the Confederate shipping ports, disbursed funds before appropriation by Congress, and after suspending ''habeas corpus'', arrested and imprisoned thousands of suspected Confederate sympathizers. Lincoln was supported by Congress and the northern public for these actions. In addition, Lincoln had to contend with reinforcing strong Union sympathies in the border slave states and keeping the war from becoming an international conflict.<ref>Donald (1996), pp. 303–304; Carwardine (2003), pp. 163–164.</ref> [[File:RunningtheMachine-LincAdmin.jpg|thumb|350px|alt=A group of men sitting at a table as another man creates money on a wooden machine.|"Running the 'Machine'&nbsp;": An 1864 political cartoon takes a swing at Lincoln's administration—featuring [[William Fessenden]], [[Edwin Stanton]], [[William H. Seward|William Seward]], [[Gideon Welles]], Lincoln and others.]] The war effort was the source of continued disparagement of Lincoln, and dominated his time and attention. From the start, it was clear that bipartisan support would be essential to success in the war effort, and any manner of compromise alienated factions on both sides of the aisle, such as the appointment of Republicans and Democrats to command positions in the Union Army. Copperheads criticized Lincoln for refusing to compromise on the slavery issue. Conversely, the Radical Republicans criticized him for moving too slowly in abolishing slavery.<ref>Donald (1996), pp. 315, 331–333, 338–339, 417.</ref> On August 6, 1861, Lincoln signed the [[Confiscation Act of 1861|Confiscation Act]] that authorized judiciary proceedings to confiscate and free slaves who were used to support the Confederate war effort. In practice, the law had little effect, but it did signal political support for abolishing slavery in the Confederacy.<ref>Donald (1996), p. 314; Carwardine (2003), p. 178.</ref> In late August 1861, General [[John C. Frémont]], the 1856 Republican presidential nominee, issued, without consulting his superiors in Washington, a proclamation of [[martial law]] in Missouri. He declared that any citizen found bearing arms could be [[court-martial]]ed and shot, and that slaves of persons aiding the rebellion would be freed. Frémont was already under a cloud with charges of negligence in his command of the [[Department of the West]] compounded with allegations of fraud and corruption. Lincoln overruled Frémont's proclamation. Lincoln believed that Fremont's emancipation was political; neither militarily necessary nor legal.<ref>Donald (1996), pp. 314–317.</ref> After Lincoln acted, Union enlistments from Maryland, Kentucky, and Missouri increased by over 40,000 troops.<ref>Carwardine (2003), p. 181.</ref> The [[Trent Affair]] of late 1861 threatened war with Great Britain. The U.S. Navy illegally intercepted a British merchant ship, the ''Trent'', on the high seas and seized two Confederate envoys; Britain protested vehemently while the U.S. cheered. Lincoln resolved the issue by releasing the two men and war was successfully averted with Britain.<ref name="CFAdams">Adams, pp. 540–562.</ref> Lincoln's foreign policy approach had been initially hands off, due to his inexperience; he left most diplomacy appointments and other foreign policy matters to his Secretary of State, William Seward. Seward's initial reaction to the ''Trent'' affair, however, was too bellicose, so Lincoln also turned to Senator [[Charles Sumner]], the chairman of the [[Senate Foreign Relations Committee]] and an expert in British diplomacy.<ref>Donald (1996), p. 322.</ref> To learn technical military terms, Lincoln borrowed and studied [[Henry Halleck]]'s book, ''Elements of Military Art and Science'' from the [[Library of Congress]].<ref>Prokopowicz, p. 127.</ref> Lincoln painstakingly monitored the telegraphic reports coming into the [[United States War Department|War Department]] in Washington, D.C. He kept close tabs on all phases of the military effort, consulted with governors, and selected generals based on their past success (as well as their state and party). In January 1862, after many complaints of inefficiency and profiteering in the War Department, Lincoln replaced [[Simon Cameron]] with [[Edwin Stanton]] as [[United States Secretary of War|War Secretary]]. Stanton was a staunchly Unionist pro-business conservative Democrat who moved toward the Radical Republican faction. Nevertheless, he worked more often and more closely with Lincoln than any other senior official. "Stanton and Lincoln virtually conducted the war together," say Thomas and Hyman.<ref>Benjamin P. Thomas and Harold M. Hyman, ''Stanton, the Life and Times of Lincoln's Secretary of War'' (Knopf, 1962) pp. 71, 87, 229–30, 385 (quote)</ref> In terms of war strategy, Lincoln articulated two priorities: to ensure that Washington was well-defended, and to conduct an aggressive war effort that would satisfy the demand in the North for prompt, decisive victory; major Northern newspaper editors expected victory within 90 days.<ref>Donald (1996), pp. 295–296.</ref> Twice a week, Lincoln would meet with his cabinet in the afternoon, and occasionally Mary Lincoln would force him to take a carriage ride because she was concerned he was working too hard.<ref>Donald (1996), pp. 391–392.</ref> Lincoln learned from his chief of staff General Henry Halleck, a student of the European strategist [[Antoine-Henri Jomini|Jomini]], of the critical need to control strategic points, such as the Mississippi River;<ref>Ambrose, pp. 7, 66, 159.</ref> he also knew well the importance of [[Vicksburg, Mississippi|Vicksburg]] and understood the necessity of defeating the enemy's army, rather than simply capturing territory.<ref>Donald (1996), pp. 432–436.</ref> ===General McClellan=== After the Union defeat at the [[First Battle of Bull Run]] and the retirement of the aged [[Winfield Scott]] in late 1861, Lincoln appointed Major General [[George B. McClellan]] general-in-chief of all the Union armies.<ref>Donald (1996), pp. 318–319.</ref> McClellan, a young West Point graduate, railroad executive, and Pennsylvania Democrat, took several months to plan and attempt his [[Peninsula Campaign]], longer than Lincoln wanted. The campaign's objective was to capture Richmond by moving the [[Army of the Potomac]] by boat to the peninsula and then overland to the Confederate capital. McClellan's repeated delays frustrated Lincoln and Congress, as did his position that no troops were needed to defend Washington. Lincoln insisted on holding some of McClellan's troops in defense of the capital; McClellan, who consistently overestimated the strength of Confederate troops, blamed this decision for the ultimate failure of the Peninsula Campaign.<ref>Donald (1996), pp. 349–352.</ref> [[File:Lincoln and McClellan 1862-10-03.jpg|alt=Photograph of Lincoln and McClellan sitting at a table in a field tent|thumb|250px|Lincoln and [[George B. McClellan|George McClellan]] after the [[Battle of Antietam]] in 1862.]] Lincoln removed McClellan as general-in-chief in March 1862, after McClellan's "Harrison's Landing Letter", in which he offered unsolicited political advice to Lincoln urging caution in the war effort.<ref>Donald (1996), pp. 360–361.</ref> The office remained empty until July, when [[Henry Halleck]] was selected for it.<ref>[http://www.civilwar.org/education/history/biographies/henry-w-halleck.html Henry W. Halleck] ''Civil War Trust.'' Retrieved March 28, 2016.</ref> McClellan's letter incensed Radical Republicans, who successfully pressured Lincoln to appoint [[John Pope (military officer)|John Pope]], a Republican, as head of the new [[Army of Virginia]]. Pope complied with Lincoln's strategic desire to move toward Richmond from the north, thus protecting the capital from attack.<ref name="Nevins 1960, pp. 2:159–162">Nevins (1960), pp. 2:159–162.</ref> However, lacking requested reinforcements from McClellan, now commanding the Army of the Potomac, Pope was soundly defeated at the [[Second Battle of Bull Run]] in the summer of 1862, forcing the Army of the Potomac to defend Washington for a second time.<ref name="Nevins 1960, pp. 2:159–162"/> The war also expanded with naval operations in 1862 when the [[CSS Virginia|CSS ''Virginia'']], formerly the USS ''Merrimack'', damaged or destroyed three Union vessels in Norfolk, Virginia, before being engaged and damaged by the [[USS Monitor|USS ''Monitor'']]. Lincoln closely reviewed the dispatches and interrogated naval officers during their clash in the [[Battle of Hampton Roads]].<ref>Donald (1996), pp. 339–340.</ref> Despite his dissatisfaction with McClellan's failure to reinforce Pope, Lincoln was desperate, and restored him to command of all forces around Washington, to the dismay of all in his cabinet but Seward.<ref>Goodwin, pp. 478–479.</ref> Two days after McClellan's return to command, General [[Robert E. Lee]]'s forces crossed the [[Potomac River]] into Maryland, leading to the [[Battle of Antietam]] in September 1862.<ref>Goodwin, pp. 478–480.</ref> The ensuing Union victory was among the bloodiest in American history, but it enabled Lincoln to announce that he would issue an [[Emancipation Proclamation]] in January. Having composed the Proclamation some time earlier, Lincoln had waited for a military victory to publish it to avoid it being perceived as the product of desperation.<ref>Goodwin, p. 481.</ref> McClellan then resisted the President's demand that he pursue Lee's retreating and exposed army, while his counterpart General [[Don Carlos Buell]] likewise refused orders to move the [[Army of the Ohio]] against rebel forces in eastern Tennessee. As a result, Lincoln replaced Buell with [[William Rosecrans]]; and, after the 1862 midterm elections, he replaced McClellan with Republican [[Ambrose Burnside]]. Both of these replacements were political moderates and prospectively more supportive of the Commander-in-Chief.<ref>Donald (1996), pp. 389–390.</ref> [[File:Union soldiers entrenched along the west bank of the Rappahannock River at Fredericksburg, Virginia (111-B-157).jpg|thumb|250px|Union soldiers before Marye's Heights, [[Second Battle of Fredericksburg|Fredericksburg, just prior to the battle of May 3, 1863]].]] Burnside, against the advice of the president, prematurely launched an offensive across the [[Rappahannock River]] and was stunningly [[Battle of Fredericksburg|defeated by Lee at Fredericksburg]] in December. Not only had Burnside been defeated on the battlefield, but his soldiers were disgruntled and undisciplined. Desertions during 1863 were in the thousands and they increased after Fredericksburg.<ref>Donald (1996), pp. 429–431.</ref> Lincoln brought in [[Joseph Hooker]], despite his record of loose talk about the need for a military dictatorship.<ref>Nevins 6:433–44</ref> The [[United States House of Representatives elections, 1862|mid-term elections]] in 1862 brought the Republicans severe losses due to sharp disfavor with the administration over its failure to deliver a speedy end to the war, as well as rising inflation, new high taxes, rumors of corruption, the suspension of ''habeas corpus,'' [[Conscription|the military draft law]], and fears that freed slaves would undermine the labor market. The Emancipation Proclamation announced in September gained votes for the Republicans in the rural areas of New England and the upper Midwest, but it lost votes in the cities and the lower Midwest.<ref name="ReferenceA">Nevins vol 6 pp. 318–322, quote on p. 322.</ref> While Republicans were discouraged, Democrats were energized and did especially well in Pennsylvania, Ohio, Indiana, and New York. The Republicans did maintain their majorities in Congress and in the major states, except New York. The Cincinnati ''Gazette'' contended that the voters were "depressed by the interminable nature of this war, as so far conducted, and by the rapid exhaustion of the national resources without progress".<ref name="ReferenceA"/> In the spring of 1863, Lincoln was optimistic about upcoming military campaigns to the point of thinking the end of the war could be near if a string of victories could be put together; these plans included Hooker's attack on Lee north of Richmond, Rosecrans' on Chattanooga, Grant's on Vicksburg, and a naval assault on Charleston.<ref>Donald (1996), pp. 422–423.</ref> Hooker was routed by Lee at the [[Battle of Chancellorsville]] in May,<ref>Nevins 6:432–450.</ref> but continued to command his troops for some weeks. He ignored Lincoln's order to divide his troops, and possibly force Lee to do the same in [[Harper's Ferry]], and tendered his resignation, which Lincoln accepted. He was replaced by [[George Meade]], who followed Lee into Pennsylvania for the [[Gettysburg Campaign]], which was a victory for the Union, though Lee's army avoided capture. At the same time, after initial setbacks, Grant laid siege to Vicksburg and the Union navy attained some success in Charleston harbor.<ref>Donald (1996), pp. 444–447.</ref> After the Battle of Gettysburg, Lincoln clearly understood that his military decisions would be more effectively carried out by conveying his orders through his War Secretary or his general-in-chief on to his generals, who resented his civilian interference with their own plans. Even so, he often continued to give detailed directions to his generals as Commander-in-Chief.<ref>Donald (1996), p. 446.</ref> ===Emancipation Proclamation=== {{Main|Abraham Lincoln and slavery|Emancipation Proclamation}} [[File:Emancipation proclamation.jpg|thumb|250px|Lincoln presents the first draft of the Emancipation Proclamation to his cabinet. Painted by [[Francis Bicknell Carpenter]] in 1864|alt=A dark-haired, bearded, middle-aged man holding documents is seated among seven other men.]] Lincoln understood that the Federal government's power to end slavery was limited by the Constitution, which before 1865, committed the issue to individual states. He argued before and during his election that the eventual extinction of slavery would result from preventing its expansion into new U.S. territory. At the beginning of the war, he also sought to persuade the states to accept [[compensated emancipation]] in return for their prohibition of slavery. Lincoln believed that curtailing slavery in these ways would economically expunge it, as envisioned by the [[Founding Fathers of the United States|Founding Fathers]], under the constitution.<ref name="Mackubin">{{cite web|url=http://www.nationalreview.com/books/owens200403251139.asp|title=The Liberator|first=Thomas Owens|last=Mackubin|date=March 25, 2004|work=National Review|publisher=National Review|archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/62a7fJ9hj|archivedate=October 20, 2011}}</ref> President Lincoln rejected two geographically limited emancipation attempts by Major General John C. Frémont in August 1861 and by Major General [[David Hunter]] in May 1862, on the grounds that it was not within their power, and it would upset the border states loyal to the Union.<ref>Guelzo (1999), pp. 290–291.</ref> On June 19, 1862, endorsed by Lincoln, Congress passed an act banning slavery on all federal territory. In July, the [[Confiscation Act of 1862]] was passed, which set up court procedures that could free the slaves of anyone convicted of aiding the rebellion. Although Lincoln believed it was not within Congress's power to free the slaves within the states, he approved the bill in deference to the legislature. He felt such action could only be taken by the Commander-in-Chief using war powers granted to the president by the Constitution, and Lincoln was planning to take that action. In that month, Lincoln discussed a draft of the Emancipation Proclamation with his cabinet. In it, he stated that "as a fit and necessary military measure, on January 1, 1863, all persons held as slaves in the Confederate states will thenceforward, and forever, be free".<ref>Donald (1996), pp. 364–365.</ref> Privately, Lincoln concluded at this point that the slave base of the Confederacy had to be eliminated. However Copperheads argued that emancipation was a stumbling block to peace and reunification. Republican editor [[Horace Greeley]] of the highly influential ''New York Tribune'' fell for the ploy,<ref>McPherson (1992), p. 124.</ref> and Lincoln refuted it directly in a shrewd letter of August 22, 1862. Although he said he personally wished all men could be free, Lincoln stated that the primary goal of his actions as the U.S. president (he used the first person pronoun and explicitly refers to his "official duty") was that of preserving the Union:<ref>Guelzo (2004), pp. 147–153.</ref> {{quote|My paramount object in this struggle is to save the Union, and is not either to save or to destroy slavery. If I could save the Union without freeing any slave I would do it, and if I could save it by freeing all the slaves I would do it; and if I could save it by freeing some and leaving others alone I would also do that. What I do about slavery, and the colored race, I do because I believe it helps to save the Union; and what I forbear, I forbear because I do not believe it would help to save the Union&nbsp;... [¶] I have here stated my purpose according to my view of official duty; and I intend no modification of my oft-expressed personal wish that all men everywhere could be free.<ref>Basler (1953), p. 388</ref>}} The Emancipation Proclamation, issued on September 22, 1862, and put into effect on January 1, 1863, declared free the slaves in 10 states not then under Union control, with exemptions specified for areas already under Union control in two states.<ref>Donald (1996), pp. 364, 379.</ref> Lincoln spent the next 100 days preparing the army and the nation for emancipation, while Democrats rallied their voters in the 1862 off-year elections by warning of the threat freed slaves posed to northern whites.<ref>Louis P. Masur, ''Lincoln's Hundred Days: The Emancipation Proclamation and the War for the Union'' (Harvard University Press; 2012)</ref> Once the abolition of slavery in the rebel states became a military objective, as Union armies advanced south, more slaves were liberated until all three million of them in Confederate territory were freed. Lincoln's comment on the signing of the Proclamation was: "I never, in my life, felt more certain that I was doing right, than I do in signing this paper."<ref>Donald (1996), p. 407.</ref> For some time, Lincoln continued earlier plans to set up [[Abraham Lincoln on slavery#Colonization|colonies]] for the newly freed slaves. He commented favorably on colonization in the Emancipation Proclamation, but all attempts at such a massive undertaking failed.<ref>Donald (1996), p. 408.</ref> A few days after Emancipation was announced, 13 Republican governors met at the [[War Governors' Conference]]; they supported the president's Proclamation, but suggested the removal of General George B. McClellan as commander of the Union Army.<ref>Nevins (1960), pp. 2:239–240.</ref> Enlisting former slaves in the military was official government policy after the issuance of the Emancipation Proclamation. By the spring of 1863, Lincoln was ready to recruit black troops in more than token numbers. In a letter to [[Andrew Johnson]], the military governor of Tennessee, encouraging him to lead the way in raising black troops, Lincoln wrote, "The bare sight of 50,000 armed and drilled black soldiers on the banks of the Mississippi would end the rebellion at once".<ref>Donald (1996), pp. 430–431.</ref> By the end of 1863, at Lincoln's direction, General [[Lorenzo Thomas]] had recruited 20 regiments of blacks from the Mississippi Valley.<ref>Donald (1996), p. 431.</ref> [[Frederick Douglass]] once observed of Lincoln: "In his company, I was never reminded of my humble origin, or of my unpopular color".<ref>Douglass, pp. 259–260.</ref> ===Gettysburg Address (1863)=== {{Main|Gettysburg Address}} [[File:Lincoln's Gettysburg Address, Gettysburg.jpg|thumb|300px|The only confirmed photo of Abraham Lincoln at Gettysburg, some three hours before [[Gettysburg Address|the speech]].]] With the great Union victory at the [[Battle of Gettysburg]] in July 1863, and the defeat of the Copperheads in the Ohio election in the fall, Lincoln maintained a strong base of party support and was in a strong position to redefine the war effort, despite the [[New York City draft riots]]. The stage was set for his address at the Gettysburg battlefield cemetery on November 19, 1863.<ref>Donald (1996), pp. 453–460.</ref> Defying Lincoln's prediction that "the world will little note, nor long remember what we say here", the Address became the most quoted speech in American history.<ref name="Bulla">Bulla (2010), p. 222.</ref> In 272 words, and three minutes, Lincoln asserted the nation was born not in 1789, but in 1776, "conceived in Liberty, and dedicated to the proposition that all men are created equal". He defined the war as an effort dedicated to these principles of liberty and equality for all. The emancipation of slaves was now part of the national war effort. He declared that the deaths of so many brave soldiers would not be in vain, that slavery would end as a result of the losses, and the future of democracy in the world would be assured, that "government of the people, by the people, for the people, shall not perish from the earth". Lincoln concluded that the Civil War had a profound objective: a new birth of freedom in the nation.<ref>Donald (1996), pp. 460–466.</ref><ref>Wills, pp. 20, 27, 105, 146.</ref> ===General Grant=== [[File:The Peacemakers 1868.jpg|alt=Painting of four men conferring in a ship's cabin, entitled "The Peacemakers".|thumb|300px|President Lincoln (center right) with, from left, Generals [[William Tecumseh Sherman|Sherman]] and [[Ulysses S. Grant|Grant]] and Admiral [[David Dixon Porter|Porter]] – [[The Peacemakers|1868 painting]] of events aboard the ''[[River Queen (steamboat)|River Queen]]'' in March 1865]] Meade's failure to capture Lee's army as it retreated from Gettysburg, and the continued passivity of the Army of the Potomac, persuaded Lincoln that a change in command was needed. General [[Ulysses S. Grant]]'s victories at the [[Battle of Shiloh]] and in the [[Vicksburg campaign]] impressed Lincoln and made Grant a strong candidate to head the Union Army. Responding to criticism of Grant after Shiloh, Lincoln had said, "I can't spare this man. He fights."<ref>Thomas (2008), p. 315.</ref> With Grant in command, Lincoln felt the Union Army could relentlessly pursue a series of coordinated offensives in multiple theaters, and have a top commander who agreed on the use of black troops.<ref>Nevins, ''Ordeal of the Union'' (Vol. IV), pp. 6–17.</ref> Nevertheless, Lincoln was concerned that Grant might be considering a candidacy for President in 1864, as McClellan was. Lincoln arranged for an intermediary to make inquiry into Grant's political intentions, and being assured that he had none, submitted to the Senate Grant's promotion to commander of the Union Army. He obtained Congress's consent to reinstate for Grant the rank of Lieutenant General, which no officer had held since George Washington.<ref>Donald (1996), pp. 490–492.</ref> Grant waged his bloody [[Overland Campaign]] in 1864. This is often characterized as a [[attrition warfare|war of attrition]], given high Union losses at battles such as the [[Battle of the Wilderness]] and [[Battle of Cold Harbor|Cold Harbor]]. Even though they had the advantage of fighting on the defensive, the Confederate forces had "almost as high a percentage of casualties as the Union forces".<ref>McPherson (2009), p. 113.</ref> The high casualty figures of the Union alarmed the North; Grant had lost a third of his army, and Lincoln asked what Grant's plans were, to which the general replied, "I propose to fight it out on this line if it takes all summer."<ref>Donald (1996), p. 501.</ref> The Confederacy lacked reinforcements, so Lee's army shrank with every costly battle. Grant's army moved south, crossed the [[James River]], forcing a siege and trench warfare outside [[Petersburg, Virginia]]. Lincoln then made an extended visit to Grant's headquarters at City Point, Virginia. This allowed the president to confer in person with Grant and William Tecumseh Sherman about the hostilities, as Sherman coincidentally managed a hasty visit to Grant from his position in North Carolina.<ref name="whitehousehistory">{{cite web|url=http://www.whitehousehistory.org/whha_about/whitehouse_collection/whitehouse_collection-art-06.html|title=The Peacemakers|publisher=The White House Historical Association|archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/62a8J9jOa|archivedate=October 20, 2011|deadurl=}}</ref> Lincoln and the Republican Party mobilized support for the draft throughout the North, and replaced the Union losses.<ref>Thomas (2008), pp. 422–424.</ref> Lincoln authorized Grant to target the Confederate infrastructure—such as plantations, railroads, and bridges—hoping to destroy the South's morale and weaken its economic ability to continue fighting. Grant's move to Petersburg resulted in the obstruction of three railroads between Richmond and the South. This strategy allowed Generals Sherman and [[Philip Sheridan]] to destroy plantations and towns in Virginia's [[Shenandoah Valley]]. The damage caused by [[Sherman's March to the Sea]] through Georgia in 1864 was limited to a {{convert|60|mi|km|adj=on}} swath, but neither Lincoln nor his commanders saw destruction as the main goal, but rather defeat of the Confederate armies. [[Mark E. Neely Jr.]] has argued that there was no effort to engage in "[[total war]]" against civilians which he believed did take place during World War II.<ref>Neely (2004), pp. 434–458.</ref>{{vague|date=December 2014}} Confederate general [[Jubal Anderson Early]] began a series of assaults in the North that threatened the Capital. During Early's [[Battle of Fort Stevens|raid on Washington, D.C.]] in 1864, Lincoln was watching the combat from an exposed position; Captain [[Oliver Wendell Holmes Jr.|Oliver Wendell Holmes]] shouted at him, "Get down, you damn fool, before you get shot!"<ref>Thomas (2008), p. 434.</ref> After repeated calls on Grant to defend Washington, Sheridan was appointed and the threat from Early was dispatched.<ref>Donald (1996), pp. 516–518.</ref> As Grant continued to wear down Lee's forces, efforts to discuss peace began. Confederate Vice President [[Alexander H. Stephens|Stephens]] led a group to meet with Lincoln, Seward, and others at [[Hampton Roads Conference|Hampton Roads]]. Lincoln refused to allow any negotiation with the Confederacy as a coequal; his sole objective was an agreement to end the fighting and the meetings produced no results.<ref>Donald (1996), p. 565.</ref> On April 1, 1865, Grant successfully outflanked Lee's forces in the [[Battle of Five Forks]] and nearly encircled Petersburg, and the Confederate government evacuated Richmond. Days later, when that city fell, Lincoln visited the vanquished Confederate capital; as he walked through the city, white Southerners were stone-faced, but [[freedmen]] greeted him as a hero. On April 9, Lee surrendered to Grant at [[Appomattox Court House National Historical Park|Appomattox]] and the war was effectively over.<ref>Donald (1996), p. 589.</ref> ===1864 re-election=== {{CSS image crop|Image = LINCOLN, Abraham-President (BEP engraved portrait).jpg |bSize = 315|cWidth = 230|cHeight = 270|oTop = 56|oLeft = 44|Location = right|Description = [[Bureau of Engraving and Printing|BEP]] engraved portrait of Lincoln as President. }} {{Main|Electoral history of Abraham Lincoln|United States presidential election, 1864}} While the war was still being waged, Lincoln faced reelection in 1864. Lincoln was a master politician, bringing together—and holding together—all the main factions of the Republican Party, and bringing in [[War Democrats]] such as [[Edwin M. Stanton]] and Andrew Johnson as well. Lincoln spent many hours a week talking to politicians from across the land and using his patronage powers—greatly expanded over peacetime—to hold the factions of his party together, build support for his own policies, and fend off efforts by Radicals to drop him from the 1864 ticket.<ref>Fish, pp. 53–69.</ref><ref>Tegeder, pp. 77–90.</ref> At its 1864 convention, the Republican Party selected Johnson, a War Democrat from the Southern state of Tennessee, as his running mate. To broaden his coalition to include War Democrats as well as Republicans, Lincoln ran under the label of the new [[National Union Party (United States)|Union Party]].<ref>Donald (1996), pp. 494–507.</ref> When Grant's 1864 spring campaigns turned into bloody stalemates and Union casualties mounted, the lack of military success wore heavily on the President's re-election prospects, and many Republicans across the country feared that Lincoln would be defeated. Sharing this fear, Lincoln wrote and signed a pledge that, if he should lose the election, he would still defeat the Confederacy before turning over the White House:<ref name="Grimsley, p. 80">Grimsley, p. 80.</ref> {{quote|This morning, as for some days past, it seems exceedingly probable that this Administration will not be re-elected. Then it will be my duty to so co-operate with the President elect, as to save the Union between the election and the inauguration; as he will have secured his election on such ground that he cannot possibly save it afterward.<ref>Basler (1953), p. 514.</ref>}} Lincoln did not show the pledge to his cabinet, but asked them to sign the sealed envelope. {{multiple image | align=left | direction=horizontal | width= | footer= | width1=272 | image1=1864 Electoral Map.png | alt1=Map of the U.S. showing Lincoln winning all the Union states except for Kentucky, New Jersey, and Delaware. The Southern states are not included. | caption1=An [[Electoral College (United States)|electoral]] landslide (in red) for Lincoln in the 1864 election, southern states (brown) and territories (light brown) not in play | width2=180 | image2=Abraham Lincoln second inaugural address.jpg | alt2=A large crowd in front of a large building with many pillars. | caption2=Lincoln's second inaugural address in 1865 at the almost completed Capitol building }} While the Democratic platform followed the "Peace wing" of the party and called the war a "failure", their candidate, General George B. McClellan, supported the war and repudiated the platform. Lincoln provided Grant with more troops and mobilized his party to renew its support of Grant in the war effort. Sherman's capture of Atlanta in September and [[David Farragut]]'s capture of Mobile ended defeatist jitters;<ref>Donald (1996), p. 531.</ref> the Democratic Party was deeply split, with some leaders and most soldiers openly for Lincoln. By contrast, the National Union Party was united and energized as Lincoln made emancipation the central issue, and state Republican parties stressed the [[perfidy]] of the Copperheads.<ref>Randall & Current (1955), p. 307.</ref> On November 8, Lincoln was re-elected in a landslide, carrying all but three states, and receiving 78 percent of the Union soldiers' vote.<ref name="Grimsley, p. 80"/><ref>Paludan, pp. 274–293.</ref> On March 4, 1865, Lincoln delivered his [[Lincoln's second inaugural address|second inaugural address]]. In it, he deemed the high casualties on both sides to be God's will. Historian [[Mark Noll]] concludes it ranks "among the small handful of semi-sacred texts by which Americans conceive their place in the world".<ref>Noll, p. 426.</ref> Lincoln said: {{quote|Fondly do we hope—fervently do we pray—that this mighty scourge of war may speedily pass away. Yet, if God wills that it continue, until all the wealth piled by the [[wikt:bondman|bond-man's]] 250 years of unrequited toil shall be sunk, and until every drop of blood drawn with the lash, shall be paid by another drawn with the sword, as was said 3,000 years ago, so still it must be said, "the judgments of the Lord, are true and righteous altogether". With malice toward none; with charity for all; with firmness in the right, as God gives us to see the right, let us strive on to finish the work we are in; to bind up the nation's wounds; to care for him who shall have borne the battle, and for his widow, and his orphan—to do all which may achieve and cherish a just and lasting peace, among ourselves, and with all nations.<ref>Abraham Lincoln, ''Abraham Lincoln: Selected Speeches and Writings'' (Library of America edition, 2009) p 450</ref>}} ===Reconstruction=== {{Main|Reconstruction Era}} Reconstruction began during the war, as Lincoln and his associates anticipated questions of how to reintegrate the conquered southern states, and how to determine the fates of Confederate leaders and freed slaves. Shortly after Lee's surrender, a general had asked Lincoln how the defeated Confederates should be treated, and Lincoln replied, "Let 'em up easy."<ref>Thomas (2008), pp. 509–512.</ref> In keeping with that sentiment, Lincoln led the moderates regarding Reconstruction policy, and was opposed by the Radical Republicans, under Rep. [[Thaddeus Stevens]], Sen. [[Charles Sumner]] and Sen. [[Benjamin Wade]], political allies of the president on other issues. Determined to find a course that would reunite the nation and not alienate the South, Lincoln urged that speedy elections under generous terms be held throughout the war. His [[Ten percent plan|Amnesty Proclamation]] of December 8, 1863, offered pardons to those who had not held a Confederate civil office, had not mistreated Union prisoners, and would sign an oath of allegiance.<ref>Donald (1996), pp. 471–472.</ref> [[File:Lincoln and Johnsond.jpg|alt=Cartoon of Lincoln and Johnson attempting to stitch up the broken Union|thumb|A political cartoon of Vice President Andrew Johnson (a former tailor) and Lincoln, 1865, entitled "The 'Rail Splitter' At Work Repairing the Union." The caption reads (Johnson): ''Take it quietly Uncle Abe and I will draw it closer than ever.'' (Lincoln): ''A few more stitches Andy and the good old Union will be mended.'']] As Southern states were subdued, critical decisions had to be made as to their leadership while their administrations were re-formed. Of special importance were Tennessee and Arkansas, where Lincoln appointed Generals [[Andrew Johnson#General|Andrew Johnson]] and [[Frederick Steele]] as military governors, respectively. In Louisiana, Lincoln ordered General [[Nathaniel P. Banks]] to promote a plan that would restore statehood when 10 percent of the voters agreed to it. Lincoln's Democratic opponents seized on these appointments to accuse him of using the military to ensure his and the Republicans' political aspirations. On the other hand, the Radicals denounced his policy as too lenient, and passed their own plan, the [[Wade-Davis Bill]], in 1864. When Lincoln vetoed the bill, the Radicals retaliated by refusing to seat representatives elected from Louisiana, Arkansas, and Tennessee.<ref>Donald (1996), pp. 485–486.</ref> Lincoln's appointments were designed to keep both the moderate and Radical factions in harness. To fill Chief Justice Taney's seat on the Supreme Court, he named the choice of the Radicals, Salmon P. Chase, who Lincoln believed would uphold the emancipation and paper money policies.<ref>Nevins, ''Ordeal of the Union'', Vol IV., p. 206.</ref> After implementing the Emancipation Proclamation, which did not apply to every state, Lincoln increased pressure on Congress to outlaw slavery throughout the entire nation with a constitutional amendment. Lincoln declared that such an amendment would "clinch the whole matter".<ref>Donald (1996), p. 561.</ref> By December 1863, a proposed constitutional amendment that would outlaw slavery was brought to Congress for passage. This first attempt at an amendment failed to pass, falling short of the required two-thirds majority on June 15, 1864, in the House of Representatives. Passage of the proposed amendment became part of the Republican/Unionist platform in the election of 1864. After a long debate in the House, a second attempt passed Congress on January 31, 1865, and was sent to the state legislatures for ratification.<ref>Donald (1996), pp. 562–563.</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/house-passes-the-13th-amendment |title=House passes the 13th Amendment — History.com This Day in History — 1/31/1865 |publisher=History.com |date= |accessdate=November 19, 2012}}</ref> Upon ratification, it became the [[Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution]] on December 6, 1865.<ref>{{cite web|title=Primary Documents in American History: 13th Amendment to the U.S. Constitution|url=http://www.loc.gov/rr/program/bib/ourdocs/13thamendment.html|publisher=Library of Congress|archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/62a9BIwNw|archivedate=October 20, 2011}}</ref> As the war drew to a close, Lincoln's presidential Reconstruction for the South was in flux; having believed the federal government had limited responsibility to the millions of freedmen. He signed into law Senator Charles Sumner's [[Freedmen's Bureau]] bill that set up a temporary federal agency designed to meet the immediate material needs of former slaves. The law assigned land for a lease of three years with the ability to purchase title for the freedmen. Lincoln stated that his Louisiana plan did not apply to all states under Reconstruction. Shortly before his assassination, Lincoln announced he had a new plan for southern Reconstruction. Discussions with his cabinet revealed Lincoln planned short-term military control over southern states, until readmission under the control of southern Unionists.<ref>Carwardine (2003), pp. 242–243.</ref> Historians agree that it is impossible to predict exactly what Lincoln would have done about Reconstruction if he had lived, but they make projections based on his known policy positions and political acumen. Lincoln biographers [[James G. Randall]] and [[Richard Current]], according to David Lincove, argue that: :It is likely that had he lived, Lincoln would have followed a policy similar to Johnson's, that he would have clashed with congressional Radicals, that he would have produced a better result for the freedmen than occurred, and that his political skills would have helped him avoid Johnson's mistakes.<ref>{{cite book|last=Lincove|first=David A.|title=Reconstruction in the United States: An Annotated Bibliography|url=https://books.google.com/?id=3EQcT7-Dpi0C&pg=PA80|year= 2000|publisher=Greenwood|page=80}}</ref> [[Eric Foner]] argues that: :Unlike Sumner and other Radicals, Lincoln did not see Reconstruction as an opportunity for a sweeping political and social revolution beyond emancipation. He had long made clear his opposition to the confiscation and redistribution of land. He believed, as most Republicans did in April 1865, that the voting requirements should be determined by the states. He assumed that political control in the South would pass to white Unionists, reluctant secessionists, and forward-looking former Confederates. But time and again during the war, Lincoln, after initial opposition, had come to embrace positions first advanced by abolitionists and Radical Republicans.&nbsp;... Lincoln undoubtedly would have listened carefully to the outcry for further protection for the former slaves&nbsp;... It is entirely plausible to imagine Lincoln and Congress agreeing on a Reconstruction policy that encompassed federal protection for basic civil rights plus limited black suffrage, along the lines Lincoln proposed just before his death."<ref>{{cite book|last=Foner|first=Eric|title=The Fiery Trial: Abraham Lincoln and American Slavery|url=https://books.google.com/?id=4b8m7cv3wTIC&pg=PA335|year=2010|publisher=W. W. Norton|pages=334–36}}</ref> ===Redefining the republic and republicanism=== [[File:Abraham Lincoln O-116 by Gardner, 1865-crop.png|thumb|upright|left|alt=An older, tired-looking Abraham Lincoln with a beard.|Lincoln in February 1865, about two months before his death.]] The successful reunification of the states had consequences for the name of the country. The term "the United States" has historically been used, sometimes in the plural ("these United States"), and other times in the singular, without any particular grammatical consistency. The Civil War was a significant force in the eventual dominance of the singular usage by the end of the 19th century.<ref name="Presidential Proclamation">{{cite web|url=http://www.whitehouse.gov/the-press-office/2011/04/12/presidential-proclamation-civil-war-sesquicentennial|title=Presidential Proclamation-Civil War Sesquicentennial|publisher=The White House|date=April 12, 2011|quote=...&nbsp;a new meaning was conferred on our country's name&nbsp;... |archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/62aAPoA6B|archivedate=October 20, 2011}}</ref> In recent years, historians such as Harry Jaffa, Herman Belz, John Diggins, Vernon Burton and Eric Foner have stressed Lincoln's redefinition of ''republican values''. As early as the 1850s, a time when most political rhetoric focused on the sanctity of the Constitution, Lincoln redirected emphasis to the Declaration of Independence as the foundation of American political values—what he called the "sheet anchor" of republicanism.<ref>Jaffa, p. 399.</ref> The Declaration's emphasis on freedom and equality for all, in contrast to the Constitution's tolerance of slavery, shifted the debate. As Diggins concludes regarding the highly influential Cooper Union speech of early 1860, "Lincoln presented Americans a theory of history that offers a profound contribution to the theory and destiny of republicanism itself."<ref>Diggins, p. 307.</ref> His position gained strength because he highlighted the moral basis of republicanism, rather than its legalisms.<ref>Foner (2010), p. 215.</ref> Nevertheless, in 1861, Lincoln justified the war in terms of legalisms (the Constitution was a contract, and for one party to get out of a contract all the other parties had to agree), and then in terms of the national duty to guarantee a republican form of government in every state.<ref>Jaffa, p. 263.</ref> Burton (2008) argues that Lincoln's republicanism was taken up by the Freedmen as they were emancipated.<ref>Orville Vernon Burton, ''The Age of Lincoln'' (2008) p 243</ref> In March 1861, in [[Lincoln's first inaugural address]], he explored the nature of democracy. He denounced secession as anarchy, and explained that majority rule had to be balanced by constitutional restraints in the American system. He said "A majority held in restraint by constitutional checks and limitations, and always changing easily with deliberate changes of popular opinions and sentiments, is the only true sovereign of a free people."<ref>Belz (1998), p. 86.</ref> {{Clear}} ===Other enactments=== Lincoln adhered to the Whig theory of the presidency, which gave Congress primary responsibility for writing the laws while the Executive enforced them. Lincoln vetoed only four bills passed by Congress; the only important one was the Wade-Davis Bill with its harsh program of Reconstruction.<ref>Donald (2001), p. 137.</ref> He signed the [[Homestead Act]] in 1862, making millions of acres of government-held land in the West available for purchase at very low cost. The [[Morrill Land-Grant Colleges Act]], also signed in 1862, provided government grants for agricultural colleges in each state. The [[Pacific Railway Acts]] of 1862 and 1864 granted federal support for the construction of the United States' [[First Transcontinental Railroad]], which was completed in 1869.<ref>Paludan, p. 116.</ref> The passage of the Homestead Act and the Pacific Railway Acts was made possible by the absence of Southern congressmen and senators who had opposed the measures in the 1850s.<ref>McPherson (1993), pp. 450–452.</ref> {{Infobox U.S. Cabinet | Name = Lincoln | President = Abraham Lincoln | President date = 1861–1865 | Vice President = [[Hannibal Hamlin]] | Vice President date = 1861–1865 | Vice President 2 = [[Andrew Johnson]] | Vice President date 2 = 1865 | State = [[William H. Seward]] | State date = 1861–1865 | Treasury = [[Salmon P. Chase]] | Treasury date = 1861–1864 | Treasury 2 = [[William P. Fessenden]] | Treasury date 2 = 1864–1865 | Treasury 3 = [[Hugh McCulloch]] | Treasury date 3 = 1865 | War = [[Simon Cameron]] | War date = 1861–1862 | War 2 = [[Edwin M. Stanton]] | War date 2 = 1862–1865 | Justice = [[Edward Bates]] | Justice date = 1861–1864 | Justice 2 = [[James Speed]] | Justice date 2 = 1864–1865 | Post = [[Montgomery Blair]] | Post date = 1861–1864 | Post 2 = [[William Dennison Jr.]] | Post date 2 = 1864–1865 | Navy = [[Gideon Welles]] | Navy date = 1861–1865 | Interior = [[Caleb Blood Smith]] | Interior date = 1861–1862 | Interior 2 = [[John Palmer Usher]] | Interior date 2 = 1863–1865 | source = <ref>{{cite web|author=Summers, Robert|title=Abraham Lincoln|url=http://www.ipl.org/div/potus/alincoln.html|work=Internet Public Library 2 (IPL2)|publisher=U. Michigan and Drexel U.|archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/62dM1T7zn|archivedate=October 22, 2011|deadurl=}}</ref> }} Other important legislation involved two measures to raise revenues for the Federal government: tariffs (a policy with long precedent), and a new Federal income tax. In 1861, Lincoln signed the second and third [[Morrill Tariff]], the first having become law under James Buchanan. Also in 1861, Lincoln signed the [[Revenue Act of 1861]], creating the first U.S. income tax.<ref>Donald (1996), p. 424.</ref> This created a flat tax of 3 percent on incomes above $800 (${{formatnum:{{Inflation|US|800|1861|r=-2}}}} in current dollar terms), which was later changed by the [[Revenue Act of 1862]] to a progressive rate structure.<ref>Paludan, p. 111.</ref> Lincoln also presided over the expansion of the federal government's economic influence in several other areas. The creation of the system of national banks by the [[National Banking Act]] provided a strong financial network in the country. It also established a national currency. In 1862, Congress created, with Lincoln's approval, the [[United States Department of Agriculture|Department of Agriculture]].<ref name="Donald 2001 p. 424">Donald (2001), p. 424.</ref> In 1862, Lincoln sent a senior general, John Pope, to put down the "[[Dakota War of 1862|Sioux Uprising]]" in Minnesota. Presented with 303 execution warrants for convicted [[Sioux#Santee (Isáŋyathi or Eastern Dakota)|Santee Dakota]] who were accused of killing innocent farmers, Lincoln conducted his own personal review of each of these warrants, eventually approving 39 for execution (one was later reprieved).<ref>Cox, p. 182.</ref> President Lincoln had planned to reform federal Indian policy.<ref>Nichols, pp. 210–232.</ref> In the wake of Grant's casualties in his campaign against Lee, Lincoln had considered yet another executive call for a military draft, but it was never issued. In response to rumors of one, however, the editors of the ''[[New York World]]'' and the ''[[The Journal of Commerce|Journal of Commerce]]'' published a false draft proclamation which created an opportunity for the editors and others employed at the publications to corner the gold market. Lincoln's reaction was to send the strongest of messages to the media about such behavior; he ordered the military to seize the two papers. The seizure lasted for two days.<ref>Donald (1996), pp. 501–502.</ref> Lincoln is largely responsible for the institution of the [[Thanksgiving (United States)|Thanksgiving holiday]] in the United States.<ref name="Donald 1996, p. 471">Donald (1996), p. 471.</ref> Before Lincoln's presidency, Thanksgiving, while a regional holiday in New England since the 17th century, had been proclaimed by the federal government only sporadically and on irregular dates. The last such proclamation had been during [[James Madison]]'s presidency 50 years before. In 1863, Lincoln declared the final Thursday in November of that year to be a day of Thanksgiving.<ref name="Donald 1996, p. 471"/> In June 1864, Lincoln approved the Yosemite Grant enacted by Congress, which provided unprecedented federal protection for the area now known as [[Yosemite National Park]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Schaffer|first=Jeffrey P.|title=Yosemite National Park: A Natural History Guide to Yosemite and Its Trails|publisher=Wilderness Press|page=48|location=Berkeley|year=1999|isbn=0-89997-244-6}}</ref> ===Judicial appointments=== {{main|List of federal judges appointed by Abraham Lincoln}} ====Supreme Court appointments==== * [[Noah Haynes Swayne]] – 1862 * [[Samuel Freeman Miller]] – 1862 * [[David Davis (Supreme Court justice)|David Davis]] – 1862 * [[Stephen Johnson Field]] – 1863 * [[Salmon P. Chase|Salmon Portland Chase]] – 1864 (Chief Justice) [[File:Mathew Brady, Portrait of Secretary of the Treasury Salmon P. Chase, officer of the United States government (1860–1865, full version).jpg|thumb|right|[[Salmon Portland Chase]] was Lincoln's choice to be [[Chief Justice of the United States]].]] Lincoln's declared philosophy on court nominations was that "we cannot ask a man what he will do, and if we should, and he should answer us, we should despise him for it. Therefore we must take a man whose opinions are known."<ref name="Donald 1996, p. 471"/> Lincoln made five appointments to the United States Supreme Court. [[Noah Haynes Swayne]], nominated January 21, 1862 and appointed January 24, 1862, was chosen as an anti-slavery lawyer who was committed to the Union. [[Samuel Freeman Miller]], nominated and appointed on July 16, 1862, supported Lincoln in the 1860 election and was an avowed abolitionist. David Davis, Lincoln's campaign manager in 1860, nominated December 1, 1862 and appointed December 8, 1862, had also served as a judge in Lincoln's Illinois court circuit. [[Stephen Johnson Field]], a previous California Supreme Court justice, was nominated March 6, 1863 and appointed March 10, 1863, and provided geographic balance, as well as political balance to the court as a Democrat. Finally, Lincoln's Treasury Secretary, Salmon P. Chase, was nominated as Chief Justice, and appointed the same day, on December 6, 1864. Lincoln believed Chase was an able jurist, would support Reconstruction legislation, and that his appointment united the Republican Party.<ref>Blue, p. 245.</ref> ====Other judicial appointments==== {{unreferenced section|date=December 2014}} Lincoln appointed 32 federal judges, including four Associate Justices and one Chief Justice to the [[Supreme Court of the United States]], and 27 judges to the [[United States district courts]]. Lincoln appointed no judges to the [[United States circuit court]]s during his time in office. ===States admitted to the Union=== [[West Virginia]], admitted to the Union June 20, 1863, contained the former north-westernmost counties of Virginia that seceded from Virginia after that commonwealth declared its secession from the Union. As a condition for its admission, West Virginia's constitution was required to provide for the gradual abolition of slavery. [[Nevada]], which became the third State in the far-west of the continent, was admitted as a free state on October 31, 1864.<ref>Donald (1996), pp. 300, 539.</ref> {{clear}} ==Assassination and funeral== {{main|Assassination of Abraham Lincoln|Funeral and burial of Abraham Lincoln}} [[File:Lincoln assassination slide c1900.png|thumb|left||alt=Image of Lincoln being shot by Booth while sitting in a theater booth.|Shown in the presidential booth of Ford's Theatre, from left to right, are assassin [[John Wilkes Booth]], Abraham Lincoln, [[Mary Todd Lincoln]], [[Clara Harris]], and [[Henry Rathbone]].]] [[John Wilkes Booth]] was a well-known actor and a Confederate spy from Maryland; though he never joined the Confederate army, he had contacts with the Confederate secret service.<ref>Donald (1996), pp. 586–587.</ref> In 1864, Booth formulated a plan (very similar to one of Thomas N. Conrad previously authorized by the Confederacy)<ref>Donald (1996), p. 587.</ref> to kidnap Lincoln in exchange for the release of Confederate prisoners. After attending an April 11, 1865, speech in which Lincoln promoted voting rights for blacks, an incensed Booth changed his plans and became determined to assassinate the president.<ref>Harrison (2000), pp. 3–4.</ref> Learning that the President and Grant would be attending [[Ford's Theatre]], Booth formulated a plan with co-conspirators to assassinate Lincoln and Grant at the theater, as well as Vice President Johnson and Secretary of State Seward at their homes. Without his main bodyguard, [[Ward Hill Lamon]], Lincoln left to attend the play ''[[Our American Cousin]]'' on April 14. At the last minute, Grant decided to go to New Jersey to visit his children instead of attending the play.<ref>Donald (1996), pp. 594–597.</ref> Lincoln's bodyguard, John Parker, left Ford's Theater during intermission to drink at the saloon next door. The now unguarded President sat in his state box in the balcony. Seizing the opportunity, Booth crept up from behind and at about 10:13&nbsp;pm, aimed at the back of Lincoln's head and fired at point-blank range, mortally wounding the President. Major [[Henry Rathbone]] momentarily grappled with Booth, but Booth stabbed him and escaped.<ref>Donald (1996), p. 597.</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.smithsonianmag.com/history-archaeology/Lincolns-Missing-Bodyguard.html|title=Lincoln's Missing Bodyguard|first=Paul|last=Martin|date=April 8, 2010|work=Smithsonian Magazine|archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/62aAqLOzq|archivedate=October 20, 2011|deadurl=no}}</ref> After being on the run for 12 days, Booth was tracked down and found on a farm in Virginia, some {{convert|70|mi|km}} south of Washington. After refusing to surrender to Union troops, Booth was killed by Sergeant [[Boston Corbett]] on April 26.<ref>Steers, p. 153.</ref><ref>Donald (1996), p. 599.</ref> Doctor [[Charles Leale]], an Army surgeon, found the President unresponsive, barely breathing and with no detectable pulse. Having determined that the President had been shot in the head, and not stabbed in the shoulder as originally thought, he made an attempt to clear the blood clot, after which the President began to breathe more naturally.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://news.yahoo.com/report-first-doctor-reach-shot-lincoln-found-175353998.html|title=Report of first doctor to reach shot Lincoln found}}</ref> The dying President was taken across the street to [[Petersen House]]. After remaining in a coma for nine hours, Lincoln died at 7:22&nbsp;am on April 15. Secretary of War Stanton saluted and said, "Now he belongs to the ages."<ref>Donald (1996), pp. 598–599, 686. Witnesses have provided other versions of the quote, i.e. "He now belongs to the ages." and "He is a man for the ages."</ref> Lincoln's flag-enfolded body was then escorted in the rain to the White House by bareheaded Union officers, while the city's church bells rang. President Johnson was sworn in at 10:00&nbsp;am, less than 3 hours after Lincoln's death. The late President lay in state in the East Room, and then in the Capitol Rotunda from April 19 through April 21. For his final journey with his son Willie, both caskets were transported in the executive coach "United States" and for three weeks the ''Lincoln Special'' [[Funeral and burial of Abraham Lincoln#Funeral train|funeral train]] decorated in black bunting<ref> {{cite web | url = http://www.lincolnfuneraltrain.com/html/funeral_train.html | title = The Lincoln Funeral Train | author = Scott D. Trostel | accessdate = November 20, 2012 }} </ref> bore Lincoln's remains on a slow circuitous waypoint journey from Washington D.C. to Springfield, Illinois, stopping at many cities across the North for large-scale memorials attended by hundreds of thousands, as well as many people who gathered in informal trackside tributes with bands, bonfires, and hymn singing<ref>Trostel, pp. 31–58.</ref><ref>Goodrich, pp. 231–238.</ref> or silent reverence with hat in hand as the railway procession slowly passed by. Poet [[Walt Whitman]] composed ''[[When Lilacs Last in the Dooryard Bloom'd]]'' to eulogize Lincoln, one of four poems he wrote about the assassinated president.<ref>{{cite book | last=Peck | first=Garrett | title=Walt Whitman in Washington, D.C.: The Civil War and America's Great Poet | year=2015 | publisher=The History Press | location=Charleston, SC | isbn=978-1-62619-973-6 | pages=118–23}}</ref> Historians have emphasized the widespread shock and sorrow, but also noted that some Lincoln haters cheered when they heard the news.<ref>{{cite book|author=Martha Hodes|title=Mourning Lincoln|url=https://books.google.com/?id=59ZtBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA84|year=2015|publisher=Yale UP|pages=84, 86, 96–97}}</ref> African-Americans were especially moved; they had lost 'their [[Moses]]'.{{citation needed|date=November 2015}} In a larger sense, the outpouring of grief and anguish was in response to the deaths of so many men in the war that had just ended.<ref>{{cite book|author=Hodes|title=Mourning Lincoln|url=https://books.google.com/?id=59ZtBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA108|year=2015|pages=197–199}}</ref> ==Religious and philosophical beliefs== {{Further|Abraham Lincoln and religion}} [[File:AbrahamLincolnOilPainting1869Restored.jpg|thumb|upright|alt=A painting of Lincoln sitting with his hand on his chin and his elbow on his leg.|''[[Abraham Lincoln (Healy)|Lincoln]]'', painting by [[George Peter Alexander Healy]] in 1869]] As a young man, Lincoln was a [[religious skepticism|religious skeptic]],<ref>{{cite book|author=Douglas L. Wilson|title=Honor's Voice: The Transformation of Abraham Lincoln|url=https://books.google.com/?id=KCM50uZMsQMC&pg=PA84|year=1999|publisher=Random House Digital, Inc.|page=84|isbn=978-0-307-76581-9}}</ref> or, in the words of a biographer, an [[iconoclasm|iconoclast]].<ref>Carwardine (2003), p. 4.</ref> Later in life, Lincoln's frequent use of religious imagery and language might have reflected his own personal beliefs or might have been a device to appeal to his audiences, who were mostly [[Evangelicalism|evangelical]] Protestants.<ref>Carwardine (1997), pp. 27–55.</ref> He never joined a church, although he frequently attended with his wife.<ref>On claims that Lincoln was baptized by an associate of [[Alexander Campbell (clergyman)|Alexander Campbell]], see {{cite journal|url=http://www.acu.edu/sponsored/restoration_quarterly/archives/1990s/vol_38_no_2_contents/martin.html|last=Martin|first=Jim|title=The secret baptism of Abraham Lincoln|journal=Restoration Quarterly|volume=38|issue=2|year=1996}}</ref> However, he was deeply familiar with the Bible, and he both quoted and praised it.<ref>Donald (1996), pp. 48–49, 514–515.</ref> He was private about his beliefs and respected the beliefs of others. Lincoln never made a clear profession of Christian beliefs. However he did believe in an all-powerful God that shaped events and, by 1865, was expressing those beliefs in major speeches.<ref>{{cite book|author=Mark A. Noll|title=A History of Christianity in the United States and Canada|url=https://books.google.com/?id=VGF3wbzzy9QC&pg=PA322|year=1992|publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans|pages=321–22}}</ref> In the 1840s, Lincoln subscribed to the Doctrine of Necessity, a belief that asserted the human mind was controlled by some higher power.<ref>Donald (1996), pp. 48–49.</ref> In the 1850s, Lincoln believed in "providence" in a general way, and rarely used the language or imagery of the evangelicals; he regarded the republicanism of the Founding Fathers with an almost religious reverence.<ref>Grant R. Brodrecht, ''"Our country": Northern evangelicals and the Union during the Civil War and Reconstruction'' (2008) p. 40</ref> When he suffered the death of his son Edward, Lincoln more frequently expressed a need to depend on God.<ref>Parrillo, pp. 227–253.</ref> The death of his son Willie in February 1862 may have caused Lincoln to look toward religion for answers and solace.<ref>Wilson, pp. 251–254.</ref> After Willie's death, Lincoln considered why, from a divine standpoint, the severity of the war was necessary. He wrote at this time that God "could have either saved or destroyed the Union without a human contest. Yet the contest began. And having begun He could give the final victory to either side any day. Yet the contest proceeds."<ref>Wilson, p. 254.</ref> On the day Lincoln was assassinated, he reportedly told his wife he desired to visit the [[Holy Land]].<ref>Guelzo (1999), p. 434</ref> ==Health== {{main|Medical and mental health of Abraham Lincoln}} Several claims abound that Lincoln's health was declining before the assassination. These are often based on [[List of photographs of Abraham Lincoln|photographs]] appearing to show weight loss and muscle wasting. One such claim is that he suffered from a rare genetic disorder [[Multiple endocrine neoplasia type 2b|MEN2b]],<ref name="theatlantic.com">{{cite web|url=http://www.theatlantic.com/technology/archive/2009/05/was-lincoln-dying-before-he-was-shot/17955/|title=Was Lincoln Dying Before He Was Shot?|date=May 20, 2009|work=The Atlantic|accessdate=October 8, 2014}}</ref> which manifests with a [[medullary thyroid carcinoma]], [[Mucosal neuromata with endocrine tumors|mucosal neuromas]] and a [[Marfanoid|Marfinoid appearance]]. Others simply claim he had [[Marfan's syndrome]], based on his tall appearance with spindly fingers, and the association of possible [[aortic regurgitation]], which can cause bobbing of the head ([[De Musset's sign|DeMusset's sign]]){{snd}} based on blurring of Lincoln's head in photographs, which back then had a long exposure time. DNA analysis is so far being refused by the Grand Army of the Republic museum in Philadelphia.<ref name="theatlantic.com"/> ==Historical reputation== {{see also|Abraham Lincoln cultural depictions}} [[File:Mr Lincoln.jpg|thumb|Lincoln's image is carved into the stone of [[Mount Rushmore]].]] In [[Historical rankings of Presidents of the United States|surveys of U.S. scholars ranking presidents]]<!--Lincoln is 1st in 9 of 17 on that page--> conducted since the 1940s, Lincoln is consistently ranked in the top three, often as number one.<ref name="Ranking Our Presidents"/><ref name="gallup"/> A 2004 study found that scholars in the fields of history and politics ranked Lincoln number one, while legal scholars placed him second after Washington.<ref name="Taranto">Taranto, p. 264.</ref> In presidential ranking polls conducted in the United States since 1948, Lincoln has been rated at the very top in the majority of polls: Schlesinger 1948, Schlesinger 1962, 1982 Murray Blessing Survey, ''Chicago Tribune'' 1982 poll, Schlesinger 1996, CSPAN 1996, Ridings-McIver 1996, ''Time'' 2008, and CSPAN 2009. Generally, the top three presidents are rated as 1. Lincoln; 2. George Washington; and 3. Franklin D. Roosevelt, although Lincoln and Washington, and Washington and Roosevelt, are occasionally reversed.<ref>Densen, John V., Editor, ''Reassessing The Presidency, The Rise of the Executive State and the Decline of Freedom'' (Ludwig von Mises Institute, 2001), pgs. 1–32; Ridings, William H., & Stuard B. McIver, ''Rating The Presidents, A Ranking of U.S. Leaders, From the Great and Honorable to the Dishonest and Incompetent'' (Citadel Press, Kensington Publishing Corp., 2000).</ref> President Lincoln's assassination increased his status to the point of making him a national martyr. Lincoln was viewed by abolitionists as a champion for human liberty. Republicans linked Lincoln's name to their party. Many, though not all, in the South considered Lincoln as a man of outstanding ability.<ref>Chesebrough, pp. 76, 79, 106, 110.</ref> Schwartz argues that Lincoln's reputation grew slowly in the late 19th century until the [[Progressive Era]] (1900–1920s) when he emerged as one of the most venerated heroes in American history, with even white Southerners in agreement. The high point came in 1922 with the dedication of the [[Lincoln Memorial]] on the [[National Mall]] in [[Washington, D.C.]]<ref>Schwartz (2000), p. 109.</ref> In the [[New Deal]] era liberals honored Lincoln not so much as the self-made man or the great war president, but as the advocate of the common man who doubtless would have supported the welfare state. In the [[Cold War]] years, Lincoln's image shifted to emphasize the symbol of freedom who brought hope to those oppressed by communist regimes.<ref>Schwartz (2009), pp. 23, 91–98.</ref> By the 1970s Lincoln had become a hero to [[Conservatism in the United States|political conservatives]]<ref>Havers, p. 96. Apart from neo-Confederates such as [[Mel Bradford]] who denounced his treatment of the white South.</ref> for his intense nationalism, support for business, his insistence on stopping the spread of human bondage, his acting in terms of [[John Locke|Lockean]] and [[Edmund Burke|Burkean]] principles on behalf of both liberty and tradition, and his devotion to the principles of the Founding Fathers.<ref>Belz (2006), pp. 514–518.</ref><ref>Graebner, pp. 67–94.</ref><ref>Smith, pp. 43–45.</ref> As a Whig activist, Lincoln was a spokesman for business interests, favoring high tariffs, banks, internal improvements, and railroads in opposition to the [[Jacksonian Democracy|agrarian Democrats]].<ref>Boritt (1994), pp. 196, 198, 228, 301.</ref> William C. Harris found that Lincoln's "reverence for the Founding Fathers, the Constitution, the laws under it, and the preservation of the Republic and its institutions undergirded and strengthened his conservatism".<ref>Harris, p. 2.</ref> James G. Randall emphasizes his tolerance and especially his moderation "in his preference for orderly progress, his distrust of dangerous agitation, and his reluctance toward ill digested schemes of reform". Randall concludes that, "he was conservative in his complete avoidance of that type of so-called 'radicalism' which involved abuse of the South, hatred for the slaveholder, thirst for vengeance, partisan plotting, and ungenerous demands that Southern institutions be transformed overnight by outsiders."<ref>Randall (1947), p. 175.</ref> By the late 1960s, liberals, such as historian [[Lerone Bennett Jr.|Lerone Bennett]], were having second thoughts, especially regarding Lincoln's views on racial issues.<ref>Zilversmit, pp. 22–24.</ref><ref>Smith, p. 42.</ref> Bennett won wide attention when he called Lincoln a white supremacist in 1968.<ref>Bennett, pp. 35–42.</ref> He noted that Lincoln used ethnic slurs, told jokes that ridiculed blacks, insisted he opposed social equality, and proposed [[American Colonization Society|sending freed slaves]] to another country. Defenders, such as authors Dirck and Cashin, retorted that he was not as bad as most politicians of his day;<ref>Dirck (2008), p. 31.</ref> and that he was a "moral visionary" who deftly advanced the abolitionist cause, as fast as politically possible.<ref>Striner, pp. 2–4.</ref> The emphasis shifted away from Lincoln-the-emancipator to an argument that blacks had freed themselves from slavery, or at least were responsible for pressuring the government on emancipation.<ref>Cashin, p. 61.</ref><ref>Kelley & Lewis, p. 228.</ref> Historian Barry Schwartz wrote in 2009 that Lincoln's image suffered "erosion, fading prestige, benign ridicule" in the late 20th century.<ref>Schwartz (2009), p. 146.</ref> On the other hand, Donald opined in his 1996 biography that Lincoln was distinctly endowed with the personality trait of [[negative capability]], defined by the poet [[John Keats]] and attributed to extraordinary leaders who were "content in the midst of uncertainties and doubts, and not compelled toward fact or reason".<ref>Donald (1996), p. 15.</ref> Today's U.S. President, however, seems to be promoting a sympathetic resurgence for his predecessor, Lincoln. Indeed, President Obama, has insisted on using Lincoln's Bible for his swearing in of office at both his inaugurations.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.usatoday.com/story/theoval/2013/01/10/obama-inaugural-bible-kennedy-king/1821363/ | title=Obama to be sworn in with Lincoln, King Bibles |author=David Jackson |work=USA TODAY |date=2013-01-10 |accessdate=2016-03-02 }}</ref> Lincoln has often been portrayed by Hollywood, almost always in a flattering light.<ref>Steven Spielberg, Doris Kearns Goodwin, and Tony Kushner, "Mr. Lincoln Goes to Hollywood", ''Smithsonian'' (2012) 43#7 pp. 46–53.</ref><ref>Melvyn Stokes, "Abraham Lincoln and the Movies", ''American Nineteenth Century History'' 12 (June 2011), 203–31.</ref> ==Memory and memorials== {{Main|Memorials to Abraham Lincoln|Abraham Lincoln cultural depictions}} [[File:Aerial view of Lincoln Memorial - east side EDIT.jpeg|thumb|alt=An aerial photo a large white building with big pillars.|[[Lincoln Memorial]] in Washington, D.C.]] Lincoln's portrait appears on two denominations of [[United States currency]], the [[Penny (United States coin)|penny]] and the [[United States five-dollar bill|$5 bill]]. His likeness also appears on many [[U.S. presidents on U.S. postage stamps#Abraham Lincoln|postage stamps]] and he has been memorialized in many town, city, and county names,<ref name="Dennis, p. 194">Dennis, p. 194.</ref> including the [[Lincoln, Nebraska|capital]] of Nebraska.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nebraska.gov/poi/general-info.html|title=Nebraska.gov|work=nebraska.gov}}</ref> The most famous and most visited memorials are Lincoln's sculpture on [[Mount Rushmore]];<ref>{{cite web|title=Mount Rushmore National Memorial|url=http://www.nps.gov/moru/historyculture/index.htm|publisher=U.S. National Park Service|archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/62dfUtolh|archivedate=October 23, 2011}}</ref> [[Lincoln Memorial]], [[Ford's Theatre]], and [[Petersen House]] (where he died) in [[Washington, D.C.]]; and the [[Abraham Lincoln Presidential Library and Museum]] in [[Springfield, Illinois]], not far from [[Lincoln Home National Historic Site|Lincoln's home]], as well as [[Lincoln's Tomb|his tomb]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.alplm.com/|title=The Abraham Lincoln Presidential Library and Museum|publisher=Abraham Lincoln Presidential Library and Museum|archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/62i1pRLLD|archivedate=October 25, 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.fordstheatre.org/home/about-fords|title=About Ford's |publisher=Ford's Theatre|archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/62i1ux7Sk|archivedate=October 25, 2011}}</ref> There was also the [[Great Moments with Mr. Lincoln]] exhibit in [[Disneyland]], and the Hall of Presidents at [[Walt Disney World]], which had to do with [[Walt Disney]] admiring Lincoln ever since he was a little boy. Barry Schwartz, a sociologist who has examined America's cultural memory, argues that in the 1930s and 1940s, the memory of Abraham Lincoln was practically sacred and provided the nation with "a moral symbol inspiring and guiding American life". During the Great Depression, he argues, Lincoln served "as a means for seeing the world's disappointments, for making its sufferings not so much explicable as meaningful". Franklin D. Roosevelt, preparing America for war, used the words of the Civil War president to clarify the threat posed by Germany and Japan. Americans asked, "What would Lincoln do?"<ref>Barry Schwartz, ''Abraham Lincoln in the Post-Heroic Era: History and Memory in Late Twentieth-Century America'' (2009) pp. xi, 9, 24</ref> However, Schwartz also finds that since World War II, Lincoln's symbolic power has lost relevance, and this "fading hero is symptomatic of fading confidence in national greatness". He suggested that postmodernism and multiculturalism have diluted greatness as a concept.<ref>Barry Schwartz, ''Abraham Lincoln in the Post-Heroic Era: History and Memory in Late Twentieth-Century America'' (2009) p. xi, 9</ref> ==See also== {{Wikipedia books}} * [[List of Presidents of the United States]] * [[List of Presidents of the United States, sortable by previous experience]] * [[Blab school]] * [[Dakota War of 1862]] * [[The Towers (Ohio State)|Lincoln Tower]] * [[List of photographs of Abraham Lincoln]] * [[List of civil rights leaders]] {{Portal bar|American Civil War}} ==References== {{Reflist|20em}} ==Bibliography== {{Main|Bibliography of Abraham Lincoln}} ===Cited in footnotes=== {{Refbegin|30em}} * {{cite journal|last=Adams|first=Charles F.|date=April 1912|title=The Trent Affair|journal=The American Historical Review|volume=17|issue=3|pages=540–562|publisher=The University of Chicago Press|jstor=1834388|doi=10.2307/1834388}}<!--|doi=10.2307/1834388}} --> * {{cite book|isbn=|oclc=1178496|title=Halleck: Lincoln's Chief of Staff|authorlink=Stephen E. Ambrose|last=Ambrose|first=Stephen E.|publisher=Louisiana State University Press|year=1962}} * {{cite book|ref=Baker|last=Baker|first=Jean H.|title=Mary Todd Lincoln: A Biography|publisher=W. W. Norton & Company|year=1989|isbn=978-0-393-30586-9}} * {{cite book|last= Bartelt| first=William E.|title=There I Grew Up: Remembering Abraham Lincoln's Indiana Youth|publisher=Indiana Historical Society Press |location=Indianapolis |year=2008 |page=79 |isbn=978-0-87195-263-9}} * {{cite book|oclc=518824|title=Abraham Lincoln: His Speeches and Writings|editor1-link=Roy Basler|editor1-first=Roy Prentice|editor1-last=Basler|publisher=World Publishing|year=1946}} * {{cite book| editor1-last=Basler| editor1-first=Roy P.|title=The Collected Works of Abraham Lincoln| publisher=Rutgers University Press|year=1953|volume=5}} * {{cite book|ref=Belz|last=Belz|first=Herman|title=Abraham Lincoln, Constitutionalism, and Equal Rights in the Civil War Era|publisher=Fordham University Press|year=1998|isbn=978-0-8232-1769-4}} * {{cite encyclopedia|last=Belz|first=Herman|editor1-first=Bruce|editor1-last=Frohnen|editor2-first=Jeremy|editor2-last=Beer|editor3-first=Jeffrey O|editor3-last=Nelson|encyclopedia=American Conservatism: An Encyclopedia |title=Lincoln, Abraham|year=2006|publisher=ISI Books|isbn=978-1-932236-43-9|quote=|ref=}} * {{cite journal|last=Bennett Jr|first=Lerone|authorlink=Lerone Bennett Jr. |date=February 1968|title=Was Abe Lincoln a White Supremacist?|journal=Ebony|volume=23|issue=4|publisher=Johnson Publishing|issn=0012-9011|url=https://books.google.com/?id=H84DAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA35}} * {{cite book|ref=Blue|last=Blue|first=Frederick J.|title=Salmon P. Chase: a life in politics|publisher=The Kent State University Press|year=1987|isbn=0-87338-340-0}} <!-- NOT CITED IN ARTICLE *{{cite book|ref=Boritt1997|last=Boritt|first=Gabor S.|title=Why the Civil War Came|year=1997|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-511376-1}} --> * {{cite book|isbn=0-252-06445-3|title=Lincoln and the Economics of the American Dream|url=|authorlink=Gabor Boritt|ref=Boritt1994|last=Boritt|first=Gabor|publisher=University of Illinois Press|year=1994|origyear=1978}} * {{cite book|ref=Bulla|last1=Bulla|first1= David W.|author2=Gregory A. Borchard|title=Journalism in the Civil War Era|year=2010|publisher=Peter Lang Publishing Inc.|isbn=1-4331-0722-8}} * {{cite book | last= Burlingame| first=Michael | title =Abraham Lincoln: A Life | publisher =Johns Hopkins University Press | series = | volume =I | edition = | year =2008 | location =Baltimore, MD | page=| url = | isbn =978-0-8018-8993-6}} * {{cite journal|last=Carwardine|first=Richard J.|authorlink=Richard Carwardine|date=Winter 1997|title=Lincoln, Evangelical Religion, and American Political Culture in the Era of the Civil War|journal=Journal of the Abraham Lincoln Association|volume=18|issue=1|pages=27–55 |publisher=Abraham Lincoln Association|issn=|oclc= |url=http://www.historycooperative.org/journals/jala/18.1/carwardine.html |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20091124091750/http://www.historycooperative.org/journals/jala/18.1/carwardine.html |archivedate=November 24, 2009}} * {{cite book|ref=Carwardine|first=Richard|last=Carwardine|title=Lincoln|publisher=Pearson Education Ltd|year=2003|isbn=978-0-582-03279-8 }} * {{cite book|isbn=978-0-691-09173-0|title=The War Was You and Me: Civilians in The American Civil War|last=Cashin|first=Joan E.|publisher=Princeton University Press|year=2002}} * {{cite book|ref=Chesebrough|last=Chesebrough|first=David B.|title=No Sorrow Like Our Sorrow|publisher=Kent State University Press|year=1994|isbn=978-0-87338-491-9}} * {{cite book|ref=Cox|last=Cox|first=Hank H.|title=Lincoln And The Sioux Uprising of 1862|publisher=Cumberland House Publisher|year=2005|isbn=978-1-58182-457-5}} * {{cite book|ref=Cummings|last1=Cummings|first1=William W.|author2=James B. Hatcher|title=Scott Specialized Catalogue of United States Stamps|year=1982|publisher=Scott Publishing Company|isbn=0-89487-042-4}} * {{cite book|ref=Dennis|title=Red, White, and Blue Letter Days: an American Calendar|last=Dennis|first=Matthew|publisher=Cornell University Press|year=2002|isbn=978-0-8014-7268-8}} * {{cite book|ref=Diggins|title=The Lost Soul of American Politics: Virtue, Self-Interest, and the Foundations of Liberalism|last=Diggins|first=John P.|publisher=University of Chicago Press|year=1986|isbn=0-226-14877-7}} * {{cite book|isbn=978-0-87580-359-3|oclc=|title=Lincoln Emancipated: The President and the Politics of Race|last=Dirck|first=Brian R.|publisher=Northern Illinois University Press|year=2007}} * {{cite book|ref=Dirck|last=Dirck|first=Brian|title=Lincoln the Lawyer|publisher=University of Illinois Press|year=2008|isbn=978-0-252-07614-5}} * {{cite book|ref=Donald1948|title=Lincoln's Herndon|authorlink=David Herbert Donald|first=David Herbert|last=Donald|publisher=A. A. Knopf|year=1948|oclc=186314258}} * {{cite book|ref=Donald|first=David Herbert|last=Donald|title=Lincoln|publisher=Simon and Schuster|year=1996|origyear=1995|isbn=978-0-684-82535-9}} * {{cite book|ref=Donald2|first=David Herbert|last=Donald|title=Lincoln Reconsidered|year=2001|publisher=Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group|isbn=978-0-375-72532-6}} * {{cite book|authorlink=Frederick Douglass|ref=Douglass|first=Frederick|last=Douglass|title=The Life and Times of Frederick Douglass|year=2008|publisher=Cosimo Classics|isbn=1-60520-399-8}} * {{cite book|ref=Edgar|first=Walter B.|last=Edgar|title=South Carolina: A History|year=1998|publisher=University of South Carolina Press|isbn=978-1-57003-255-4}} * {{cite journal|last=Fish|first=Carl Russell|authorlink=Carl Russell Fish |date=October 1902|title=Lincoln and the Patronage|journal=American Historical Review|volume=8|issue=1|pages=53–69|publisher=American Historical Association|issn=|oclc=|jstor=1832574|doi=10.2307/1832574}} * {{cite book|ref=Foner|authorlink=Eric Foner|last=Foner|first=Eric |title=Free Soil, Free Labor, Free Men: The Ideology of the Republican Party before the Civil War|year=1995|origyear=1970|isbn=978-0-19-509497-8|publisher=Oxford University Press}} * {{cite book|ref=Foner2|last=Foner|first= Eric|title=[[The Fiery Trial: Abraham Lincoln and American Slavery]]|publisher=W.W. Norton|year=2010|isbn= 978-0-393-06618-0}} * {{cite book|ref=Goodwin|first=Doris Kearns|last=Goodwin|authorlink=Doris Kearns Goodwin|title=[[Team of Rivals]]: The Political Genius of Abraham Lincoln|isbn=0-684-82490-6|year=2005|publisher=Simon & Schuster}} * {{cite book|isbn=978-0-253-34567-7|oclc=|title=The Darkest Dawn: Lincoln, Booth, and the Great American Tragedy|last=Goodrich|first=Thomas|publisher=Indiana University Press|year=2005}} * {{cite book|oclc=428674|title=The Enduring Lincoln: Lincoln Sesquicentennial Lectures at the University of Illinois|chapter=Abraham Lincoln: Conservative Statesman|last=Graebner|first=Norman|publisher=University of Illinois Press |year=1959}} * {{cite book|ref=Grimsley|title=The Collapse of the Confederacy|last=Grimsley|first=Mark|publisher=University of Nebraska Press|year=2001|isbn=0-8032-2170-3}} * {{cite book|ref=Guelzo1999|authorlink=Allen C. Guelzo|last=Guelzo|first=Allen C.|title=Abraham Lincoln: Redeemer President|isbn=0-8028-3872-3|year=1999|publisher=W.B. Eerdmans Publishing}} * {{cite book|ref=Guelzo2004|isbn=978-0-7432-2182-5|oclc=|title=Lincoln's Emancipation Proclamation: The End of Slavery in America|last=Guelzo|first=Allen C.|publisher=Simon & Schuster|year=2004}} <!-- NOT CITED IN ARTICLE* {{cite book|ref=Guelzo2009|last=Guelzo|first=Allen C.|title=Lincoln: A Very Short Introduction|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2009|isbn=0-19-536780-4}} --> * {{cite book|ref=Handy|first= James S.|last=Handy|title=Book Review: Abraham Lincoln, the Lawyer-Statesman|publisher=Northwestern University Law Publication Association|year=1917 }} * {{cite book|ref=Harrison1935|oclc=3512772|last=Harrison|first=J. Houston|title=Settlers by the Long Grey Trail|year=1935|publisher=J.K. Reubush}} * {{cite book|ref=Harrison2000|last=Harrison|first=Lowell Hayes|title=Lincoln of Kentucky|publisher=University Press of Kentucky|year=2000 |isbn=0-8131-2156-6}} * {{cite book|ref=Harris|last=Harris|first=William C.|title=Lincoln's Rise to the Presidency|isbn=978-0-7006-1520-9|publisher=University Press of Kansas|year=2007 }} * {{cite book|ref=Havers|last=Havers|first=Grant N.|title=Lincoln and the Politics of Christian Love|isbn=0-8262-1857-1|publisher=University of Missouri Press|year=2009 }} * {{cite book|ref=Heidler2|title=Encyclopedia of the American Civil War: A Political, Social, and Military History|editors=Heidler, David S.; Jeanne T. Heidler|year=2000|publisher=W. W. Norton & Company, Inc|isbn=978-0-393-04758-5 }} * {{cite book|ref=Heidler|last=Heidler|first=David Stephen|title=The Mexican War|year=2006|publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group|isbn=978-0-313-32792-6}} * {{cite journal|last=Hofstadter|first=Richard|authorlink=Richard Hofstadter |date=October 1938|title=The Tariff Issue on the Eve of the Civil War|journal=American Historical Review|volume=44|issue=1|pages=50–55|publisher=American Historical Association|jstor=1840850|doi=10.2307/1840850}} * {{cite book|ref=Holzer|first=Harold|last=Holzer|title=Lincoln at Cooper Union: The Speech That Made Abraham Lincoln President|year=2004|publisher=Simon & Schuster|isbn=978-0-7432-9964-0}} * {{cite book|ref=Jaffa|first=Harry V.|last=Jaffa|title=A New Birth of Freedom: Abraham Lincoln and the Coming of the Civil War|year=2000|isbn=0-8476-9952-8|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield}} * {{cite book|isbn=978-0-19-804006-4|oclc=|title=To Make Our World Anew: Volume I: A History of African Americans to 1880|authorlink=Robin Kelley|last1=Kelley|first1=Robin D. G.|author2=Lewis, Earl|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2005}} * {{cite book|ref=Lamb|editors=Lamb, Brian; Susan Swain|title=Abraham Lincoln: Great American Historians on Our Sixteenth President|publisher=PublicAffairs|year=2008|isbn=978-1-58648-676-1}} * {{cite journal|last=Lupton|first=John A.|date=September–October 2006|title=Abraham Lincoln and the Corwin Amendment|journal=Illinois Heritage|volume=9|issue=5|page=34|publisher=The Illinois State Historical Society|issn=|oclc=|url=http://www.lib.niu.edu/2006/ih060934.html}} <!-- NOT CITED IN ARTICLE *{{cite book|authorlink=Reinhard H. Luthin|ref=Luthin|first=Reinhard H.|last=Luthin|title=The First Lincoln Campaign|isbn=978-0-8446-1292-8|year=1944|publisher=Harvard University Press }} --> * {{cite journal|last=Luthin|first=Reinhard H. |date=July 1994|title=Abraham Lincoln and the Tariff|journal=American Historical Review|volume=49|issue=4|pages=609–629|oclc=|jstor=1850218|doi=10.2307/1850218}} * McClintock, Russell. ''Lincoln and the Decision for War: The Northern Response to Secession'' (2008) [https://www.questia.com/library/117296123/lincoln-and-the-decision-for-war-the-northern-response online] * {{cite book | last=Madison |first=James H. | title =Hoosiers: A New History of Indiana | publisher =Indiana University Press and Indiana Historical Society Press | series = | volume = | edition = | year =2014 | location =Bloomington and Indianapolis | page =110 | url = | isbn =978-0-253-01308-8}} * {{cite book|ref=Mansch|last=Mansch|first=Larry D.|title=Abraham Lincoln, President-Elect: The Four Critical Months from Election to Inauguration|publisher=McFarland|year=2005|isbn=0-7864-2026-X}} * {{cite book|authorlink=George McGovern|ref=McGovern|last=McGovern|first=George S.|title=Abraham Lincoln|publisher=Macmillan|year=2008|isbn=978-0-8050-8345-3}} * {{cite book|ref= McKirdy|last= McKirdy|first= Charles Robert|title= Lincoln Apostate: The Matson Slave Case|year=2011|publisher= Univ. Press of Mississippi|isbn= 978-1-60473-987-9}} * {{cite book|ref=McPherson1992|last=McPherson|first=James M.|authorlink=James M. McPherson|title=Abraham Lincoln and the Second American Revolution|year=1992|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-507606-6}} * {{cite book|ref=McPherson2|title=[[Battle Cry of Freedom: The Civil War Era]]|last=McPherson|first=James M.|year=1993|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-516895-2}} * {{cite book|ref=McPherson5|last=McPherson|first=James M.|title=Abraham Lincoln|year=2009|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-537452-0}} * {{cite book | last= Miller |first=William Lee | title = Lincoln's Virtues: An Ethical Biography | publisher =Random House/Vintage Books | series = | volume = | edition =Vintage Books | year =2002 | location =New York | page = | url = | isbn =0-375-40158-X}} *{{cite book|authorlink=Mark E. Neely Jr.|ref=Neely |last=Neely |first=Mark E. |title=The Fate of Liberty: Abraham Lincoln and Civil Liberties |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1992|pages=3–31|url=https://www.questia.com/library/79055660/the-fate-of-liberty-abraham-lincoln-and-civil-liberties}} * {{cite journal|last=Neely Jr.|first=Mark E.|date=December 2004|title=Was the Civil War a Total War?|journal=Civil War History|volume=50 |issue=4|pages=434–458|issn=|oclc= |url=http://muse.jhu.edu/login?auth=0&type=summary&url=/journals/civil_war_history/v050/50.4neely.html |doi=10.1353/cwh.2004.0073}} * {{cite book|ref=Nevins|last=Nevins|first=Allan|title=Ordeal of the Union; 8 vol|publisher=Scribner's|year=1947–71|isbn=978-0-684-10416-4}} ** {{cite book|ref=Nevins1950|last=Nevins|first=Allan|title=The Emergence of Lincoln: Prologue to Civil War, 1857–1861 2 vol|publisher=Scribner's|year=1950|isbn=978-0-684-10416-4}}, also published as vol 3–4 of ''Ordeal of the Union'' ** {{cite book|ref=Nevins1960|last=Nevins|first=Allan|title=The War for the Union; 4 vol 1861–1865|publisher=Scribner's|year=1960–1971|isbn=978-1-56852-297-5}}; also published as vol 5–8 of ''Ordeal of the Union'' * {{cite book|ref=Nichols|last=Nichols|first=David A.|title=Lincoln Looks West: From the Mississippi to the Pacific|editor=Richard W. Etulain|publisher=Southern Illinois University|year=2010|isbn=0-8093-2961-1}} * {{cite book|ref=Noll|last=Noll|first=Mark|title=America's God: From Jonathan Edwards to Abraham Lincoln|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2000|isbn=0-19-515111-9}} * {{cite book|ref=Oates|last=Oates|first=Stephen B.|authorlink=Stephen B. Oates|title=With Malice Toward None: a Life of Abraham Lincoln|publisher=HarperCollins|year=1993|isbn=978-0-06-092471-3}} * {{cite book|ref=Paludan|last=Paludan|first=Phillip Shaw|title=The Presidency of Abraham Lincoln|isbn=978-0-7006-0671-9|year=1994|publisher=University Press of Kansas}} * {{cite journal|last=Parrillo|first=Nicholas |date=September 2000|title=Lincoln's Calvinist Transformation: Emancipation and War|journal=Civil War History|volume=46|issue=3|pages=227–253|publisher=Kent State University Press|issn=|oclc=|url=|doi=10.1353/cwh.2000.0073}} * {{cite book|ref=Pessen|last=Pessen|first=Edward|title=The Log Cabin Myth: The Social Backgrounds of American Presidents|publisher=Yale University Press|year=1984|isbn=0-300-03166-1}} * {{cite book|ref=Peterson|last=Peterson|first=Merrill D.|title=Lincoln in American Memory|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=1995|isbn=978-0-19-509645-3}} * {{cite book|ref=Potter|last1=Potter|first1=David M.|author2=Don Edward Fehrenbacher|title=The impending crisis, 1848–1861|publisher=HarperCollins|year=1976|isbn=978-0-06-131929-7}} * {{cite book|ref=Prokopowicz|last=Prokopowicz|first=Gerald J.|title=Did Lincoln Own Slaves?|publisher=Vintage Books|year=2008|isbn=978-0-307-27929-3}} * {{cite book|oclc=748479|ref=Randall1947|last=Randall|first=James G.|authorlink=James G. Randall|title=Lincoln, the Liberal Statesman|year=1947|publisher=Dodd, Mead}} * {{cite book|oclc=5852442|ref=Randall|last1=Randall|first1=J.G.|author2=Current, Richard Nelson|series=Lincoln the President|volume=IV|title=Last Full Measure|publisher=Dodd, Mead|year=1955}} <!-- NOT CITED IN ARTICLE * {{cite book|ref=Reinhart|last=Reinhart|first=Mark S.|title=Abraham Lincoln on Screen|publisher=McFarland|year=2008|isbn=978-0-7864-3536-4}} --> * {{cite book|oclc=6579822|ref=Sandburg|last=Sandburg|first=Carl |title=Abraham Lincoln: The Prairie Years|year=1926|publisher=Harcourt, Brace & Company}} * {{cite book|ref=SandburgPW2002|last=Sandburg| first=Carl|title=Abraham Lincoln: The Prairie Years and the War Years|publisher=Houghton Mifflin Harcourt|year=2002|isbn=0-15-602752-6}} * {{cite book|ref=Schwartz2000|last=Schwartz|first=Barry|title=Abraham Lincoln and the Forge of National Memory|year=2000|publisher=University of Chicago Press|isbn=978-0-226-74197-0}} * {{cite book|ref=Schwartz2009|last=Schwartz|first=Barry|title=Abraham Lincoln in the Post-Heroic Era: History and Memory in Late Twentieth-Century America|publisher=University of Chicago Press|year=2009|isbn=978-0-226-74188-8}} * {{cite journal|last=Scott|first=Kenneth|date=September 1948|title=Press Opposition to Lincoln in New Hampshire|journal=The New England Quarterly|volume=21|issue=3|pages=326–341|publisher=The New England Quarterly, Inc.|issn=|jstor=361094|doi=10.2307/361094}} <!-- NOT CITED IN ARTICLE * {{cite book|ref=Scott|last=Scott|title=Scott 2006 Classic Specialized Catalogue|publisher=Scott Pub. Co.|year=2005|isbn=0-89487-358-X}} --> * {{cite book|ref=Sherman|last=Sherman|first=William T.|title=Memoirs of General W.T. Sherman|publisher=BiblioBazaar|year=1990|isbn=1-174-63172-4}} * {{cite book|ref=Simon|last=Simon|first=Paul|title=Lincoln's Preparation for Greatness: The Illinois Legislative Years|publisher=University of Illinois|year=1990|isbn=0-252-00203-2}} * {{cite book|ref=Smith|last=Smith|first=Robert C.|title=Conservatism and Racism, and Why in America They Are the Same|year=2010|publisher=State University of New York Press|isbn=978-1-4384-3233-5}} * {{cite book|ref=Steers|last=Steers|first=Edward|title=The Lincoln Assassination Encyclopedia|publisher=Harper Collins|year=2010|isbn=0-06-178775-2}} * {{cite book| last=Striner| first=Richard| title=Father Abraham: Lincoln's Relentless Struggle to End Slavery|year=2006|publisher=Oxford University Press| isbn=978-0-19-518306-1}} * {{cite book|ref=Tagg|title=The Unpopular Mr. Lincoln:The Story of America's Most Reviled President|first=Larry|last=Tagg|publisher=Savas Beatie|year=2009|isbn=978-1-932714-61-6}} * {{cite book|ref=Taranto|last1=Taranto|first1=James|author2=Leonard Leo|title=Presidential Leadership: Rating the Best and the Worst in the White House|publisher=Simon and Schuster|year=2004|isbn=978-0-7432-5433-5}} * {{cite journal|last=Tegeder|first=Vincent G.|date=June 1948|title=Lincoln and the Territorial Patronage: The Ascendancy of the Radicals in the West|journal=Mississippi Valley Historical Review|volume=35|issue=1|pages=77–90|publisher=Organization of American Historians|issn=|oclc=|jstor=1895140|doi=10.2307/1895140}} <!-- NOT CITED IN ARTICLE *{{cite book|isbn=978-0-8071-3231-9|oclc=|title=Inside the Confederate Nation: Essays in Honor of Emory M. Thomas|url=|authorlink=Emory M. Thomas|last= Thomas|first=Emory M.|editor1-first=Lesley J.|editor1-last=Gordon|editor2-first=John C.|editor2-last=Inscoe|publisher=Louisiana State University Press|year=2007}} --> * {{cite book|ref=Thomas|first=Benjamin P.|last=Thomas|title=Abraham Lincoln: A Biography|publisher=Southern Illinois University|year=2008|isbn=978-0-8093-2887-1}} * {{cite book|isbn=978-0-925436-21-4|oclc=|title=The Lincoln Funeral Train: The Final Journey and National Funeral for Abraham Lincoln|last=Trostel|first=Scott D.|publisher=Cam-Tech Publishing|year=2002}} * {{cite book|ref=Vorenberg|last=Vorenberg|first=Michael|title=Final Freedom: the Civil War, the Abolition of Slavery, and the Thirteenth Amendment|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2001|isbn=978-0-521-65267-4}} * {{cite book|author=Warren, Louis A. |title=Lincoln's Youth: Indiana Years, Seven to Twenty-One, 1816–1830|publisher=Indiana Historical Society|location=Indianapolis |year=1991|pages=| isbn=0-87195-063-4}} * {{cite book|ref=White|last=White Jr.|first=Ronald C.|title=A. Lincoln: A Biography|publisher=Random House, Inc|year=2009|isbn=978-1-4000-6499-1}} * {{cite book|ref=Wills|first=Garry|last=Wills|authorlink=Garry Wills|title=[[Lincoln at Gettysburg: The Words That Remade America]]|isbn=0-671-86742-3|year=1993|publisher=Simon & Schuster }} * {{cite book|ref=Wilson|first=Douglas L.|last=Wilson|publisher=Knopf Publishing Group|title=Honor's Voice: The Transformation of Abraham Lincoln|year=1999|isbn=978-0-375-70396-6 }} * {{cite book|ref=Winkle|last=Winkle|first=Kenneth J.|title=The Young Eagle: The Rise of Abraham Lincoln|year=2001|publisher=Taylor Trade Publications|isbn=978-0-87833-255-7}} * {{cite book|ref=Zarefsky|authorlink=David Zarefsky|isbn=978-0-226-97876-5|title=Lincoln, Douglas, and Slavery: In the Crucible of Public Debate|last=Zarefsky|first=David S.|publisher=University of Chicago Press|year=1993}} * {{cite journal|last=Zilversmit|first=Arthur|year=1980|title=Lincoln and the Problem of Race: A Decade of Interpretations|journal=Journal of the Abraham Lincoln Association|volume=2|issue=11|pages=22–24|publisher=Abraham Lincoln Association|url=http://www.historycooperative.org/journals/jala/2/zilversmit.html|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110720234453/http://www.historycooperative.org/journals/jala/2/zilversmit.html|archivedate=July 20, 2011|ref=}} {{Refend}} <!-- NOT CITED IN ARTICLE *{{cite book|ref=Miller |first=William Lee |last=Miller |title=Lincoln's Virtues: An Ethical Biography |year=2002 |isbn=0-375-40158-X |publisher=Alfred A. Knopf }} --> ===Historiography=== * {{cite book|isbn=978-1-58182-369-1|title=One Hundred Essential Lincoln Books|last=Burkhimer|first=Michael|publisher=Cumberland House|location=|year=2003}} * {{cite book|isbn=978-0-393-06756-9|title=Our Lincoln: New Perspectives on Lincoln and His World|last=Foner|first=Eric|publisher=W.W. Norton |location=|year=2008}} * Holzer, Harold and Craig L. Symonds, eds. ''Exploring Lincoln: Great Historians Reappraise Our Greatest President'' (2015), essays by 16 scholars * Manning, Chandra, "The Shifting Terrain of Attitudes toward Abraham Lincoln and Emancipation", ''Journal of the Abraham Lincoln Association,'' 34 (Winter 2013), 18–39. * Smith, Adam I.P. "The 'Cult' of Abraham Lincoln and the Strange Survival of Liberal England in the Era of the World Wars", ''Twentieth Century British History,'' (Dec 2010) 21#4 pp.&nbsp;486–509 * Spielberg, Steven; Goodwin, Doris Kearns; Kushner, Tony. "Mr. Lincoln Goes to Hollywood", ''Smithsonian'' (2012) 43#7 pp.&nbsp;46–53. ===Additional references=== {{Refbegin|30em}} * {{cite book|isbn=978-0-8018-8993-6|title=Abraham Lincoln: A Life ''(2 volumes)''|authorlink=Michael Burlingame (historian)|last=Burlingame|first=Michael|publisher=Johns Hopkins University Press|location=|year=2008}} * {{cite book|isbn=978-0-87249-400-8|title=Lincoln and Black Freedom: A Study in Presidential Leadership|authorlink=LaWanda Cox |last=Cox|first=LaWanda|publisher=University of South Carolina Press |location=|year=1981}} * Green, Michael S. ''Lincoln and the Election of 1860'' (Concise Lincoln Library) [http://www.amazon.com/Lincoln-Election-1860-Concise-Library/dp/0809330350/ excerpt and text search] * {{cite book|author=Holzer, Harold|title=Lincoln President-Elect: Abraham Lincoln and the Great Secession Winter 1860–1861|url=https://books.google.com/?id=34cVaFHdgMMC|year=2008|publisher=Simon and Schuster|isbn=978-0-7432-8947-4}} * {{cite book|isbn=978-1-59420-191-2|title=Tried by War: Abraham Lincoln as Commander in Chief|last=McPherson|first=James M.|publisher=Penguin Press |location=|year=2008}} * {{cite book|author=Miller, Richard Lawrence|title=Lincoln and His World: The Rise to National Prominence, 1843–1853|url=https://books.google.com/?id=c1odBTiRSJcC|year=2011|publisher=McFarland|isbn=978-0-7864-5928-5}}, vol 3. of detailed biography * {{cite book|isbn=978-0-306-80209-6|title=The Abraham Lincoln Encyclopedia|last=Neely|first=Mark E|publisher=Da Capo Press|year=1984}} * {{cite book|isbn=978-0-674-51125-5|title=The Last Best Hope of Earth: Abraham Lincoln and the Promise of America |last=Neely|first=Mark E|publisher=Harvard University Press|year=1994}} * {{cite book|isbn=|oclc=4183070|title=Lincoln the President ''(4 volumes)''|last=Randall|first=James G.|publisher=Dodd, Mead |location=|year=1945–1955}} {{Refend}} ==External links== <!--======================== {{No more links}} ============================ | PLEASE BE CAUTIOUS IN ADDING MORE LINKS TO THIS ARTICLE. Wikipedia | | is not a collection of links nor should it be used for advertising. | | | | Excessive or inappropriate links WILL BE DELETED. | | See [[Wikipedia:External links]] & [[Wikipedia:Spam]] for details. | | | | If there are already plentiful links, please propose additions or | | replacements on this article's discussion page, or submit your link | | to the relevant category at the Open Directory Project (dmoz.org) | | and link back to that category using the {{dmoz}} template. | ==={{No more links}}=========--> {{Sister project links|wikt=no|commons=Abraham Lincoln | b=no | n=no | q=Abraham Lincoln | s=Author:Abraham Lincoln|v=no|voy=no|species=no|d=no|display=Abraham Lincoln}} ;Official * [http://www.illinois.gov/alplm/library/Pages/default.aspx Abraham Lincoln Presidential Library and Museum] * [http://www.whitehouse.gov/1600/presidents/abrahamlincoln White House biography] ;Organizations * [http://www.abrahamlincolnassociation.org/ Abraham Lincoln Association] * [http://www.lincolnbicentennial.org/ Abraham Lincoln Bicentennial Foundation] ;Media coverage * {{NYTtopic|people/l/abraham_lincoln}} ;Other * [http://www.loc.gov/rr/program/bib/presidents/lincoln/ Abraham Lincoln: A Resource Guide from the Library of Congress] *[http://www.c-span.org/video/?125640-1/life-portrait-abraham-lincoln "Life Portrait of Abraham Lincoln"], from [[C-SPAN]]'s ''[[American Presidents: Life Portraits]]'', June 28, 1999 *[http://www.c-span.org/video/?164439-1/writings-abraham-lincoln "Writings of Abraham Lincoln"] from [[C-SPAN]]'s ''[[American Writers: A Journey Through History]]'' * [http://www.shapell.org/manuscript.aspx?the-government-is-about-to-fall-into-our-hands-1860-abraham-lincoln Abraham Lincoln: Original Letters and Manuscripts] - [[Shapell Manuscript Foundation]] * [http://lincoln.lib.niu.edu/ Lincoln/Net: Abraham Lincoln Historical Digitization Project] - Northern Illinois University Libraries * [http://edsitement.neh.gov/teaching-abraham-lincoln#node-19470 Teaching Abraham Lincoln] - [[National Endowment for the Humanities]] * {{Internet Archive author |sname=Abraham Lincoln}} * {{Librivox author |id=2233}} * [http://memory.loc.gov/diglib/ihas/loc.natlib.ihas.200002063/default.html In Popular Song:Our Noble Chief Has Passed Away by Cooper/Thomas] {{Abraham Lincoln}} {{Navboxes |title=Offices and distinctions |list1= {{s-start}} {{s-par|us-hs}} {{s-bef|before=[[John Henry (representative)|John Henry]]}} {{s-ttl|title=Member of the [[List of United States Representatives from Illinois|House of Representatives]]<br />from [[Illinois's 7th congressional district]]|years=1847–1849}} {{s-aft|after=[[Thomas L. 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Ingemar Düring, ''Aristotle in the Ancient Biographical Tradition'', Göteborg, 1957, {{p.|253}}.</ref> was a [[Greeks|Greek]] [[philosopher]] and scientist born in the city of [[Stagira (ancient city)|Stagira]], [[Chalkidiki|Chalkidice]], on the northern periphery of [[Classical Greece]]. His father, [[Nicomachus (father of Aristotle)|Nicomachus]], died when Aristotle was a child, whereafter [[Proxenus of Atarneus]] became his guardian.<ref>{{cite web |title=Biography of Aristotle |url=http://www.biography.com/people/aristotle-9188415?page=1#early-life |publisher=Biography.com |accessdate=12 March 2014}}</ref> At eighteen, he joined [[Plato's Academy]] in Athens and remained there until the age of thirty-seven ([[Circa|c.]]&nbsp;347&nbsp;BC). His writings cover many subjects –&nbsp;including [[Physics (Aristotle)|physics]], [[biology]], [[zoology]], [[metaphysics]], [[logic]], ethics, [[aesthetics]], [[Poetics (Aristotle)|poetry]], theater, music, [[rhetoric]], [[linguistics]], politics and government&nbsp;– and constitute the first comprehensive system of [[Western philosophy]]. Shortly after Plato died, Aristotle left Athens and, at the request of [[Philip of Macedon]], tutored [[Alexander the Great]] starting from 343&nbsp;BC.<ref name="philosophy1972">Bertrand Russell, ''A History of Western Philosophy'', Simon & Schuster, 1972.</ref> According to the ''[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]'', "Aristotle was the first genuine scientist in history&nbsp;... [and] every scientist is in his debt."<ref>{{cite book |author=Encyclopædia Britannica |title=The Britannica Guide to the 100 Most Influential Scientists |publisher=Running Press |year=2008 |page=12 |isbn=978-0-7624-3421-3}}</ref> Teaching Alexander the Great gave Aristotle many opportunities and an abundance of supplies. He established a library in the [[Lyceum (Classical)|Lyceum]] which aided in the production of many of his hundreds of books. The fact that Aristotle was a pupil of Plato contributed to his former views of [[Platonism]], but, following Plato's death, Aristotle immersed himself in empirical studies and shifted from Platonism to [[empiricism]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Barnes |first=Jonathan |authorlink=Jonathan Barnes |chapter=Life and Work |title=The Cambridge Companion to Aristotle |year=1995 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-42294-9 |page=[http://books.google.com/books?id=WBqQOqM5dfsC&pg=PA16 16] |ref=harv}}</ref> He believed all peoples' concepts and all of their knowledge was ultimately based on [[perception]]. Aristotle's views on [[natural science]]s represent the groundwork underlying many of his works. Aristotle's views on [[Aristotelian physics|physical science]] profoundly shaped medieval scholarship. Their influence extended into the [[Renaissance]] and were not replaced systematically until [[Age of Enlightenment|the Enlightenment]] and theories such as [[classical mechanics]]. Some of Aristotle's zoological observations, such as on the hectocotyl (reproductive) arm of the octopus, were not confirmed or refuted until the 19th century. His works contain the earliest known formal study of logic, which was incorporated in the late 19th century into modern [[formal logic]]. In metaphysics, [[Aristotelianism]] profoundly influenced [[Judeo-Islamic philosophies (800–1400)|Judeo-Islamic philosophical and theological thought]] during the [[Middle Ages]] and continues to influence [[Christian theology]], especially the [[Scholasticism|scholastic]] tradition of the [[Catholic Church]]. Aristotle was well known among medieval Muslim intellectuals and revered as "The First Teacher" ({{lang-ar|{{big|المعلم الأول}}}}). His ethics, though always influential, gained renewed interest with the modern advent of [[virtue ethics]]. All aspects of Aristotle's philosophy continue to be the object of active academic study today. Though Aristotle wrote many elegant treatises and dialogues –&nbsp;[[Cicero]] described his literary style as "a river of gold"<ref>{{cite book |last=Cicero |first=Marcus Tullius |publication-date=1874 |origyear=106–43 BC |chapter=Book II, chapter XXXVIII, §119 |title=The Academica of Cirero |editor-first=James S. |editor-last=Reid |location=London |publisher=Macmillian and company |ref=harv}} "''veniet flumen orationis aureum fundens Aristoteles''", (Google translation: "Aristotle will come pouring forth a golden stream of eloquence")</ref>&nbsp;– it is thought that only around a third of his original output has survived.{{sfn|Barnes|1995|p=9}} == Life == [[File:The School of Aristotle (The Lyceum) (7263536048).jpg|thumb|220px|left|School of Aristotle in [[Mieza, Macedonia|Mieza]], [[Macedonia (Greece)|Macedonia, Greece]]]] Aristotle, whose name means "the best purpose",<ref>{{cite web |last=Campbell |first=Michael |title=Behind the Name: Meaning, Origin and History of the Name "Aristotle" |url=http://www.behindthename.com/name/aristotle |work=Behind the Name: The Etymology and History of First Names |publisher=www.behindthename.com |accessdate=6 April 2012}}</ref> was born in 384&nbsp;BC in [[Stagira (ancient city)|Stagira]], [[Chalcidice]], about 55&nbsp;km (34 miles) east of modern-day [[Thessaloniki]].<ref>{{cite book |last=McLeisch |first=Kenneth Cole |title=Aristotle: The Great Philosophers |publisher=Routledge |year=1999 |isbn=0-415-92392-1 |page=5}}</ref> His father [[Nicomachus (father of Aristotle)|Nicomachus]] was the personal physician to [[Amyntas III of Macedon|King Amyntas of]] [[Macedon]]. Although there is little information on Aristotle's childhood, he probably spent some time within the Macedonian palace, making his first connections with the Macedonian monarchy.<ref>Anagnostopoulos, G., "Aristotle's Life" in ''A Companion to Aristotle'' (Blackwell Publishing, 2009), {{p.|4}}.</ref> At about the age of eighteen, Aristotle moved to [[Athens]] to continue his education at [[Platonic Academy|Plato's Academy]]. He remained there for nearly twenty years before leaving Athens in 348/47&nbsp;BC. The traditional story about his departure records that he was disappointed with the Academy's direction after control passed to Plato's nephew [[Speusippus]], although it is possible that he feared anti-Macedonian sentiments and left before Plato died.<ref name="Lord Intro">Carnes Lord, introduction to ''The Politics'' by Aristotle (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1984).</ref> [[File:Francesco Hayez 001.jpg|thumb|250px|"Aristotle" by [[Francesco Hayez]] (1791–1882)]] Aristotle then accompanied [[Xenocrates]] to the court of his friend [[Hermias of Atarneus]] in [[Asia Minor]]. There, he traveled with [[Theophrastus]] to the island of [[Lesbos]], where together they researched the [[botany]] and zoology of the island. Aristotle married [[Pythias]], either Hermias's adoptive daughter or niece. She bore him a daughter, whom they also named Pythias. Soon after Hermias' death, Aristotle was invited by [[Philip II of Macedon]] to become the tutor to his son [[Alexander the Great|Alexander]] in 343&nbsp;BC.<ref name="philosophy1972"/> Aristotle was appointed as the head of the royal academy of [[Macedon]]. During that time he gave lessons not only to Alexander, but also to two other future kings: [[Ptolemy I Soter|Ptolemy]] and [[Cassander]].<ref name="Peter Green">Peter Green, ''Alexander of Macedon'', University of California Press Ltd. (Oxford, England) 1991, {{p.|58|59}}</ref> Aristotle encouraged Alexander toward eastern conquest and his attitude towards [[Persia]] was unabashedly [[Ethnocentricism|ethnocentric]]. In one famous example, he counsels Alexander to be "a leader to the Greeks and a despot to the barbarians, to look after the former as after friends and relatives, and to deal with the latter as with beasts or plants".<ref name="Peter Green"/> By 335&nbsp;BC, Artistotle had returned to Athens, establishing his own school there known as the [[Lyceum (Classical)|Lyceum]]. Aristotle conducted courses at the school for the next twelve years. While in Athens, his wife Pythias died and Aristotle became involved with [[Herpyllis]] of Stagira, who bore him a son whom he named after his father, [[Nicomachus (son of Aristotle)|Nicomachus]]. According to the [[Suda]], he also had an [[eromenos]], [[Palaephatus|Palaephatus of Abydus]].<ref>William George Smith,''Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology'', {{vol.|3}}, [http://www.ancientlibrary.com/smith-bio/2421.html {{p.|88}}]</ref> This period in Athens, between 335 and 323&nbsp;BC, is when Aristotle is believed to have composed many of his works.<ref name="philosophy1972"/> He wrote many dialogues of which only fragments have survived. Those works that have survived are in [[treatise]] form and were not, for the most part, intended for widespread publication; they are generally thought to be lecture aids for his students. His most important treatises include ''[[Physics (Aristotle)|Physics]]'', ''[[Metaphysics (Aristotle)|Metaphysics]]'', ''[[Nicomachean Ethics]]'', ''[[Politics (Aristotle)|Politics]]'', ''[[De Anima]]'' (''On the Soul'') and ''[[Poetics (Aristotle)|Poetics]]''. Aristotle not only studied almost every subject possible at the time, but made significant contributions to most of them. In physical science, Aristotle studied anatomy, astronomy, [[embryology]], geography, geology, meteorology, physics and zoology. In philosophy, he wrote on aesthetics, ethics, government, metaphysics, politics, economics, psychology, rhetoric and theology. He also studied education, foreign customs, literature and poetry. His combined works constitute a virtual encyclopedia of Greek knowledge. Near the end of his life, Alexander and Aristotle became estranged over Alexander's relationship with Persia and Persians. A widespread tradition in antiquity suspected Aristotle of playing a role in Alexander's death, but there is little evidence.<ref>Peter Green, ''Alexander of Macedon'', University of California Press Ltd. (Oxford, England), 1991, {{p.|379}} and 459.</ref> Following Alexander's death, anti-Macedonian sentiment in Athens was rekindled. In 322&nbsp;BC, Demophilus and [[Eurymedon the Hierophant]] reportedly denounced Aristotle for impiety,<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Filonik|first=Jakub|date=2013|title=Athenian impiety trials: a reappraisal|url=|journal=Dike|issue=16|pages=72–73|doi=10.13130/1128-8221/4290|pmid=|access-date=}}</ref> prompting him to flee to his mother's family estate in [[Chalcis]], at which occasion he was said to have stated: "I will not allow the Athenians to sin twice against philosophy"<ref>{{cite book |last=Jones |first=W. T. |title=The Classical Mind: A History of Western Philosophy |publisher=Harcourt Brace Jovanovich |year=1980 |page=216 |isbn=0-15-538312-4}}</ref><ref>''Vita Marciana'' 41, cf. [[Claudius Aelianus|Aelian]] ''Varia historica'' 3.36, Ingemar Düring, ''Aristotle in the Ancient Biographical Tradition'', Göteborg, 1957, T44a-e.</ref>{{spaced ndash}}a reference to Athens's prior [[Trial of Socrates|trial and execution of Socrates]]. He died in Euboea of [[natural causes]] later that same year, having named his student [[Antipater]] as his chief [[executor]] and leaving a [[Will (law)|will]] in which he asked to be buried next to his wife.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=ifqGuiHo6eQC&pg=PA3862&dq=Antipater+Aristotle+will&sig=sQzQVBdRmk-spNdZnyd1MwzAPTc Aristotle's Will], ''Aufstieg und Niedergang der römischen Welt'' by Hildegard Temporini, Wolfgang Haase.</ref> Charles Walston argues that the tomb of Aristotle is located on the sacred way between Chalcis and Eretria and to have contained two styluses, a pen, a signet-ring and some terra-cottas as well as what is supposed to be the earthly remains of Aristotle in the form of some skull fragments.<ref>See ''The Politics of Aristotle'' translated by Ernest Barker, Oxford: Clarendom Press, 1946, p. xxiii, note 2, who refers to ''Corpus Inscriptionum Graecarum'', vol. xii, fasc. ix, s.v. Eretria.</ref> In general, the details of the life of Aristotle are not well-established. The biographies of Aristotle written in ancient times are often speculative and historians only agree on a few salient points.<ref>See Shields, C., "Aristotle's Philosophical Life and Writings" in ''The Oxford Handbook of Aristotle'' ([[Oxford University Press]], 2012), {{pp.|3|16}}. Düring, I., ''Aristotle in the Ancient Biographical Tradition'' (Göteborg, 1957) is a collection of [an overview of?] ancient biographies of Aristotle.</ref> ==Thought== ===Logic=== [[File:Aristotle in Nuremberg Chronicle.jpg|thumb|upright|Aristotle portrayed in the 1493 ''[[Nuremberg Chronicle]]'' as a scholar of the 15th century AD.]] {{main|Term logic}} {{details|Non-Aristotelian logic}} With the ''[[Prior Analytics]]'', Aristotle is credited with the earliest study of formal logic,<ref>MICHAEL DEGNAN, 1994. Recent Work in Aristotle's Logic. ''Philosophical Books'' 35.2 (April 1994): 81–89.</ref> and his conception of it was the dominant form of Western logic until 19th century advances in [[mathematical logic]].<ref>Corcoran, John (2009). "Aristotle's Demonstrative Logic". History and Philosophy of Logic, 30: 1–20.</ref> [[Immanuel Kant|Kant]] stated in the ''Critique of Pure Reason'' that Aristotle's theory of logic completely accounted for the core of [[deductive inference]]. ====History==== Aristotle "says that 'on the subject of reasoning' he 'had nothing else on an earlier date to speak of'".<ref>{{cite book | last =Bocheński | first =I. M. | title =Ancient Formal Logic | publisher =North-Holland Publishing Company | year =1951 | location =Amsterdam }}</ref> However, Plato reports that [[syntax]] was devised before him, by [[Prodicus of Ceos]], who was concerned by the correct use of words. Logic seems to have emerged from [[dialectics]]; the earlier philosophers made frequent use of concepts like ''[[reductio ad absurdum]]'' in their discussions, but never truly understood the logical implications. Even Plato had difficulties with logic; although he had a reasonable conception of a [[deductive system]], he could never actually construct one, thus he relied instead on his [[dialectic]].<ref name="Bocheński, 1951">Bocheński, 1951.</ref> Plato believed that deduction would simply follow from [[premise]]s, hence he focused on maintaining solid premises so that the [[Logical consequence|conclusion]] would logically follow. Consequently, Plato realized that a method for obtaining conclusions would be most beneficial. He never succeeded in devising such a method, but his best attempt was published in his book ''[[Sophist (dialogue)|Sophist]]'', where he introduced his division method.<ref>{{cite book | last =Rose | first =Lynn E. | title =Aristotle's Syllogistic | publisher =Charles C Thomas Publisher | year =1968 | location =Springfield }}</ref> ====Analytics and the ''Organon''==== {{main|Organon}} What we today call ''Aristotelian logic'', Aristotle himself would have labeled "analytics". The term "logic" he reserved to mean ''dialectics''. Most of Aristotle's work is probably not in its original form, because it was most likely edited by students and later lecturers. The logical works of Aristotle were compiled into six books in about the early 1st century CE: #''Categories'' #''On Interpretation'' #''Prior Analytics'' #''Posterior Analytics'' #''Topics'' #''On Sophistical Refutations'' The order of the books (or the teachings from which they are composed) is not certain, but this list was derived from analysis of Aristotle's writings. It goes from the basics, the analysis of simple terms in the ''Categories,'' the analysis of propositions and their elementary relations in ''On Interpretation'', to the study of more complex forms, namely, syllogisms (in the ''Analytics'') and dialectics (in the ''Topics'' and ''Sophistical Refutations''). The first three treatises form the core of the logical theory ''stricto sensu'': the grammar of the language of logic and the correct rules of reasoning. There is one volume of Aristotle's concerning logic not found in the ''Organon'', namely the fourth book of ''Metaphysics.''<ref name="Bocheński, 1951"/> ===Aristotle's epistemology=== [[File:Sanzio 01 Plato Aristotle.jpg|thumb|Plato (left) and Aristotle (right), a detail of ''[[The School of Athens]]''<!--This should link to an article about the famous artwork-->, a fresco by [[Raphael]]. Aristotle gestures to the earth, representing his belief in knowledge through empirical observation and experience, while holding a copy of his ''[[Nicomachean Ethics]]'' in his hand, whilst Plato gestures to the heavens, representing his belief in [[The Forms]], while holding a copy of ''[[Timaeus (dialogue)|Timaeus]]'']] Like his teacher Plato, Aristotle's philosophy aims at the [[Universality (philosophy)|universal]]. Aristotle's [[ontology]], however, finds the universal in [[particular]] things, which he calls the essence of things, while in Plato's ontology, the universal exists apart from particular things, and is related to them as their [[prototype]] or [[wikt:exemplar|exemplar]]. For Aristotle, therefore, [[epistemology]] is based on the study of particular phenomena and rises to the knowledge of essences, while for Plato epistemology begins with knowledge of universal [[Theory of Forms|Forms]] (or ideas) and descends to knowledge of particular imitations of these. For Aristotle, "form" still refers to the unconditional basis of [[phenomena]] but is "instantiated" in a particular substance (see ''[[Aristotle#Universals and particulars|Universals and particulars]]'', below). In a certain sense, Aristotle's method is both [[Inductive reasoning|inductive]] and [[Deductive reasoning|deductive]], while Plato's is essentially deductive from ''[[A priori and a posteriori|a priori]]'' principles.<ref>{{cite book | last =Jori | first =Alberto | title =Aristotele | publisher =Bruno Mondadori Editore | year =2003 | location =Milano }}</ref> In Aristotle's terminology, "natural philosophy" is a branch of philosophy examining the phenomena of the natural world, and includes fields that would be regarded today as physics, biology and other natural sciences. In modern times, the scope of ''philosophy'' has become limited to more generic or abstract inquiries, such as ethics and metaphysics, in which logic plays a major role. Today's philosophy tends to exclude empirical study of the natural world by means of the scientific method. In contrast, Aristotle's philosophical endeavors encompassed virtually all facets of intellectual inquiry. In the larger sense of the word, Aristotle makes philosophy coextensive with reasoning, which he also would describe as "science". Note, however, that his use of the term ''science'' carries a different meaning than that covered by the term "scientific method". For Aristotle, "all science (''dianoia'') is either practical, poetical or theoretical" (''Metaphysics'' 1025b25). By practical science, he means ethics and politics; by poetical science, he means the study of poetry and the other fine arts; by theoretical science, he means physics, mathematics and metaphysics. If logic (or "analytics") is regarded as a study preliminary to philosophy, the divisions of Aristotelian philosophy would consist of: (1) [[Logic]]; (2) Theoretical Philosophy, including Metaphysics, Physics and Mathematics; (3) Practical Philosophy and (4) Poetical Philosophy. In the period between his two stays in Athens, between his times at the Academy and the Lyceum, Aristotle conducted most of the scientific thinking and research for which he is renowned today. In fact, most of Aristotle's life was devoted to the study of the objects of natural science. Aristotle's metaphysics contains observations on the nature of numbers but he made no original contributions to mathematics. He did, however, perform [[original research]] in the natural sciences, e.g., botany, zoology, physics, astronomy, chemistry, meteorology, and several other sciences. Aristotle's writings on science are largely qualitative, as opposed to quantitative. Beginning in the 16th century, scientists began applying mathematics to the physical sciences, and Aristotle's work in this area was deemed hopelessly inadequate. His failings were largely due to the absence of concepts like mass, velocity, force and temperature. He had a conception of speed and temperature, but no quantitative understanding of them, which was partly due to the absence of basic experimental devices, like clocks and thermometers. His writings provide an account of many scientific observations, a mixture of precocious accuracy and curious errors. For example, in his ''[[History of Animals]]'' he claimed that human males have more teeth than females.<ref>Aristotle, ''History of Animals'', 2.3.</ref> In a similar vein, [[John Philoponus]], and later [[Galileo Galilei|Galileo]], showed by simple experiments that Aristotle's theory that a heavier object falls faster than a lighter object is incorrect.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/philoponus/#2.2 |title=Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Plato.stanford.edu |accessdate=26 April 2009}}</ref> On the other hand, Aristotle refuted [[Democritus]]'s claim that the [[Milky Way]] was made up of "those stars which are shaded by the earth from the sun's rays," pointing out (correctly, even if such reasoning was bound to be dismissed for a long time) that, given "current astronomical demonstrations" that "the size of the sun is greater than that of the earth and the distance of the stars from the earth many times greater than that of the sun, then&nbsp;... the sun shines on all the stars and the earth screens none of them."<ref>Aristotle, ''Meteorology'' 1.8, trans. E.W. Webster, rev. J. Barnes.</ref> In places, Aristotle goes too far in deriving 'laws of the universe' from simple observation and over-stretched [[reason]]. Today's scientific method assumes that such thinking without sufficient facts is ineffective, and that discerning the validity of one's hypothesis requires far more rigorous experimentation than that which Aristotle used to support his laws. Aristotle also had some scientific blind spots. He posited a [[geocentrism|geocentric cosmology]] that we may discern in selections of the ''Metaphysics'', which was widely accepted up until the 16th century. From the 3rd century to the 16th century, the dominant view held that the Earth was the rotational [[History of the Center of the Universe|center of the universe]]. Because he was perhaps the philosopher most respected by European thinkers during and after the Renaissance, these thinkers often took Aristotle's erroneous positions as given, which held back science in this epoch.<ref>[[John Burnet (classicist)|Burnet, John]]. 1928. ''Platonism'', Berkeley: University of California Press, pp. 61, 103–104.</ref> However, Aristotle's scientific shortcomings should not mislead one into forgetting his great advances in the many scientific fields. For instance, he founded logic as a formal science and created foundations to biology that were not superseded for two millennia. Moreover, he introduced the fundamental notion that nature is composed of things that change and that studying such changes can provide useful knowledge of underlying constants. ===Geology=== As quoted from [[w:Charles Lyell|Charles Lyell's]] ''[[Principles of Geology]]'':<blockquote> He [Aristotle] refers to many examples of changes now constantly going on, and insists emphatically on the great results which they must produce in the lapse of ages. He instances particular cases of lakes that had dried up, and deserts that had at length become watered by rivers and fertilized. He points to the growth of the Nilotic delta since the time of Homer, to the shallowing of the [[Palus Maeotis]] within sixty years from his own time&nbsp;... He alludes&nbsp;... to the upheaving of one of the Eolian islands, previous to a volcanic eruption. The changes of the earth, he says, are so slow in comparison to the duration of our lives, that they are overlooked; and the migrations of people after great catastrophes, and their removal to other regions, cause the event to be forgotten. He says [12th chapter of his ''Meteorics''] 'the distribution of land and sea in particular regions does not endure throughout all time, but it becomes sea in those parts where it was land, and again it becomes land where it was sea, and there is reason for thinking that these changes take place according to a certain system, and within a certain period.' The concluding observation is as follows: 'As time never fails, and the universe is eternal, neither the Tanais, nor the Nile, can have flowed for ever. The places where they rise were once dry, and there is a limit to their operations, but there is none to time. So also of all other rivers; they spring up and they perish; and the sea also continually deserts some lands and invades others The same tracts, therefore, of the earth are not some always sea, and others always continents, but every thing changes in the course of time.'<ref>[[wikiquote:Charles Lyell|Charles Lyell]], ''[https://archive.org/details/principlesgeolo01unkngoog Principles of Geology]'', 1832, p.17</ref></blockquote> ===Physics=== {{main|Aristotelian physics}} ====Five elements==== {{main|Classical element}} Aristotle proposed a fifth element, aether, in addition to the four proposed earlier by [[Empedocles]]. *[[Earth (classical element)|Earth]], which is cold and dry; this corresponds to the modern idea of a solid. *[[Water (classical element)|Water]], which is cold and wet; this corresponds to the modern idea of a liquid. *[[Air (classical element)|Air]], which is hot and wet; this corresponds to the modern idea of a gas. *[[Fire (classical element)|Fire]], which is hot and dry; this corresponds to the modern ideas of [[Plasma (physics)|plasma]] and heat. *[[Aether (classical element)|Aether]], which is the divine substance that makes up the [[Celestial spheres|heavenly spheres]] and heavenly bodies (stars and planets). Each of the four earthly elements has its natural place. All that is earthly tends toward the center of the universe, i.e., the center of the Earth. Water tends toward a sphere surrounding the center. Air tends toward a sphere surrounding the water sphere. Fire tends toward the lunar sphere (in which the Moon orbits). When elements are moved out of their natural place, they naturally move back towards it. This is "natural motion"—motion requiring no extrinsic cause. So, for example, in water, earthy bodies sink while air bubbles rise up; in air, rain falls and flame rises. Outside all the other spheres, the heavenly, fifth element, manifested in the stars and planets, moves in the perfection of circles. ====Motion==== {{main|potentiality and actuality}} Aristotle defined [[Motion (physics)|motion]] as the actuality of a potentiality ''as such''.<ref>''Physics'' 201a10–11, 201a27–29, 201b4–5</ref> Aquinas suggested that the passage be understood literally; that motion can indeed be understood as the active fulfillment of a potential, as a transition toward a potentially possible state. Because [[Aristotle#Substance, potentiality and actuality|actuality and potentiality]] are normally opposites in Aristotle, other commentators either suggest that the wording which has come down to us is erroneous, or that the addition of the "as such" to the definition is critical to understanding it.<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia|last=Sachs|first=Joe|title=Aristotle: Motion and its Place in Nature|url=http://www.iep.utm.edu/aris-mot/ |work=Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160411034200/http://www.iep.utm.edu/aris-mot/ |archivedate=11 April 2016}}</ref> ====Causality, the four causes==== <!--Linked from [[Retrocausality]] and [[Physics (Aristotle)]] (see [[WP:MOS#Section management]])--> {{main|Four causes}} Aristotle suggested that the reason for anything coming about can be attributed to four different types of simultaneously active causal factors: *[[Material cause]] describes the material out of which something is composed. Thus the material cause of a table is wood, and the material cause of a car is rubber and steel. It is not about action. It does not mean one domino knocks over another domino. *The [[formal cause]] is its form, i.e., the arrangement of that matter. It tells us what a thing is, that any thing is determined by the definition, form, pattern, essence, whole, synthesis or archetype. It embraces the account of causes in terms of fundamental principles or general laws, as the whole (i.e., macrostructure) is the cause of its parts, a relationship known as the whole-part causation. Plainly put, the formal cause is the idea existing in the first place as exemplar in the mind of the sculptor, and in the second place as intrinsic, determining cause, embodied in the matter. Formal cause could only refer to the essential quality of causation. A simple example of the formal cause is the mental image or idea that allows an artist, architect, or engineer to create his drawings. *The [[efficient cause]] is "the primary source", or that from which the change under consideration proceeds. It identifies 'what makes of what is made and what causes change of what is changed' and so suggests all sorts of agents, nonliving or living, acting as the sources of change or movement or rest. Representing the current understanding of causality as the relation of cause and effect, this covers the modern definitions of "cause" as either the agent or agency or particular events or states of affairs. So, take the two dominoes, this time of equal weighting, the first is knocked over causing the second also to fall over. *The [[final cause]] is its purpose, or that for the sake of which a thing exists or is done, including both purposeful and instrumental actions and activities. The final cause or teleos is the purpose or function that something is supposed to serve. This covers modern ideas of motivating causes, such as volition, need, desire, ethics, or spiritual beliefs. Additionally, things can be causes of one another, causing each other reciprocally, as hard work causes fitness and vice versa, although not in the same way or function, the one is as the beginning of change, the other as the goal. (Thus Aristotle first suggested a reciprocal or circular causality as a relation of mutual dependence or influence of cause upon effect). Moreover, Aristotle indicated that the same thing can be the cause of contrary effects; its presence and absence may result in different outcomes. Simply it is the goal or purpose that brings about an event. Our two dominoes require someone or something to intentionally knock over the first domino, because it cannot fall of its own accord. Aristotle marked two modes of causation: proper (prior) causation and accidental (chance) causation. All causes, proper and incidental, can be spoken as potential or as actual, particular or generic. The same language refers to the effects of causes, so that generic effects assigned to generic causes, particular effects to particular causes, operating causes to actual effects. Essentially, causality does not suggest a temporal relation between the cause and the effect. ====Optics==== Aristotle held more accurate theories on some optical concepts than other philosophers of his day. The second oldest written evidence of a [[camera obscura]] (after [[Mozi]] c. 400 BC) can be found in Aristotle's documentation of such a device in 350&nbsp;BC in ''Problemata''. Aristotle's apparatus contained a dark chamber that had a single small hole, or [[aperture]], to allow for sunlight to enter. Aristotle used the device to make observations of the sun and noted that no matter what shape the hole was, the sun would still be correctly displayed as a round object. In modern cameras, this is analogous to the [[Diaphragm (optics)|diaphragm]]. Aristotle also made the observation that when the distance between the aperture and the surface with the image increased, the image was magnified.<ref>{{cite web |last=Lahanas |first=Michael |url=http://www.mlahanas.de/Greeks/Optics.htm |title=Optics and ancient Greeks |publisher=Mlahanas.de |accessdate=26 April 2009| archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20090411051535/http://www.mlahanas.de/Greeks/Optics.htm| archivedate= 11 April 2009 | deadurl= no}}</ref> ====Chance and spontaneity==== According to Aristotle, spontaneity and chance are causes of some things, distinguishable from other types of cause. Chance as an incidental cause lies in the realm of [[sumbebekos|accidental things]]. It is "from what is spontaneous" (but note that what is spontaneous does not come from chance). For a better understanding of Aristotle's conception of "chance" it might be better to think of "coincidence": Something takes place by chance if a person sets out with the intent of having one thing take place, but with the result of another thing (not intended) taking place. For example: A person seeks donations. That person may find another person willing to donate a substantial sum. However, if the person seeking the donations met the person donating, not for the purpose of collecting donations, but for some other purpose, Aristotle would call the collecting of the donation by that particular donator a result of chance. It must be unusual that something happens by chance. In other words, if something happens all or most of the time, we cannot say that it is by chance. There is also more specific kind of chance, which Aristotle names "luck", that can only apply to human beings, because it is in the sphere of moral actions. According to Aristotle, luck must involve choice (and thus deliberation), and only humans are capable of deliberation and choice. "What is not capable of action cannot do anything by chance".<ref>Aristotle, ''Physics'' 2.6</ref> ===Metaphysics=== {{main|Metaphysics (Aristotle)}} Aristotle defines metaphysics as "the knowledge of [[hylomorphism|immaterial]] being," or of "being in the highest degree of [[abstraction]]." He refers to metaphysics as "first philosophy", as well as "the theologic science." ====Substance, potentiality and actuality==== {{see also|Potentiality and actuality (Aristotle)}} Aristotle examines the concepts of [[Substance theory|substance]] and [[essence]] (''ousia'') in his ''Metaphysics'' (Book VII), and he concludes that a particular substance is a combination of both matter and form. In book VIII, he distinguishes the matter of the substance as the [[Material substratum|substratum]], or the stuff of which it is composed. For example, the matter of a house is the bricks, stones, timbers etc., or whatever constitutes the ''potential'' house, while the form of the substance is the ''actual'' house, namely 'covering for bodies and chattels' or any other [[Genus-differentia definition|differentia]] (see also [[predicables]]) that let us define something as a house. The formula that gives the components is the account of the matter, and the formula that gives the differentia is the account of the form.<ref>Aristotle, ''Metaphysics'' VIII 1043a 10–30</ref> With regard to the change (''[[Potentiality and actuality|kinesis]]'') and its causes now, as he defines in his ''[[Physics (Aristotle)|Physics]]'' and ''[[On Generation and Corruption]]'' 319b–320a, he distinguishes the coming to be from: # growth and diminution, which is change in quantity; # locomotion, which is change in space; and # alteration, which is change in quality. The coming to be is a change where nothing persists of which the resultant is a property. In that particular change he introduces the concept of potentiality (''[[Dunamis|dynamis]]'') and actuality (''[[entelecheia]]'') in association with the matter and the form. Referring to potentiality, this is what a thing is capable of doing, or being acted upon, if the conditions are right and it is not prevented by something else. For example, the seed of a plant in the soil is potentially (''dynamei'') plant, and if is not prevented by something, it will become a plant. Potentially beings can either 'act' (''poiein'') or 'be acted upon' (''paschein''), which can be either innate or learned. For example, the eyes possess the potentiality of sight (innate&nbsp;– being acted upon), while the capability of playing the flute can be possessed by learning (exercise&nbsp;– acting). Actuality is the fulfillment of the end of the potentiality. Because the end (''telos'') is the principle of every change, and for the sake of the end exists potentiality, therefore actuality is the end. Referring then to our previous example, we could say that an actuality is when a plant does one of the activities that plants do. <blockquote> "For that for the sake of which a thing is, is its principle, and the becoming is for the sake of the end; and the actuality is the end, and it is for the sake of this that the potentiality is acquired. For animals do not see in order that they may have sight, but they have sight that they may see."<ref>Aristotle, ''Metaphysics'' IX 1050a 5–10</ref> </blockquote> In summary, the matter used to make a house has potentiality to be a house and both the activity of building and the form of the final house are actualities, which is also a [[final cause]] or end. Then Aristotle proceeds and concludes that the actuality is prior to potentiality in formula, in time and in substantiality. With this [[definition]] of the particular substance (i.e., matter and form), Aristotle tries to solve the problem of the unity of the beings, for example, "what is it that makes a man one"? Since, according to Plato there are two Ideas: animal and biped, how then is man a unity? However, according to Aristotle, the potential being (matter) and the actual one (form) are one and the same thing.<ref>Aristotle, ''Metaphysics'' VIII 1045a–b</ref> ====Universals and particulars==== {{main|Aristotle's theory of universals}} Aristotle's predecessor, Plato, argued that all things have a universal form, which could be either a property, or a relation to other things. When we look at an apple, for example, we see an apple, and we can also analyze a form of an apple. In this distinction, there is a particular apple and a universal form of an apple. Moreover, we can place an apple next to a book, so that we can speak of both the book and apple as being next to each other. Plato argued that there are some universal forms that are not a part of particular things. For example, it is possible that there is no particular good in existence, but "good" is still a proper universal form. [[Bertrand Russell]] is a 20th-century philosopher who agreed with Plato on the existence of "uninstantiated universals". Aristotle disagreed with Plato on this point, arguing that all universals are instantiated. Aristotle argued that there are no universals that are unattached to existing things. According to Aristotle, if a universal exists, either as a particular or a relation, then there must have been, must be currently, or must be in the future, something on which the universal can be predicated. Consequently, according to Aristotle, if it is not the case that some universal can be predicated to an object that exists at some period of time, then it does not exist. In addition, Aristotle disagreed with Plato about the location of universals. As Plato spoke of the world of the forms, a location where all universal forms subsist, Aristotle maintained that universals exist within each thing on which each universal is predicated. So, according to Aristotle, the form of apple exists within each apple, rather than in the world of the forms. ===Biology and medicine=== In Aristotelian science, especially in biology, things he saw himself have stood the test of time better than his retelling of the reports of others, which contain error and superstition. He dissected animals but not humans; his ideas on how the human body works have been almost entirely superseded. ====Empirical research program==== [[File:Octopus3.jpg|thumb|Octopus swimming]] [[File:Torpedo fuscomaculata2.jpg|thumb|''Torpedo fuscomaculata'']] [[File:Triakis semifasciata.jpg|thumb|Leopard shark]] Aristotle is the earliest natural historian whose work has survived in some detail. Aristotle certainly did research on the natural history of [[Lesbos]], and the surrounding seas and neighbouring areas. The works that reflect this research, such as ''[[History of Animals]]'', ''[[Generation of Animals]]'', and ''[[Parts of Animals]]'', contain some observations and interpretations, along with sundry myths and mistakes. The most striking passages are about the sea-life visible from observation on Lesbos and available from the catches of fishermen. His observations on [[catfish]], [[Electric ray|electric fish]] (''[[Torpedo (genus)|Torpedo]]'') and angler-fish are detailed, as is his writing on [[cephalopod]]s, namely, ''Octopus'', ''Sepia'' ([[cuttlefish]]) and the paper nautilus (''[[Argonauta argo]]''). His description of the [[hectocotylus|hectocotyl arm]], used in sexual reproduction, was widely disbelieved until its rediscovery in the 19th century. He separated the aquatic mammals from fish, and knew that sharks and rays were part of the group he called Selachē ([[selachians]]).<ref name="Singer, Charles 1931">Singer, Charles. ''A short history of biology''. Oxford 1931.</ref> Another good example of his methods comes from the ''Generation of Animals'' in which Aristotle describes breaking open fertilized chicken eggs at intervals to observe when visible organs were generated. He gave accurate descriptions of [[ruminant]]s' four-chambered fore-stomachs, and of the [[Ovoviviparity|ovoviviparous]] embryological development of the [[hound shark]] ''[[Mustelus mustelus]]''.<ref>Emily Kearns, "Animals, knowledge about," in ''[[Oxford Classical Dictionary]]'', 3rd ed., 1996, p. 92.</ref> ====Classification of living things==== Aristotle distinguished about 500 species of birds, mammals and fishes.<ref name="BergstromDugatkin2012">{{cite book|author1=Carl T. Bergstrom|author2=Lee Alan Dugatkin|title=Evolution|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SeaEZwEACAAJ|year=2012|publisher=Norton|isbn=978-0-393-92592-0|page=35}}</ref><ref name="Rhodes1974">{{cite book |last=Rhodes |first=Frank Harold Trevor |title=Evolution|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EWGt0bff8agC|date=1 January 1974|publisher=Golden Press|isbn=978-0-307-64360-5|page=7}}</ref> His classification of living things contains some elements which still existed in the 19th century. What the modern zoologist would call vertebrates and invertebrates, Aristotle called 'animals with blood' and 'animals without blood' (he did not know that complex invertebrates do make use of [[hemoglobin]], but of a different kind from vertebrates). Animals with blood were divided into live-bearing (mammals), and egg-bearing (birds and fish). Invertebrates ('animals without blood') are insects, crustacea (divided into non-shelled – cephalopods – and shelled) and testacea (molluscs). In some respects, this incomplete classification is better than that of [[Linnaeus]], who crowded the invertebrata together into two groups, Insecta and Vermes (worms). For [[Charles Singer]], "Nothing is more remarkable than [Aristotle's] efforts to [exhibit] the relationships of living things as a ''scala naturae''"<ref name="Singer, Charles 1931"/> Aristotle's ''History of Animals'' classified organisms in relation to a hierarchical "[[Great chain of being|Ladder of Life]]" (''scala naturae'' or [[Great Chain of Being]]), placing them according to complexity of structure and function so that higher organisms showed greater vitality and ability to move.<ref>Aristotle, of course, is not responsible for the later use made of this idea by clerics.</ref> Aristotle believed that intellectual purposes, i.e., [[final cause]]s, guided all natural processes. Such a [[teleological]] view gave Aristotle cause to justify his observed data as an expression of formal design. Noting that "no animal has, at the same time, both tusks and horns," and "a single-hooved animal with two horns I have never seen," Aristotle suggested that Nature, giving no animal both horns and tusks, was staving off vanity, and giving creatures faculties only to such a degree as they are necessary. Noting that ruminants had multiple stomachs and weak teeth, he supposed the first was to compensate for the latter, with Nature trying to preserve a type of balance.<ref>Mason, ''A History of the Sciences'' pp. 43–44</ref> In a similar fashion, Aristotle believed that creatures were arranged in a graded scale of perfection rising from plants on up to man, the ''scala naturae''.<ref>Mayr, ''The Growth of Biological Thought'', pp. 201–202; see also: Lovejoy, ''The Great Chain of Being''</ref> His system had eleven grades, arranged according "to the degree to which they are infected with potentiality", expressed in their form at birth. The highest animals laid warm and wet creatures alive, the lowest bore theirs cold, dry, and in thick eggs. Aristotle also held that the level of a creature's perfection was reflected in its form, but not preordained by that form. Ideas like this, and his ideas about souls, are not regarded as science at all in modern times. He placed emphasis on the type(s) of soul an organism possessed, asserting that plants possess a vegetative soul, responsible for reproduction and growth, animals a vegetative and a sensitive soul, responsible for mobility and sensation, and humans a vegetative, a sensitive, and a rational soul, capable of thought and reflection.<ref>Aristotle, ''De Anima'' II 3</ref> Aristotle, in contrast to earlier philosophers, but in accordance with the Egyptians, placed the rational soul in the heart, rather than the brain.<ref>Mason, ''A History of the Sciences'' pp. 45</ref> Notable is Aristotle's division of sensation and thought, which generally went against previous philosophers, with the exception of [[Alcmaeon of Croton|Alcmaeon]].<ref>Guthrie, ''A History of Greek Philosophy'' Vol. 1 pp. 348</ref> ====Successor: Theophrastus==== {{main|Theophrastus|Historia Plantarum (Theophrastus)}} [[File:161Theophrastus 161 frontespizio.jpg|thumb|220px|The [[Book frontispiece|frontispiece]] to a 1644 version of the expanded and illustrated edition of ''[[Historia Plantarum (Theophrastus)|Historia Plantarum]]'' (ca. 1200), which was originally written around 300 BC.]] Aristotle's successor at the [[Lyceum (Classical)|Lyceum]], [[Theophrastus]], wrote a series of books on botany—the ''History of Plants''—which survived as the most important contribution of antiquity to botany, even into the [[Middle Ages]]. Many of Theophrastus' names survive into modern times, such as ''carpos'' for fruit, and ''pericarpion'' for seed vessel. Rather than focus on formal causes, as Aristotle did, Theophrastus suggested a mechanistic scheme, drawing analogies between natural and artificial processes, and relying on Aristotle's concept of the [[efficient cause]]. Theophrastus also recognized the role of sex in the reproduction of some higher plants, though this last discovery was lost in later ages.<ref>Mayr, ''The Growth of Biological Thought'', pp. 90–91; Mason, ''A History of the Sciences'', p 46</ref> ====Influence on Hellenistic medicine==== {{details|Medicine in ancient Greece}} After Theophrastus, the Lyceum failed to produce any original work. Though interest in Aristotle's ideas survived, they were generally taken unquestioningly.<ref>Annas, ''Classical Greek Philosophy'' pp. 252</ref> It is not until the age of [[Alexandria]] under the [[Ptolemaic dynasty|Ptolemies]] that advances in biology can be again found. The first medical teacher at Alexandria, [[Herophilos|Herophilus of Chalcedon]], corrected Aristotle, placing intelligence in the brain, and connected the nervous system to motion and sensation. Herophilus also distinguished between [[vein]]s and [[artery|arteries]], noting that the latter [[pulse]] while the former do not.<ref>Mason, ''A History of the Sciences'' pp. 56</ref> Though a few ancient [[atomism|atomists]] such as [[Lucretius]] challenged the [[teleology|teleological]] viewpoint of Aristotelian ideas about life, teleology (and after the rise of Christianity, [[natural theology]]) would remain central to biological thought essentially until the 18th and 19th centuries. [[Ernst Mayr]] claimed that there was "nothing of any real consequence in biology after Lucretius and Galen until the Renaissance."<ref>Mayr, ''The Growth of Biological Thought'', pp. 90–94; quotation from p 91</ref> Aristotle's ideas of natural history and medicine survived, but they were generally taken unquestioningly.<ref>Annas, ''Classical Greek Philosophy'', p 252</ref> ===Psychology=== Aristotle's [[psychology]], given in his treatise ''[[On the Soul]]'' (''peri psyche'', often known by its [[Latin]] title ''De Anima''), posits three kinds of [[soul]] ("psyches"): the vegetative soul, the sensitive soul, and the rational soul. Humans have a rational soul. This kind of soul is capable of the same powers as the other kinds: Like the vegetative soul it can grow and nourish itself; like the sensitive soul it can experience sensations and move locally. The unique part of the human, rational soul is its ability to receive forms of other things and compare them. For Aristotle, the soul (''psyche'') was a simpler concept than it is for us today. By soul he simply meant the [[Hylomorphism#Body–soul hylomorphism|form]] of a living being. Because all beings are composites of form and matter, the form of living beings is that which endows them with what is specific to living beings, e.g. the ability to initiate movement (or in the case of plants, growth and chemical transformations, which Aristotle considers types of movement).<ref>Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, article [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/aristotle-psychology/ "Psychology"].</ref> ====Memory==== According to Aristotle, [[memory]] is the ability to hold a perceived experience in your mind and to have the ability to distinguish between the internal "appearance" and an occurrence in the past.<ref>{{cite book |last=Bloch |first=David |url=https://books.google.com/?id=QwTHng_5RqAC&pg=PR9&dq=Aristotle+on+Memory+and+Recollection#v=onepage&q=Aristotle%20on%20Memory%20and%20Recollection&f=false |title=Aristotle on Memory and Recollection |year=2007 |page=12|isbn=90-04-16046-9 |ref=harv}}</ref> In other words, a memory is a mental picture ([[wikt:phantasm|phantasm]]) in which Aristotle defines in ''De Anima'', as an appearance which is imprinted on the part of the body that forms a memory. Aristotle believed an "imprint" becomes impressed on a semi-fluid bodily organ that undergoes several changes in order to make a memory. A memory occurs when a [[stimulus (psychology)|stimuli]] is too complex that the nervous system (semi-fluid bodily organ) cannot receive all the impressions at once. These changes are the same as those involved in the operations of [[sense|sensation]], [[common sense]], and [[thinking]] .{{sfn|Bloch|2007|p=61}} The mental picture imprinted on the bodily organ is the final product of the entire process of sense perception. It does not matter if the experience was seen or heard, every experience ends up as a mental image in memory <ref>{{cite book |last=Carruthers |first=Mary |url=https://books.google.com/?id=dntrAnqfIasC&pg=PR8&dq=The+book+of+memory:+the+study+of+memory+in+medieval+times#v=onepage&q=The%20book%20of%20memory%3A%20the%20study%20of%20memory%20in%20medieval%20times&f=false |title=The Book of Memory: A Study of Memory in Medieval Culture |year=2007 |page=16|isbn=978-0-521-42973-3 |ref=harv}}</ref> Aristotle uses the word "memory" for two basic abilities. First, the actual retaining of the experience in the [[mnemonic]] "imprint" that can develop from sensation. Second, the intellectual anxiety that comes with the "imprint" due to being impressed at a particular time and processing specific contents. These abilities can be explained as memory is neither sensation nor thinking because is arises only after a lapse of time. Therefore, memory is of the past, {{sfn|Bloch|2007|p=25}} prediction is of the future, and sensation is of the present. The retrieval of our "imprints" cannot be performed suddenly. A transitional channel is needed and located in our past experiences, both for our previous experience and present experience. Aristotle proposed that slow-witted people have good memory because the fluids in their brain do not wash away their memory organ used to imprint experiences and so the "imprint" can easily continue. However, they cannot be too slow or the hardened surface of the organ will not receive new "imprints". He believed the young and the old do not properly develop an "imprint". Young people undergo rapid changes as they develop, while the elderly's organs are beginning to decay, thus stunting new "imprints". Likewise, people who are too quick-witted are similar to the young and the image cannot be fixed because of the rapid changes of their organ. Because intellectual functions are not involved in memory, memories belong to some animals too, but only those in which have [[perception]] of time. =====Recollection===== Because Aristotle believes people receive all kinds of sense perceptions and people perceive them as images or "imprints", people are continually weaving together new "imprints" of things they experience. In order to search for these "imprints", people search the memory itself.<ref>{{cite book |last=Warren |first=Howard |url=https://books.google.com/?id=D4IXAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA3&dq=The+history+of+the+association+of+psychology#v=onepage&q=The%20history%20of%20the%20association%20of%20psychology&f=false |title=A History of the Association Psychology |year=1921 |page=30 |ref=harv}}</ref> Within the memory, if one [[experience]] is offered instead of a specific memory, that person will reject this experience until they find what they are looking for. [[Recall (memory)|Recollection]] occurs when one experience naturally follows another. If the chain of "images" is needed, one memory will stimulate the other. If the chain of "images" is not needed, but expected, then it will only stimulate the other memory in most instances. When people recall experiences, they stimulate certain previous experiences until they have stimulated the one that was needed.{{sfn|Warren|1921|p=25}} Recollection is the self-directed activity of retrieving the information stored in a memory "imprint" after some time has passed. Retrieval of stored information is dependent on the scope of mnemonic capabilities of a being (human or animal) and the abilities the human or animal possesses .{{sfn|Carruthers|2007|p=19}} Only humans will remember "imprints" of intellectual activity, such as numbers and words. Animals that have perception of time will be able to retrieve memories of their past observations. Remembering involves only perception of the things remembered and of the time passed. Recollection of an "imprint" is when the present experiences a person remembers are similar with elements corresponding in character and arrangement of past sensory experiences. When an "imprint" is recalled, it may bring forth a large group of related "imprints".{{sfn|Warren|1921|p=296}} Aristotle believed the chain of thought, which ends in recollection of certain "imprints", was connected systematically in three sorts of relationships: similarity, contrast, and contiguity. These three laws make up his [[Laws of Association]]. Aristotle believed that past experiences are hidden within our mind. A force operates to awaken the hidden material to bring up the actual experience. According to Aristotle, association is the power innate in a mental state, which operates upon the unexpressed remains of former experiences, allowing them to rise and be recalled.{{sfn|Warren|1921|p=259}} ====Dreams==== =====Sleep===== Before understanding Aristotle's take on dreams, first his idea of sleep must be examined. Aristotle gives an account of his explanation of sleep in ''On Sleep and Wakefulness''.<ref name="Aristotle on Dreaming: What Goes on in Sleep when the 'Big Fire' goes out">{{cite journal|last1=Holowchak|first1=Mark|title=Aristotle on Dreaming: What Goes on in Sleep when the 'Big Fire' goes out|journal=Ancient Philosophy|date=1996|volume=16|issue=2|pages=405–423|url=http://www.pdcnet.org/ancientphil/Ancient-Philosophy|accessdate=7 November 2014}}</ref> Sleep takes place as a result of overuse of the senses<ref name="Ref 2">{{cite book|last1=Shute|first1=Clarence|title=The Psychology of Aristotle: An Analysis of the Living Being|date=1941|publisher=Columbia University Press|location=Morningsdie Heights: New York|pages=115–118|accessdate=7 November 2014}}</ref> or of digestion,<ref name="Aristotle on Dreaming: What Goes on in Sleep when the 'Big Fire' goes out"/> so it is vital to the body, including the senses, so it can be revitalized.<ref name="Ref 2"/> While a person is asleep, the critical activities, which include thinking, sensing, recalling and remembering, do not function as they do during wakefulness.<ref name="Ref 2"/> Since a person cannot sense during sleep they can also not have a desire, which is the result of a sensation.<ref name="Ref 2"/> However, the senses are able to work during sleep,<ref name="Ref 2"/> albeit differently than when a person is awake because during sleep a person can still have sensory experiences.<ref name="Aristotle on Dreaming: What Goes on in Sleep when the 'Big Fire' goes out"/> Also, all of the senses are not inactive during sleep, only the ones that are weary.<ref name="Ref 2"/> =====Theory of dreams===== Dreams do not involve actually sensing a stimulus because, as discussed, the senses do not work as they normally do during sleep.<ref name="Ref 2"/> In dreams, sensation is still involved, but in an altered manner than when awake.<ref name="Ref 2"/> Aristotle explains the phenomenon that occurs when a person stares at a moving stimulus such as the waves in a body of water.<ref name="Aristotle on Dreaming: What Goes on in Sleep when the 'Big Fire' goes out"/> When they look away from that stimulus, the next thing they look at appears to be moving in a wave like motion. When a person perceives a stimulus and the stimulus is no longer the focus of their attention, it leaves an impression.<ref name="Aristotle on Dreaming: What Goes on in Sleep when the 'Big Fire' goes out"/> When the body is awake and the senses are functioning properly, a person constantly encounters new stimuli to sense and so the impressions left from previously perceived stimuli become irrelevant.<ref name="Ref 2"/> However, during sleep the impressions stimuli made throughout the day become noticed because there are not new sensory experiences to distract from these impressions that were made.<ref name="Aristotle on Dreaming: What Goes on in Sleep when the 'Big Fire' goes out"/> So, dreams result from these lasting impressions. Since impressions are all that are left and not the exact stimuli, dreams will not resemble the actual experience that occurred when awake.<ref name=Modrak>{{cite journal|last1=Modrak|first1=Deborah|title=Dreams and Method in Aristotle|journal=Skepsis: A Journal for Philosophy and Interdisciplinary Research|date=2009|volume=20|pages=169–181|accessdate=5 December 2014}}</ref> During sleep, a person is in an altered state of mind.<ref name="Aristotle on Dreaming: What Goes on in Sleep when the 'Big Fire' goes out"/> Aristotle compares a sleeping person to a person who is overtaken by strong feelings toward a stimulus.<ref name="Aristotle on Dreaming: What Goes on in Sleep when the 'Big Fire' goes out"/> For example, a person who has a strong infatuation with someone may begin to think they see that person everywhere because they are so overtaken by their feelings.<ref name="Aristotle on Dreaming: What Goes on in Sleep when the 'Big Fire' goes out"/> When a person is asleep, their senses are not acting as they do when they are awake and this results in them thinking like a person who is influenced by strong feelings.<ref name="Aristotle on Dreaming: What Goes on in Sleep when the 'Big Fire' goes out"/> Since a person sleeping is in this suggestible state, they become easily deceived by what appears in their dreams.<ref name="Aristotle on Dreaming: What Goes on in Sleep when the 'Big Fire' goes out"/> When asleep, a person is unable to make judgments as they do when they are awake<ref name="Aristotle on Dreaming: What Goes on in Sleep when the 'Big Fire' goes out"/> Due to the senses not functioning normally during sleep, they are unable to help a person judge what is happening in their dream.<ref name="Aristotle on Dreaming: What Goes on in Sleep when the 'Big Fire' goes out"/> This in turn leads the person to believe the dream is real.<ref name="Aristotle on Dreaming: What Goes on in Sleep when the 'Big Fire' goes out"/> Dreams may be absurd in nature but the senses are not able to discern whether they are real or not.<ref name="Aristotle on Dreaming: What Goes on in Sleep when the 'Big Fire' goes out"/> So, the dreamer is left to accept the dream because they lack the choice to judge it. One component of Aristotle's theory of dreams introduces ideas that are contradictory to previously held beliefs.<ref name=Webb>{{cite book|last1=Webb|first1=Wilse|title=Dreamtime and dreamwork: Decoding the language of the night. New consciousness reader series|date=1990|publisher=Jeremy P. Tarcher, Inc.|location=Los Angeles, CA, England|isbn=0-87477-594-9|pages=174–184}}</ref> He claimed that dreams are not foretelling and that they are not sent by a divine being.<ref name="Webb"/> Aristotle reasoned that instances in which dreams do resemble future events are happenstances not divinations.<ref name="Webb"/> These ideas were contradictory to what had been believed about dreams, but at the time in which he introduced these ideas more thinkers were beginning to give naturalistic as opposed to supernatural explanations to phenomena.<ref name="Webb"/> Aristotle also includes in his theory of dreams what constitutes a dream and what does not. He claimed that a dream is first established by the fact that the person is asleep when they experience it.<ref name="Modrak"/> If a person had an image appear for a moment after waking up or if they see something in the dark it is not considered a dream because they were awake when it occurred.<ref name="Modrak"/> Secondly, any sensory experience that actually occurs while a person is asleep and is perceived by the person while asleep does not qualify as part of a dream.<ref name="Modrak"/> For example, if, while a person is sleeping, a door shuts and in their dream they hear a door is shut, Aristotle argues that this sensory experience is not part of the dream.<ref name="Modrak"/> The actual sensory experience is perceived by the senses, the fact that it occurred while the person was asleep does not make it part of the dream.<ref name="Modrak"/> Lastly, the images of dreams must be a result of lasting impressions of sensory experiences had when awake.<ref name="Modrak"/> ===Practical philosophy=== ====Ethics==== {{main|Aristotelian ethics}} Aristotle considered ethics to be a practical rather than theoretical study, i.e., one aimed at becoming good and doing good rather than knowing for its own sake. He wrote several treatises on ethics, including most notably, the ''[[Nicomachean Ethics]]''. Aristotle taught that virtue has to do with the proper function (''ergon'') of a thing. An eye is only a good eye in so much as it can see, because the proper function of an eye is sight. Aristotle reasoned that humans must have a function specific to humans, and that this function must be an activity of the ''[[De Anima|psuchē]]'' (normally translated as ''soul'') in accordance with reason (''[[logos]]''). Aristotle identified such an optimum activity of the soul as the aim of all human deliberate action, ''[[eudaimonia]]'', generally translated as "happiness" or sometimes "well being". To have the potential of ever being happy in this way necessarily requires a good character (''ēthikē'' ''[[arete (moral virtue)|aretē]]''), often translated as moral (or ethical) virtue (or excellence).<ref>[[Nicomachean Ethics]] Book I. See for example chapter 7 [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0054%3Abekker%20page%3D1098a 1098a].</ref> Aristotle taught that to achieve a virtuous and potentially happy character requires a first stage of having the fortune to be habituated not deliberately, but by teachers, and experience, leading to a later stage in which one consciously chooses to do the best things. When the best people come to live life this way their practical wisdom (''[[phronesis]]'') and their intellect (''[[nous]]'') can develop with each other towards the highest possible human virtue, the wisdom of an accomplished [[theory|theoretical]] or speculative thinker, or in other words, a philosopher.<ref>[[Nicomachean Ethics]] Book VI.</ref> ====Politics==== {{main|Politics (Aristotle)}} [[File:Aristotle-constitutions-2.png|thumb|240px|Aristotle's classification of [[constitution]]s]] In addition to his works on ethics, which address the individual, Aristotle addressed the city in his work titled ''[[Politics (Aristotle)|Politics]]''. Aristotle considered the city to be a natural community. Moreover, he considered the city to be prior in importance to the family which in turn is prior to the individual, "for the whole must of necessity be prior to the part".<ref>Politics 1253a19–24</ref> He also famously stated that "man is by nature a political animal" and also arguing that humanity's defining factor among others in the [[Animal|animal kingdom]] is its [[rationality]].<ref>{{cite book |authors=Aristotle, translated by Ernest Barker and revised with introduction and notes by R. F. Stalley |title=Politics |year=2009 |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxford |isbn=978-0-19-953873-7 |pages=320–321 |edition=1 ed. 1995 |accessdate=10 November 2015}}</ref> Aristotle conceived of politics as being like an [[organism]] rather than like a machine, and as a collection of parts none of which can exist without the others. Aristotle's conception of the city is organic, and he is considered one of the first to conceive of the city in this manner.<ref>{{cite book |last=Ebenstein |first=Alan |author-link=Alan O. Ebenstein |author2=William Ebenstein |title=Introduction to Political Thinkers |publisher=Wadsworth Group |year=2002 |page=59}}</ref> The common modern understanding of a political community as a modern state is quite different from Aristotle's understanding. Although he was aware of the existence and potential of larger empires, the natural community according to Aristotle was the city (''[[polis]]'') which functions as a political "community" or "partnership" (''koinōnia'')<!-- (1252a1) -->. The aim of the city is not just to avoid injustice or for economic stability<!-- (1280b29–31) -->, but rather to allow at least some citizens the possibility to live a good life, and to perform beautiful acts: "The political partnership must be regarded, therefore, as being for the sake of noble actions, not for the sake of living together<!-- (1281a1–3) -->." This is distinguished from modern approaches, beginning with [[social contract]] theory, according to which individuals leave the [[state of nature]] because of "fear of violent death" or its "inconveniences."<ref>For a different reading of social and economic processes in the ''Nicomachean Ethics'' and ''Politics'' see Polanyi, K. (1957) "Aristotle Discovers the Economy" in ''Primitive, Archaic and Modern Economies: Essays of Karl Polanyi'' ed. G. Dalton, Boston 1971, 78–115</ref> Excerpt from a speech by the character 'Aristotle' in the book [[Protrepticus (Aristotle)|Protrepticus]] (Hutchinson and Johnson, 2015 p.&nbsp;22)<ref name=HutchinsonJohnson>{{cite web|authors=D. S. Hutchinson and Monte Ransome Johnson|url=http://blog.protrepticus.info/2015/01/new-reconstruction-includes-greek-text.html|title=New Reconstruction, includes Greek text|date=25 January 2015}}</ref> :''For we all agree that the most excellent man should rule, i.e., the supreme by nature, and that the law rules and alone is authoritative; but the law is a kind of intelligence, i.e. a discourse based on intelligence. And again, what standard do we have, what criterion of good things, that is more precise than the intelligent man? For all that this man will choose, if the choice is based on his knowledge, are good things and their contraries are bad. And since everybody chooses most of all what conforms to their own proper dispositions (a just man choosing to live justly, a man with bravery to live bravely, likewise a self-controlled man to live with self-control), it is clear that the intelligent man will choose most of all to be intelligent; for this is the function of that capacity. Hence it's evident that, according to the most authoritative judgment, intelligence is supreme among goods.'' ====Rhetoric and poetics==== {{main|Rhetoric (Aristotle)|Poetics (Aristotle)}} Aristotle considered [[epic poetry]], tragedy, comedy, [[Dithyramb|dithyrambic poetry]] and music to be [[Mimesis|imitative]], each varying in imitation by medium, object, and manner.<ref>Aristotle, ''Poetics'' I 1447a</ref> For example, music imitates with the media of rhythm and harmony, whereas dance imitates with rhythm alone, and poetry with language. The forms also differ in their object of imitation. Comedy, for instance, is a dramatic imitation of men worse than average; whereas tragedy imitates men slightly better than average. Lastly, the forms differ in their manner of imitation – through narrative or character, through change or no change, and through drama or no drama.<ref>Aristotle, ''Poetics'' III</ref> Aristotle believed that imitation is natural to mankind and constitutes one of mankind's advantages over animals.<ref>Aristotle, ''Poetics'' IV</ref> While it is believed that Aristotle's ''Poetics'' comprised two books – one on comedy and one on tragedy – only the portion that focuses on tragedy has survived. Aristotle taught that tragedy is composed of six elements: plot-structure, character, style, thought, spectacle, and lyric poetry.<ref>Aristotle, ''Poetics'' VI</ref> The characters in a tragedy are merely a means of driving the story; and the plot, not the characters, is the chief focus of tragedy. Tragedy is the imitation of action arousing pity and fear, and is meant to effect the [[catharsis]] of those same emotions. Aristotle concludes ''Poetics'' with a discussion on which, if either, is superior: epic or tragic [[mimesis]]. He suggests that because tragedy possesses all the attributes of an epic, possibly possesses additional attributes such as spectacle and music, is more unified, and achieves the aim of its mimesis in shorter scope, it can be considered superior to epic.<ref>Aristotle, ''Poetics'' XXVI</ref> Aristotle was a keen systematic collector of riddles, folklore, and proverbs; he and his school had a special interest in the riddles of the [[Pythia|Delphic Oracle]] and studied the fables of [[Aesop]].<ref>Temple, Olivia, and Temple, Robert (translators), [https://books.google.com/books?id=ZB-rVxPvtPEC&pg=PR3&source=gbs_selected_pages&cad=0_0 The Complete Fables By Aesop] Penguin Classics, 1998. ISBN 0-14-044649-4 Cf. Introduction, pp. xi–xii.</ref> ===Views on women=== {{main|Aristotle's views on women}} Aristotle's analysis of procreation describes an active, ensouling masculine element bringing life to an inert, passive female element. On this ground, [[feminist metaphysics]] have accused Aristotle of [[misogyny]]<ref name="Freeland">{{cite book |last=Freeland |first=Cynthia A. | title=Feminist Interpretations of Aristotle | publisher=Penn State University Press | year=1998 | isbn=0-271-01730-9}}</ref> and [[sexism]].<ref name="Morsink">{{cite journal |last=Morsink |first=Johannes | url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/10.2307/4330727 | title=Was Aristotle's Biology Sexist? | journal=Journal of the History of Biology |date=Spring 1979 | volume=12 | issue=1 | pages=83–112 | doi=10.1007/bf00128136}}</ref> However, Aristotle gave equal weight to women's happiness as he did to men's, and commented in his ''Rhetoric'' that the things that lead to happiness need to be in women as well as men.<ref>{{cite book |last=Roberts |first=Aristotle; |translator-first= W. |translator-last=Rhys | editor=Honeycutt, Lee |title=Rhetoric |chapter=Book I, Chapter 5|url=http://rhetoric.eserver.org/aristotle/rhet1-5.html | quote=Where, as among the Lacedaemonians, the state of women is bad, almost half of human life is spoilt.}}</ref> ==Loss and preservation of his works== {{see also|Corpus Aristotelicum|Recovery of Aristotle}} [[File:Aristotelis De Moribus ad Nicomachum.jpg|thumb|First page of a 1566 edition of the ''[[Nicomachean Ethics]]'' in Greek and Latin]] Modern scholarship reveals that Aristotle's "lost" works stray considerably in characterization<ref name="Cornell">Terence Irwin and [[Gail Fine]], [[Cornell University]], ''Aristotle: Introductory Readings.'' Indianapolis, Indiana: Hackett Publishing Company, Inc. (1996), Introduction, pp. xi–xii.</ref> from the surviving Aristotelian corpus. Whereas the lost works appear to have been originally written with an intent for subsequent publication, the surviving works do not appear to have been so.<ref name="Cornell" /> Rather the surviving works mostly resemble lecture notes unintended for publication.<ref name="Cornell" /> The authenticity of a portion of the surviving works as originally Aristotelian is also today held suspect, with some books duplicating or summarizing each other, the authorship of one book questioned and another book considered to be unlikely Aristotle's at all.<ref name="Cornell" /> Some of the individual works within the corpus, including the ''[[Constitution of Athens]],'' are regarded by most scholars as products of Aristotle's "school," perhaps compiled under his direction or supervision. Others, such as ''[[On Colors]],'' may have been produced by Aristotle's successors at the Lyceum, e.g., [[Theophrastus]] and [[Strato of Lampsacus|Straton]]. Still others acquired Aristotle's name through similarities in doctrine or content, such as the ''De Plantis,'' possibly by [[Nicolaus of Damascus]]. Other works in the corpus include medieval palmistries and [[astrological]] and [[magic (paranormal)|magical]] texts whose connections to Aristotle are purely fanciful and self-promotional.<ref>Lynn Thorndike, "Chiromancy in Medieval Latin Manuscripts," ''Speculum'' 40 (1965), pp. 674–706; Roger A. Pack, "Pseudo-Arisoteles: Chiromantia," ''Archives d'histoire doctrinale et littéraire du Moyen Âge'' 39 (1972), pp. 289–320; Pack, "A Pseudo-Aristotelian Chiromancy," ''Archives d'histoire doctrinale et littéraire du Moyen Âge'' 36 (1969), pp. 189–241.</ref> According to a distinction that originates with Aristotle himself, his writings are divisible into two groups: the "[[exoteric]]" and the "[[esoteric]]".<ref>{{harvnb|Barnes|1995|p=12}}; Aristotle himself: ''Nicomachean Ethics'' 1102a26–27. Aristotle himself never uses the term "esoteric" or "acroamatic". For other passages where Aristotle speaks of ''exōterikoi logoi'', see [[W. D. Ross]], ''Aristotle's Metaphysics'' (1953), vol. 2, pp. 408–410. Ross defends an interpretation according to which the phrase, at least in Aristotle's own works, usually refers generally to "discussions not peculiar to the [[Peripatetic school]]", rather than to specific works of Aristotle's own.</ref> Most scholars have understood this as a distinction between works Aristotle intended for the public (exoteric), and the more technical works intended for use within the [[Lyceum]] course / school (esoteric).<ref>{{cite book |last=House |first=Humphry |url=https://archive.org/details/aristotlespoetic032945mbp|page=35|title=Aristotles Poetics|year=1956}}</ref> Modern scholars commonly assume these latter to be Aristotle's own (unpolished) lecture notes (or in some cases possible notes by his students).{{sfn|Barnes|1995|p=12}} However, one classic scholar offers an alternative interpretation. The 5th century [[neoplatonist]] [[Ammonius Hermiae]] writes that Aristotle's writing style is deliberately [[Obscurantism|obscurantist]] so that "good people may for that reason stretch their mind even more, whereas empty minds that are lost through carelessness will be put to flight by the obscurity when they encounter sentences like these."<ref>{{cite book |author=Ammonius | year= 1991 | title= On Aristotle's Categories | location= Ithaca, NY | publisher= Cornell University Press | isbn= 0-8014-2688-X }} p. 15</ref> Another common assumption is that none of the exoteric works is extant – that all of Aristotle's extant writings are of the esoteric kind. Current knowledge of what exactly the exoteric writings were like is scant and dubious, though many of them may have been in dialogue form. (''Fragments'' of some of Aristotle's dialogues have survived.) Perhaps it is to these that [[Cicero]] refers when he characterized Aristotle's writing style as "a river of gold";{{sfn|Cicero|1874|loc=§ 119}} it is hard for many modern readers to accept that one could seriously so admire the style of those works currently available to us.{{sfn|Barnes|1995|p=12}} However, some modern scholars have warned that we cannot know for certain that Cicero's praise was reserved specifically for the exoteric works; a few modern scholars have actually admired the concise writing style found in Aristotle's extant works.<ref>{{cite book |last=Barnes |first=Jonathan |chapter=Roman Aristotle |editor-first=Gregory |editor-last=Nagy |editor-link=Gregory Nagy |title=Greek Literature |publisher=Routledge |year=2001 |volume=8 |page=174 |number=240}}<!--according to the Wikipedia article [[Gregory Nagy]] publisher or year is wrong "Taylor and Francis, London, 2001; Routledge, 2002"-->—Originally published in {{cite book |last=Barnes |first=J. |authorlink=Jonathan Barnes |year=1997 |title=Roman Aristotle |editor-first=J. |editor-last=Barnes |editor2-first=M. |editor2-last=Griffin |work=Philosophia Togata |volume=II |pages=1-69 |location=Oxford}}</ref> One major question in the history of Aristotle's works, then, is how were the exoteric writings all lost, and how did the ones we now possess come to us.<ref>.The definitive, English study of these questions is Barnes, "Roman Aristotle".{{citation needed|date=March 2016}}</ref> The story of the original manuscripts of the esoteric treatises is described by [[Strabo]] in his ''Geography'' and [[Plutarch]] in his ''[[Parallel Lives]]''.<ref>"Sulla."</ref> The manuscripts were left from Aristotle to his successor Theophrastus, who in turn willed them to [[Neleus of Scepsis]]. Neleus supposedly took the writings from Athens to [[Scepsis]], where his heirs let them languish in a cellar until the 1st century BC, when [[Apellicon of Teos]] discovered and purchased the manuscripts, bringing them back to Athens. According to the story, Apellicon tried to repair some of the damage that was done during the manuscripts' stay in the basement, introducing a number of errors into the text. When [[Lucius Cornelius Sulla]] occupied Athens in 86 BC, he carried off the library of Apellicon to Rome, where they were first published in 60 BC by the grammarian [[Tyrannion of Amisus]] and then by the philosopher [[Andronicus of Rhodes]].<ref>Ancient Rome: from the early Republic to the assassination of Julius Caesar – Page 513, Matthew Dillon, Lynda Garland</ref><ref>The Encyclopedia Americana, Volume 22 – Page 131, Grolier Incorporated – Juvenile Nonfiction</ref> Carnes Lord attributes the popular belief in this story to the fact that it provides "the most plausible explanation for the rapid eclipse of the Peripatetic school after the middle of the third century, and for the absence of widespread knowledge of the specialized treatises of Aristotle throughout the Hellenistic period, as well as for the sudden reappearance of a flourishing Aristotelianism during the first century B.C."<ref>{{cite book |last=Lord |first=Carnes |title=Introduction to the Politics, by Aristotle |publisher=[[Chicago University Press]] |year=1984 |location=Chicago |page=11 }}</ref> Lord voices a number of reservations concerning this story, however. First, the condition of the texts is far too good for them to have suffered considerable damage followed by Apellicon's inexpert attempt at repair. Second, there is "incontrovertible evidence," Lord says, that the treatises were in circulation during the time in which Strabo and Plutarch suggest they were confined within the cellar in Scepsis. Third, the definitive edition of Aristotle's texts seems to have been made in Athens some fifty years before Andronicus supposedly compiled his. And fourth, ancient library catalogues predating Andronicus' intervention list an Aristotelian corpus quite similar to the one we currently possess. Lord sees a number of post-Aristotelian interpolations in the ''[[Politics (Aristotle)|Politics]]'', for example, but is generally confident that the work has come down to us relatively intact. On the one hand, the surviving texts of Aristotle do not derive from finished literary texts, but rather from working drafts used within Aristotle's school, as opposed, on the other hand, to the [[Corpus Aristotelicum#Fragments|dialogues and other "exoteric" texts]] which Aristotle published more widely during his lifetime. The consensus is that Andronicus of Rhodes collected the esoteric works of Aristotle's school which existed in the form of smaller, separate works, distinguished them from those of Theophrastus and other Peripatetics, edited them, and finally compiled them into the more cohesive, larger works as they are known today.<ref>Anagnostopoulos, G., "Aristotle's Works and Thoughts", ''A Companion to Aristotle'' (Blackwell Publishing, 2009), p. 16. See also, {{harvnb|Barnes|1995|pp=10–15}}.</ref> ==Legacy== [[File:Aristotle by Jusepe de Ribera.jpg|thumb|250px|"Aristotle" by [[Jusepe de Ribera]]]] [[File:Rembrandt - Aristotle with a Bust of Homer - WGA19232.jpg|thumb|250px|"Aristotle with a bust of [[Homer]]" by [[Rembrandt]].]] [[File:Arabic aristotle.jpg|thumb|250px|An thirteenth-century Islamic portrayal of Aristotle (right).]] [[File:Uni Freiburg - Philosophen 4.jpg|thumb|250px|Statue by Cipri Adolf Bermann (1915) at the [[University of Freiburg]] [[Freiburg im Breisgau]]]] More than 2300 years after his death, Aristotle remains one of the most influential people who ever lived. He contributed to almost every field of human knowledge then in existence, and he was the founder of many new fields. According to the philosopher [[Bryan Magee]], "it is doubtful whether any human being has ever known as much as he did".<ref>{{cite book |last= Magee |first=Bryan |authorlink=Bryan Magee |title=The Story of Philosophy |year=2010 |publisher=Dorling Kindersley |page= 34}}</ref> Among countless other achievements, Aristotle was the founder of [[formal logic]],<ref>W. K. C. Guthrie (1990). "''[https://books.google.com/books?id=8EG0yV0cGoEC&pg=PA156&dq&hl=en#v=onepage&q=&f=false A history of Greek philosophy: Aristotle : an encounter]''". [[Cambridge University Press]]. p.156. ISBN 0-521-38760-4</ref> pioneered the study of [[zoology]], and left every future scientist and philosopher in his debt through his contributions to the scientific method.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/34560/Aristotle |title=Aristotle (Greek philosopher) – Britannica Online Encyclopedia |publisher=Britannica.com |accessdate=26 April 2009| archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20090422103155/http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/34560/Aristotle| archivedate= 22 April 2009 | deadurl= no}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last= Durant |first=Will |authorlink=Will Durant |title=[[The Story of Philosophy]] |origyear=1926 |year=2006 |publisher=Simon & Schuster, Inc. |location=United States |isbn=978-0-671-73916-4 |page= 92}}</ref> Despite these achievements, the influence of Aristotle's errors is considered by some to have held back science considerably. [[Bertrand Russell]] notes that "almost every serious intellectual advance has had to begin with an attack on some Aristotelian doctrine". Russell also refers to Aristotle's ethics as "repulsive", and calls his logic "as definitely antiquated as Ptolemaic astronomy". Russell notes that these errors make it difficult to do historical justice to Aristotle, until one remembers how large of an advance he made upon all of his predecessors.<ref name="philosophy1972"/> ===Later Greek philosophers=== The immediate influence of Aristotle's work was felt as the Lyceum grew into the [[Peripatetic school]]. Aristotle's notable students included [[Aristoxenus]], [[Dicaearchus]], [[Demetrius of Phalerum]], [[Eudemos of Rhodes]], [[Harpalus]], [[Hephaestion]], [[Meno (disambiguation)|Meno]], [[Mnason of Phocis]], [[Nicomachus (son of Aristotle)|Nicomachus]], and [[Theophrastus]]. Aristotle's influence over Alexander the Great is seen in the latter's bringing with him on his expedition a host of zoologists, botanists, and researchers. He had also learned a great deal about Persian customs and traditions from his teacher. Although his respect for Aristotle was diminished as his travels made it clear that much of Aristotle's geography was clearly wrong, when the old philosopher released his works to the public, Alexander complained "Thou hast not done well to publish thy acroamatic doctrines; for in what shall I surpass other men if those doctrines wherein I have been trained are to be all men's common property?"<ref>Plutarch, ''Life of Alexander''</ref> ===Influence on Byzantine scholars=== Greek Christian scribes played a crucial role in the preservation of Aristotle by copying all the extant Greek language manuscripts of the corpus. The first Greek Christians to comment extensively on Aristotle were [[John Philoponus]], Elias, and David in the sixth century, and [[Stephen of Alexandria]] in the early seventh century.<ref>Richard Sorabji, ed. ''Aristotle Transformed'' London, 1990, 20, 28, 35–36.</ref> [[John Philoponus]] stands out for having attempted a fundamental critique of Aristotle's views on the eternity of the world, movement, and other elements of Aristotelian thought.<ref>Richard Sorabji, ed. ''Aristotle Transformed'' (London, 1990) 233–274.</ref> After a hiatus of several centuries, formal commentary by Eustratius and [[Michael of Ephesus]] reappears in the late eleventh and early twelfth centuries, apparently sponsored by [[Anna Comnena]].<ref>Richard Sorabji, ed. ''Aristotle Transformed'' (London, 1990) 20–21; 28–29, 393–406; 407–408.</ref> ===Influence on Islamic theologians=== Aristotle was one of the most revered Western thinkers in early [[Islamic theology]]. Most of the still extant works of Aristotle,<ref name="ReferenceA">''Encyclopedia of Islam'', ''Aristutalis''</ref> as well as a number of the original Greek commentaries, were translated into Arabic and studied by [[Muslim]] philosophers, scientists and scholars. [[Averroes]], [[Avicenna]] and [[Alpharabius]], who wrote on Aristotle in great depth, also influenced [[Thomas Aquinas]] and other Western Christian scholastic philosophers. [[Alkindus]] considered Aristotle as the outstanding and unique representative of philosophy<ref>''Rasa'il'' I, 103, 17, Abu Rida</ref> and Averroes spoke of Aristotle as the "exemplar" for all future philosophers.<ref>''Comm. Magnum'' in Aristotle'', ''De Anima'', III, 2, 43 Crawford</ref> Medieval Muslim scholars regularly described Aristotle as the "First Teacher".<ref>''al-mua'llim al-thani'', ''Aristutalis''</ref> The title "teacher" was first given to Aristotle by Muslim scholars, and was later used by Western philosophers (as in the famous poem of [[Dante Alighieri|Dante]]) who were influenced by the tradition of [[Islamic philosophy]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Nasr|first=Seyyed Hossein|title=The Islamic Intellectual Tradition in Persia|year=1996|publisher=Curzon Press|isbn=0-7007-0314-4|pages=59–60}}</ref> In accordance with the [[Greeks|Greek]] theorists, the Muslims considered Aristotle to be a dogmatic philosopher, the author of a closed system, and believed that Aristotle shared with [[Plato]] essential tenets of thought. Some went so far as to credit Aristotle himself with neo-Platonic metaphysical ideas.<ref name="ReferenceA"/> ===Influence on Western Christian theologians=== With the loss of the study of ancient Greek in the early medieval Latin West, Aristotle was practically unknown there from c. AD 600 to c. 1100 except through the Latin translation of the ''Organon'' made by [[Boethius]]. In the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, interest in Aristotle revived and Latin Christians had translations made, both from Arabic translations, such as those by [[Gerard of Cremona]],<ref>{{SEP|arabic-islamic-influence|Influence of Arabic and Islamic Philosophy on the Latin West}}</ref> and from the original Greek, such as those by [[James of Venice]] and [[William of Moerbeke]]. After [[Thomas Aquinas]] wrote his theology, working from Moerbeke's translations, the demand for Aristotle's writings grew and the [[Greek language|Greek]] manuscripts returned to the West, stimulating a revival of Aristotelianism in Europe that continued into the [[Renaissance]].<ref>{{SEP|aristotelianism-renaissance|Aristotelianism in the Renaissance}}</ref> Aristotle is referred to as "The Philosopher" by [[Scholasticism|Scholastic]] thinkers such as [[Thomas Aquinas]]. See ''[[Summa Theologica]]'', Part I, Question 3, etc. These thinkers blended Aristotelian philosophy with Christianity, bringing the thought of Ancient Greece into the Middle Ages. It required a repudiation of some Aristotelian principles for the sciences and the arts to free themselves for the discovery of modern scientific laws and empirical methods. The medieval English poet [[Geoffrey Chaucer|Chaucer]] describes his student as being happy by having :&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;'' at his beddes heed'' :''Twenty bookes, clad in blak or reed,'' :''Of aristotle and his philosophie,''<ref>Geoffrey Chaucer, ''[[The Canterbury Tales]]'', Prologue, lines 295–295</ref> The Italian poet [[Dante Alighieri|Dante]] says of Aristotle in [[The Divine Comedy|the first circles of hell]], :''I saw the Master there of those who know,'' :''Amid the philosophic family,'' :''By all admired, and by all reverenced;'' :''There Plato too I saw, and Socrates,'' :''Who stood beside him closer than the rest.''<ref>''vidi 'l maestro di color che sanno'' ''seder tra filosofica famiglia.''<br> ''Tutti lo miran, tutti onor li fanno'':<br> ''quivi vid'ïo Socrate e Platone''<br> ''che 'nnanzi a li altri più presso li stanno;''<br> Dante, ''L'Inferno'' (Hell), Canto IV. Lines 131–135</ref> ===Post-Enlightenment thinkers=== The German philosopher [[Friedrich Nietzsche]] has been said to have taken nearly all of his political philosophy from Aristotle.<ref>Durant, p. 86</ref> However debatable this is, Aristotle rigid separated action from production, and argued for the deserved subservience of some people ("natural [[slavery|slaves]]"), and the natural superiority (virtue, ''arete'') of others. It is [[Martin Heidegger]], not Nietzsche, who elaborated a new interpretation of Aristotle, intended to warrant his deconstruction of scholastic and philosophical tradition. [[Ayn Rand]] accredited Aristotle as "the greatest philosopher in history" and cited him as a major influence on her thinking. More recently, [[Alasdair MacIntyre]] has attempted to reform what he calls the Aristotelian tradition in a way that is anti-elitist and capable of disputing the claims of both liberals and Nietzscheans.<ref>Kelvin Knight, ''Aristotelian Philosophy'', Polity Press, 2007, ''passim''.</ref> ==List of works== {{main|Corpus Aristotelicum}} The works of Aristotle that have survived from antiquity through medieval manuscript transmission are collected in the Corpus Aristotelicum. These texts, as opposed to Aristotle's lost works, are technical philosophical treatises from within Aristotle's school. Reference to them is made according to the organization of [[Immanuel Bekker]]'s Royal Prussian Academy edition (''Aristotelis Opera edidit Academia Regia Borussica'', Berlin, 1831–1870), which in turn is based on ancient classifications of these works. ==Eponyms== [[File:Aristotle - Jefferson Building - Library of Congress.jpg|thumb|250px|"ARISTOTLE" near the ceiling of the Great Hall in the [[Library of Congress]].]] The [[Aristotle Mountains]] along the [[Oscar II Coast]] of [[Graham Land]], [[Antarctica]], are named after Aristotle. He was the first person known to conjecture, in his book ''Meteorology'', the existence of a landmass in the southern high-latitude region and call it "Antarctica".<ref>[https://data.aad.gov.au/aadc/gaz/scar/display_name.cfm?gaz_id=137410 Aristotle Mountains.] [[SCAR]] [[Composite Antarctic Gazetteer]].</ref> [[Aristoteles (crater)]] is a crater on the Moon bearing the classical form of Aristotle's name. ==See also== *[[Aristotelian physics]] *[[Aristotelian society]] *[[Aristotelian theology]] *[[Conimbricenses]] *[[List of writers influenced by Aristotle]] *[[Otium]] *[[Philia]] *[[Pseudo-Aristotle]] ==Notes and references== {{Reflist|2}} ==Further reading== The secondary literature on Aristotle is vast. The following references are only a small selection. {{refbegin|30em}} *[[J. L. Ackrill|Ackrill J. L.]] (1997). Essays on Plato and Aristotle, Oxford University Press, USA. *{{cite book|last=Ackrill|first=J. L.|title=Aristotle the Philosopher|location=Oxford and New York|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=1981}} *{{Cite book|last=Adler |first=Mortimer J. | authorlink = Mortimer Adler |title=[[Aristotle for Everybody]] |publisher=Macmillan |location=New York |year=1978}} A popular exposition for the general reader. * {{cite book|last= Ammonius |editor1-last=Cohen|editor1-first=S. Marc|editor2-last=Matthews|editor2-first=Gareth B|title= On Aristotle's Categories|location= Ithaca, NY|publisher= Cornell University Press|year= 1991|isbn= 0-8014-2688-X}} *{{cite book|last=Aristotle|title=The Works of Aristotle Translated into English Under the Editorship of W. D. Ross, 12 vols|location=Oxford|publisher=[[Clarendon Press]]|year=1908–1952}} These translations are available in several places online; see External links. *Bakalis Nikolaos. (2005). Handbook of Greek Philosophy: From Thales to the Stoics Analysis and Fragments, Trafford Publishing ISBN 1-4120-4843-5 *{{Cite book |last=Bocheński |first=I. M. |title=Ancient Formal Logic |publisher=North-Holland Publishing Company |location=Amsterdam |year=1951}} *Bolotin, David (1998). ''An Approach to Aristotle's Physics: With Particular Attention to the Role of His Manner of Writing.'' Albany: SUNY Press. A contribution to our understanding of how to read Aristotle's scientific works. *[[Myles Burnyeat|Burnyeat, M. F.]] ''et al.'' (1979). Notes on Book Zeta of Aristotle's Metaphysics. Oxford: Sub-faculty of Philosophy. *{{cite book|editor1-last=Cantor|editor1-first=Norman F.|editor2-first=Peter L.|editor2-last=Klein|title=Ancient Thought: Plato and Aristotle|volume=1|series=Monuments of Western Thought|location=Waltham, Mass|publisher=Blaisdell Publishing Co.|year=1969}} *Chappell, V. (1973). Aristotle's Conception of Matter, Journal of Philosophy 70: 679–696. *Code, Alan. (1995). Potentiality in Aristotle's Science and Metaphysics, Pacific Philosophical Quarterly 76. *{{cite book|last=Ferguson|first=John|title=Aristotle|location=New York|publisher=Twayne Publishers|year=1972}} * De Groot, Jean (2014). ''Aristotle's Empiricism: Experience and Mechanics in the 4th Century BC'', Parmenides Publishing, ISBN 978-1-930972-83-4 *Frede, Michael. (1987). ''Essays in Ancient Philosophy''. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press. *{{cite book|last=Fuller|first=B.A.G.|authorlink=Benjamin_Apthorp_Gould_Fuller|series=History of Greek Philosophy|volume=3 |title=Aristotle|location=London|publisher=Cape|year=1923}} *[[Eugene Gendlin|Gendlin, Eugene T.]] (2012). ''Line by Line Commentary on Aristotle's De Anima'', Volume 1: Books I & II; Volume 2: Book III. Spring Valley, New York: The Focusing Institute. [http://www.focusing.org/aristotle/ Available online in PDF.] *Gill, Mary Louise. (1989). ''Aristotle on Substance: The Paradox of Unity''. Princeton: Princeton University Press. *{{Cite book |last=Guthrie |first=W. K. C. |title=A History of Greek Philosophy, Vol. 6 |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |year=1981}} *Halper, Edward C. (2009). ''One and Many in Aristotle's Metaphysics, Volume 1: Books Alpha – Delta'', Parmenides Publishing, ISBN 978-1-930972-21-6. *Halper, Edward C. (2005). ''One and Many in Aristotle's Metaphysics, Volume 2: The Central Books'', Parmenides Publishing, ISBN 978-1-930972-05-6. *[[Terence Irwin|Irwin, T. H.]] (1988). [http://www.cyjack.com/cognition/Aristotle%27s%20first%20principles.pdf Aristotle's First Principles]. Oxford: Clarendon Press, ISBN 0-19-824290-5. *{{cite book|last=Jaeger|first=Werner|title=Aristotle: Fundamentals of the History of His Development|editor-first=Richard|editor-last=Robinson|edition=2nd|location=Oxford|publisher=Clarendon Press|year=1948}} * [[Alberto Jori|Jori, Alberto]]. (2003). ''Aristotele'', Milano: Bruno Mondadori Editore (Prize 2003 of the "[[International Academy of the History of Science]]") ISBN 88-424-9737-1. *{{cite book|editor-last=Kiernan|editor-first=Thomas P.|title=Aristotle Dictionary|location=New York|publisher=Philosophical Library|year=1962}} *Knight, Kelvin. (2007). ''Aristotelian Philosophy: Ethics and Politics from Aristotle to MacIntyre'', Polity Press. *Lewis, Frank A. (1991). ''Substance and Predication in Aristotle''. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. *[[G. E. R. Lloyd|Lloyd, G. E. R.]] (1968). ''Aristotle: The Growth and Structure of his Thought''. Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Pr., ISBN 0-521-09456-9. *Lord, Carnes. (1984). Introduction to ''The Politics'', by Aristotle. Chicago: Chicago University Press. *Loux, Michael J. (1991). Primary Ousia: An Essay on Aristotle's Metaphysics Ζ and Η. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press. * Maso, Stefano (Ed.), Natali, Carlo (Ed.), Seel, Gerhard (Ed.). (2012) ''Reading Aristotle: Physics'' VII.3: ''What is Alteration?'' ''Proceedings of the International ESAP-HYELE Conference'', Parmenides Publishing. ISBN 978-1-930972-73-5 *{{cite book|last=McKeon|first=Richard|title=Introduction to Aristotle|edition=2d|location=Chicago|publisher=University of Chicago Press|year=1973}} *{{cite journal|last=Owen|first=G. E. L. |year=1965c |title=The Platonism of Aristotle|journal=Proceedings of the British Academy|volume=50|pages=125–150}} [Reprinted in J. Barnes, M. Schofield, and R. R. K. Sorabji, eds.(1975). ''Articles on Aristotle'' Vol 1. Science. London: Duckworth 14–34.] *Pangle, Lorraine Smith (2003). ''Aristotle and the Philosophy of Friendship''. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Aristotle's conception of the deepest human relationship viewed in the light of the history of philosophic thought on friendship. *{{cite book|last=Plato|title=The Worlds of Plato and Aristotle|editor1-first=Harold Joseph|editor1-last=Allen|editor2-first=James B|editor2-last=Wilbur|location=Buffalo|publisher=Prometheus Books|year=1979}} *Reeve, C. D. C. (2000). Substantial Knowledge: Aristotle's Metaphysics. Indianapolis: Hackett. * {{Cite book |last=Rose |first=Lynn E. | title=Aristotle's Syllogistic |publisher=Charles C Thomas Publisher |location=Springfield |year=1968}} * {{Cite book |last=Ross |first=Sir David | authorlink = W. D. Ross |title=Aristotle |publisher=Routledge | edition = 6th |location=London |year=1995}} A classic overview by one of Aristotle's most prominent English translators, in print since 1923. *Scaltsas, T. (1994). Substances and Universals in Aristotle's Metaphysics. Ithaca: Cornell University Press. *Strauss, Leo (1964). "On Aristotle's ''Politics''", in ''The City and Man'', Chicago; Rand McNally. * {{Cite book |last=Swanson |first=Judith |title=The Public and the Private in Aristotle's Political Philosophy |publisher=Cornell University Press |location=Ithaca |year=1992}} * {{Cite book |last=Taylor |first=Henry Osborn |url=http://www.ancientlibrary.com/medicine/index.html |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20060211201625/http://www.ancientlibrary.com/medicine/index.html |archivedate=11 February 2006 |title=Greek Biology and Medicine |year=1922 |chapter=Chapter 3: Aristotle's Biology | chapterurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20060327222953/http://www.ancientlibrary.com/medicine/0051.html}} * {{Cite book |last=Veatch |first=Henry B. | authorlink = Henry Babcock Veatch |title=Aristotle: A Contemporary Appreciation |publisher=Indiana U. Press |location=Bloomington |year=1974}} For the general reader. *{{cite book|last=Woods|first=M. J.|year=1991b|chapter=Universals and Particular Forms in Aristotle's Metaphysics|series=[[Oxford Studies in Ancient Philosophy]]|title=Aristotle and the Later Tradition|volume=Suppl|pages=41–56}} {{refend}} ==External links== {{Library resources box|by=yes|onlinebooks=yes}} {{Sister project links|d=Q868|b=no|n=no|s=Author:Aristotle}} {{Wikisourcelang|el|Αριστοτέλης|Ἀριστοτέλης}} *{{DMOZ|Society/Philosophy/Philosophers/A/Aristotle/}} * {{PhilPapers|category|aristotle}}. * {{InPho|thinker|2553}}. * At the [[Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy]]: *: {{hlist |[http://www.iep.utm.edu/aristotl/ Aristotle (general article)] |[http://www.iep.utm.edu/aris-bio/ Biology] |[http://www.iep.utm.edu/aris-eth/ Ethics] |[http://www.iep.utm.edu/aris-log/ Logic] |[http://www.iep.utm.edu/aris-met/ Metaphysics] |[http://www.iep.utm.edu/aris-mot/ Motion and its Place in Nature] |[http://www.iep.utm.edu/aris-poe/ Poetics] |[http://www.iep.utm.edu/aris-pol/ Politics]}} * From the [[Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy]]: *: {{hlist |[http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/aristotle Aristotle (general article)] |[http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/aristotelianism-renaissance/ Aristotle in the Renaissance] |[http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/aristotle-biology/ Biology] |[http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/aristotle-causality/ Causality] |[http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/aristotle-commentators/ Commentators on Aristotle] |[http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/aristotle-ethics/ Ethics] |[http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/aristotle-logic/ Logic] |[http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/aristotle-mathematics/ Mathematics] |[http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/aristotle-metaphysics/ Metaphysics] |[http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/aristotle-natphil/ Natural philosophy] |[http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/aristotle-noncontradiction/ Non-contradiction] |[http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/aristotle-politics/ Political theory] |[http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/aristotle-psychology/ Psychology] |[http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/aristotle-rhetoric/ Rhetoric]}} * [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/01713a.htm General article at The Catholic Encyclopedia] * {{ws|[[Diogenes Laërtius]], ''[[s:Lives of the Eminent Philosophers/Book V#Aristotle|Life of Aristotle]]'', translated by [[Robert Drew Hicks]] (1925)}} * {{OL author|OL22105A}}. * [http://www.concharto.org/search/eventsearch.htm?_tag=timeline%20of%20aristotle&_maptype=0 Timeline of Aristotle's life] * {{PlanetMath|urlname=Aristotle|title=Aristotle}}. ;Collections of works * At the [http://classics.mit.edu/Browse/index-Aristotle.html Massachusetts Institute of Technology] (primarily in English). * {{Gutenberg author | id=Aristotle | name=Aristotle}} * {{Internet Archive author}} * {{Librivox author |id=602}} *{{en icon}} {{gr icon}} [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/perscoll?.submit=Change&collection=Any&type=text&lang=Any&lookup=Aristotle Perseus Project] at [[Tufts University]]. * At the [https://ebooks.adelaide.edu.au/a/aristotle/ University of Adelaide] (primarily in English). *{{gr icon}} {{fr icon}} [http://remacle.org/bloodwolf/philosophes/Aristote/table.htm P. Remacle] * The 11-volume 1837 Bekker edition of ''Aristotle's Works'' in Greek ([http://isnature.org/Files/Aristotle/ PDF]{{dot}}[http://grid.ceth.rutgers.edu/ancient/greek/aristotle_greek/ DJVU]) * Bekker's Prussian Academy of Sciences edition of the complete works of Aristotle at Archive.org: {{hlist |[https://archive.org/details/aristotelisopera01arisrich {{vol.|1}}] |[https://archive.org/details/aristotelisopera02arisrich {{vol.|2}}] |[https://archive.org/details/aristotelisopera03arisrich {{vol.|3}}] |[https://archive.org/details/aristotelisopera04arisrich {{vol.|4}}] |[https://archive.org/details/aristotelisopera05arisrich {{vol.|5}}]}} *{{en icon}} [http://demonax.info/doku.php?id=classical:aristotle Aristotle Collection] (translation). {{Navboxes|list= {{Peripatetics}} {{Metaphysics}} {{Ethics}} {{Natural history}} {{Philosophy of science}} {{Philosophy of language}} {{Jurisprudence}} {{Ancient Greece topics}} }} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Aristotle| ]] [[Category:384 BC]] [[Category:322 BC]] [[Category:4th-century BC philosophers]] [[Category:4th-century BC writers]] [[Category:Academic philosophers]] [[Category:Acting theorists]] [[Category:Ancient Greek mathematicians]] [[Category:Ancient Greek philosophers]] [[Category:Ancient Greek physicists]] [[Category:Ancient Greeks in Macedon]] [[Category:Ancient Stagirites]] [[Category:Attic Greek writers]] [[Category:Cosmologists]] [[Category:Empiricists]] [[Category:Ancient Greek biologists]] [[Category:Ancient Greek logicians]] [[Category:History of logic]] [[Category:Humor researchers]] [[Category:Metaphysicians]] [[Category:Greek meteorologists]] [[Category:Metic philosophers in Classical Athens]] [[Category:Natural philosophers]] [[Category:Peripatetic philosophers]] [[Category:Philosophers and tutors of Alexander the Great]] [[Category:Philosophers of ancient Chalcidice]] [[Category:Philosophers of language]] [[Category:Philosophers of law]] [[Category:Philosophers of mind]] [[Category:Philosophers of technology]] [[Category:Political philosophers]] [[Category:Rhetoric theorists]] [[Category:Trope theorists]] [[Category:Ancient literary critics]] [[Category:Virtue ethicists]] [[Category:Zoologists]] [[Category:380s BC births]] [[Category:320s BC deaths]] [[Category:Greek male writers]] 6xuzmsrvrpi0fnkyoixh807qv3v3pq2 0 309 717764186 716805688 2016-04-29T15:45:16Z Dewritech 11498870 clean up, [[WP:AWB/T|typo(s) fixed]]: german → German using [[Project:AWB|AWB]] wikitext text/x-wiki {{About|the 1928 George Gershwin music|other uses}} {{Refimprove|date=December 2015}} {{Italic title}}{{Use mdy dates|date=June 2013}} {{Multiple images|direction=vertical|width=500|footer=Themes from ''An American in Paris'' |image1=George Gershwin An American in Paris.png|image2=Gershwin Paris02.jpg}} '''''An American in Paris''''' is a [[jazz]]-influenced [[symphonic poem]] by the American composer [[George Gershwin]], written in 1928. Inspired by the time Gershwin had spent in [[Paris]], it evokes the sights and energy of the French capital in the 1920s and is one of his best-known compositions. Gershwin composed ''An American in Paris'' on commission from the conductor [[Walter Damrosch]]. He scored the piece for the standard instruments of the [[symphony orchestra]] plus [[celesta]], [[saxophone]]s, and automobile horns. He brought back some Parisian taxi horns for the New York premiere of the composition, which took place on December&nbsp;13, 1928, in [[Carnegie Hall]], with Damrosch conducting the [[New York Philharmonic]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://nyphil.org/~/media/pdfs/program-notes/1314/Gershwin-An%20American%20in%20Paris.pdf |format=PDF |title=Rhapsody in Blue for Piano and Orchestra : An American in Paris |author=Georghe Gershwin |website=Nyphil.prg |accessdate=2016-04-06}}</ref> Gershwin completed the orchestration on November 18, less than four weeks before the work's premiere.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.kennedy-center.org/calendar/?fuseaction=composition&composition_id=2983 | title = An American in Paris: About the Work | publisher = [[The Kennedy Center]] | author = Richard Freed | accessdate = 5 December 2012 }}</ref> Gershwin collaborated on the original program notes with the critic and composer [[Deems Taylor]], noting that: "My purpose here is to portray the impression of an American visitor in Paris as he strolls about the city and listens to various street noises and absorbs the French atmosphere." When the tone poem moves into the [[blues]], "our American friend ... has succumbed to a spasm of [[homesickness]]." But, "nostalgia is not a fatal disease." The American visitor "once again is an alert spectator of Parisian life" and "the street noises and French atmosphere are triumphant." ==Background== Gershwin was attracted by [[Maurice Ravel]]'s unusual chords. After transatlantic letters back and forth as to whether Ravel took students and how much he charged, Ravel looked at Gershwin's prior year earnings and sent a telegram to Gershwin jokingly saying he (Ravel) should study with Gershwin!...but he accepted him as a student. Gershwin went to Paris in 1926 ready to study and to enjoy his first trip to Paris. After his initial student audition with Ravel turned into a sharing of musical theories, Ravel said he couldn't teach him but he would send a letter referring him to [[Nadia Boulanger]]. While the studies were cut short, that 1926 trip resulted in the initial version of An American in Paris written as a 'thank you note' to Gershwin's hosts, Robert and Mabel Shirmer. Gershwin called it "a rapsodic ballet' written so freely and much more modern than his prior works. Gershwin strongly encouraged Ravel to come to the United States for a tour, something Ravel had been reluctant to do. To this end, upon his return to New York, Gershwin joined the efforts of Ravel's friend Robert Schmitz, a pianist Ravel had met during the War to urge Ravel to tour the U.S. Schmitz was the head of Pro Musica promoting Franco-American musical relations and was able to offer Ravel a $12,000 fee for the tour, an enticement Gershwin knew would be important to Ravel. Gershwin greeted Ravel in New York in February 1928 at the start of Ravel's U.S. Tour, and joined Ravel again later in the tour in Los Angeles. After a lunch together with Chaplin in Beverly Hills, Ravel was persuaded to perform an unscheduled 'house concert' in a friend's music salon, performing among kindred spirits. Ravel's tour reignited Gershwin's desire to return to Paris which he did in March 1928. Ravel's high praise of Gershwin in an introductory letter to Boulanger caused Gershwin to seriously consider taking much more time to study abroad in Paris. Yet after playing for her, she told him she could not teach him. Nadia Boulanger gave Gershwin basically the same advice she gave all of her accomplished master students "Don't copy others; be yourself." In this case "Why try to be a second rate Ravel when you are already a first rate Gershwin?" This did not set Gershwin back, as his real intent abroad was to complete a new work based on Paris and perhaps a second rhapsody for piano and orchestra to follow his ''[[Rhapsody in Blue]]''. Paris at this time hosted many expatriate writers: among them [[Ezra Pound]], [[W. B. Yeats]], [[Ernest Hemingway]]; and artist [[Pablo Picasso]].<ref>LSRI Archives Oral Interview Anita Loos and Mary Anita Loos October 1979 re: letters and Ravel's telegram to Gershwin</ref> ==Composition== Gershwin based ''An American in Paris'' on a melodic fragment called "Very Parisienne", written in 1926 on his first visit to Paris as a gift to his hosts, Robert and Mabel Schirmer. He described the piece as a "rhapsodic ballet" because it was written freely and is more modern than his previous works. Gershwin explained in ''[[Musical America]]'', "My purpose here is to portray the impressions of an American visitor in Paris as he strolls about the city, listens to the various street noises, and absorbs the French atmosphere." The piece is structured into five sections, which culminate in a loose [[Ternary form|ABA format]]. Gershwin's first A episode introduces the two main "walking" themes in the "Allegretto grazioso" and develops a third theme in the "Subito con brio". The style of this A section is written in the typical French style of composers [[Claude Debussy]] and [[Les Six]]. This A section featured duple meter, singsong rhythms, and diatonic melodies with the sounds of oboe, English horn, and taxi horns. The B section's "Andante ma con ritmo deciso" introduces the American [[Blues]] and spasms of homesickness. The "Allegro" that follows continues to express homesickness in a faster [[twelve-bar blues]]. In the B section, Gershwin uses common time, syncopated rhythms, and bluesy melodies with the sounds of trumpet, saxophone, and snare drum. "Moderato con grazia" is the last A section that returns to the themes set in A. After recapitulating the "walking" themes, Gershwin overlays the slow blues theme from section B in the final “Grandioso.” ==Instrumentation== ''An American in Paris'' is scored for 3 [[flute]]s (3rd doubling on [[piccolo]]), 2 [[oboe]]s, [[English horn]], 2 [[clarinet]]s in [[soprano clarinet|B-flat]], [[bass clarinet]] in B-flat, 2 [[bassoon]]s, 4 [[French horn|horn]]s in F, 3 [[trumpet]]s in B-flat, 3 [[trombone]]s, [[tuba]], [[timpani]], [[snare drum]], [[bass drum]], [[Triangle (musical instrument)|triangle]], [[wood block]], [[cymbal]]s, low and high [[Tom-tom drum|tom-tom]]s, [[xylophone]], [[glockenspiel]], [[celesta]], 4 [[vehicle horn|taxi horns]] labeled as A, B, C and D with circles around them, [[alto saxophone]]/[[soprano saxophone]], [[tenor saxophone]]/soprano saxophone/alto saxophone, [[baritone saxophone]]/soprano saxophone/alto saxophone, and [[String section|strings]]. Although most modern audiences have heard the taxi horns using the notes A, B, C and D, it has recently come to light<ref name="nytimes1">{{cite news|url=http://www.nytimes.com/2016/03/02/theater/have-we-been-playing-gershwin-wrong-for-70-years.html|title=Have We Been Playing Gershwin Wrong for 70 Years?|newspaper=[[The New York Times]]|accessdate=2016-04-06}}</ref> that Gershwin's intention was to have used the notes A{{Music|flat}}_{[[Scientific pitch notation|4]]}, B{{Music|flat}}₄, D₅, and A₄.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.music.umich.edu/ami/gershwin/?p=715 |title=1929 Gershwin Taxi Horn Photo Clarifies Mystery|publisher=[[University of Michigan School of Music, Theatre & Dance]]|date=2016-03-05|accessdate=2016-04-06}}</ref> It is likely that in labeling the taxi horns as A, B, C and D with circles, he may have been referring to the use of the four different horns and not the notes that they played. The revised edition by F. Campbell-Watson calls for three saxophones, alto, tenor and baritone. In this arrangement the soprano and alto doublings have been rewritten to avoid changing instruments. [[William Merrigan Daly|William Daly]] arranged the score for piano solo which was published by New World Music in 1929. ==Response== Gershwin did not particularly like Walter Damrosch's interpretation at the world premiere of ''An American in Paris''. He stated that Damrosch's sluggish, dragging tempo caused him to walk out of the hall during a matinee performance of this work. The audience, according to Edward Cushing, responded with "a demonstration of enthusiasm impressively genuine in contrast to the conventional applause which new music, good and bad, ordinarily arouses." Critics believed that ''An American in Paris'' was better crafted than his lukewarm [[Concerto in F (Gershwin)|Concerto in F]]. Some did not think it belonged in a program with classical composers [[César Franck]], [[Richard Wagner]], or [[Guillaume Lekeu]] on its premiere. Gershwin responded to the critics, "It's not a Beethoven Symphony, you know... It's a humorous piece, nothing solemn about it. It's not intended to draw tears. If it pleases symphony audiences as a light, jolly piece, a series of impressions musically expressed, it succeeds." ==Preservation status== On September 22, 2013, it was announced that a musicological [[Historical editions (music)|critical edition]] of the full orchestral score will be eventually released. The Gershwin family, working in conjunction with the [[Library of Congress]] and the [[University of Michigan]], are working to make scores available to the public that represent Gershwin's true intent. It is unknown if the critical score will include the four minutes of material Gershwin later deleted from the work (such as the restatement of the blues theme after the faster 12 bar blues section), or if the score will document changes in the orchestration during Gershwin's composition process.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.pbs.org/newshour/rundown/new-critical-edition-of-george-and-ira-gershwins-works-to-be-compiled/ |title=New, critical edition of George and Ira Gershwin's works to be compiled &#124; PBS NewsHour |website=Pbs.org |date=2013-09-14 |accessdate=2016-04-06}}</ref> The score to ''An American in Paris'' is currently scheduled to be issued first in a series of scores to be released. The entire project may take 30 to 40 years to complete, but ''An American in Paris'' will be an early volume in the series.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.music.umich.edu/ami/gershwin/?page_id=59 |title=The Editions » Gershwin |website=Music.umich.edu |date= |accessdate=2016-04-06}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://musicologynow.ams-net.org/2013/09/george-and-ira-gershwin-critical-edition_20.html |title=Musicology Now: George and Ira Gershwin Critical Edition |website=Musicologynow.ams-net.org |date=2013-09-17 |accessdate=2016-04-06}}</ref> Two Urtext Editions of the work have been published by the German publisher B-Note Music in 2015. The changes made by Campbell-Watson have been withdrawn in both editions. In the extended Urtext, 120 bars of music have been re-integrated. Conductor Walter Damrosch had cut them shortly before the first performance.<ref>{{cite web |title=An American in Paris Urtext | url=https://www.bnote.de/?set=werk_detail&kompid=246&bnnr=16963&lc=en|website=Bnote.de |access-date=2015-12-14}}</ref> ==Recordings== [[File:American in Paris.tif|thumb|First recording]] ''An American in Paris'' has been frequently recorded. The first recording was made for [[RCA Victor]] in 1929 with [[Nathaniel Shilkret]] conducting the Victor Symphony Orchestra, drawn from members of the [[Philadelphia Orchestra]]. Gershwin was on hand to "supervise" the recording; however, Shilkret was reported to be in charge and eventually asked the composer to leave the recording studio. Then, a little later, Shilkret discovered there was no one to play the brief [[celesta]] solo during the slow section, so he hastily asked Gershwin if he might play the solo; Gershwin said he could and so he briefly participated in the actual recording. This recording is believed to use the taxi horns in the way that Gershwin had intended using the notes A flat, B flat, a higher C and a lower D.<ref name="nytimes1"/> The radio broadcast of the September&nbsp;8, 1937 Hollywood Bowl George Gershwin Memorial Concert, in which ''An American in Paris,'' also conducted by Shilkret, was second on the program, was recorded and was released in 1998 in a two-CD set. [[Arthur Fiedler]] and the [[Boston Pops Orchestra]] recorded the work for RCA Victor, including one of the first stereo recordings of the music. In 1945, [[Arturo Toscanini]] and the [[NBC Symphony Orchestra]] recorded the music in [[Carnegie Hall]], one of the few commercial recordings Toscanini made of music by an American composer. The [[Seattle Symphony]] also recorded a version in 1990 of Gershwin's original score, before he made numerous edits resulting in the score as we hear it today.<ref>{{cite web|last=Bargreen |first=Melinda |url=http://community.seattletimes.nwsource.com/archive/?date=19900628&slug=1079541 |title=Entertainment & the Arts &#124; Recordings &#124; Seattle Times Newspaper |website=Community.seattletimes.nwsource.com |date=1990-06-28 |accessdate=2016-04-06}}</ref> [[Harry James]] released a version of the blues section on his 1953 album ''One Night Stand,'' recorded live at the Aragon Ballroom in Chicago ([[Columbia Records|Columbia]] GL 522 and CL 522). ==Use in film== In 1951, MGM released the musical film ''[[An American in Paris (film)|An American in Paris]]'', featuring [[Gene Kelly]] and [[Leslie Caron]]. Winning the 1951 Best Picture Oscar and numerous other awards, the film was directed by [[Vincente Minnelli]], featured many tunes of Gershwin, and concluded with an extensive, elaborate dance sequence built around the ''An American in Paris'' symphonic poem (arranged for the film by [[Johnny Green]]), costing $500,000. ==References== {{reflist}} ==Further reading== * Rimler, Walter. ''George Gershwin&nbsp;– An Intimate Portrait''. Urbana, University of Illinois Press, 2009. 29–33. * Pollack, Howard. ''George Gershwin&nbsp;– His Life and Work''. Berkeley, University of California Press, 2006. 431–42. == External links == * {{IMSLP|work=An American in Paris (Gershwin, George)|cname=''An American in Paris''}} * [http://www.archive.org/details/AnAmericanInParis 1944 recording] by the [[New York Philharmonic]] conducted by [[Artur Rodziński]] * {{YouTube|zi0ENw-JlUI|''An American in Paris''}}, New York Philharmonic, [[Leonard Bernstein]], 1959 {{George Gershwin}} {{Authority control}} {{DEFAULTSORT:American In Paris, An}} [[Category:Compositions by George Gershwin]] [[Category:Symphonic poems]] [[Category:Grammy Hall of Fame Award recipients]] [[Category:1928 compositions]] [[Category:Music about Paris]] [[Category:Music commissioned by the New York Philharmonic]] mq8mwnip8lv9v6xhjticswnbhv7lxif 0 316 708657499 707486453 2016-03-06T21:03:34Z Tassedethe 7098284 v1.38 - fix links - [[The Color Purple (film)]] wikitext text/x-wiki {{Use mdy dates|date=June 2013}} {{Infobox award | name = Academy Award for Best Production Design | presenter = [[Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences]] | country = United States | holder = [[Colin Gibson (production designer)|Colin Gibson]] <br />[[Lisa Thompson (set decorator)|Lisa Thompson]] <br />''[[Mad Max: Fury Road]]'' ([[88th Academy Awards|2015]]) | website = http://www.oscars.org }} The [[Academy Award]]s are the oldest awards ceremony for achievements in motion pictures. The '''Academy Award for Best Production Design''' recognizes achievement in [[art director#In film|art direction]] on a film. The category's original name was '''Best Art Direction''', but was changed to its current name in 2012 for the 85th Academy Awards.<ref name="Music Rules">{{Cite web|url=http://www.oscars.org/press/pressreleases/2012/20120830.html |title=Music Rules Approved for 85th Academy Awards |accessdate=2012-08-31 |work=oscars.org}}</ref> This change resulted from the Art Director's branch of the [[Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences|Academy]] being renamed the Designer's branch. Since 1947, the award is shared with the set decorator(s). The films below are listed with their production year (for example, the 2000 Academy Award for Best Art Direction is given to a film from 1999). In the lists below, the winner of the award for each year is shown first, followed by the other nominees. == Superlatives == {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center" |- !width="150"|Category !width="150"|Name !width="150"|Superlative !width="350"|Notes |- |Most Awards |[[Cedric Gibbons]] |11 awards |Awards resulted from 39 nominations.<ref name="theoscarsite">{{cite web |url=http://theoscarsite.com/whoswho/gibbons_c.htm |title=Cedric Gibbons Biography |accessdate=2010-02-28 |work=theoscarsite.com}}</ref><ref name="findagrave">{{cite web |url=http://www.findagrave.com/cgi-bin/fg.cgi?page=gr&GRid=5912059 |title=Find A Grave: Cedric Gibbons |accessdate=2010-02-28 |work=findagrave.com}}</ref> |- |Most Nominations |Cedric Gibbons |39 nominations |Nominations resulted in 11 awards. |- |Most Nominations<br />(without ever winning) |[[Roland Anderson]] |15 nominations |Nominations resulted in no awards. |} {{clear}} ==Best Interior Decoration== {{legend|#FAEB86|indicates the winner}} ===1920s=== {| class="wikitable" |- bgcolor="#bebebe" ! width="8%" | Year ! width="19%" | Interior decorator ! width="19%" | Film |- |- | rowspan=5 style="text-align:center" | [[1928 in film|1927/28]]<br />{{small|[[1st Academy Awards|(1st)]]}} |- style="background:#FAEB86" | rowspan=2 | [[William Cameron Menzies]] | ''[[The Dove (1927 film)|The Dove]]'' |- |- style="background:#FAEB86" | ''[[Tempest (1928 film)|Tempest]]'' |- | [[Harry Oliver]] | ''[[Seventh Heaven (1927 film)|Seventh Heaven]]'' |- | [[Rochus Gliese]] | ''[[Sunrise (film)|Sunrise]]'' |- | rowspan=7 style="text-align:center" | [[1929 in film|1928/29]]<br />{{small|[[2nd Academy Awards|(2nd)]]}} |- style="background:#FAEB86" | [[Cedric Gibbons]] | ''[[The Bridge of San Luis Rey (1929 film)|The Bridge of San Luis Rey]]'' |- | [[Mitchell Leisen]] | ''[[Dynamite (1929 film)|Dynamite]]'' |- | rowspan=2 | [[William Cameron Menzies]] | ''[[Alibi (1929 film)|Alibi]]'' |- | ''[[The Awakening (1928 film)|The Awakening]]'' |- | [[Hans Dreier]] | ''[[The Patriot (1928 film)|The Patriot]]'' |- | [[Harry Oliver]] | ''[[Street Angel (1928 film)|Street Angel]]'' |} ===1930s=== {| class="wikitable" |- bgcolor="#bebebe" ! width="8%" | Year ! width="19%" | Interior decorator(s) ! width="19%" | Film |- |- | rowspan=6 style="text-align:center" | [[1930 in film|1929/30]]<br />{{small|[[3rd Academy Awards|(3rd)]]}} |- style="background:#FAEB86" | [[Herman Rosse]] | ''[[King of Jazz]]'' |- | [[William Cameron Menzies]] | ''[[Bulldog Drummond (1929 film)|Bulldog Drummond]]'' |- | [[Hans Dreier]] | ''[[The Love Parade]]'' |- | [[Jack Okey]] | ''[[Sally (1929 film)|Sally]]'' |- | [[Hans Dreier]] | ''[[The Vagabond King (1930 film)|The Vagabond King]]'' |- | rowspan=6 style="text-align:center" | [[1931 in film|1930/31]]<br />{{small|[[4th Academy Awards|(4th)]]}} |- style="background:#FAEB86" | [[Max Ree]] | ''[[Cimarron (1931 film)|Cimarron]]'' |- | [[Stephen Goosson]]<br>[[Ralph Hammeras]] | ''[[Just Imagine]]'' |- | [[Hans Dreier]] | ''[[Morocco (1930 film)|Morocco]]'' |- | [[Anton Grot]] | ''[[Svengali (1931 film)|Svengali]]'' |- | [[Richard Day (art director)|Richard Day]] | ''[[Whoopee! (film)|Whoopee!]]'' |- | rowspan=4 style="text-align:center" | [[1932 in film|1931/32]]<br />{{small|[[5th Academy Awards|(5th)]]}} |- style="background:#FAEB86" | [[Gordon Wiles]] | ''[[Transatlantic (1931 film)|Transatlantic]]'' |- | [[Lazare Meerson]] | ''[[À nous la liberté]]'' |- | [[Richard Day (art director)|Richard Day]] | ''[[Arrowsmith (film)|Arrowsmith]]'' |- | rowspan=4 style="text-align:center" | [[1933 in film|1932/33]]<br />{{small|[[6th Academy Awards|(6th)]]}} |- style="background:#FAEB86" | [[William S. Darling]] | ''[[Cavalcade (1933 film)|Cavalcade]]'' |- | [[Hans Dreier]]<br>[[Roland Anderson]] | ''[[A Farewell to Arms (1932 film)|A Farewell to Arms]]'' |- | [[Cedric Gibbons]] | ''[[When Ladies Meet (1933 film)|When Ladies Meet]]'' |- | rowspan=4 style="text-align:center" | 1934<br />{{small|[[7th Academy Awards|(7th)]]}} |- style="background:#FAEB86" | [[Cedric Gibbons]]<br>[[Fredric Hope]] | ''[[The Merry Widow (1934 film)|The Merry Widow]]'' |- | [[Van Nest Polglase]]<br>[[Carroll Clark]] | ''[[The Gay Divorcee]]'' |- | [[Richard Day (art director)|Richard Day]] | ''[[The Affairs of Cellini]]'' |- | rowspan=4 style="text-align:center" | 1935<br />{{small|[[8th Academy Awards|(8th)]]}} |- style="background:#FAEB86" | [[Richard Day (art director)|Richard Day]] | ''[[The Dark Angel (1935 film)|The Dark Angel]]'' |- | [[Hans Dreier]]<br>[[Roland Anderson]] | ''[[The Lives of a Bengal Lancer (film)|The Lives of a Bengal Lancer]]'' |- | [[Carroll Clark]]<br>[[Van Nest Polglase]] | ''[[Top Hat]]'' |- | rowspan=8 style="text-align:center" | 1936<br />{{small|[[9th Academy Awards|(9th)]]}} |- style="background:#FAEB86" | [[Richard Day (art director)|Richard Day]] | ''[[Dodsworth (film)|Dodsworth]]'' |- | [[Anton Grot]] | ''[[Anthony Adverse]]'' |- | [[Cedric Gibbons]]<br>[[Eddie Imazu]]<br>[[Edwin B. Willis]] | ''[[The Great Ziegfeld]]'' |- | [[William S. Darling]] | ''[[Lloyd's of London (film)|Lloyd's of London]]'' |- | [[Albert S. D'Agostino]]<br>[[Jack Otterson]] | ''[[The Magnificent Brute]]'' |- | [[Cedric Gibbons]]<br>[[Frederic Hope]]<br>[[Edwin B. Willis]] | ''[[Romeo and Juliet (1936 film)|Romeo and Juliet]]'' |- | [[Perry Ferguson]] | ''[[Winterset (film)|Winterset]]'' |- | rowspan=13 style="text-align:center" | 1937<br />{{small|[[10th Academy Awards|(10th)]]}} |- style="background:#FAEB86" | [[Stephen Goosson]] | ''[[Lost Horizon (1937 film)|Lost Horizon]]'' |- | [[Cedric Gibbons]]<br>[[William Horning]] | ''[[Conquest (1937 film)|Conquest]]'' |- | [[Carroll Clark]] | ''[[A Damsel in Distress (film)|A Damsel in Distress]]'' |- | [[Richard Day (art director)|Richard Day]] | ''[[Dead End (1937 film)|Dead End]]'' |- | [[Ward Ihnen]] | ''[[Every Day's a Holiday (1937 film)|Every Day's a Holiday]]'' |- | [[Anton Grot]] | ''[[The Life of Emile Zola]]'' |- | [[John Victor MacKay]] | ''[[Manhattan Merry-Go-Round (film)|Manhattan Merry-Go-Round]]'' |- | [[Lyle Wheeler]] | ''[[The Prisoner of Zenda (1937 film)|The Prisoner of Zenda]]'' |- | [[Hans Dreier]]<br>[[Roland Anderson]] | ''[[Souls at Sea]]'' |- | [[Alexander Toluboff]] | ''[[Vogues of 1938]]'' |- | [[William S. Darling]]<br>[[David S. Hall (art director)|David S. Hall]] | ''[[Wee Willie Winkie (film)|Wee Willie Winkie]]'' |- | [[Jack Otterson]] | ''[[You're a Sweetheart]]'' |- | rowspan=12 style="text-align:center" | 1938<br />{{small|[[11th Academy Awards|(11th)]]}} |- style="background:#FAEB86" | [[Carl J. Weyl]] | ''[[The Adventures of Robin Hood (film)|The Adventures of Robin Hood]]'' |- | [[Lyle Wheeler]] | ''[[The Adventures of Tom Sawyer (1938 film)|The Adventures of Tom Sawyer]]'' |- | [[Bernard Herzbrun]]<br>[[Boris Leven]] | ''[[Alexander's Ragtime Band (film)|Alexander's Ragtime Band]]'' |- | [[Alexander Toluboff]] | ''[[Algiers (film)|Algiers]]'' |- | [[Van Nest Polglase]] | ''[[Carefree (film)|Carefree]]'' |- | [[Richard Day (art director)|Richard Day]] | ''[[The Goldwyn Follies]]'' |- | [[Stephen Goosson]]<br>[[Lionel Banks]] | ''[[Holiday (1938 film)|Holiday]]'' |- | [[Hans Dreier]]<br>[[John B. Goodman (art director)|John B. Goodman]] | ''[[If I Were King]]'' |- | [[Jack Otterson]] | ''[[Mad About Music]]'' |- | [[Cedric Gibbons]] | ''[[Marie Antoinette (1938 film)|Marie Antoinette]]'' |- | [[Charles D. Hall]] | ''[[Merrily We Live]]'' |- | rowspan=13 style="text-align:center" | 1939<br />{{small|[[12th Academy Awards|(12th)]]}} |- style="background:#FAEB86" | [[Lyle Wheeler]] | ''[[Gone with the Wind (film)|Gone with the Wind]]'' |- | [[Hans Dreier]]<br>[[Robert Odell]] | ''[[Beau Geste (1939 film)|Beau Geste]]'' |- | [[Charles D. Hall]] | ''[[Captain Fury]]'' |- | [[Jack Otterson]]<br>[[Martin Obzina]] | ''[[First Love (1939 film)|First Love]]'' |- | [[Van Nest Polglase]]<br>[[Alfred Herman]] | ''[[Love Affair (1939 film)|Love Affair]]'' |- | [[John Victor Mackay]] | ''[[Man of Conquest]]'' |- | [[Lionel Banks]] | ''[[Mr. Smith Goes to Washington]]'' |- | [[Anton Grot]] | ''[[The Private Lives of Elizabeth and Essex]]'' |- | [[William S. Darling]]<br>[[George Dudley (art director)|George Dudley]] | ''[[The Rains Came]]'' |- | [[Alexander Toluboff]] | ''[[Stagecoach (1939 film)|Stagecoach]]'' |- | [[Cedric Gibbons]]<br>[[William A. Horning]] | ''[[The Wizard of Oz (1939 film)|The Wizard of Oz]]'' |- | [[James Basevi]] | ''[[Wuthering Heights (1939 film)|Wuthering Heights]]'' |} ===1940s=== {| class="wikitable" |- bgcolor="#bebebe" ! width="8%" | Year ! width="19%" | Interior decorator(s) ! width="19%" | Film |- |- | rowspan=20 style="text-align:center" | 1940<br />{{small|[[13th Academy Awards|(13th)]]}}<ref>From 1940, the award was split into Black-and-white and color.</ref> | colspan=2 style="text-align:center; background:#91CFF6" | Black-and-white |- style="background:#FAEB86" | [[Richard Day (art director)|Richard Day]]<br>[[Paul Groesse]] | ''[[Pride and Prejudice (1940 film)|Pride and Prejudice]]'' |- | [[Hans Dreier]]<br>[[Robert Usher]] | ''[[Arise, My Love]]'' |- | [[Lionel Banks]]<br>[[Robert Peterson (art director)|Robert Peterson]] | ''[[Arizona (1940 film)|Arizona]]'' |- | [[John Otterson]] | ''[[The Boys from Syracuse (film)|The Boys from Syracuse]]'' |- | [[John Victor Mackay]] | ''[[Dark Command]]'' |- | [[Alexander Golitzen]] | ''[[Foreign Correspondent (film)|Foreign Correspondent]]'' |- | [[Richard Day (art director)|Richard Day]]<br>[[Joseph C. Wright]] | ''[[Lillian Russell (film)|Lillian Russell]]'' |- | [[Van Nest Polglase]]<br>[[Mark-Lee Kirk]] | ''[[My Favorite Wife]]'' |- | [[John DuCasse Schulze]] | ''[[My Son, My Son (film)|My Son, My Son]]'' |- | [[Lewis J. Rachmil]] | ''[[Our Town (1940 film)|Our Town]]'' |- | [[Lyle Wheeler]] | ''[[Rebecca (1940 film)|Rebecca]]'' |- | [[Anton Grot]] | ''[[The Sea Hawk (1940 film)|The Sea Hawk]]'' |- | N/A (nomination withdrawn) | ''[[Sis Hopkins (1941 film)|Sis Hopkins]]'' |- | [[James Basevi]] | ''[[The Westerner (film)|The Westerner]]'' |- | colspan=2 style="text-align:center; background:#91CFF6" | Color |- style="background:#FAEB86" | [[Vincent Korda]] | ''[[The Thief of Bagdad (1940 film)|The Thief of Bagdad]]'' |- | [[Cedric Gibbons]]<br>[[John S. Detlie]] | ''[[Bitter Sweet (1940 film)|Bitter Sweet]]'' |- | [[Richard Day (art director)|Richard Day]]<br>[[Joseph C. Wright]] | ''[[Down Argentine Way]]'' |- | [[Hans Dreier]]<br>[[Roland Anderson]] | ''[[Northwest Mounted Police (film)|North West Mounted Police]]'' |- | rowspan=16 style="text-align:center" | 1941<br />{{small|[[14th Academy Awards|(14th)]]}} | colspan=2 style="text-align:center; background:#91CFF6" | Black-and-white |- style="background:#FAEB86" | [[Cedric Gibbons]]<br>[[Nathan H. Juran]]<br>[[Thomas Little]] | ''[[How Green Was My Valley (film)|How Green Was My Valley]]'' |- | [[Perry Ferguson]]<br>[[Van Nest Polglase]]<br>[[Al Fields]]<br>[[Darrell Silvera]] | ''[[Citizen Kane]]'' |- | [[Martin Obzina]]<br>[[Jack Otterson]]<br>[[Russell A. Gausman]] | ''[[The Flame of New Orleans]]'' |- | [[Hans Dreier]]<br>[[Robert Usher]]<br>[[Samuel M. Comer]] | ''[[Hold Back the Dawn]]'' |- | [[Lionel Banks]]<br>[[George Montgomery (set decorator)|George Montgomery]] | ''[[Ladies in Retirement]]'' |- | [[Stephen Goosson]]<br>[[Howard Bristol]] | ''[[The Little Foxes (film)|The Little Foxes]]'' |- | [[John Hughes (art director)|John Hughes]]<br>[[Fred M. MacLean]] | ''[[Sergeant York (film)|Sergeant York]]'' |- | [[John DuCasse Schultze]]<br>[[Edward G. Boyle]] | ''[[Son of Monte Cristo]]'' |- | [[Alexander Golitzen]]<br>[[Richard Irvine]] | ''[[Sundown (1941 film)|Sundown]]'' |- | [[Vincent Korda]]<br>[[Julia Heron]] | ''[[That Hamilton Woman]]'' |- | [[Cedric Gibbons]]<br>[[Randall Duell]]<br>[[Edwin B. Willis]] | ''[[When Ladies Meet (1941 film)|When Ladies Meet]]'' |- | colspan=2 style="text-align:center; background:#91CFF6" | Color |- style="background:#FAEB86" | [[Cedric Gibbons]]<br>[[Urie McCleary]]<br>[[Edwin B. Willis]] | ''[[Blossoms in the Dust]]'' |- | [[Richard Day (art director)|Richard Day]]<br>[[Joseph C. Wright]]<br>[[Thomas Little]] | ''[[Blood and Sand (1941 film)|Blood and Sand]]'' |- | [[Raoul Pene Du Bois]]<br>[[Stephen A. Seymour]] | ''[[Louisiana Purchase (film)|Louisiana Purchase]]'' |- | rowspan=17 style="text-align:center" | 1942<br />{{small|[[15th Academy Awards|(15th)]]}} | colspan=2 style="text-align:center; background:#91CFF6" | Black-and-white |- style="background:#FAEB86" | [[Richard Day (art director)|Richard Day]]<br>[[Joseph Wright (art director)|Joseph Wright]]<br>[[Thomas Little]] | ''[[This Above All (film)|This Above All]]'' |- | [[Max Parker]]<br>[[Mark-Lee Kirk]]<br>[[Casey Roberts]] | ''[[George Washington Slept Here]]'' |- | [[Albert S. D'Agostino]]<br>[[Al Fields]]<br>[[Darrell Silvera]] | ''[[The Magnificent Ambersons (film)|The Magnificent Ambersons]]'' |- | [[Perry Ferguson]]<br>[[Howard Bristol]] | ''[[The Pride of the Yankees]]'' |- | [[Cedric Gibbons]]<br>[[Randall Duell]]<br>[[Edwin B. Willis]]<br>[[Jack D. Moore|Jack Moore]] | ''[[Random Harvest (film)|Random Harvest]]'' |- | [[Boris Leven]] | ''[[The Shanghai Gesture]]'' |- | [[Ralph Berger]]<br>[[Emile Kuri]] | ''[[Silver Queen]]'' |- | [[John B. Goodman (art director)|John B. Goodman]]<br>[[Jack Otterson]]<br>[[Russell A. Gausman]]<br>[[Edward Ray Robinson]] | ''[[The Spoilers (1942 film)|The Spoilers]]'' |- | [[Hans Dreier]]<br>[[Roland Anderson]]<br>[[Samuel M. Comer]] | ''[[Take a Letter, Darling]]'' |- | [[Lionel Banks]]<br>[[Rudolph Sternad]]<br>[[Fay Babcock]] | ''[[The Talk of the Town (1942 film)|The Talk of the Town]]'' |- | colspan=2 style="text-align:center; background:#91CFF6" | Color |- style="background:#FAEB86" | [[Richard Day (art director)|Richard Day]]<br>[[Joseph Wright (art director)|Joseph Wright]]<br>[[Thomas Little]] | ''[[My Gal Sal]]'' |- | [[Alexander Golitzen]]<br>[[Jack Otterson]]<br>[[Russell A. Gausman]]<br>[[Ira S. Webb]] | ''[[Arabian Nights (1942 film)|Arabian Nights]]'' |- | [[Ted Smith (art director)|Ted Smith]]<br>[[Casey Roberts]] | ''[[Captains of the Clouds]]'' |- | [[Vincent Korda]]<br>[[Julia Heron]] | ''[[Jungle Book (1942 film)|Jungle Book]]'' |- | [[Hans Dreier]]<br>[[Roland Anderson]]<br>[[George Sawley]] | ''[[Reap the Wild Wind]]'' |- | rowspan=13 style="text-align:center" | 1943<br />{{small|[[16th Academy Awards|(16th)]]}} | colspan=2 style="text-align:center; background:#91CFF6" | Black-and-white |- style="background:#FAEB86" | [[James Basevi]]<br>[[William S. Darling]]<br>[[Thomas Little]] | ''[[The Song of Bernadette (film)|The Song of Bernadette]]'' |- | [[Hans Dreier]]<br>[[Ernst Fegte]]<br>[[Bertram Granger]] | ''[[Five Graves to Cairo]]'' |- | [[Albert S. D'Agostino]]<br>[[Carroll Clark]]<br>[[Darrell Silvera]]<br>[[Harley Miller]] | ''[[Flight for Freedom]]'' |- | [[Cedric Gibbons]]<br>[[Paul Groesse]]<br>[[Edwin B. Willis]]<br>[[Hugh Hunt]] | ''[[Madame Curie (film)|Madame Curie]]'' |- | [[Carl Weyl]]<br>[[George J. Hopkins]] | ''[[Mission to Moscow]]'' |- | [[Perry Ferguson]]<br>[[Howard Bristol]] | ''[[The North Star (1943 film)|The North Star]]'' |- | colspan=2 style="text-align:center; background:#91CFF6" | Color |- style="background:#FAEB86" | [[Alexander Golitzen]]<br>[[John B. Goodman (art director)|John B. Goodman]]<br>[[Russell A. Gausman]]<br>[[Ira S. Webb]] | ''[[Phantom of the Opera (1943 film)|Phantom of the Opera]]'' |- | [[Hans Dreier]]<br>[[Haldane Douglas]]<br>[[Bertram Granger]] | ''[[For Whom the Bell Tolls (film)|For Whom the Bell Tolls]]'' |- | [[James Basevi]]<br>[[Joseph C. Wright]]<br>[[Thomas Little]] | ''[[The Gang's All Here (1943 film)|The Gang's All Here]]'' |- | [[John Hughes (art director)|John Hughes]]<br>[[George J. Hopkins]] | ''[[This Is the Army]]'' |- | [[Cedric Gibbons]]<br>[[Daniel Cathcart]]<br>[[Edwin B. Willis]]<br>[[Jacques Mersereau]] | ''[[Thousands Cheer]]'' |- | rowspan=18 style="text-align:center" | 1944<br />{{small|[[17th Academy Awards|(17th)]]}} | colspan=2 style="text-align:center; background:#91CFF6" | Black-and-white |- style="background:#FAEB86" | [[Cedric Gibbons]]<br>[[William Ferrari]]<br>[[Paul Huldschinsky]]<br>[[Edwin B. Willis]] | ''[[Gaslight (1944 film)|Gaslight]]'' |- | [[Lionel Banks]]<br>[[Walter Holscher]]<br>[[Joseph Kish]] | ''[[Address Unknown (1944 film)|Address Unknown]]'' |- | [[John Hughes (art director)|John Hughes]]<br>[[Fred M. MacLean]] | ''[[The Adventures of Mark Twain (1944 film)|The Adventures of Mark Twain]]'' |- | [[Perry Ferguson]]<br>[[Julia Heron]] | ''[[Casanova Brown]]'' |- | [[Lyle Wheeler]]<br>[[Leland Fuller]]<br>[[Thomas Little]] | ''[[Laura (1944 film)|Laura]]'' |- | [[Hans Dreier]]<br>[[Robert Usher]]<br>[[Samuel M. Comer]] | ''[[No Time for Love (1943 film)|No Time for Love]]'' |- | [[Mark-Lee Kirk]]<br>[[Victor A. Gangelin]] | ''[[Since You Went Away]]'' |- | N/A (nomination withdrawn) | ''[[Song of the Open Road]]'' |- | [[Albert S. D'Agostino]]<br>[[Carroll Clark]]<br>[[Darrell Silvera]]<br>[[Claude Carpenter]] | ''[[Step Lively (1944 film)|Step Lively]]'' |- | colspan=2 style="text-align:center; background:#91CFF6" | Color |- style="background:#FAEB86" | [[Wiard Ihnen]]<br>[[Thomas Little]] | ''[[Wilson (1944 film)|Wilson]]'' |- | [[John B. Goodman (art director)|John B. Goodman]]<br>[[Alexander Golitzen]]<br>[[Russell A. Gausman]]<br>[[Ira S. Webb]] | ''[[The Climax]]'' |- | [[Lionel Banks]]<br>[[Cary Odell]]<br>[[Fay Babcock]] | ''[[Cover Girl (film)|Cover Girl]]'' |- | [[Charles Novi]]<br>[[Jack McConaghy]] | ''[[The Desert Song (1943 film)|The Desert Song]]'' |- | [[Cedric Gibbons]]<br>[[Daniel B. Cathcart]]<br>[[Edwin B. Willis]]<br>[[Richard Pefferle]] | ''[[Kismet (1944 film)|Kismet]]'' |- | [[Hans Dreier]]<br>[[Raoul Pene du Bois]]<br>[[Ray Moyer]] | ''[[Lady in the Dark (film)|Lady in the Dark]]'' |- | [[Ernst Fegte]]<br>[[Howard Bristol]] | ''[[The Princess and the Pirate]]'' |- | rowspan=12 style="text-align:center" | 1945<br />{{small|[[18th Academy Awards|(18th)]]}} | colspan=2 style="text-align:center; background:#91CFF6" | Black-and-white |- style="background:#FAEB86" | [[Wiard Ihnen]]<br>[[A. Roland Fields]] | ''[[Blood on the Sun]]'' |- | [[Albert S. D'Agostino]]<br>[[Jack Okey]]<br>[[Darrell Silvera]]<br>[[Claude Carpenter]] | ''[[Experiment Perilous]]'' |- | [[James Basevi]]<br>[[William S. Darling]]<br>[[Thomas Little]]<br>[[Frank E. Hughes]] | ''[[The Keys of the Kingdom (film)|The Keys of the Kingdom]]'' |- | [[Hans Dreier]]<br>[[Roland Anderson]]<br>[[Samuel M. Comer]]<br>[[Ray Moyer]] | ''[[Love Letters (1945 film)|Love Letters]]'' |- | [[Cedric Gibbons]]<br>[[Hans Peters (art director)|Hans Peters]]<br>[[Edwin B. Willis]]<br>[[John Bonar]]<br>[[Hugh Hunt]] | ''[[The Picture of Dorian Gray (1945 film)|The Picture of Dorian Gray]]'' |- | colspan=2 style="text-align:center; background:#91CFF6" | Color |- style="background:#FAEB86" | [[Hans Dreier]]<br>[[Ernst Fegte]]<br>[[Samuel M. Comer]] | ''[[Frenchman's Creek (film)|Frenchman's Creek]]'' |- | [[Lyle Wheeler]]<br>[[Maurice Ransford]]<br>[[Thomas Little]] | ''[[Leave Her to Heaven]]'' |- | [[Cedric Gibbons]]<br>[[Urie McCleary]]<br>[[Edwin B. Willis]]<br>[[Mildred Griffiths]] | ''[[National Velvet (film)|National Velvet]]'' |- | [[Ted Smith (art director)|Ted Smith]]<br>[[Jack McConaghy]] | ''[[San Antonio (film)|San Antonio]]'' |- | [[Stephen Goosson]]<br>[[Rudolph Sternad]]<br>[[Frank Tuttle (set decorator)|Frank Tuttle]] | ''[[A Thousand and One Nights (1945 film)|A Thousand and One Nights]]'' |- | rowspan=8 style="text-align:center" | 1946<br />{{small|[[19th Academy Awards|(19th)]]}} | colspan=2 style="text-align:center; background:#91CFF6" | Black-and-white |- style="background:#FAEB86" | [[William S. Darling]]<br>[[Lyle Wheeler]]<br>[[Thomas Little]]<br>[[Frank E. Hughes]] | ''[[Anna and the King of Siam (film)|Anna and the King of Siam]]'' |- | [[Hans Dreier]]<br>[[Walter H. Tyler]]<br>[[Samuel M. Comer]]<br>[[Ray Moyer]] | ''[[Kitty (1945 film)|Kitty]]'' |- | [[Richard Day (art director)|Richard Day]]<br>[[Nathan H. Juran]]<br>[[Thomas Little]]<br>[[Paul S. Fox]] | ''[[The Razor's Edge (1946 film)|The Razor's Edge]]'' |- | colspan=2 style="text-align:center; background:#91CFF6" | Color |- style="background:#FAEB86" | [[Cedric Gibbons]]<br>[[Paul Groesse]]<br>[[Edwin B. Willis]] | ''[[The Yearling (film)|The Yearling]]'' |- | [[John Bryan (art director)|John Bryan]] | ''[[Caesar and Cleopatra (1945 film)|Caesar and Cleopatra]]'' |- | [[Paul Sheriff]]<br>[[Carmen Dillon]] | ''[[Henry V (1944 film)|Henry V]]'' |} ==Best Art Direction &ndash; Set Decoration== {{legend|#FAEB86|indicates the winner}} ===1940s=== {| class="wikitable" |- bgcolor="#bebebe" ! width="8%" | Year ! width="19%" | Art director(s) ! width="19%" | Set decorator(s) ! width="19%" | Film |- |- | rowspan=6 style="text-align:center" | 1947<br />{{small|[[20th Academy Awards|(20th)]]}} | colspan=3 style="text-align:center; background:#91CFF6" | Black-and-white |- style="background:#FAEB86" | [[Wilfred Shingleton]] | [[John Bryan (art director)|John Bryan]] | ''[[Great Expectations (1946 film)|Great Expectations]]'' |- | [[Lyle Wheeler]]<br>[[Maurice Ransford]] | [[Thomas Little]]<br>[[Paul S. Fox]] | ''[[The Foxes of Harrow]]'' |- | colspan=3 style="text-align:center; background:#91CFF6" | Color |- style="background:#FAEB86" | [[Alfred Junge]] | align="center"|— | ''[[Black Narcissus]]'' |- | [[Robert M. Haas]] | [[George James Hopkins]] | ''[[Life with Father (film)|Life with Father]]'' |- | rowspan=6 style="text-align:center" | 1948<br />{{small|[[21st Academy Awards|(21st)]]}} | colspan=3 style="text-align:center; background:#91CFF6" | Black-and-white |- style="background:#FAEB86" | [[Carmen Dillon]] | [[Roger K. Furse]] | ''[[Hamlet (1948 film)|Hamlet]]'' |- | [[Robert Haas (director)|Robert Haas]] | [[William O. Wallace]] | ''[[Johnny Belinda (1948 film)|Johnny Belinda]]'' |- | colspan=3 style="text-align:center; background:#91CFF6" | Color |- style="background:#FAEB86" | [[Arthur Lawson (designer)|Arthur Lawson]] | [[Hein Heckroth]] | ''[[The Red Shoes (1948 film)|The Red Shoes]]'' |- | [[Richard Day (art director)|Richard Day]] | [[Edwin Casey Roberts]]<br>[[Joseph Kish]] | ''[[Joan of Arc (1948 film)|Joan of Arc]]'' |- | rowspan=8 style="text-align:center" | 1949<br />{{small|[[22nd Academy Awards|(22nd)]]}} | colspan=3 style="text-align:center; background:#91CFF6" | Black-and-white |- style="background:#FAEB86" | [[Harry Horner]]<br>[[John Meehan (art director)|John Meehan]] | [[Emile Kuri]] | ''[[The Heiress]]'' |- | [[Lyle Wheeler]]<br>[[Joseph C. Wright]] | [[Thomas Little]]<br>[[Paul S. Fox]] | ''[[Come to the Stable]]'' |- | [[Cedric Gibbons]]<br>[[Jack Martin Smith]] | [[Edwin B. Willis]]<br>[[Richard A. Pefferle]] | ''[[Madame Bovary (1949 film)|Madame Bovary]]'' |- | colspan=3 style="text-align:center; background:#91CFF6" | Color |- style="background:#FAEB86" | [[Cedric Gibbons]]<br>[[Paul Groesse]] | [[Edwin B. Willis]]<br>[[Jack D. Moore]] | ''[[Little Women (1949 film)|Little Women]]'' |- | [[Edward Carrere]] | [[Lyle Reifsnider]] | ''[[Adventures of Don Juan]]'' |- | [[Jim Morahan]]<br>[[William Kellner]] | [[Michael Relph]] | ''[[Saraband for Dead Lovers]]'' |} ===1950s=== {| class="wikitable" |- bgcolor="#bebebe" ! width="8%" | Year ! width="19%" | Art director(s) ! width="19%" | Set decorator(s) ! width="19%" | Film |- |- | rowspan=8 style="text-align:center" | 1950<br />{{small|[[23rd Academy Awards|(23rd)]]}} | colspan=3 style="text-align:center; background:#91CFF6" | Black-and-white |- style="background:#FAEB86" | [[Hans Dreier]]<br>[[John Meehan (art director)|John Meehan]] | [[Samuel M. Comer]]<br>[[Ray Moyer]] | ''[[Sunset Boulevard (film)|Sunset Boulevard]]'' |- | [[George Davis (art director)|George W. Davis]]<br>[[Lyle Wheeler|Lyle R. Wheeler]] | [[Thomas Little]]<br>[[Walter M. Scott]] | ''[[All About Eve]]'' |- | [[Cedric Gibbons]]<br>[[Hans Peters (art director)|Hans Peters]] | [[Edwin B. Willis]]<br>[[Hugh Hunt]] | ''[[The Red Danube]]'' |- | colspan=3 style="text-align:center; background:#91CFF6" | Color |- style="background:#FAEB86" | [[Hans Dreier]]<br>[[Walter H. Tyler|Walter Tyler]] | [[Samuel M. Comer]]<br>[[Ray Moyer]] | ''[[Samson and Delilah (1949 film)|Samson and Delilah]]'' |- | [[Cedric Gibbons]]<br>[[Paul Groesse]] | [[Edwin B. Willis]]<br>[[Richard A. Pefferle]] | ''[[Annie Get Your Gun (film)|Annie Get Your Gun]]'' |- | [[Ernst Fegté]] | [[George Sawley]] | ''[[Destination Moon (film)|Destination Moon]]'' |- | rowspan=12 style="text-align:center" | 1951<br />{{small|[[24th Academy Awards|(24th)]]}} | colspan=3 style="text-align:center; background:#91CFF6" | Black-and-white |- style="background:#FAEB86" | [[Richard Day (art director)|Richard Day]] | [[George James Hopkins]] | ''[[A Streetcar Named Desire (1951 film)|A Streetcar Named Desire]]'' |- | [[Leland Fuller]]<br>[[Lyle Wheeler]] | [[Thomas Little]]<br>[[Fred J. Rode]] | ''[[Fourteen Hours]]'' |- | [[John DeCuir]]<br>[[Lyle Wheeler]] | [[Paul S. Fox]]<br>[[Thomas Little]] | ''[[House on Telegraph Hill]]'' |- | [[Jean d'Eaubonne]] | align="center"|— | ''[[La Ronde (1950 film)|La Ronde]]'' |- | [[Cedric Gibbons]]<br>[[Paul Groesse]] | [[Edwin B. Wills]]<br>[[Jack D. Moore]] | ''[[Too Young to Kiss]]'' |- | colspan=3 style="text-align:center; background:#91CFF6" | Color |- style="background:#FAEB86" | [[E. Preston Ames]]<br>[[Cedric Gibbons]] | [[Edwin B. Willis]]<br>[[Keogh Gleason]] | ''[[An American in Paris (film)|An American in Paris]]'' |- | [[George Davis (art director)|George Davis]]<br>[[Lyle Wheeler]] | [[Paul S. Fox]]<br>[[Thomas Little]] | ''[[David and Bathsheba (film)|David and Bathsheba]]'' |- | [[Leland Fuller]]<br>[[Lyle Wheeler]] | [[Thomas Little]]<br>[[Walter M. Scott]] | ''[[On the Riviera]]'' |- | [[Edward Carfagno]]<br>[[Cedric Gibbons]]<br>[[William A. Horning]] | [[Hugh Hunt]] | ''[[Quo Vadis (1951 film)|Quo Vadis]]'' |- | [[Hein Heckroth]] | align="center"|— | ''[[The Tales of Hoffmann (film)|The Tales of Hoffmann]]'' |- | rowspan=12 style="text-align:center" | 1952<br />{{small|[[25th Academy Awards|(25th)]]}} | colspan=3 style="text-align:center; background:#91CFF6" | Black-and-white |- style="background:#FAEB86" | [[Edward Carfagno]]<br>[[Cedric Gibbons]] | [[Keogh Gleason]]<br>[[Edwin B. Willis]] | ''[[The Bad and the Beautiful]]'' |- | [[Roland Anderson]]<br>[[Hal Pereira]] | [[Emile Kuri]] | ''[[Carrie (1952 film)|Carrie]]'' |- | [[John DeCuir]]<br>[[Lyle Wheeler]] | [[Walter M. Scott]] | ''[[My Cousin Rachel (film)|My Cousin Rachel]]'' |- | [[So Matsuyama]] | [[H. Motsumoto]] | ''[[Rashomon (film)|Rashōmon]]'' |- | [[Leland Fuller]]<br>[[Lyle Wheeler]] | [[Claude Carpenter]]<br>[[Thomas Little]] | ''[[Viva Zapata!]]'' |- | colspan=3 style="text-align:center; background:#91CFF6" | Color |- style="background:#FAEB86" | [[Marcel Vertès]] | [[Paul Sheriff]] | ''[[Moulin Rouge (1952 film)|Moulin Rouge]]'' |- | [[Antoni Clavé|Clavé]]<br>[[Richard Day (art director)|Richard Day]] | [[Howard Bristol]] | ''[[Hans Christian Andersen (film)|Hans Christian Andersen]]'' |- | [[Cedric Gibbons]]<br>[[Paul Groesse]] | [[Arthur Krams]]<br>[[Edwin B. Willis]] | ''[[The Merry Widow (1952 film)|The Merry Widow]]'' |- | [[Frank Hotaling]] | [[John McCarthy, Jr.]]<br>[[Charles S. Thompson]] | ''[[The Quiet Man]]'' |- | [[John DeCuir]]<br>[[Lyle Wheeler]] | [[Paul S. Fox]]<br>[[Thomas Little]] | ''[[The Snows of Kilimanjaro (1952 film)|The Snows of Kilimanjaro]]'' |- | rowspan=12 style="text-align:center" | 1953<br />{{small|[[26th Academy Awards|(26th)]]}} | colspan=3 style="text-align:center; background:#91CFF6" | Black-and-white |- style="background:#FAEB86" | [[Edward Carfagno]]<br>[[Cedric Gibbons]] | [[Hugh Hunt]]<br>[[Edwin B. Willis]] | ''[[Julius Caesar (1953 film)|Julius Caesar]]'' |- | [[Paul Markwitz]]<br>[[Fritz Maurischat]] | align="center"|— | ''[[Martin Luther (1953 film)|Martin Luther]]'' |- | [[Leland Fuller]]<br>[[Lyle Wheeler]] | [[Paul S. Fox]] | ''[[The President's Lady]]'' |- | [[Hal Pereira]]<br>[[Walter H. Tyler|Walter Tyler]] | align="center"|— | ''[[Roman Holiday (1953 film)|Roman Holiday]]'' |- | [[Maurice Ransford]]<br>[[Lyle Wheeler]] | [[Stuart Reiss]] | ''[[Titanic (1953 film)|Titanic]]'' |- | colspan=3 style="text-align:center; background:#91CFF6" | Color |- style="background:#FAEB86" | [[George Davis (art director)|George Davis]]<br>[[Lyle Wheeler]] | [[Paul S. Fox]]<br>[[Walter M. Scott]] | ''[[The Robe (film)|The Robe]]'' |- | [[Alfred Junge]]<br>[[Hans Peters (art director)|Hans Peters]] | [[John Jarvis (set decorator)|John Jarvis]] | ''[[Knights of the Round Table (film)|Knights of the Round Table]]'' |- | [[Cedric Gibbons]]<br>[[Paul Groesse]] | [[Arthur Krams]]<br>[[Edwin B. Willis]] | ''[[Lili]]'' |- | [[E. Preston Ames]]<br>[[Edward Carfagno]]<br>[[Cedric Gibbons]]<br>[[Gabriel Scognamillo]] | [[Keogh Gleason]]<br>[[Arthur Krams]]<br>[[Jack D. Moore]]<br>[[Edwin B. Willis]] | ''[[The Story of Three Loves]]'' |- | [[Cedric Gibbons]]<br>[[Urie McCleary]] | [[Jack D. Moore]]<br>[[Edwin B. Willis]] | ''[[Young Bess]]'' |- | rowspan=12 style="text-align:center" | 1954<br />{{small|[[27th Academy Awards|(27th)]]}} | colspan=3 style="text-align:center; background:#91CFF6" | Black-and-white |- style="background:#FAEB86" | [[Richard Day (art director)|Richard Day]] | align="center"|— | ''[[On the Waterfront]]'' |- | [[Roland Anderson]]<br>[[Hal Pereira]] | [[Samuel M. Comer]]<br>[[Grace Gregory]] | ''[[The Country Girl (1954 film)|The Country Girl]]'' |- | [[Cedric Gibbons]]<br>[[Edward Carfagno]] | [[Edwin B. Willis]]<br>[[Emile Kuri]] | ''[[Executive Suite]]'' |- | [[Max Ophüls]] | align="center"|— | ''[[Le Plaisir]]'' |- | [[Hal Pereira]]<br>[[Walter H. Tyler|Walter Tyler]] | [[Samuel M. Comer]]<br>[[Ray Moyer]] | ''[[Sabrina (1954 film)|Sabrina]]'' |- | colspan=3 style="text-align:center; background:#91CFF6" | Color |- style="background:#FAEB86" | [[John Meehan (art director)|John Meehan]] | [[Emile Kuri]] | ''[[20,000 Leagues Under the Sea (1954 film)|20,000 Leagues Under the Sea]]'' |- | [[Cedric Gibbons]]<br>[[E. Preston Ames]] | [[Edwin B. Willis]]<br>[[Keogh Gleason]] | ''[[Brigadoon (film)|Brigadoon]]'' |- | [[Lyle Wheeler]]<br>[[Leland Fuller]] | [[Walter M. Scott]]<br>[[Paul S. Fox]] | ''[[Désirée (film)|Désirée]]'' |- | [[Hal Pereira]]<br>[[Roland Anderson]] | [[Samuel M. Comer]]<br>[[Ray Moyer]] | ''[[Red Garters (film)|Red Garters]]'' |- | [[Malcolm Bert]]<br>[[Gene Allen]] | [[Irene Sharaff]]<br>[[George James Hopkins]] | ''[[A Star Is Born (1954 film)|A Star Is Born]]'' |- | rowspan=12 style="text-align:center" | 1955<br />{{small|[[28th Academy Awards|(28th)]]}} | colspan=3 style="text-align:center; background:#91CFF6" | Black-and-white |- style="background:#FAEB86" | [[Hal Pereira]]<br>[[Tambi Larsen]] | [[Samuel M. Comer]]<br>[[Arthur Krams]] | ''[[The Rose Tattoo (film)|The Rose Tattoo]]'' |- | [[Cedric Gibbons]]<br>[[Randall Duell]] | [[Edwin B. Willis]]<br>[[Henry Grace]] | ''[[Blackboard Jungle]]'' |- | [[Cedric Gibbons]]<br>[[Malcolm Brown (art director)|Malcolm Brown]] | [[Edwin B. Willis]]<br>[[Hugh B. Hunt]] | ''[[I'll Cry Tomorrow]]'' |- | [[Joseph C. Wright]] | [[Darrell Silvera]] | ''[[The Man with the Golden Arm]]'' |- | [[Edward S. Haworth]]<br>[[Walter Simonds]] | [[Robert Priestley]] | ''[[Marty (film)|Marty]]'' |- | colspan=3 style="text-align:center; background:#91CFF6" | Color |- style="background:#FAEB86" | [[William Flannery]] | [[Jo Mielziner]]<br>[[Robert Priestley]] | ''[[Picnic (1955 film)|Picnic]]'' |- | [[Lyle Wheeler]]<br>[[John DeCuir]] | [[Walter M. Scott]]<br>[[Paul S. Fox]] | ''[[Daddy Long Legs (1955 film)|Daddy Long Legs]]'' |- | [[Oliver Smith (designer)|Oliver Smith]]<br>[[Joseph C. Wright]] | [[Howard Bristol]] | ''[[Guys and Dolls (film)|Guys and Dolls]]'' |- | [[Lyle Wheeler]]<br>[[George Davis (art director)|George Davis]] | [[Walter M. Scott]]<br>[[Jack Stubbs]] | ''[[Love Is a Many-Splendored Thing (film)|Love Is a Many-Splendored Thing]]'' |- | [[Hal Pereira]]<br>[[Joseph McMillan Johnson]] | [[Samuel M. Comer]]<br>[[Arthur Krams]] | ''[[To Catch a Thief]]'' |- | rowspan=12 style="text-align:center" | 1956<br />{{small|[[29th Academy Awards|(29th)]]}} | colspan=3 style="text-align:center; background:#91CFF6" | Black-and-white |- style="background:#FAEB86" | [[Cedric Gibbons]]<br>[[Malcolm F. Brown]] | [[Edwin B. Willis]]<br>[[F. Keogh Gleason]] | ''[[Somebody Up There Likes Me (1956 film)|Somebody Up There Likes Me]]'' |- | [[Hal Pereira]]<br>[[A. Earl Hedrick]] | [[Samuel M. Comer]]<br>[[Frank R. McKelvy]] | ''[[The Proud and Profane]]'' |- | [[So Matsuyama]] | align="center"|— | ''[[Seven Samurai]]'' |- | [[Ross Bellah]] | [[William R. Kiernan]]<br>[[Louis Diage]] | ''[[The Solid Gold Cadillac]]'' |- | [[Lyle R. Wheeler]]<br>[[Jack Martin Smith]] | [[Walter M. Scott]]<br>[[Stuart A. Reiss]] | ''[[Teenage Rebel]]'' |- | colspan=3 style="text-align:center; background:#91CFF6" | Color |- style="background:#FAEB86" | [[Lyle R. Wheeler]]<br>[[John DeCuir]] | [[Walter M. Scott]]<br>[[Paul S. Fox]] | ''[[The King and I (1956 film)|The King and I]]'' |- | [[James W. Sullivan]]<br>[[Ken Adam]] | [[Ross J. Dowd]] | ''[[Around the World in 80 Days (1956 film)|Around the World in 80 Days]]'' |- | [[Boris Leven]] | [[Ralph S. Hurst]] | ''[[Giant (1956 film)|Giant]]'' |- | [[Cedric Gibbons]]<br>[[Hans Peters (art director)|Hans Peters]]<br>[[E. Preston Ames]] | [[Edwin B. Willis]]<br>[[F. Keogh Gleason]] | ''[[Lust for Life (film)|Lust for Life]]'' |- | [[Hal Pereira]]<br>[[Walter H. Tyler]]<br>[[Albert Nozaki]] | [[Samuel M. Comer]]<br>[[Ray Moyer]] | ''[[The Ten Commandments (1956 film)|The Ten Commandments]]'' |- | rowspan=6 style="text-align:center" | 1957<br />{{small|[[30th Academy Awards|(30th)]]}}<ref>From 1957, the two awards were combined.</ref> |- style="background:#FAEB86" | [[Ted Haworth]] | [[Robert Priestley]] | ''[[Sayonara]]'' |- | [[Hal Pereira]]<br>[[George Davis (art director)|George Davis]] | [[Samuel M. Comer]]<br>[[Ray Moyer]] | ''[[Funny Face]]'' |- | [[William A. Horning]]<br>[[Gene Allen]] | [[Edwin B. Willis]]<br>[[Richard Pefferle]] | ''[[Les Girls]]'' |- | [[Walter Holscher]] | [[William Kiernan]]<br>[[Louis Diage]] | ''[[Pal Joey (film)|Pal Joey]]'' |- | [[William A. Horning]]<br>[[Urie McCleary]] | [[Edwin B. Willis]]<br>[[Hugh Hunt]] | ''[[Raintree County (film)|Raintree County]]'' |- | rowspan=6 style="text-align:center" | 1958<br />{{small|[[31st Academy Awards|(31st)]]}} |- style="background:#FAEB86" | [[William A. Horning]] {{small|([[List of posthumous Academy Award winners and nominees|posthumous award]])}}<br>[[E. Preston Ames]] | [[Henry Grace]]<br>[[F. Keogh Gleason]] | ''[[Gigi (1958 film)|Gigi]]'' |- | [[Malcolm Bert]] | [[George James Hopkins]] | ''[[Auntie Mame (film)|Auntie Mame]]'' |- | [[Cary Odell]] | [[Louis Diage]] | ''[[Bell, Book and Candle]]'' |- | [[Lyle R. Wheeler]]<br>[[John DeCuir]] | [[Walter M. Scott]]<br>[[Paul S. Fox]] | ''[[A Certain Smile (film)|A Certain Smile]]'' |- | [[Hal Pereira]]<br>[[Henry Bumstead]] | [[Samuel M. Comer]]<br>[[Frank McKelvy]] | ''[[Vertigo (film)|Vertigo]]'' |- | rowspan=12 style="text-align:center" | 1959<br />{{small|[[32nd Academy Awards|(32nd)]]}}<ref>In 1959, the awards were again split in two.</ref> | colspan=3 style="text-align:center; background:#91CFF6" | Black-and-white |- style="background:#FAEB86" | [[Lyle R. Wheeler]]<br>[[George Davis (art director)|George Davis]] | [[Walter M. Scott]]<br>[[Stuart A. Reiss]] | ''[[The Diary of Anne Frank (1959 film)|The Diary of Anne Frank]]'' |- | [[Hal Pereira]]<br>[[Walter H. Tyler|Walter Tyler]] | [[Samuel M. Comer]]<br>[[Arthur Krams]] | ''[[Career (1959 film)|Career]]'' |- | [[Carl Anderson (art director)|Carl Anderson]] | [[William Kiernan]] | ''[[The Last Angry Man]]'' |- | [[Ted Haworth]] | [[Edward G. Boyle]] | ''[[Some Like It Hot]]'' |- | [[Oliver Messel]]<br>[[William Kellner]] | [[Scott Slimon]] | ''[[Suddenly, Last Summer (film)|Suddenly, Last Summer]]'' |- | colspan=3 style="text-align:center; background:#91CFF6" | Color |- style="background:#FAEB86" | [[William A. Horning]] {{small|([[List of posthumous Academy Award winners and nominees|posthumous award]])}}<br>[[Edward Carfagno]] | [[Hugh Hunt]] | ''[[Ben-Hur (1959 film)|Ben-Hur]]'' |- | [[John De Cuir]] | [[Julia Heron]] | ''[[The Big Fisherman]]'' |- | [[Lyle R. Wheeler]]<br>[[Franz Bachelin]]<br>[[Herman A. Blumenthal]] | [[Walter M. Scott]]<br>[[Joseph Kish]] | ''[[Journey to the Center of the Earth (1959 film)|Journey to the Center of the Earth]]'' |- | [[William A. Horning]] {{small|([[List of posthumous Academy Award winners and nominees|posthumous nomination]])}}<br>[[Robert F. Boyle]]<br>[[Merrill Pye]] | [[Henry Grace]]<br>[[Frank McKelvy]] | ''[[North by Northwest]]'' |- | [[Richard H. Riedel]] {{small|([[List of posthumous Academy Award winners and nominees|posthumous nomination]])}} | [[Russell A. Gausman]]<br>[[Ruby R. Levitt]] | ''[[Pillow Talk (film)|Pillow Talk]]'' |} ===1960s=== {| class="wikitable" |- bgcolor="#bebebe" ! width="8%" | Year ! width="19%" | Art director(s) ! width="19%" | Set decorator(s) ! width="19%" | Film |- |- | rowspan=12 style="text-align:center" | 1960<br />{{small|[[33rd Academy Awards|(33rd)]]}} | colspan=3 style="text-align:center; background:#91CFF6" | Black-and-white |- style="background:#FAEB86" | [[Alexander Trauner]] | [[Edward G. Boyle]] | ''[[The Apartment]]'' |- | [[Joseph McMillan Johnson]]<br>[[Kenneth A. Reid]] | [[Ross Dowd]] | ''[[The Facts of Life (film)|The Facts of Life]]'' |- | [[Joseph Hurley (art director)|Joseph Hurley]]<br>[[Robert Clatworthy (art director)|Robert Clatworthy]] | [[George Milo]] | ''[[Psycho (1960 film)|Psycho]]'' |- | [[Tom Morahan]] | [[Lionel Couch]] | ''[[Sons and Lovers (1960 film)|Sons and Lovers]]'' |- | [[Hal Pereira]]<br>[[Walter H. Tyler|Walter Tyler]] | [[Samuel M. Comer]]<br>[[Arthur Krams]] | ''[[Visit to a Small Planet]]'' |- | colspan=3 style="text-align:center; background:#91CFF6" | Color |- style="background:#FAEB86" | [[Harry Horner]] | [[Russell A. Gausman]]<br>[[Julia Heron]] | ''[[Spartacus (1960 film)|Spartacus]]'' |- | [[George Davis (art director)|George Davis]]<br>[[Addison Hehr]] | [[Henry Grace]]<br>[[Hugh Hunt]]<br>[[Otto Siegel]] | ''[[Cimarron (1960 film)|Cimarron]]'' |- | [[Hal Pereira]]<br>[[Roland Anderson]] | [[Samuel M. Comer]]<br>[[Arrigo Breschi]] | ''[[It Started in Naples]]'' |- | [[Ted Haworth]] | [[William Kiernan]] | ''[[Pepe (film)|Pepe]]'' |- | [[Edward Carrere]] | [[George James Hopkins]] | ''[[Sunrise at Campobello]]'' |- | rowspan=12 style="text-align:center" | 1961<br />{{small|[[34th Academy Awards|(34th)]]}} | colspan=3 style="text-align:center; background:#91CFF6" | Black-and-white |- style="background:#FAEB86" | [[Alexander Trauner]] | [[Gene Callahan (production designer)|Gene Callahan]] | ''[[The Hustler (film)|The Hustler]]'' |- | [[Carroll Clark]] | [[Emile Kuri]]<br>[[Hal Gausman]] | ''[[The Absent-Minded Professor]]'' |- | [[Fernando Carrere]] | [[Edward G. Boyle]] | ''[[The Children's Hour (1961 film)|The Children's Hour]]'' |- | [[Rudolf Sternad]] | [[George Milo]] | ''[[Judgment at Nuremberg]]'' |- | [[Piero Gherardi]] | align="center"|— | ''[[La Dolce Vita]]'' |- | colspan=3 style="text-align:center; background:#91CFF6" | Color |- style="background:#FAEB86" | [[Boris Leven]] | [[Victor A. Gangelin]] | ''[[West Side Story (film)|West Side Story]]'' |- | [[Hal Pereira]]<br>[[Roland Anderson]] | [[Samuel M. Comer]]<br>[[Ray Moyer]] | ''[[Breakfast at Tiffany's (film)|Breakfast at Tiffany's]]'' |- | [[Veniero Colasanti]]<br>[[John Moore (designer)|John Moore]] | align="center"|— | ''[[El Cid (film)|El Cid]]'' |- | [[Alexander Golitzen]]<br>[[Joseph Wright (art director)|Joseph Wright]] | [[Howard Bristol]] | ''[[Flower Drum Song (film)|Flower Drum Song]]'' |- | [[Hal Pereira]]<br>[[Walter H. Tyler|Walter Tyler]] | [[Samuel M. Comer]]<br>[[Arthur Krams]] | ''[[Summer and Smoke (film)|Summer and Smoke]]'' |- | rowspan=12 style="text-align:center" | 1962<br />{{small|[[35th Academy Awards|(35th)]]}} | colspan=3 style="text-align:center; background:#91CFF6" | Black-and-white |- style="background:#FAEB86" | [[Alexander Golitzen]]<br>[[Henry Bumstead]] | [[Oliver Emert]] | ''[[To Kill a Mockingbird (film)|To Kill a Mockingbird]]'' |- | [[Joseph Wright (art director)|Joseph Wright]] | [[George James Hopkins]] | ''[[Days of Wine and Roses (film)|Days of Wine and Roses]]'' |- | [[Ted Haworth]]<br>[[Léon Barsacq]]<br>[[Vincent Korda]] | [[Gabriel Bechir]] | ''[[The Longest Day (film)|The Longest Day]]'' |- | [[George Davis (art director)|George Davis]]<br>[[Edward Carfagno]] | [[Henry Grace]]<br>[[Dick Pefferle]] | ''[[Period of Adjustment (film)|Period of Adjustment]]'' |- | [[Hal Pereira]]<br>[[Roland Anderson]] | [[Samuel M. Comer]]<br>[[Frank R. McKelvy]] | ''[[The Pigeon That Took Rome]]'' |- | colspan=3 style="text-align:center; background:#91CFF6" | Color |- style="background:#FAEB86" | [[John Box]]<br>[[John Stoll]] | [[Dario Simoni]] | ''[[Lawrence of Arabia (film)|Lawrence of Arabia]]'' |- | [[Paul Groesse]] | [[George James Hopkins]] | ''[[The Music Man (1962 film)|The Music Man]]'' |- | [[George Davis (art director)|George Davis]]<br>[[J. McMillan Johnson]] | [[Henry Grace]]<br>[[Hugh Hunt]] | ''[[Mutiny on the Bounty (1962 film)|Mutiny on the Bounty]]'' |- | [[Alexander Golitzen]]<br>[[Robert Clatworthy (art director)|Robert Clatworthy]] | [[George Milo]] | ''[[That Touch of Mink]]'' |- | [[George Davis (art director)|George Davis]]<br>[[Edward Carfagno]] | [[Henry Grace]]<br>[[Dick Pefferle]] | ''[[The Wonderful World of the Brothers Grimm]]'' |- | rowspan=12 style="text-align:center" | 1963<br />{{small|[[36th Academy Awards|(36th)]]}} | colspan=3 style="text-align:center; background:#91CFF6" | Black-and-white |- style="background:#FAEB86" | [[Gene Callahan (motion picture art director)|Gene Callahan]] | align="center"|— | ''[[America America]]'' |- | [[Piero Gherardi]] | align="center"|— | ''[[8½]]'' |- | [[Hal Pereira]]<br>[[Tambi Larsen]] | [[Samuel M. Comer]]<br>[[Robert R. Benton]] | ''[[Hud (1963 film)|Hud]]'' |- | [[Hal Pereira]]<br>[[Roland Anderson]] | [[Samuel M. Comer]]<br>[[Grace Gregory]] | ''[[Love with the Proper Stranger]]'' |- | [[George Davis (art director)|George Davis]]<br>[[Paul Groesse]] | [[Henry Grace]]<br>[[Hugh Hunt]] | ''[[Twilight of Honor]]'' |- | colspan=3 style="text-align:center; background:#91CFF6" | Color |- style="background:#FAEB86" | [[John DeCuir]]<br>[[Jack Martin Smith]]<br>[[Hilyard Brown]]<br>[[Herman Blumenthal]]<br>[[Elven Webb]]<br>[[Maurice Pelling]]<br>[[Boris Juraga]] | [[Walter M. Scott]]<br>[[Paul S. Fox]]<br>[[Ray Moyer]] | ''[[Cleopatra (1963 film)|Cleopatra]]'' |- | [[Lyle Wheeler]] | [[Gene Callahan (motion picture art director)|Gene Callahan]] | ''[[The Cardinal]]'' |- | [[Hal Pereira]]<br>[[Roland Anderson]] | [[Samuel M. Comer]]<br>[[James W. Payne]] | ''[[Come Blow Your Horn (film)|Come Blow Your Horn]]'' |- | [[George Davis (art director)|George Davis]]<br>[[William Ferrari]] {{small|([[List of posthumous Academy Award winners and nominees|posthumous nomination]])}}<br>[[Addison Hehr]] | [[Henry Grace]]<br>[[Don Greenwood Jr.]]<br>[[Jack Mills (art director)|Jack Mills]] | ''[[How the West Was Won (film)|How the West Was Won]]'' |- | [[Ralph Brinton]]<br>[[Ted Marshall]] | [[Jocelyn Herbert]]<br>[[Josie MacAvin]] | ''[[Tom Jones (1963 film)|Tom Jones]]'' |- | rowspan=12 style="text-align:center" | 1964<br />{{small|[[37th Academy Awards|(37th)]]}} | colspan=3 style="text-align:center; background:#91CFF6" | Black-and-white |- style="background:#FAEB86" | [[Vassilis Fotopoulos]] | align="center"|— | ''[[Zorba the Greek (film)|Zorba the Greek]]'' |- | [[George Davis (art director)|George Davis]]<br>[[Hans Peters (art director)|Hans Peters]]<br>[[Elliot Scott]] | [[Henry Grace]]<br>[[Robert R. Benton]] | ''[[The Americanization of Emily]]'' |- | [[William Glasgow]] | [[Raphael Bretton]] | ''[[Hush… Hush, Sweet Charlotte]]'' |- | [[Stephen Grimes]] | align="center"|— | ''[[The Night of the Iguana (film)|The Night of the Iguana]]'' |- | [[Cary Odell]] | [[Edward G. Boyle]] | ''[[Seven Days in May]]'' |- | colspan=3 style="text-align:center; background:#91CFF6" | Color |- style="background:#FAEB86" | [[Gene Allen]]<br>[[Cecil Beaton]] | [[George James Hopkins]] | ''[[My Fair Lady (film)|My Fair Lady]]'' |- | [[John Bryan (art director)|John Bryan]]<br>[[Maurice Carter (film designer)|Maurice Carter]] | [[Patrick McLoughlin (set decorator)|Patrick McLoughlin]]<br>[[Robert Cartwright]] | ''[[Becket (1964 film)|Becket]]'' |- | [[Carroll Clark]]<br>[[William H. Tuntke]] | [[Emile Kuri]]<br>[[Hal Gausman]] | ''[[Mary Poppins (film)|Mary Poppins]]'' |- | [[George Davis (art director)|George Davis]]<br>[[E. Preston Ames]] | [[Henry Grace]]<br>[[Hugh Hunt]] | ''[[The Unsinkable Molly Brown (film)|The Unsinkable Molly Brown]]'' |- | [[Jack Martin Smith]]<br>[[Ted Haworth]] | [[Walter M. Scott]]<br>[[Stuart A. Reiss]] | ''[[What a Way to Go!]]'' |- | rowspan=12 style="text-align:center" | 1965<br />{{small|[[38th Academy Awards|(38th)]]}} | colspan=3 style="text-align:center; background:#91CFF6" | Black-and-white |- style="background:#FAEB86" | [[Robert Clatworthy (art director)|Robert Clatworthy]] | [[Joseph Kish]] | ''[[Ship of Fools (film)|Ship of Fools]]'' |- | [[Robert Emmet Smith]] | [[Frank Tuttle (set decorator)|Frank Tuttle]] | ''[[King Rat (1965 film)|King Rat]]'' |- | [[George Davis (art director)|George Davis]]<br>[[Urie McCleary]] | [[Henry Grace]]<br>[[Charles S. Thompson]] | ''[[A Patch of Blue]]'' |- | [[Hal Pereira]]<br>[[Jack Poplin]] | [[Robert R. Benton]]<br>[[Joseph Kish]] | ''[[The Slender Thread]]'' |- | [[Hal Pereira]]<br>[[Tambi Larsen]] | [[Ted Marshall]]<br>[[Josie MacAvin]] | ''[[The Spy Who Came in from the Cold (film)|The Spy Who Came in from the Cold]]'' |- | colspan=3 style="text-align:center; background:#91CFF6" | Color |- style="background:#FAEB86" | [[John Box]]<br>[[Terence Marsh]] | [[Dario Simoni]] | ''[[Doctor Zhivago (film)|Doctor Zhivago]]'' |- | [[John DeCuir]]<br>[[Jack Martin Smith]] | [[Dario Simoni]] | ''[[The Agony and the Ecstasy (film)|The Agony and the Ecstasy]]'' |- | [[Richard Day (art director)|Richard Day]]<br>[[William Creber]]<br>[[David S. Hall (art director)|David S. Hall]] {{small|([[List of posthumous Academy Award winners and nominees|posthumous nomination]])}} | [[Ray Moyer]]<br>[[Fred M. MacLean]]<br>[[Norman Rockett]] | ''[[The Greatest Story Ever Told]]'' |- | [[Robert Clatworthy (art director)|Robert Clatworthy]] | [[George James Hopkins]] | ''[[Inside Daisy Clover]]'' |- | [[Boris Leven]] | [[Walter M. Scott]]<br>[[Ruby Levitt]] | ''[[The Sound of Music (film)|The Sound of Music]]'' |- | rowspan=12 style="text-align:center" | 1966<br />{{small|[[39th Academy Awards|(39th)]]}} | colspan=3 style="text-align:center; background:#91CFF6" | Black-and-white |- style="background:#FAEB86" | [[Richard Sylbert]] | [[George James Hopkins]] | ''[[Who's Afraid of Virginia Woolf? (film)|Who's Afraid of Virginia Woolf?]]'' |- | [[Robert Luthardt]] | [[Edward G. Boyle]] | ''[[The Fortune Cookie]]'' |- | [[Luigi Scaccianoce]] | align="center"|— | ''[[The Gospel According to St. Matthew (film)|The Gospel According to St. Matthew]]'' |- | [[Willy Holt]]<br>[[Marc Frederix]]<br>[[Pierre Guffroy]] | align="center"|— | ''[[Is Paris Burning?]]'' |- | [[George Davis (art director)|George Davis]]<br>[[Paul Groesse]] | [[Henry Grace]]<br>[[Hugh Hunt]] | ''[[Mister Buddwing]]'' |- | colspan=3 style="text-align:center; background:#91CFF6" | Color |- style="background:#FAEB86" | [[Jack Martin Smith]]<br>[[Dale Hennesy]] | [[Walter M. Scott]]<br>[[Stuart A. Reiss]] | ''[[Fantastic Voyage]]'' |- | [[Alexander Golitzen]]<br>[[George C. Webb]] | [[John McCarthy, Jr.]]<br>[[John Austin (art director)|John Austin]] | ''[[Gambit (1966 film)|Gambit]]'' |- | [[Piero Gherardi]] | align="center"|— | ''[[Juliet of the Spirits]]'' |- | [[Hal Pereira]]<br>[[Arthur Lonergan]] | [[Robert R. Benton]]<br>[[James W. Payne]] | ''[[The Oscar (film)|The Oscar]]'' |- | [[Boris Leven]] | [[Walter M. Scott]]<br>[[John Sturtevant]]<br>[[William Kiernan]] | ''[[The Sand Pebbles (film)|The Sand Pebbles]]'' |- | rowspan=6 style="text-align:center" | 1967<br />{{small|[[40th Academy Awards|(40th)]]}} |- style="background:#FAEB86" | [[John Truscott]]<br>[[Edward Carrere]] | [[John W. Brown (set decorator)|John W. Brown]] | ''[[Camelot (film)|Camelot]]'' |- | [[Mario Chiari]]<br>[[Jack Martin Smith]]<br>[[Ed Graves]] | [[Walter M. Scott]]<br>[[Stuart A. Reiss]] | ''[[Doctor Dolittle (film)|Doctor Dolittle]]'' |- | [[Robert Clatworthy (art director)|Robert Clatworthy]] | [[Frank Tuttle (set decorator)|Frank Tuttle]] | ''[[Guess Who's Coming to Dinner]]'' |- | [[Renzo Mongiardino]]<br>[[John DeCuir]]<br>[[Elven Webb]]<br>[[Giuseppe Mariani]] | [[Dario Simoni]]<br>[[Luigi Gervasi]] | ''[[The Taming of the Shrew (1967 film)|The Taming of the Shrew]]'' |- | [[Alexander Golitzen]]<br>[[George C. Webb]] | [[Howard Bristol]] | ''[[Thoroughly Modern Millie]]'' |- | rowspan=6 style="text-align:center" | 1968<br />{{small|[[41st Academy Awards|(41st)]]}} |- style="background:#FAEB86" | [[John Box]]<br>[[Terence Marsh]] | [[Vernon Dixon]]<br>[[Ken Muggleston]] | ''[[Oliver! (film)|Oliver!]]'' |- | [[George Davis (art director)|George Davis]]<br>[[Edward Carfagno]] | align="center"|— | ''[[The Shoes of the Fisherman]]'' |- | [[Boris Leven]] | [[Walter M. Scott]]<br>[[Howard Bristol]] | ''[[Star! (film)|Star!]]'' |- | [[Anthony Masters]]<br>[[Harry Lange (film designer)|Harry Lange]]<br>[[Ernie Archer]] | align="center"|— | ''[[2001: A Space Odyssey (film)|2001: A Space Odyssey]]'' |- | [[Mikhail Bogdanov (production designer)|Mikhail Bogdanov]]<br>[[Gennady Myasnikov]] | [[Georgi Koshelev]]<br>[[Vladimir Uvarov]] | ''[[War and Peace (film series)|War and Peace]]'' |- | rowspan=6 style="text-align:center" | 1969<br />{{small|[[42nd Academy Awards|(42nd)]]}} |- style="background:#FAEB86" | [[John Decuir]]<br>[[Jack Martin Smith]]<br>[[Herman Blumenthal]] | [[Walter M. Scott]]<br>[[George Hopkins (set designer)|George Hopkins]]<br>[[Raphael Bretton]] | ''[[Hello, Dolly! (film)|Hello, Dolly!]]'' |- | [[Maurice Carter (film designer)|Maurice Carter]]<br>[[Lionel Couch]] | [[Patrick McLoughlin (set decorator)|Patrick McLoughlin]] | ''[[Anne of the Thousand Days]]'' |- | [[Robert F. Boyle]]<br>[[George B. Chan]] | [[Edward G. Boyle]]<br>[[Carl Biddiscombe]] | ''[[Gaily, Gaily]]'' |- | [[Alexander Golitzen]]<br>[[George C. Webb]] | [[Jack D. Moore]] | ''[[Sweet Charity (film)|Sweet Charity]]'' |- | [[Harry Horner]] | [[Frank McKelvy]] | ''[[They Shoot Horses, Don't They? (film)|They Shoot Horses, Don't They?]]'' |} ===1970s=== {| class="wikitable" |- bgcolor="#bebebe" ! width="8%" | Year ! width="19%" | Art director(s) ! width="19%" | Set decorator(s) ! width="19%" | Film |- |- | rowspan=6 style="text-align:center" | 1970<br />{{small|[[43rd Academy Awards|(43rd)]]}} |- style="background:#FAEB86" | [[Urie McCleary]]<br>[[Gil Parrondo]] | [[Antonio Mateos]]<br>[[Pierre-Louis Thevenet]] | ''[[Patton (film)|Patton]]'' |- | [[Alexander Golitzen]]<br>[[E. Preston Ames]] | [[Jack D. Moore]]<br>[[Mickey S. Michaels]] | ''[[Airport (1970 film)|Airport]]'' |- | [[Tambi Larsen]] | [[Darrell Silvera]] | ''[[The Molly MaGuires]]'' |- | [[Terence Marsh]]<br>[[Bob Cartwright]] | [[Pamela Cornell]] | ''[[Scrooge (1970 film)|Scrooge]]'' |- | [[Jack Martin Smith]]<br>[[Yoshirō Muraki]]<br>[[Richard Day (art director)|Richard Day]]<br>[[Taizoh Kawashima]] | [[Samuel M. Comer]]<br>[[Arthur Krams]]<br>[[Norman Rockett]] | ''[[Tora! Tora! Tora!]]'' |- | rowspan=6 style="text-align:center" | 1971<br />{{small|[[44th Academy Awards|(44th)]]}} |- style="background:#FAEB86" | [[John Box]]<br>[[Ernest Archer]]<br>[[Jack Maxsted]]<br>[[Gil Parrondo]] | [[Vernon Dixon]] | ''[[Nicholas and Alexandra]]'' |- | [[Boris Leven]]<br>[[William Tuntke]] | [[Ruby Levitt]] | ''[[The Andromeda Strain (film)|The Andromeda Strain]]'' |- | [[John B. Mansbridge]]<br>[[Peter Ellenshaw]] | [[Emile Kuri]]<br>[[Hal Gausman]] | ''[[Bedknobs and Broomsticks]]'' |- | [[Robert F. Boyle]]<br>[[Michael Stringer]] | [[Peter Lamont]] | ''[[Fiddler on the Roof (film)|Fiddler on the Roof]]'' |- | [[Terence Marsh]]<br>[[Robert Cartwright]] | [[Peter Howitt (set decorator)|Peter Howitt]] | ''[[Mary, Queen of Scots (1971 film)|Mary, Queen of Scots]]'' |- | rowspan=6 style="text-align:center" | 1972<br />{{small|[[45th Academy Awards|(45th)]]}} |- style="background:#FAEB86" | [[Rolf Zehetbauer]]<br>[[Jurgen Kiebach]] | [[Herbert Strabel]] | ''[[Cabaret (1972 film)|Cabaret]]'' |- | [[Carl Anderson (art director)|Carl Anderson]] | [[Reg Allen (set decorator)|Reg Allen]] | ''[[Lady Sings the Blues (film)|Lady Sings the Blues]]'' |- | [[William Creber]] | [[Raphael Bretton]] | ''[[The Poseidon Adventure (1972 film)|The Poseidon Adventure]]'' |- | [[John Box]]<br>[[Gil Parrondo]]<br>[[Robert W. Laing]] | align="center"|— | ''[[Travels with My Aunt (film)|Travels with My Aunt]]'' |- | [[Donald M. Ashton]]<br>[[Geoffrey Drake]] | [[John Graysmark]]<br>[[William Hutchinson (art director)|William Hutchinson]]<br>[[Peter James (set decorator)|Peter James]] | ''[[Young Winston]]'' |- | rowspan=6 style="text-align:center" | 1973<br />{{small|[[46th Academy Awards|(46th)]]}} |- style="background:#FAEB86" | [[Henry Bumstead]] | [[James W. Payne]] | ''[[The Sting]]'' |- | [[Lorenzo Mongiardino]]<br>[[Gianni Quaranta]] | [[Carmelo Patrono]] | ''[[Brother Sun, Sister Moon]]'' |- | [[Bill Malley]] | [[Jerry Wunderlich]] | ''[[The Exorcist (film)|The Exorcist]]'' |- | [[Philip Jefferies]] | [[Robert de Vestel]] | ''[[Tom Sawyer (1973 film)|Tom Sawyer]]'' |- | [[Stephen Grimes]] | [[William Kiernan]] {{small|([[List of posthumous Academy Award winners and nominees|posthumous nomination]])}} | ''[[The Way We Were]]'' |- | rowspan=6 style="text-align:center" | 1974<br />{{small|[[47th Academy Awards|(47th)]]}} |- style="background:#FAEB86" | [[Dean Tavoularis]]<br>[[Angelo Graham]] | [[George R. Nelson]] | ''[[The Godfather Part II]]'' |- | [[Richard Sylbert]]<br>[[W. Stewart Campbell]] | [[Ruby Levitt]] | ''[[Chinatown (1974 film)|Chinatown]]'' |- | [[Alexander Golitzen]]<br>[[E. Preston Ames]] | [[Frank McKelvy]] | ''[[Earthquake (film)|Earthquake]]'' |- | [[Peter Ellenshaw]]<br>[[John B. Mansbridge]]<br>[[Walter H. Tyler|Walter Tyler]]<br>[[Al Roelofs]] | [[Hal Gausman]] | ''[[The Island at the Top of the World]]'' |- | [[William Creber]]<br>[[Ward Preston]] | [[Raphael Bretton]] | ''[[The Towering Inferno]]'' |- | rowspan=6 style="text-align:center" | 1975<br />{{small|[[48th Academy Awards|(48th)]]}} |- style="background:#FAEB86" | [[Ken Adam]]<br>[[Roy Walker (production designer)|Roy Walker]] | [[Vernon Dixon]] | ''[[Barry Lyndon]]'' |- | [[Edward Carfagno]] | [[Frank McKelvy]] | ''[[The Hindenburg (1975 film)|The Hindenburg]]'' |- | [[Alexander Trauner]]<br>[[Tony Inglis]] | [[Peter James (set decorator)|Peter James]] | ''[[The Man Who Would Be King (film)|The Man Who Would Be King]]'' |- | [[Richard Sylbert]]<br>[[W. Stewart Campbell]] | [[George Gaines (set decorator)|George Gaines]] | ''[[Shampoo (film)|Shampoo]]'' |- | [[Albert Brenner]] | [[Marvin March]] | ''[[The Sunshine Boys (1975 film)|The Sunshine Boys]]'' |- | rowspan=6 style="text-align:center" | 1976<br />{{small|[[49th Academy Awards|(49th)]]}} |- style="background:#FAEB86" | [[George C. Jenkins|George Jenkins]] | [[George Gaines (set decorator)|George Gaines]] | ''[[All the President's Men (film)|All the President's Men]]'' |- | [[Elliot Scott]] | [[Norman Reynolds]] | ''[[The Incredible Sarah]]'' |- | [[Gene Callahan (motion picture art director)|Gene Callahan]]<br>[[Jack Collis]] | [[Jerry Wunderlich]] | ''[[The Last Tycoon (1976 film)|The Last Tycoon]]'' |- | [[Dale Hennesy]] | [[Robert de Vestel]] | ''[[Logan's Run (film)|Logan's Run]]'' |- | [[Robert F. Boyle]] | [[Arthur Jeph Parker]] | ''[[The Shootist]]'' |- | rowspan=6 style="text-align:center" | 1977<br />{{small|[[50th Academy Awards|(50th)]]}} |- style="background:#FAEB86" | [[John Barry (set designer)|John Barry]]<br>[[Norman Reynolds]]<br>[[Leslie Dilley]] | [[Roger Christian (filmmaker)|Roger Christian]] | ''[[Star Wars (film)|Star Wars]]'' |- | [[George C. Webb]] | [[Mickey S. Michaels]] | ''[[Airport '77]]'' |- | [[Joe Alves]]<br>[[Dan Lomino]] | [[Phil Abramson]] | ''[[Close Encounters of the Third Kind]]'' |- | [[Ken Adam]]<br>[[Peter Lamont]] | [[Hugh Scaife]] | ''[[The Spy Who Loved Me (film)|The Spy Who Loved Me]]'' |- | [[Albert Brenner]] | [[Marvin March]] | ''[[The Turning Point (1977 film)|The Turning Point]]'' |- | rowspan=6 style="text-align:center" | 1978<br />{{small|[[51st Academy Awards|(51st)]]}} |- style="background:#FAEB86" | [[Paul Sylbert]]<br>[[Edwin O'Donovan]] | [[George Gaines (set decorator)|George Gaines]] | ''[[Heaven Can Wait (1978 film)|Heaven Can Wait]]'' |- | [[Dean Tavoularis]]<br>[[Angelo Graham]] | [[George R. Nelson]] | ''[[The Brink's Job]]'' |- | [[Albert Brenner]] | [[Marvin March]] | ''[[California Suite (film)|California Suite]]'' |- | [[Mel Bourne]] | [[Daniel Robert]] | ''[[Interiors]]'' |- | [[Tony Walton]]<br>[[Philip Rosenberg]] | [[Edward Stewart (set decorator)|Edward Stewart]]<br>[[Robert Drumheller]] | ''[[The Wiz (film)|The Wiz]]'' |- | rowspan=6 style="text-align:center" | 1979<br />{{small|[[52nd Academy Awards|(52nd)]]}} |- style="background:#FAEB86" | [[Philip Rosenberg]]<br>[[Tony Walton]] | [[Edward Stewart (set decorator)|Edward Stewart]]<br>[[Gary Brink]] | ''[[All That Jazz (film)|All That Jazz]]'' |- | [[Michael Seymour (production designer)|Michael Seymour]]<br>[[Les Dilley]]<br>[[Roger Christian (filmmaker)|Roger Christian]] | [[Ian Whittaker]] | ''[[Alien (film)|Alien]]'' |- | [[Dean Tavoularis]]<br>[[Angelo Graham]] | [[George R. Nelson]] | ''[[Apocalypse Now]]'' |- | [[George C. Jenkins|George Jenkins]] | [[Arthur Jeph Parker]] | ''[[The China Syndrome]]'' |- | [[Harold Michelson]]<br>[[Joe Jennings]]<br>[[Leon Harris (art director)|Leon Harris]]<br>[[John Vallone]] | [[Linda Descenna]] | ''[[Star Trek: The Motion Picture]]'' |} ===1980s=== {| class="wikitable" |- bgcolor="#bebebe" ! width="8%" | Year ! width="19%" | Art director(s) ! width="19%" | Set decorator(s) ! width="19%" | Film |- |- | rowspan=6 style="text-align:center" | 1980<br />{{small|[[53rd Academy Awards|(53rd)]]}} |- style="background:#FAEB86" | [[Pierre Guffroy]]<br>[[Jack Stephens (set decorator)|Jack Stephens]] | align="center"|— | ''[[Tess (film)|Tess]]'' |- | [[John W. Corso]] | [[John M. Dwyer]] | ''[[Coal Miner's Daughter (film)|Coal Miner's Daughter]]'' |- | [[Stuart Craig]]<br>[[Robert Cartwright]] | [[Hugh Scaife]] | ''[[The Elephant Man (film)|The Elephant Man]]'' |- | [[Norman Reynolds]]<br>[[Leslie Dilley]]<br>[[Harry Lange (film designer)|Harry Lange]]<br>[[Alan Tomkins]] | [[Michael D. Ford]] | ''[[The Empire Strikes Back|Star Wars Episode V: The Empire Strikes Back]]'' |- | [[Yoshirō Muraki]] | align="center"|— | ''[[Kagemusha]]'' |- | rowspan=6 style="text-align:center" | 1981<br />{{small|[[54th Academy Awards|(54th)]]}} |- style="background:#FAEB86" | [[Norman Reynolds]]<br>[[Leslie Dilley]] | [[Michael D. Ford]] | ''[[Raiders of the Lost Ark]]'' |- | [[Assheton Gorton]] | [[Ann Mollo]] | ''[[The French Lieutenant's Woman (film)|The French Lieutenant's Woman]]'' |- | [[Tambi Larsen]] | [[James L. Berkey]] | ''[[Heaven's Gate (film)|Heaven's Gate]]'' |- | [[John Graysmark]]<br>[[Patrizia von Brandenstein]]<br>[[Tony Reading]] | [[George DeTitta Sr.]]<br>[[George DeTitta, Jr.]]<br>[[Peter Howitt (set decorator)|Peter Howitt]] | ''[[Ragtime (film)|Ragtime]]'' |- | [[Richard Sylbert]] | [[Michael Seirton]] | ''[[Reds (film)|Reds]]'' |- | rowspan=6 style="text-align:center" | 1982<br />{{small|[[55th Academy Awards|(55th)]]}} |- style="background:#FAEB86" | [[Stuart Craig]]<br>[[Robert W. Laing]] | [[Michael Seirton]] | ''[[Gandhi (film)|Gandhi]]'' |- | [[Dale Hennesy]] {{small|([[List of posthumous Academy Award winners and nominees|posthumous nomination]])}} | [[Marvin March]] | ''[[Annie (1982 film)|Annie]]'' |- | [[Lawrence G. Paull]]<br>[[David L. Snyder]] | [[Linda DeScenna]] | ''[[Blade Runner]]'' |- | [[Franco Zeffirelli]]<br>[[Gianni Quaranta]] | align="center"|— | ''[[La traviata (1983 film)|La traviata]]'' |- | [[Rodger Maus]]<br>[[Tim Hutchinson (production designer)|Tim Hutchinson]]<br>[[William Craig Smith]] | [[Harry Cordwell]] | ''[[Victor Victoria]]'' |- | rowspan=6 style="text-align:center" | 1983<br />{{small|[[56th Academy Awards|(56th)]]}} |- style="background:#FAEB86" | [[Anna Asp]] | [[Susanne Lingheim]] | ''[[Fanny and Alexander]]'' |- | [[Norman Reynolds]]<br>[[Fred Hole]]<br>[[James L. Schoppe]] | [[Michael D. Ford]] | ''[[Return of the Jedi|Star Wars Episode VI: Return of the Jedi]]'' |- | [[Geoffrey Kirkland]]<br>[[Richard Lawrence (art director)|Richard Lawrence]]<br>[[W. Stewart Campbell]]<br>[[Peter R. Romero]] | [[Jim Poynter]]<br>[[George R. Nelson]] | ''[[The Right Stuff (film)|The Right Stuff]]'' |- | [[Polly Platt]]<br>[[Harold Michelson]] | [[Tom Pedigo]]<br>[[Anthony Mondell]] | ''[[Terms of Endearment]]'' |- | [[Roy Walker (production designer)|Roy Walker]]<br>[[Leslie Tomkins]] | [[Tessa Davies]] | ''[[Yentl (film)|Yentl]]'' |- | rowspan=6 style="text-align:center" | 1984<br />{{small|[[57th Academy Awards|(57th)]]}} |- style="background:#FAEB86" | [[Patrizia von Brandenstein]] | [[Karel Černý (art director)|Karel Černý]] | ''[[Amadeus (film)|Amadeus]]'' |- | [[Richard Sylbert]] | [[George Gaines (set decorator)|George Gaines]] | ''[[The Cotton Club (film)|The Cotton Club]]'' |- | [[Mel Bourne]]<br>[[Angelo P. Graham]] | [[Bruce Weintraub]] | ''[[The Natural (film)|The Natural]]'' |- | [[John Box]] | [[Hugh Scaife]] | ''[[A Passage to India (film)|A Passage to India]]'' |- | [[Albert Brenner]] | [[Rick Simpson]] | ''[[2010 (film)|2010]]'' |- | rowspan=6 style="text-align:center" | 1985<br />{{small|[[58th Academy Awards|(58th)]]}} |- style="background:#FAEB86" | [[Stephen Grimes]] | [[Josie Macavin]] | ''[[Out of Africa (film)|Out of Africa]]'' |- | [[Norman Garwood]] | [[Maggie Gray]] | ''[[Brazil (1985 film)|Brazil]]'' |- | [[J. Michael Riva]]<br>[[Bo Welch]] | [[Linda DeScenna]] | ''[[The Color Purple (1985 film)|The Color Purple]]'' |- | [[Yoshirō Muraki]]<br>[[Shinobu Muraki]] | align="center"|— | ''[[Ran (film)|Ran]]'' |- | [[Stan Jolley]] | [[John H. Anderson]] | ''[[Witness (1985 film)|Witness]]'' |- | rowspan=6 style="text-align:center" | 1986<br />{{small|[[59th Academy Awards|(59th)]]}} |- style="background:#FAEB86" | [[Gianni Quaranta]]<br>[[Brian Ackland-Snow]] | [[Brian Savegar]]<br>[[Elio Altamura]] | ''[[A Room with a View (1985 film)|A Room with a View]]'' |- | [[Peter Lamont]] | [[Crispian Sallis]] | ''[[Aliens (film)|Aliens]]'' |- | [[Boris Leven]] | [[Karen O'Hara]] | ''[[The Color of Money (film)|The Color of Money]]'' |- | [[Stuart Wurtzel]] | [[Carol Joffe]] | ''[[Hannah and Her Sisters]]'' |- | [[Stuart Craig]] | [[Jack Stephens (set decorator)|Jack Stephens]] | ''[[The Mission (1986 film)|The Mission]]'' |- | rowspan=6 style="text-align:center" | 1987<br />{{small|[[60th Academy Awards|(60th)]]}} |- style="background:#FAEB86" | [[Ferdinando Scarfiotti]] | [[Bruno Cesari]]<br>[[Osvaldo Desideri]] | ''[[The Last Emperor]]'' |- | [[Norman Reynolds]] | [[Harry Cordwell]] | ''[[Empire of the Sun (film)|Empire of the Sun]]'' |- | [[Anthony D. G. Pratt|Anthony Pratt]] | [[Joanne Woollard]] | ''[[Hope and Glory (film)|Hope and Glory]]'' |- | [[Santo Loquasto]] | [[Carol Joffe]]<br>[[Leslie Bloom]]<br>[[George DeTitta Jr.]] | ''[[Radio Days]]'' |- | [[Patrizia von Brandenstein]]<br>[[William A. Elliott]] | [[Hal Gausman]] | ''[[The Untouchables (film)|The Untouchables]]'' |- | rowspan=6 style="text-align:center" | 1988<br />{{small|[[61st Academy Awards|(61st)]]}} |- style="background:#FAEB86" | [[Stuart Craig]] | [[Gérard James]] | ''[[Dangerous Liaisons]]'' |- | [[Albert Brenner]] | [[Garrett Lewis]] | ''[[Beaches (film)|Beaches]]'' |- | [[Ida Random]] | [[Linda DeScenna]] | ''[[Rain Man]]'' |- | [[Dean Tavoularis]] | [[Armin Ganz]] | ''[[Tucker: The Man and His Dream]]'' |- | [[Elliot Scott]] | [[Peter Howitt (set decorator)|Peter Howitt]] | ''[[Who Framed Roger Rabbit]]'' |- | rowspan=6 style="text-align:center" | 1989<br />{{small|[[62nd Academy Awards|(62nd)]]}} |- style="background:#FAEB86" | [[Anton Furst]] | [[Peter Young (set decorator)|Peter Young]] | ''[[Batman (1989 film)|Batman]]'' |- | [[Leslie Dilley]] | [[Anne Kuljian]] | ''[[The Abyss]]'' |- | [[Dante Ferretti]] | [[Francesca Lo Schiavo]] | ''[[The Adventures of Baron Munchausen]]'' |- | [[Bruno Rubeo]] | [[Crispian Sallis]] | ''[[Driving Miss Daisy]]'' |- | [[Norman Garwood]] | [[Garrett Lewis]] | ''[[Glory (1989 film)|Glory]]'' |} ===1990s===<!-- This section is linked from [[Quills]] --> {| class="wikitable" style="width:100%" |- bgcolor="#bebebe" ! width="12%" | Year ! width="29%" | Film ! width="29%" | Art director(s) ! width="29%" | Set decorator(s) |- | rowspan=6 style="text-align:center" | [[1990 in film|1990]]<br /><small>[[63rd Academy Awards|(63rd)]]</small> |- style="background:#FAEB86" | ''[[Dick Tracy (1990 film)|Dick Tracy]]'' | [[Richard Sylbert]] | [[Rick Simpson]] |- | ''[[Cyrano de Bergerac (1990 film)|Cyrano de Bergerac]]'' | [[Ezio Frigerio]] | [[Jacques Rouxel (production designer)|Jacques Rouxel]] |- | ''[[Dances with Wolves]]'' | [[Jeffrey Beecroft]] | [[Lisa Dean]] |- | ''[[The Godfather Part III]]'' | [[Dean Tavoularis]] | [[Gary Fettis]] |- | ''[[Hamlet (1990 film)|Hamlet]]'' | [[Dante Ferretti]] | [[Francesca Lo Schiavo]] |- | rowspan=6 style="text-align:center" | [[1991 in film|1991]]<br /><small>[[64th Academy Awards|(64th)]]</small> |- style="background:#FAEB86" | ''[[Bugsy]]'' | [[Dennis Gassner]] | [[Nancy Haigh]] |- | ''[[Barton Fink]]'' | [[Dennis Gassner]] | [[Nancy Haigh]] |- | ''[[The Fisher King (film)|The Fisher King]]'' | [[Mel Bourne]] | [[Cindy Carr]] |- | ''[[Hook (film)|Hook]]'' | [[Norman Garwood]] | [[Garrett Lewis]] |- | ''[[The Prince of Tides]]'' | [[Paul Sylbert]] | [[Caryl Heller]] |- | rowspan=6 style="text-align:center" | [[1992 in film|1992]]<br /><small>[[65th Academy Awards|(65th)]]</small> |- style="background:#FAEB86" | ''[[Howards End (film)|Howards End]]'' | [[Luciana Arrighi]] | [[Ian Whittaker]] |- | ''[[Dracula (1992 film)|Bram Stoker's Dracula]]'' | [[Thomas E. Sanders]] | [[Garrett Lewis]] |- | ''[[Chaplin (film)|Chaplin]]'' | [[Stuart Craig]] | [[Chris A. Butler]] |- | ''[[Toys (film)|Toys]]'' | [[Ferdinando Scarfiotti]] | [[Linda DeScenna]] |- | ''[[Unforgiven]]'' | [[Henry Bumstead]] | [[Janice Blackie-Goodine]] |- | rowspan=6 style="text-align:center" | [[1993 in film|1993]]<br /><small>[[66th Academy Awards|(66th)]]</small> |- style="background:#FAEB86" | ''[[Schindler's List]]'' | [[Allan Starski]] | [[Ewa Braun]] |- | ''[[Addams Family Values]]'' | [[Ken Adam]] | [[Marvin March]] |- | ''[[The Age of Innocence (1993 film)|The Age of Innocence]]'' | [[Dante Ferretti]] | [[Robert J. Franco]] |- | ''[[Orlando (film)|Orlando]]'' | [[Ben Van Os]] and [[Jan Roelfs]] | align="center"|— |- | ''[[The Remains of the Day (film)|The Remains of the Day]]'' | [[Luciana Arrighi]] | [[Ian Whittaker]] |- | rowspan=6 style="text-align:center" | [[1994 in film|1994]]<br /><small>[[67th Academy Awards|(67th)]]</small> |- style="background:#FAEB86" | ''[[The Madness of King George]]'' | [[Ken Adam]] | [[Carolyn Scott]] |- | ''[[Bullets over Broadway]]'' | [[Santo Loquasto]] | [[Susan Bode]] |- | ''[[Forrest Gump]]'' | [[Rick Carter]] | [[Nancy Haigh]] |- | ''[[Interview with the Vampire: The Vampire Chronicles|Interview with the Vampire]]'' | [[Dante Ferretti]] | [[Francesca Lo Schiavo]] |- | ''[[Legends of the Fall]]'' | [[Lilly Kilvert]] | [[Dorree Cooper]] |- | rowspan=6 style="text-align:center" | [[1995 in film|1995]]<br /><small>[[68th Academy Awards|(68th)]]</small> |- style="background:#FAEB86" | ''[[Restoration (1995 film)|Restoration]]'' | [[Eugenio Zanetti]] | align="center"|— |- | ''[[Apollo 13 (film)|Apollo 13]]'' | [[Michael Corenblith]] | [[Merideth Boswell]] |- | ''[[Babe (film)|Babe]]'' | [[Roger Ford (production designer)|Roger Ford]] | [[Kerrie Brown]] |- | ''[[A Little Princess (1995 film)|A Little Princess]]'' | [[Bo Welch]] | [[Cheryl Carasik]] |- | ''[[Richard III (1995 film)|Richard III]]'' | [[Tony Burrough]] | align="center"|— |- | rowspan=6 style="text-align:center" | [[1996 in film|1996]]<br /><small>[[69th Academy Awards|(69th)]]</small> |- style="background:#FAEB86" | ''[[The English Patient (film)|The English Patient]]'' | [[Stuart Craig]] | [[Stephenie McMillan]] |- | ''[[The Birdcage]]'' | [[Bo Welch]] | [[Cheryl Carasik]] |- | ''[[Evita (1996 film)|Evita]]'' | [[Brian Morris (art director)|Brian Morris]] | Philippe Turlure |- | ''[[Hamlet (1996 film)|Hamlet]]'' | [[Tim Harvey (art director)|Tim Harvey]] | align="center"|— |- | ''[[Romeo + Juliet]]'' | [[Catherine Martin (designer)|Catherine Martin]] | [[Brigitte Broch]] |- | rowspan=6 style="text-align:center" | [[1997 in film|1997]]<br /><small>[[70th Academy Awards|(70th)]]</small> |- style="background:#FAEB86" | ''[[Titanic (1997 film)|Titanic]]'' | [[Peter Lamont]] | [[Michael D. Ford]] |- | ''[[Gattaca]]'' | [[Jan Roelfs]] | Nancy Nye |- | ''[[Kundun]]'' | [[Dante Ferretti]] | [[Francesca Lo Schiavo]] |- | ''[[L.A. Confidential (film)|L.A. Confidential]]'' | [[Jeannine Oppewall]] | [[Jay Hart]] |- | ''[[Men in Black (film)|Men in Black]]'' | [[Bo Welch]] | [[Cheryl Carasik]] |- | rowspan=6 style="text-align:center" | [[1998 in film|1998]]<br /><small>[[71st Academy Awards|(71st)]]</small> |- style="background:#FAEB86" | ''[[Shakespeare in Love]]'' | [[Martin Childs]] | [[Jill Quertier]] |- | ''[[Elizabeth (film)|Elizabeth]]'' | [[John Myhre]] | [[Peter Howitt (set decorator)|Peter Howitt]] |- | ''[[Pleasantville (film)|Pleasantville]]'' | [[Jeannine Oppewall]] | [[Jay Hart]] |- | ''[[Saving Private Ryan]]'' | [[Tom Sanders (art director)|Tom Sanders]] | [[Lisa Dean Kavanaugh]] |- | ''[[What Dreams May Come (film)|What Dreams May Come]]'' | [[Eugenio Zanetti]] | [[Cindy Carr]] |- | rowspan=6 style="text-align:center" | [[1999 in film|1999]]<br /><small>[[72nd Academy Awards|(72nd)]]</small> |- style="background:#FAEB86" | ''[[Sleepy Hollow (film)|Sleepy Hollow]]'' | [[Rick Heinrichs]] | [[Peter Young (set decorator)|Peter Young]] |- | ''[[Anna and the King]]'' | [[Luciana Arrighi]] | [[Ian Whittaker]] |- | ''[[The Cider House Rules (film)|The Cider House Rules]]'' | David Gropman | [[Beth Rubino]] |- | ''[[The Talented Mr. Ripley (film)|The Talented Mr. Ripley]]'' | [[Roy Walker (production designer)|Roy Walker]] | [[Bruno Cesari]] |- | ''[[Topsy-Turvy]]'' | [[Eve Stewart]] | John Bush |} ===2000s=== {| class="wikitable" style="width:100%" |- bgcolor="#bebebe" ! width="12%" | Year ! width="29%" | Film ! width="29%" | Art director(s) ! width="29%" | Set decorator(s) |- | rowspan=6 style="text-align:center" | [[2000 in film|2000]]<br /><small>[[73rd Academy Awards|(73rd)]]</small> |- style="background:#FAEB86" | ''[[Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon]]'' | [[Tim Yip]] | align="center"|— |- | ''[[Gladiator (2000 film)|Gladiator]]'' | [[Arthur Max]] | [[Crispian Sallis]] |- | ''[[How the Grinch Stole Christmas (film)|How the Grinch Stole Christmas]]'' | [[Michael Corenblith]] | [[Merideth Boswell]] |- | ''[[Quills]]'' | [[Martin Childs]] | Jill Quertier |- | ''[[Vatel (film)|Vatel]]'' | [[Jean Rabasse]] | Françoise Benoît-Fresco |- | rowspan=6 style="text-align:center" | [[2001 in film|2001]]<br /><small>[[74th Academy Awards|(74th)]]</small> |- style="background:#FAEB86" | ''[[Moulin Rouge!]]'' | [[Catherine Martin (designer)|Catherine Martin]] | [[Brigitte Broch]] |- | ''[[Amélie]]'' | [[Aline Bonetto]] | [[Marie-Laure Valla]] |- | ''[[Gosford Park]]'' | Stephen Altman | [[Anna Pinnock]] |- | ''[[Harry Potter and the Philosopher's Stone (film)|Harry Potter and the Sorcerer's Stone]]'' | [[Stuart Craig]] | [[Stephenie McMillan]] |- | ''[[The Lord of the Rings: The Fellowship of the Ring]]'' | [[Grant Major]] | [[Dan Hennah]] |- | rowspan=6 style="text-align:center" | [[2002 in film|2002]]<br /><small>[[75th Academy Awards|(75th)]]</small> |- style="background:#FAEB86" | ''[[Chicago (2002 film)|Chicago]]'' | [[John Myhre]] | [[Gordon Sim]] |- | ''[[Frida]]'' | Felipe Fernández del Paso | [[Hania Robledo]] |- | ''[[Gangs of New York]]'' | [[Dante Ferretti]] | [[Francesca Lo Schiavo]] |- | ''[[The Lord of the Rings: The Two Towers]]'' | [[Grant Major]] | [[Dan Hennah]] and [[Alan Lee (illustrator)|Alan Lee]] |- | ''[[Road to Perdition]]'' | [[Dennis Gassner]] | [[Nancy Haigh]] |- | rowspan=6 style="text-align:center" | [[2003 in film|2003]]<br /><small>[[76th Academy Awards|(76th)]]</small> |- style="background:#FAEB86" | ''[[The Lord of the Rings: The Return of the King]]'' | [[Grant Major]] | [[Dan Hennah]] and [[Alan Lee (illustrator)|Alan Lee]] |- | ''[[Girl with a Pearl Earring (film)|Girl with a Pearl Earring]]'' | [[Ben Van Os]] | Cecile Heideman |- | ''[[The Last Samurai]]'' | [[Lilly Kilvert]] | [[Gretchen Rau]] |- | ''[[Master and Commander: The Far Side of the World]]'' | [[William Sandell]] | [[Robert Gould (art director)|Robert Gould]] |- | ''[[Seabiscuit (film)|Seabiscuit]]'' | [[Jeannine Oppewall]] | [[Leslie Pope]] |- | rowspan=6 style="text-align:center" | [[2004 in film|2004]]<br /><small>[[77th Academy Awards|(77th)]]</small> |- style="background:#FAEB86" | ''[[The Aviator (2004 film)|The Aviator]]'' | [[Dante Ferretti]] | [[Francesca Lo Schiavo]] |- | ''[[Finding Neverland (film)|Finding Neverland]]'' | [[Gemma Jackson]] | [[Trisha Edwards]] |- | ''[[Lemony Snicket's A Series of Unfortunate Events (film)|Lemony Snicket's A Series of Unfortunate Events]]'' | [[Rick Heinrichs]] | [[Cheryl Carasik]] |- | ''[[The Phantom of the Opera (2004 film)|The Phantom of the Opera]]'' | [[Anthony D. G. Pratt|Anthony Pratt]] | [[Celia Bobak]] |- | ''[[A Very Long Engagement]]'' | [[Aline Bonetto]] | align="center"|— |- | rowspan=6 style="text-align:center" | [[2005 in film|2005]]<br /><small>[[78th Academy Awards|(78th)]]</small> |- style="background:#FAEB86" | ''[[Memoirs of a Geisha (film)|Memoirs of a Geisha]]'' | [[John Myhre]] | [[Gretchen Rau]] |- | ''[[Good Night, and Good Luck.]]'' | [[Jim Bissell]] | [[Jan Pascale]] |- | ''[[Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire (film)|Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire]]'' | [[Stuart Craig]] | [[Stephenie McMillan]] |- | ''[[King Kong (2005 film)|King Kong]]'' | [[Grant Major]] | [[Dan Hennah]] and [[Simon Bright]] |- | ''[[Pride and Prejudice (2005 film)|Pride & Prejudice]]'' | [[Sarah Greenwood]] | [[Katie Spencer]] |- | rowspan=6 style="text-align:center" | [[2006 in film|2006]]<br /><small>[[79th Academy Awards|(79th)]]</small> |- style="background:#FAEB86" | ''[[Pan's Labyrinth]]'' | [[Eugenio Caballero]] | [[Pilar Revuelta]] |- | ''[[Dreamgirls (film)|Dreamgirls]]'' | [[John Myhre]] | [[Nancy Haigh]] |- | ''[[The Good Shepherd (film)|The Good Shepherd]]'' | [[Jeannine Claudia Oppewall]] | [[Gretchen Rau]] and [[Leslie E. Rollins]] |- | ''[[Pirates of the Caribbean: Dead Man's Chest]]'' | [[Rick Heinrichs]] | [[Cheryl Carasik]] |- | ''[[The Prestige (film)|The Prestige]]'' | [[Nathan Crowley]] | [[Julie Ochipinti]] |- | rowspan=6 style="text-align:center" | [[2007 in film|2007]]<br /><small>[[80th Academy Awards|(80th)]]</small> |- style="background:#FAEB86" | ''[[Sweeney Todd: The Demon Barber of Fleet Street (2007 film)|Sweeney Todd: The Demon Barber of Fleet Street]]'' | [[Dante Ferretti]] | [[Francesca Lo Schiavo]] |- | ''[[American Gangster (film)|American Gangster]]'' | [[Arthur Max]] | [[Beth A. Rubino]] |- | ''[[Atonement (film)|Atonement]]'' | [[Sarah Greenwood]] | [[Katie Spencer]] |- | ''[[The Golden Compass (film)|The Golden Compass]]'' | [[Dennis Gassner]] | [[Anna Pinnock]] |- | ''[[There Will Be Blood]]'' | [[Jack Fisk]] | [[Jim Erickson]] |- | rowspan=6 style="text-align:center" | [[2008 in film|2008]]<br /><small>[[81st Academy Awards|(81st)]]</small> |- style="background:#FAEB86" | ''[[The Curious Case of Benjamin Button (film)|The Curious Case of Benjamin Button]]'' | [[Donald Graham Burt]] | [[Victor J. Zolfo]] |- | ''[[Changeling (2008 film)|Changeling]]'' | [[James J. Murakami]] | [[Gary Fettis]] |- | ''[[The Dark Knight (film)|The Dark Knight]]'' | [[Nathan Crowley]] | [[Peter Lando]] |- | ''[[The Duchess (film)|The Duchess]]'' | [[Michael Carlin (art director)|Michael Carlin]] | [[Rebecca Alleway]] |- | ''[[Revolutionary Road (film)|Revolutionary Road]]'' | Kristi Zea | [[Debra Schutt]] |- | rowspan=6 style="text-align:center" | [[2009 in film|2009]]<br /><small>[[82nd Academy Awards|(82nd)]]</small> |- style="background:#FAEB86" | ''[[Avatar (2009 film)|Avatar]]'' | [[Rick Carter]] and [[Robert Stromberg]] | [[Kim Sinclair]] |- | ''[[The Imaginarium of Doctor Parnassus]]'' | Dave Warren and [[Anastasia Masaro]] | Caroline Smith |- | ''[[Nine (2009 live-action film)|Nine]]'' | [[John Myhre]] | [[Gordon Sim]] |- | ''[[Sherlock Holmes (2009 film)|Sherlock Holmes]]'' | [[Sarah Greenwood]] | [[Katie Spencer]] |- | ''[[The Young Victoria]]'' | [[Patrice Vermette]] | [[Maggie Gray]] |} ===2010s=== {| class="wikitable" style="width:100%" |- bgcolor="#bebebe" ! width="12%" | Year ! width="29%" | Film ! width="29%" | Art director(s) ! width="29%" | Set decorator(s) |- |- | rowspan="6" style="text-align:center" | [[2010 in film|2010]]<br /><small>[[83rd Academy Awards|(83rd)]]</small> |- style="background:#FAEB86" | ''[[Alice in Wonderland (2010 film)|Alice in Wonderland]]'' | [[Robert Stromberg]] | [[Karen O'Hara]] |- | ''[[Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows – Part 1]]'' | [[Stuart Craig]] | [[Stephenie McMillan]] |- | ''[[Inception]]'' | [[Guy Hendrix Dyas]] | [[Larry Dias]] and [[Doug Mowat (set director)|Doug Mowat]] |- | ''[[The King's Speech]]'' | [[Eve Stewart]] | [[Judy Farr (set decorator)|Judy Farr]] |- | ''[[True Grit (2010 film)|True Grit]]'' | [[Jess Gonchor]] | [[Nancy Haigh]] |- | rowspan="6" style="text-align:center" | [[2011 in film|2011]]<br /><small>[[84th Academy Awards|(84th)]]</small> |- style="background:#FAEB86" | ''[[Hugo (film)|Hugo]]'' | [[Dante Ferretti]] | [[Francesca Lo Schiavo]] |- | ''[[The Artist (film)|The Artist]]'' | [[Laurence Bennett]] | [[Robert Gould (art director)|Robert Gould]] |- | ''[[Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows – Part 2]]'' | [[Stuart Craig]] | [[Stephenie McMillan]] |- | ''[[Midnight in Paris]]'' | [[Anne Seibel]] | [[Hélène Dubreuil]] |- | ''[[War Horse (film)|War Horse]]'' | [[Rick Carter]] | [[Lee Sandales]] |- | rowspan="6" style="text-align:center" | [[2012 in film|2012]]<br /><small>[[85th Academy Awards|(85th)]]</small> |- style="background:#FAEB86" | ''[[Lincoln (2012 film)|Lincoln]]'' | [[Rick Carter]] | [[Jim Erickson]] |- | ''[[Anna Karenina (2012 film)|Anna Karenina]]'' | [[Sarah Greenwood]] | [[Katie Spencer]] |- | ''[[The Hobbit: An Unexpected Journey]]'' | [[Dan Hennah]] | [[Ra Vincent]] and [[Simon Bright]] |- | ''[[Les Misérables (2012 film)|Les Misérables]]'' | [[Eve Stewart]] | [[Anna Lynch-Robinson]] |- | ''[[Life of Pi (film)|Life of Pi]]'' | David Gropman | [[Anna Pinnock]] |- | rowspan="6" style="text-align:center" | [[2013 in film|2013]]<br /><small>[[86th Academy Awards|(86th)]]</small> |- style="background:#FAEB86" | ''[[The Great Gatsby (2013 film)|The Great Gatsby]]'' | [[Catherine Martin (designer)|Catherine Martin]] | [[Beverley Dunn (set decorator)|Beverley Dunn]] |- | ''[[12 Years a Slave (film)|12 Years a Slave]]'' | [[Adam Stockhausen]] | [[Alice Baker (set decorator)|Alice Baker]] |- | ''[[American Hustle]]'' | [[Judy Becker]] | [[Heather Loeffler]] |- | ''[[Gravity (film)|Gravity]]'' | [[Andy Nicholson (production designer)|Andy Nicholson]] | [[Rosie Goodwin]] and [[Joanne Woollard]] |- | ''[[Her (film)|Her]]'' | [[K. K. Barrett]] | [[Gene Serdena]] |- | rowspan="6" style="text-align:center" | [[2014 in film|2014]]<br /><small>[[87th Academy Awards|(87th)]]</small> |- style="background:#FAEB86" | ''[[The Grand Budapest Hotel]]'' | [[Adam Stockhausen]] | [[Anna Pinnock]] |- | ''[[The Imitation Game]]'' | Maria Djurkovic | Tatiana Macdonald |- | ''[[Interstellar (film)|Interstellar]]'' | [[Nathan Crowley]] | [[Gary Fettis]] |- | ''[[Into the Woods (film)|Into the Woods]]'' | [[Dennis Gassner]] | [[Anna Pinnock]] |- | ''[[Mr. Turner]]'' | Suzie Davies | Charlotte Watts |- | rowspan="6" style="text-align:center" | [[2015 in film|2015]]<br /><small>[[88th Academy Awards|(88th)]]</small> |- style="background:#FAEB86" | ''[[Mad Max: Fury Road]]'' | [[Colin Gibson (production designer)|Colin Gibson]] | [[Lisa Thompson (set decorator)|Lisa Thompson]] |- | ''[[Bridge of Spies (film)|Bridge of Spies]]'' | [[Adam Stockhausen]] | [[Rena DeAngelo]] and [[Bernhard Henrich]] |- | ''[[The Danish Girl (film)|The Danish Girl]]'' | [[Michael Standish]] | [[Eve Stewart]] |- | ''[[The Martian (film)|The Martian]]'' | [[Celia Bobak]] | [[Arthur Max]] |- | ''[[The Revenant (2015 film)|The Revenant]]'' | [[Jack Fisk]] | [[Hamish Purdy]] |} ==References== {{reflist|2}} {{Academy Awards}} {{Academy Award Best Art Direction}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Academy Award For Best Art Direction}} [[Category:Academy Awards|Art Direction]] [[Category:Best Art Direction Academy Award winners|*]] [[Category:Awards for best art direction]] l7tc0iznycpqrge31vcepffmaxods25 0 324 718005086 718005032 2016-05-01T00:19:04Z Oshwah 3174456 Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/208.102.195.214|208.102.195.214]] ([[User talk:208.102.195.214|talk]]): Editing tests ([[WP:HG|HG]]) (3.1.20) wikitext text/x-wiki {{Redirect2|Oscars|The Oscar|the film|The Oscar (film)|other uses|Oscar{{!}}Oscar (disambiguation)}} {{Use dmy dates|date=June 2014}} {{Infobox award | name | next= 89th Academy Awards | image = Academy Award trophy.jpg | alt = | caption = | description = Excellence in cinematic achievements | presenter = [[Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences]] | country = [[United States]] | year = {{Start date and age|1929|5|16}} | website = {{URL|http://oscar.go.com/}} }} The '''Academy Awards''', or "'''Oscars'''", is an annual [[United States|American]] awards ceremony hosted by the [[Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences]] (A.M.P.A.S.) to recognize excellence in cinematic achievements in the United States [[film industry]] as assessed by the Academy's voting membership. The various category winners are awarded a copy of a statuette, officially called the Academy Award of Merit, which has become commonly known by its nickname "Oscar". The awards, first presented in 1929 at the [[Hollywood Roosevelt Hotel]], are overseen by A.M.P.A.S.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.oscars.org/aboutacademyawards/index.html|title=About the Academy Awards|publisher=Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences|accessdate=13 April 2007|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070407234926/http://www.oscars.org/aboutacademyawards/index.html|archivedate=7 April 2007}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.ew.com/ew/article/0,,273341,00.html|title=The Birth of Oscar|first=Andrew|last=Essex|work=[[Entertainment Weekly]]|date=14 May 1999|accessdate=2 March 2011|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20131111215005/http://www.ew.com/ew/article/0,,273341,00.html|archivedate=2013-11-11}}</ref> The awards ceremony was first broadcast to radio in 1930 and televised in 1953. It is now seen live in more than 200 countries and can be streamed live online.<ref>{{cite web|title=History of the Academy Awards|url=http://www.oscars.org/awards/academyawards/about/history.html|publisher=Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences|accessdate=13 January 2014|archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/5uKhyVna9|archivedate=2010-11-18}}</ref> The Oscars is the oldest entertainment awards ceremony; its equivalents, the [[Emmy Award]]s for television, the [[Tony Award]]s for theatre, and the [[Grammy Award]]s for music and recording, are modeled after the Academy Awards.<ref>{{cite web|title=The Oscars – Feb 24th 2013|url=http://www.platinumagencygroup.co.uk/#!los-angeles/c1drk|website=platinumagencygroup.co.uk|accessdate=2 December 2014}}</ref> The [[88th Academy Awards]] ceremony was held at the [[Dolby Theatre]] on February 28, 2016 and hosted by [[Chris Rock]]. A total of 2,947 Oscars have been awarded since the inception of the award through the 87th.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.oscars.org/oscars/statuette|title=Oscar Statuette|work=Oscars.org – Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences|accessdate=27 October 2015}}</ref> == History == The [[first Academy Awards]] presentation was held on May 16, 1929, at a private dinner function at the [[Hollywood Roosevelt Hotel]] with an audience of about 270 people. The post-awards party was held at the Mayfair Hotel.<ref name="history">{{cite web|url=http://www.oscars.org/awards/academyawards/about/history.html|title=History of the Academy Awards|work=Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences|archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/5uKhyVna9|archivedate=2010-11-18}}</ref> The cost of guest tickets for that night's ceremony was $5 (${{Inflation|US|5|1929}} in {{CURRENTYEAR}} dollars). Fifteen statuettes were awarded, honoring artists, directors and other participants in the film-making industry of the time, for their works during the 1927–28 period. The ceremony ran for 15&nbsp;minutes. Winners had been announced to media three months earlier; however, that was changed for the second ceremony in 1930. Since then, for the rest of the first decade, the results were given to newspapers for publication at 11:00&nbsp;pm on the night of the awards.<ref name="history" /> This method was used until an occasion when the ''[[Los Angeles Times]]'' announced the winners before the ceremony began; as a result, the Academy has, since 1941, used a sealed envelope to reveal the name of the winners.<ref name="history" /> === Institutions === The first Best Actor awarded was [[Emil Jannings]], for his performances in ''[[The Last Command (1928 film)|The Last Command]]'' and ''[[The Way of All Flesh (1927 film)|The Way of All Flesh]]''. He had to return to Europe before the ceremony, so the Academy agreed to give him the prize earlier; this made him the first Academy Award winner in history. At that time, the winners were recognized for all of their work done in a certain category during the qualifying period; for example, Jannings received the award for two movies in which he starred during that period, and [[Janet Gaynor]] later won a single Oscar for performances in three films. With the fourth ceremony, however, the system changed, and professionals were honored for a specific performance in a single film. For the first six ceremonies, the eligibility period spanned two calendar years.<ref name="history" /> At the 29th ceremony, held on March 27, 1957, the [[Academy Award for Best Foreign Language Film|Best Foreign Language Film]] category was introduced. Until then, foreign-language films had been honored with the Special Achievement Award. The 74th Academy Awards, held in 2002, presented the first [[Academy Award for Best Animated Feature]]. Since 1972, all Academy Awards ceremonies always end with the [[Academy Award for Best Picture]]. == Oscar statuette == Although there are seven other types of annual awards presented by the Academy (the [[Irving G. Thalberg Memorial Award]], the [[Jean Hersholt Humanitarian Award]], the [[Gordon E. Sawyer Award]], the [[Academy Scientific and Technical Award]], the [[Academy Award for Technical Achievement]], the [[John A. Bonner Medal of Commendation]] and the [[Student Academy Award]]) plus two awards that are not presented annually (the Special Achievement Award in the form of an Oscar statuette and the Honorary Award that may or may not be in the form of an Oscar statuette), the best known one is the ''Academy Award of Merit'' more popularly known as the Oscar statuette. Made of gold-plated [[britannia metal|britannium]] on a black metal base, it is 13.5&nbsp;in (34.3&nbsp;cm) tall, weighs 8.5&nbsp;lb (3.856&nbsp;kg) and depicts a knight rendered in [[Art Deco]] style holding a [[crusades|crusader's]] sword standing on a reel of film with five spokes. The five spokes represent the original branches of the Academy: Actors, Writers, Directors, Producers, and Technicians.<ref>{{cite web|url= http://www.oscars.org/awards/academyawards/about/awards/oscar.html/?pn=statuette|title= Oscar Statuette: Legacy|publisher=Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences|accessdate = 13 April 2007|archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20131211172055/http://www.oscars.org/awards/academyawards/about/awards/oscar.html/?pn=statuette|archivedate= 2013-12-11}}</ref> The model for the statuette is said to be Mexican actor [[Emilio Fernández|Emilio "El Indio" Fernández]].<ref name=":0">{{cite web | url = http://abcnews.go.com/ABC_Univision/Entertainment/meet-emilio-fernandez-face-oscars/story?id=18550020 | title = Meet the Mexican Model Behind the Oscar Statue | last = | first = | date = | website = | publisher = | accessdate = 2016-02-27 }}</ref> Sculptor [[George Stanley (sculptor)|George Stanley]] (who also did the Muse Fountain at the [[Hollywood Bowl]]) sculpted Cedric Gibbons' design. The statuettes presented at the initial ceremonies were gold-plated solid bronze. Within a few years the bronze was abandoned in favor of britannia metal, a pewter-like alloy which is then plated in copper, nickel silver, and finally, 24-karat gold.<ref>{{cite web|title = Oscar Statuette|url = http://www.oscars.org/oscars/statuette|website = Oscars.org {{!}} Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences|access-date = 2016-01-15}}</ref> Due to a metal shortage during World War II, Oscars were made of painted plaster for three years. Following the war, the Academy invited recipients to redeem the plaster figures for gold-plated metal ones.<ref>{{cite web|url= http://www.oscars.com/legacy/?pn=statuette&page=2|title= Oscar Statuette: Manufacturing, Shipping and Repairs|publisher=Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences|accessdate = 13 April 2007 |archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20070927134712/http://www.oscars.com/legacy/?pn=statuette&page=2 |archivedate = 27 September 2007}}</ref> The only addition to the Oscar since it was created is a minor streamlining of the base. The original Oscar mold was cast in 1928 at the [[C.W. Shumway & Sons]] Foundry in [[Batavia, Illinois]], which also contributed to casting the molds for the [[Vince Lombardi Trophy]] and [[Emmy Award]]'s statuettes. From 1983 to 2015,<ref>{{cite news| url=http://www.boston.com/bigpicture/2009/02/at_work.html#photo14| title=Eladio Gonzalez sands and buffs Oscar #3453| work=Boston Globe| date=20 February 2009| accessdate=21 February 2009| archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20090223085458/http://www.boston.com/bigpicture/2009/02/at_work.html| archivedate= 23 February 2009 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}</ref> approximately 50 Oscars were made each year in Chicago by Illinois manufacturer [[R.S. Owens & Company]].<ref>{{cite news | url = http://www.foxnews.com/printer_friendly_wires/2009Jan26/0,4675,OscarGoldplatedJourney,00.html | title = Oscar 3453 is 'born' in Chicago factory | last = Babwin | first = Don | date = 27 January 2009 | agency = Associated Press }} (''[https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=2245&dat=20090127&id=n_UlAAAAIBAJ&sjid=ff0FAAAAIBAJ&pg=6931,2001573 Lodi News-Sentinel]'')<!--DEAD LINK url=http://www.google.com/hostednews/ap/article/ALeqM5jL1cVq-oMS6qeuUPUWfAQpf85fewD95V3MV80--><!--DEAD LINK archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/5e8JdSe3B |archivedate=27 January 2009--></ref> It takes between three and four weeks to manufacture 50 statuettes.<ref name=":0" /> In 2016 the Academy returned to bronze as the core metal of the statuettes, handing manufacturing duties to [[Rock Tavern, New York]] based Polich Tallix Fine Art Foundry.<ref name="Oscarstatuettes2016">{{cite web|title=THE ACADEMY AND POLICH TALLIX FINE ART FOUNDRY REVIVE THE ART OF OSCAR STATUETTES|url=http://www.oscars.org/news/academy-and-polich-tallix-fine-art-foundry-revive-art-oscarr-statuettes|publisher=The Academy|work=Natalie Kojen|date=February 16, 2016|accessdate=February 18, 2016}}</ref> While based on a digital scan of an original 1929 Oscar, the new statuettes will retain their modern-era dimensions and black pedestal. Cast in liquid bronze from [[3d printed]] ceramic molds and polished, they are then electroplated in 24-karat gold by [[Brooklyn, New York]] based Epner Technology. The time required to produce 50 such statuettes is roughly 3 months.<ref>{{cite web|title=Oscar Statuette Gets a Face-Lift – This year's statuettes will be produced by Polich Tallix Fine Art Foundry and will be hand-cast in bronze before receiving their 24-karat gold finish.|url=http://www.hollywoodreporter.com/news/oscar-statuette-gets-a-face-866321|publisher=[[The Hollywood Reporter]]|work=Gregg Kilday|date=February 16, 2016|accessdate=February 18, 2016}}</ref> R.S. Owens will continue producing other awards for the Academy and service existing Oscars.<ref>{{cite web|title=OSCAR STATUETTES, longtime creation of Chicago-based company, will now be made in New York|url=http://chicago.suntimes.com/entertainment/oscar-statuettes-longtime-creations-of-chicago-based-company-will-now-be-made-in-new-york/|publisher=[[Chicago Sun-Times]]|work=Miriam Di Nunzio|date=February 16, 2016|accessdate=February 18, 2016}}</ref> === Naming === The origin of the name ''Oscar'' is disputed. One biography of [[Bette Davis]], who was a president of the Academy claims that she named the Oscar after her first husband, band leader Harmon Oscar Nelson;<ref>{{cite web|url= http://www.imdb.com/name/nm0000012/bio|title= Bette Davis biography|publisher=The Internet Movie Database|accessdate = 13 April 2007| archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20070308152931/http://www.imdb.com/name/nm0000012/bio| archivedate= 8 March 2007 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}</ref> one of the earliest mentions in print of the term ''Oscar'' dates back to a [[Time (magazine)|''Time'' magazine]] article about the 1934 [[6th Academy Awards]].<ref>{{cite news | url = http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,747239,00.html | work=Time | title=Cinema: Oscars | date=26 March 1934| archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130813182253/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,747239,00.html | archivedate=2013-08-13 }}</ref> [[Walt Disney]] is also quoted as thanking the Academy for his Oscar as early as 1932.<ref>{{cite web|url= http://d23.disney.go.com/news/2010/03/oscar-winning-walt/|title= Oscar®-Winning Walt|publisher=Disney.Go.com|accessdate = 25 February 2012|archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20130116193800/http://d23.disney.go.com/news/2010/03/oscar-winning-walt/|archivedate= 2013-01-16}}</ref> Another claimed origin is that the Academy's Executive Secretary, [[Margaret Herrick]], first saw the award in 1931 and made reference to the statuette's reminding her of her "Uncle Oscar" (a nickname for her cousin Oscar Pierce).<ref>"Oscar" in the ''Oxford English Dictionary'', June 2008 Draft Revision.</ref> Columnist Sidney Skolsky was present during Herrick's naming and seized the name in his byline, "Employees have affectionately dubbed their famous statuette 'Oscar'".<ref>{{cite book| last = Levy| first = Emanuel| title = All About Oscar: The History and Politics of the Academy Awards| year = 2003| publisher = Burns & Oates| isbn = 978-0-8264-1452-6 }}</ref> The trophy was officially dubbed the "Oscar" in 1939 by the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences. === Engraving === To prevent information identifying the Oscar winners from leaking ahead of the ceremony, Oscar statuettes presented at the ceremony have blank baseplates. Until 2010, winners were expected to return the statuettes to the Academy after the ceremony and wait several weeks to have inscriptions applied. Since 2010, winners have had the option of having engraved nameplates applied to their statuettes at an inscription-processing station at the Governor's Ball, a party held immediately after the Oscar ceremony. In 2010, the R.S. Owens company made 197 engraved nameplates ahead of the ceremony, bearing the names of every potential winner. The 175 or so nameplates for non-winning nominees were recycled afterwards.<ref>{{citation |title=Oscar statues to include engraved names |author=Greg Kilday |date=February 9, 2010 |publisher=Hollywood Reporter |url=http://www.hollywoodreporter.com/news/oscar-statues-include-engraved-names-20476}}</ref><ref>{{citation |title=Governors Ball Secrets: Welcome to the 'Engraving Station,' Where Oscar Statuettes Get Personalized |url=http://parade.com/266251/stevedaly/governors-ball-secrets-welcome-to-the-engraving-station-where-oscar-statuettes-get-personalized/ |author=Steve Daly |date=February 28, 2014 |publisher=Parade Magazine}}</ref> === Ownership of Oscar statuettes === Since 1950, the statuettes have been legally encumbered by the requirement that neither winners nor their heirs may sell the statuettes without first offering to sell them back to the Academy for US$1. If a winner refuses to agree to this stipulation, then the Academy keeps the statuette. Academy Awards not protected by this agreement have been sold in public auctions and private deals for six-figure sums.<ref>(Levy 2003, pg 28)</ref> In December 2011, [[Orson Welles]]' 1941 Oscar for ''[[Citizen Kane]]'' ([[Best Original Screenplay]]) was put up for auction, after his heirs won a 2004 court decision contending that Welles did not sign any agreement to return the statue to the Academy.<ref>{{cite news|url = http://www.cnn.com/2011/12/12/showbiz/orson-welles-oscar/index.html|title = Orson Welles' 'Citizen Kane' Oscar for sale|publisher = CNN|first = Alan|last = Duke|date = December 12, 2011|accessdate = December 12, 2011|archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20131112025602/http://www.cnn.com/2011/12/12/showbiz/orson-welles-oscar/index.html|archivedate = 2013-11-12}}</ref> On December 20, 2011, it sold in an online auction for US$861,542.<ref name="Welles' Oscar sold">{{cite news|title=Orson Welles' 'Citizen Kane' Oscar brings $861,000|url=http://www.cnn.com/2011/12/21/showbiz/orson-welles-oscar/index.html|accessdate=April 7, 2013|newspaper=CNN|date=December 21, 2011|author=Duke, Alan|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140116121806/http://www.cnn.com/2011/12/21/showbiz/orson-welles-oscar/index.html|archivedate=2014-01-16}}</ref> In 1992, [[Harold Russell]] needed money for his wife's medical expenses. In a controversial decision, he consigned his 1946 Oscar for Best Supporting Actor for ''[[The Best Years of Our Lives]]'' to Herman Darvick Autograph Auctions, and on August 6, 1992, in [[New York City]], the Oscar sold to a private collector for $60,500. Russell defended his action, saying, "I don't know why anybody would be critical. My wife's health is much more important than sentimental reasons. The movie will be here, even if Oscar isn't." Harold Russell is the only Academy Award winning actor to ever sell an Oscar. While the Oscar is owned by the recipient, it is essentially not on the open market.<ref>{{cite news |url = http://www.forbes.com/2005/02/28/cx_lr_0228oscarsales.html|title = Psst! Wanna Buy An Oscar?|work=Forbes |author=Lacey Rose|date=February 28, 2005|accessdate =April 13, 2007|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20131111214351/http://www.forbes.com/2005/02/28/cx_lr_0228oscarsales.html|archivedate=2013-11-11}}</ref> [[Mike Todd|Michael Todd's]] grandson tried to sell Todd's Oscar statuette to a movie prop collector in 1989, but the Academy won the legal battle by getting a permanent injunction. Although some Oscar sales transactions have been successful, some buyers have subsequently returned the statuettes to the Academy, which keeps them in its treasury.<ref>(Levy 2003, pg 29)</ref> == Nomination == Since 2004, Academy Award nomination results have been announced to the public in late January. Prior to that, the results were announced in early February.{{citation needed|date=February 2016}} === Voters === The Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences (AMPAS), a professional honorary organization, maintains a voting membership of 5,783 {{as of|lc=y|2012}}.<ref>{{cite news | author=Sandy Cohen | title=Academy Sets Oscars Contingency Plan | url=http://news.aol.com/entertainment/story/_a/oscars-contingency-plan/20080130161309990001 | work=AOL News | date=30 January 2008 | accessdate=19 March 2008| archiveurl= //web.archive.org/web/20090203061252/http://news.aol.com/entertainment/story/_a/oscars-contingency-plan/20080130161309990001| archivedate= 3 February 2009}}</ref> Academy membership is divided into different branches, with each representing a different discipline in film production. Actors constitute the largest voting bloc, numbering 1,311 members (22 percent) of the Academy's composition. Votes have been certified by the auditing firm [[PricewaterhouseCoopers]] (and its predecessor [[Price Waterhouse]]) for the past 73 annual awards ceremonies.<ref>{{cite news|url = http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/entertainment/4769730.stm|title = The men who are counting on Oscar|publisher=BBC News|author=Jackie Finlay|date=3 March 2006|accessdate =13 April 2007| archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20070319204536/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/entertainment/4769730.stm| archivedate= 19 March 2007 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}</ref> All AMPAS members must be invited to join by the Board of Governors, on behalf of Academy Branch Executive Committees. Membership eligibility may be achieved by a competitive nomination or a member may submit a name based on other significant contribution to the field of motion pictures. New membership proposals are considered annually. The Academy does not publicly disclose its membership, although as recently as 2007 press releases have announced the names of those who have been invited to join. The 2007 release also stated that it has just under 6,000 voting members. While the membership had been growing, stricter policies have kept its size steady since then.<ref>{{cite web|url = http://www.oscars.org/press/pressreleases/2007/07.06.18.html|title = Academy Invites 115 to Become Members|publisher=Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences|accessdate = 4 September 2007 |archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20070827031611/http://www.oscars.org/press/pressreleases/2007/07.06.18.html |archivedate = 27 August 2007}}</ref> In 2012, the results of a study conducted by the ''[[Los Angeles Times]]'' were published describing the demographic breakdown of approximately 88% of AMPAS' voting membership. Of the 5,100+ active voters confirmed, 94% were Caucasian, 77% were male, and 54% were found to be over the age of 60. 33% of voting members are former nominees (14%) and winners (19%).<ref>{{cite news|last=Horn|first=John|title=Unmasking the Academy|url=http://www.latimes.com/entertainment/news/movies/academy/la-et-unmasking-oscar-academy-project-html,0,7473284.htmlstory|accessdate=15 October 2013|newspaper=The Los Angeles Times|date=Feb 19, 2012|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140307133844/http://www.latimes.com/entertainment/news/movies/academy/la-et-unmasking-oscar-academy-project-html,0,7473284.htmlstory|archivedate=2014-03-07}}</ref> In May 2011, the Academy sent a letter advising its 6,000 or so voting members that an online system for Oscar voting will be implemented in 2013.<ref>{{cite news| url=http://mediadecoder.blogs.nytimes.com/2011/05/23/electronic-voting-comes-to-the-oscars-finally | work=The New York Times | first=Michael | last=Cieply | title=Electronic Voting Comes to The Oscars (Finally) | date=23 May 2011| archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140105075132/http://mediadecoder.blogs.nytimes.com/2011/05/23/electronic-voting-comes-to-the-oscars-finally/ | archivedate=2014-01-05 }}</ref> === Rules === According to Rules 2 and 3 of the official Academy Awards Rules, a film must open in the previous calendar year, from midnight at the start of January 1 to midnight at the end of December 31, in [[Los Angeles County, California]] and play for seven consecutive days, to qualify (except for the Best Foreign Language Film).<ref>{{cite web |url = http://www.oscars.org/awards/academyawards/rules/rule02.html |title = Rule Two: Eligibility |publisher=Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences |accessdate = 13 April 2007 |archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20131110071910/http://www.oscars.org/awards/academyawards/rules/rule02.html |archivedate = 2013-11-10 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url = https://submissions.oscars.org/FAQ.aspx|title = Oscars Submission FAQ|date = |accessdate = 2015-03-16|website = |publisher = |last = |first = }}</ref> For example, the 2009 [[Academy Award for Best Picture|Best Picture]] winner, ''[[The Hurt Locker]]'', was actually first released in 2008, but did not qualify for the [[81st Academy Awards|2008 awards]] as it did not play its Oscar-qualifying run in Los Angeles until mid-2009, thus qualifying for the [[82nd Academy Awards|2009 awards]]. Foreign films must include English subtitles, and each country can submit only one film per year.<ref>{{cite web |url = http://www.youbioit.com/en/article/shared-information/949/academy-and-its-oscar-awards |title = The Academy and its Oscar Awards – Reminder List of Eligible Releases |archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20131111232741/http://www.youbioit.com/en/article/shared-information/949/academy-and-its-oscar-awards |archivedate = 2013-11-11 }}</ref> Rule 2 states that a film must be feature-length, defined as a minimum of 40&nbsp;minutes, except for short subject awards, and it must exist either on a [[35 mm film|35 mm]] or [[70 mm film]] print or in 24&nbsp;frame/s or 48&nbsp;frame/s [[progressive scan]] [[digital cinema]] format with a minimum projector resolution of 2048 by 1080 pixels.<ref>{{cite web|url = http://www.oscars.org/sites/default/files/87aa_rules.pdf|archiveurl = http://wayback.archive.org/web/20141021054540/http://www.oscars.org/sites/default/files/87aa_rules.pdf|archivedate = 2014-10-21|title = Academy Award Rules|date = |accessdate = 2015-03-17|website = |publisher = |last = |first = }}</ref> Producers must submit an Official Screen Credits online form before the deadline; in case it is not submitted by the defined deadline, the film will be ineligible for Academy Awards in any year. The form includes the production credits for all related categories. Then, each form is checked and put in a Reminder List of Eligible Releases. In late December ballots and copies of the Reminder List of Eligible Releases are mailed to around 6,000 active members. For most categories, members from each of the branches vote to determine the nominees only in their respective categories (i.e. only directors vote for directors, writers for writers, actors for actors, etc.). In the special case of Best Picture, all voting members are eligible to select the nominees. In all major categories, a variant of the [[single transferable vote]] is used, with each member casting a ballot with up to five nominees (ten for Best Picture) ranked preferentially.<ref name="TheEnvelope">{{cite web |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20061017160343/http://theenvelope.latimes.com/awards/oscars/env-oscarvote7jan07,0,6919642,print.story?coll=env-home-headlines |archivedate=17 October 2006 |url=http://theenvelope.latimes.com/awards/oscars/env-oscarvote7jan07,0,6919642,print.story?coll=env-home-headlines |title=Eight things every voter (and fan) should know about Oscar’s decidedly unique nomination process. |first=Steve |last=Pond |accessdate=2007-01-27 |date=January 7, 2006 |publisher=[[Los Angeles Times]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ew.com/article/2011/01/27/oscar-voter-ballot-reader-poll-results|title=Oscars: The wacky way the Academy counts votes, and the results of our 'If You Were an Oscar Voter' poll |last=Young|first=John|date=27 January 2011|work=[[Entertainment Weekly]]|accessdate=29 February 2016}}</ref><ref name="vox" /> In certain categories, including Foreign Film, Documentary and Animated Feature Film, nominees are selected by special screening committees made up of members from all branches. In most categories the winner is selected from among the nominees by [[plurality voting]] of all members.<ref name="TheEnvelope" /><ref name="vox" /> Since 2009, the Best Picture winner has been chosen by [[instant runoff voting]].<ref name="vox">{{cite press release|url=http://www.oscars.org/press/pressreleases/2009/20090831a.html|title=Preferential Voting Extended to Best Picture on Final Ballot for 2009 Oscars|date=31 August 2009|work=[[Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences]]|accessdate=29 February 2016|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20091010053612/http://www.oscars.org/press/pressreleases/2009/20090831a.html|archivedate=10 October 2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.vox.com/2015/2/22/8084239/oscars-2015-ballot|title=The Oscars’ messed-up voting process, explained|last=VanDerWerff|first=Todd on|date=February 22, 2015|work=[[Vox (website)|Vox]]|accessdate=29 February 2016}}</ref> Film companies will spend as much as several million dollars on marketing to awards voters for a movie in the running for Best Picture, in attempts to improve chances of receiving Oscars and other movie awards conferred in [[Oscar season]]. The Academy enforces rules to limit overt campaigning by its members so as to try to eliminate excesses and prevent the process from becoming undignified. It has an awards czar on staff who advises members on allowed practices and levies penalties on offenders.<ref>{{cite book |title=Marketing to Moviegoers: A Handbook of Strategies and Tactics|first=Robert |last=Marich |publisher=[[Southern Illinois University Press]] |edition=3rd|year=2013 |pages=235–48}}</ref> For example, a producer of the 2009 Best Picture nominee, ''[[The Hurt Locker]],'' was disqualified as a producer in the category when he contacted associates urging them to vote for his film and not another that was seen as front-runner (''The Hurt Locker'' eventually won). == Awards ceremonies == {{See also|List of Academy Awards ceremonies}} === Telecast === [[File:31st Acad Awards.jpg|thumb|300px|31st Academy Awards Presentations, [[Pantages Theatre (Hollywood)|Pantages Theatre]], Hollywood, 1959]] [[File:81st Academy Awards Ceremony.JPG|thumb|300px|81st Academy Awards Presentations, [[Dolby Theatre]], Hollywood, 2009]] The major awards are presented at a live televised ceremony, most commonly in late February or early March following the relevant calendar year, and six weeks after the announcement of the nominees. It is the culmination of the film awards season, which usually begins during November or December of the previous year. This is an elaborate extravaganza, with the invited guests walking up the red carpet in the creations of the most prominent fashion designers of the day. [[Black tie]] dress is the most common outfit for men, although fashion may dictate not wearing a [[bow-tie]], and musical performers sometimes do not adhere to this. (The artists who recorded the nominees for Best Original Song quite often perform those songs live at the awards ceremony, and the fact that they are performing is often used to promote the television broadcast). The Oscars were first televised in 1953 by [[NBC]], which continued to broadcast the event until 1960, when [[American Broadcasting Company|ABC]] took over, televising the festivities (including the first color broadcast of the event in 1966) through 1970, after which NBC resumed the broadcasts. ABC once again took over broadcast duties in 1976, and has broadcast the Oscars ever since; its current contract with the Academy runs through 2020.<ref>{{cite press release|url =http://www.oscars.org/press/pressreleases/2011/20110224b.html|title= ABC and Academy Extend Oscar Telecast Agreement|publisher=Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences |date= 24 February 2011|accessdate = 24 February 2011|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140330023546/http://www.oscars.org/press/pressreleases/2011/20110224b.html|archivedate=2014-03-30}}</ref> The Academy has also produced condensed versions of the ceremony for broadcast in international markets (especially those outside of the Americas) in more desirable local timeslots. The ceremony was broadcast live internationally for the first time via satellite in 1970, but only two South American countries, Chile and Brazil, purchased the rights to air the broadcast. By that time, the television rights to the Academy Awards had been sold in 50 countries. A decade later, the rights were already being sold to 60 countries, and by 1984, the TV rights to the Awards were licensed in 76 countries. The ceremonies were moved up from late-March or early-April to late February or early March starting in 2004 to help disrupt and shorten the intense [[For Your Consideration (advertising)|lobbying and ad campaigns]] associated with [[Oscar season]] in the film industry. Another reason was because of the growing TV ratings success of the [[NCAA Men's Division I Basketball Championship]], which would cut into the Academy Awards audience. The earlier date is also to the advantage of ABC, as it now usually occurs during the highly profitable and important February [[sweeps]] period. Some years, the ceremony is moved into early March in deference to the [[Winter Olympics]]. Another reason for the move to late February and early March is to avoid the awards ceremony occurring so close to the religious holidays of [[Passover]] and [[Easter]], which for decades had been a grievance from members and the general public. Advertising is somewhat restricted, however, as traditionally no movie studios or competitors of official Academy Award sponsors may advertise during the telecast. The Awards show holds the distinction of having won the most [[Emmys]] in history, with 47 wins and 195 nominations.<ref>{{cite news|url = http://goldderby.latimes.com/awards_goldderby/2010/07/emmys-love-for-oscars-continues-with-12-nominations.html|title = Emmys love for Oscars continues with 12 nominations |work=Los Angeles Times |author=Tom O'Neil|date= 12 July 2010|accessdate = 13 August 2010| archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20100819172053/http://goldderby.latimes.com/awards_goldderby/2010/07/emmys-love-for-oscars-continues-with-12-nominations.html| archivedate= 19 August 2010 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}</ref> After many years of being held on Mondays at 9:00&nbsp;pm [[Eastern Time Zone|Eastern]]/6:00 p.m [[Pacific Time Zone|Pacific]], in 1999 the ceremonies were moved to Sundays at 8:30&nbsp;pm Eastern/5:30&nbsp;pm Pacific.<ref>{{cite news|url = http://www.nytimes.com/1998/04/08/movies/tv-notes-moving-oscar-night.html|title = TV Notes; Moving Oscar Night|work=The New York Times |author=Bill Carter|date= 8 April 1998|accessdate = 8 March 2010|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140304185231/http://www.nytimes.com/1998/04/08/movies/tv-notes-moving-oscar-night.html|archivedate=2014-03-04}}</ref> The reasons given for the move were that more viewers would tune in on Sundays, that Los Angeles rush-hour traffic jams could be avoided, and that an earlier start time would allow viewers on the East Coast to go to bed earlier.<ref>[https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=1955&dat=19980701&id=-CsiAAAAIBAJ&sjid=eqYFAAAAIBAJ&pg=6637,43314 Academy Awards will move to Sunday night] Reading Eagle – 1 July 1998; From ''Google News Archive''</ref> For many years the film industry had opposed a Sunday broadcast because it would cut into the weekend box office.<ref>[https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=1980&dat=19990319&id=sKEiAAAAIBAJ&sjid=laoFAAAAIBAJ&pg=1224,4570799 Never Say Never: Academy Awards move to Sunday] The Item – 19 March 1999. Google News Archive.</ref> The Academy has contemplated moving the ceremony even further back into January, citing TV viewers' fatigue with the film industry's long awards season. However, such an accelerated schedule would dramatically decrease the voting period for its members, to the point where some voters would only have time to view the contending films streamed on their computers (as opposed to traditionally receiving the films and ballots in the mail). Also, a January or early-February ceremony held on a Sunday would have to compete with [[National Football League]] playoff games such as the [[Super Bowl]].<ref>{{cite news|url = http://articles.latimes.com/2010/oct/05/entertainment/la-et-oscars-20101005|title = Academy looks to move 2012 Oscar ceremony up several weeks |work=[[Los Angeles Times]] |author=John Horn|date= 5 October 2010|accessdate = 28 February 2011|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140308124541/http://articles.latimes.com/2010/oct/05/entertainment/la-et-oscars-20101005|archivedate=2014-03-08}}</ref> Originally scheduled for April 8, 1968, the [[40th Academy Awards]] ceremony was postponed for two days, because of the assassination of [[Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr.]]. On March 30, 1981, the [[53rd Academy Awards]] was postponed for one day, after [[Reagan assassination attempt|the shooting]] of President [[Ronald Reagan]] and others in [[Washington, D.C.]] In 1993, an ''In Memoriam'' segment was introduced,<ref name="fawcett">{{cite news|url=http://www.guardian.co.uk/film/2010/mar/10/oscars-farrah-fawcett|title=Farrah Fawcett:Oscars director apologises for 'In Memoriam' omission|work=The Guardian |accessdate=8 March 2010 | location=London | first=Ben | last=Child | date=10 March 2010| archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20100414020632/http://www.guardian.co.uk/film/2010/mar/10/oscars-farrah-fawcett| archivedate= 14 April 2010 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}</ref> honoring those who had made a significant contribution to cinema who had died in the preceding 12 months, a selection compiled by a small committee of Academy members.<ref>{{cite news|first=Sandy|last=Cohen|title=Oscar's 'In Memoriam' segment is touching to watch, painful to make |url=http://www.usatoday.com/life/movies/movieawards/oscars/2010-03-03-oscar-memorial-segment_N.htm|agency=[[Associated Press]]|work=USA Today |date=3 March 2010|accessdate=8 March 2010}}</ref> This segment has drawn criticism over the years for the omission of some names. Criticism was also levied for many years regarding another aspect, with the segment having a "[[popularity contest]]" feel as the audience varied their applause to those who had died by the subject's cultural impact; the applause has since been muted during the telecast, and the audience is discouraged from clapping during the segment and giving silent reflection instead. In terms of broadcast length, the ceremony generally averages three and a half hours. The first Oscars, in 1929, lasted 15&nbsp;minutes. At the other end of the spectrum, the 2000 ceremony lasted four hours and four minutes.<ref>Ehbar, Ned (February 28, 2014). "Did you know?" ''Metro''. New York City. p. 18.</ref> In 2010, the organizers of the Academy Awards announced that winners' [[Oscar speech|acceptance speeches]] must not run past 45&nbsp;seconds. This, according to organizer Bill Mechanic, was to ensure the elimination of what he termed "the single most hated thing on the show" – overly long and embarrassing displays of emotion.<ref>{{cite news | url = http://www.guardian.co.uk/film/2010/feb/16/oscar-winners-speeches-cut | location=London | work=The Guardian | title=Cut … all change at Oscars as winners are given just 45&nbsp;seconds to say thanks | first=Sam | last=Jones | date=16 February 2010| archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110128143126/http://www.guardian.co.uk/film/2010/feb/16/oscar-winners-speeches-cut | archivedate=2011-01-28 }}</ref> In 2016, in a further effort to streamline speeches, winners' dedications were displayed on an on-screen [[news ticker|ticker]].<ref name="usatoday-thankyouscroll">{{cite web|title=Can the 'thank-you scroll' save Oscar speeches?|url=http://www.usatoday.com/story/life/movies/2016/02/25/thank-you-scroll-oscars-telecast/80840490/|website=USA Today|accessdate=29 February 2016}}</ref> Although still dominant in ratings, the viewership of the Academy Awards have steadily dropped; the [[88th Academy Awards]] were the lowest-rated in the past eight years (although with increases in male and 18-49 viewership), while the show itself also faced mixed reception. Following the show, ''[[Variety (magazine)|Variety]]'' reported that ABC was, in negotiating an extension to its contract to broadcast the Oscars, seeking to have more creative control over the broadcast itself. Currently and nominally, AMPAS is responsible for most aspects of the telecast, including the choice of production staff and hosting.<ref name="variety-struggleabc">{{cite web|title=ABC’s Oscar Contract Renegotiations: Who’ll Get Creative Control?|url=http://variety.com/2016/tv/news/abc-academy-oscars-deal-renegotiations-oscars-2016-1201718452/|website=Variety|accessdate=2 March 2016}}</ref> === TV ratings === Historically, the "Oscarcast" has pulled in a bigger haul when box-office hits are favored to win the Best Picture trophy. More than 57.25 million viewers tuned to the telecast for the [[70th Academy Awards]] in 1998, the year of ''[[Titanic (1997 film)|Titanic]]'', which generated close to US$600 million at the North American box office pre-Oscars.<ref>{{cite news| url=http://seattletimes.nwsource.com/html/businesstechnology/2004196530_oscarads23.html | work=The Seattle Times | title=Academy's red carpet big stage for advertisers | first=Meg | last=James | date=23 February 2008| archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20111117115833/http://seattletimes.nwsource.com/html/businesstechnology/2004196530_oscarads23.html | archivedate=2011-11-17 }}</ref> The [[76th Academy Awards]] ceremony in which ''[[The Lord of the Rings: The Return of the King]]'' (pre-telecast box office earnings of US$368 million) received 11 Awards including Best Picture drew 43.56 million viewers.<ref name="usatoday_oscar">{{cite news | url=http://www.usatoday.com/life/movies/movieawards/oscars/2005-01-26-oscar-telecast_x.htm|work=USA Today |title=Oscars lack blockbuster to lure TV viewers | date=26 January 2005 | first=Scott | last=Bowles | accessdate=8 November 2006}}</ref> The most watched ceremony based on [[Nielsen ratings]] to date, however, was the [[42nd Academy Awards]] (Best Picture ''[[Midnight Cowboy]]'') which drew a 43.4% household rating on 7 April 1970.<ref>{{cite news|author=Justin Oppelaar |url=http://www.variety.com/index.asp?layout=chart_pass&charttype=chart_topshowsalltime |title=Charts and Data: Top 100 TV Shows of All Time by '&#39;Variety'&#39; |publisher=Variety.com |date=2002-10-09 |accessdate=2014-02-26|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120118083655/http://www.variety.com/index.asp?layout=chart_pass&charttype=chart_topshowsalltime |archivedate=2012-01-18 }}</ref> By contrast, ceremonies honoring films that have not performed well at the box office tend to show weaker ratings. The [[78th Academy Awards]] which awarded low-budgeted, independent film ''[[Crash (2004 film)|Crash]]'' (with a pre-Oscar gross of US$53.4 million) generated an audience of 38.64 million with a household rating of 22.91%.<ref>{{cite news | url=http://www.usatoday.com/life/television/news/2006-03-07-nielsen-analysis_x.htm | title=Low Ratings ''Crash'' Party |work=USA Today | first=Gary | last=Levin | date=7 March 2006 | accessdate=14 April 2010}}</ref> In 2008, the [[80th Academy Awards]] telecast was watched by 31.76 million viewers on average with an 18.66% household rating, the lowest rated and least watched ceremony to date, in spite of celebrating 80 years of the Academy Awards.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.capecodonline.com/apps/pbcs.dll/article?AID=/20080227/LIFE/802270307 | title=Oscar ratings worst ever |work=The Washington Post |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140330005242/http://www.capecodonline.com/apps/pbcs.dll/article?AID=/20080227/LIFE/802270307 |archivedate=2014-03-30 }}</ref> The Best Picture winner of that particular ceremony was another independently financed film (''[[No Country for Old Men (film)|No Country for Old Men]]''). == Venues == [[File:Hollywood Pantages Theatre 5.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Pantages Theatre (Hollywood)|Pantages Theatre]], 2008]] In 1929, the first Academy Awards were presented at a banquet dinner at the [[Hollywood Roosevelt Hotel]]. From 1930 to 1943, the ceremony alternated between two venues: the [[Ambassador Hotel (Los Angeles)|Ambassador Hotel]] on [[Wilshire Boulevard]] and the [[Millennium Biltmore Hotel|Biltmore Hotel]] in downtown Los Angeles. [[TCL Chinese Theatre|Grauman's Chinese Theatre]] in Hollywood then hosted the awards from 1944 to 1946, followed by the [[Shrine Auditorium]] in Los Angeles from 1947 to 1948. The [[21st Academy Awards]] in 1949 were held at the Academy Award Theatre at what was the Academy's headquarters on [[Melrose Avenue]] in Hollywood.<ref>{{cite web |url = http://www.oscars.org/aboutacademyawards/venues.html |title = Oscars Award Venues |publisher=Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences |accessdate = 13 April 2007 |archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20061212063803/http://www.oscars.org/aboutacademyawards/venues.html |archivedate = 12 December 2006}}</ref> From 1950 to 1960, the awards were presented at Hollywood's [[Pantages Theatre (Hollywood)|Pantages Theatre]]. With the advent of television, the awards from 1953 to 1957 took place simultaneously in Hollywood and New York, first at the [[Majestic Theatre (Columbus Circle)|NBC International Theatre]] (1953) and then at the [[New Century Theatre|NBC Century Theatre]], after which the ceremony took place solely in Los Angeles. The Oscars moved to the [[Santa Monica Civic Auditorium]] in [[Santa Monica, California]] in 1961. By 1969, the Academy decided to move the ceremonies back to Los Angeles, this time to the [[Dorothy Chandler Pavilion]] at the [[Los Angeles Music Center|Los Angeles County Music Center]]. In 2002, the Kodak Theatre (now known as the [[Dolby Theatre]]) became the current venue of the presentation.<ref>{{cite news|title=Oscars' home renamed Dolby Theatre |url=http://www.cbsnews.com/8301-505245_162-57425417/oscars-home-renamed-dolby-theatre/ |publisher=[[CBS News]] |accessdate=May 1, 2012 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120502081049/http://www.cbsnews.com/8301-505245_162-57425417/oscars-home-renamed-dolby-theatre/ |archivedate=2 May 2012 }}</ref> {{clear}} == Awards of Merit categories == === Current categories === {{Columns-list|2| * [[Academy Award for Best Picture|Best Picture]]: since 1928 * [[Academy Award for Best Director|Best Director]]: since 1928 * [[Academy Award for Best Actor|Best Actor in a Leading Role]]: since 1928 * [[Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor|Best Actor in a Supporting Role]]: since 1936 * [[Academy Award for Best Actress|Best Actress in a Leading Role]]: since 1928 * [[Academy Award for Best Supporting Actress|Best Actress in a Supporting Role]]: since 1936 * [[Academy Award for Best Animated Feature|Best Animated Feature]]: since 2001 * [[Academy Award for Best Animated Short Film|Best Animated Short Film]]: since 1931 * [[Academy Award for Best Cinematography|Best Cinematography]]: since 1928 * [[Academy Award for Best Costume Design|Best Costume Design]]: since 1948 * [[Academy Award for Best Documentary Feature|Best Documentary Feature]]: since 1943 * [[Academy Award for Best Documentary (Short Subject)|Best Documentary Short Subject]]: since 1941 * [[Academy Award for Best Film Editing|Best Film Editing]]: since 1934 * [[Academy Award for Best Foreign Language Film|Best Foreign Language Film]]: since 1947 * [[Academy Award for Best Live Action Short Film|Best Live Action Short Film]]: since 1931 * [[Academy Award for Best Makeup and Hairstyling|Best Makeup and Hairstyling]]: since 1981 * [[Academy Award for Best Original Score|Best Original Score]]: since 1934 * [[Academy Award for Best Original Song|Best Original Song]]: since 1934 * [[Academy Award for Best Production Design|Best Production Design]]: since 1928 * [[Academy Award for Best Sound Editing|Best Sound Editing]]: since 1963 * [[Academy Award for Best Sound|Best Sound Mixing]]: since 1930 * [[Academy Award for Best Visual Effects|Best Visual Effects]]: since 1939 * [[Academy Award for Best Adapted Screenplay|Best Writing (Adapted Screenplay)]]: since 1928 * [[Academy Award for Best Original Screenplay|Best Writing (Original Screenplay)]]: since 1940 }} In the first year of the awards, the Best Directing award was split into two separate categories (Drama and Comedy). At times, the Best Original Score award has also been split into separate categories (Drama and Comedy/Musical). From the 1930s through the 1960s, the Art Direction (now Production Design), Cinematography, and Costume Design awards were likewise split into two separate categories (black-and-white films and color films). Prior to 2012, the Production Design award was called Art Direction, while the Makeup and Hairstyling award was called Makeup. Another award, entitled the [[Academy Award for Best Original Musical]], is still in the Academy rulebooks and has yet to be discontinued. However, due to continuous insufficient eligibility each year, it has not been awarded since 1984 (when ''[[Purple Rain (film)|Purple Rain]]'' won).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.oscars.org/awards/academyawards/rules/rule16.html |title=Music Awards &#124; Rules for the 84th Academy Awards &#124; Academy of Motion Picture Arts & Sciences |publisher=Oscars.org |date=2012-08-24 |accessdate=2014-02-26|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20131211172058/http://www.oscars.org/awards/academyawards/rules/rule16.html |archivedate=2013-12-11 }}</ref> === Discontinued categories === {{Columns-list|2| * [[Academy Award for Best Assistant Director|Best Assistant Director]]: 1933 to 1937 * [[Academy Award for Best Directing|Best Director, Comedy Picture]]: 1928 only * [[Academy Award for Best Dance Direction|Best Dance Direction]]: 1935 to 1937 * [[Academy Award for Best Engineering Effects|Best Engineering Effects]]: 1928 only * [[Academy Award for Best Original Musical or Comedy Score|Best Original Musical or Comedy Score]]: 1995 to 1998 * [[Academy Award for Best Story|Best Original Story]]: 1928 to 1956 * [[Academy Award for Best Score – Adaptation or Treatment|Best Score – Adaptation or Treatment]]: 1962 to 1969; 1973 * [[Academy Award for Best Short Film – Color|Best Short Film – Color]]: 1936 and 1937 * [[Academy Award for Best Short Film – Live Action – 2 Reels|Best Short Film – Live Action – 2 Reels]]: 1936 to 1956 * [[Academy Award for Best Short Film – Novelty|Best Short Film – Novelty]]: 1932 to 1935 * [[Academy Award for Best Title Writing|Best Title Writing]]: 1928 only * [[Academy Award for Best Unique and Artistic Production|Best Unique and Artistic Picture]]: 1928 only }} === Proposed categories === The Board of Governors meets each year and considers new award categories. To date, the following proposed categories have been rejected: * Best Casting: rejected in 1999<!--reference to suite101.com removed, blacklisted site--> * Best Stunt Coordination: rejected every year from 1991 to 2012<ref>{{cite news | url = http://www.filmschoolrejects.com/opinions/its-time-to-create-an-oscar-for-stunt-coordinators-etrav.php |publisher=Film School Rejects | title=It's Time to Create an Oscar For Stunt Coordinators | date=1 April 2012| archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20131104200600/http://www.filmschoolrejects.com/opinions/its-time-to-create-an-oscar-for-stunt-coordinators-etrav.php | archivedate=2013-11-04 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news | url = http://actionfest.com/stunt-legends-man-of-action-jack-gills-quest-to-gain-academy-award-recognition-for-stunt-professionals-part-2/ |publisher=Action Fest | title=Jack Gill Interview | date=4 April 2012| archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130428074119/http://actionfest.com/stunt-legends-man-of-action-jack-gills-quest-to-gain-academy-award-recognition-for-stunt-professionals-part-2/ | archivedate=2013-04-28 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news| url=http://www.hollywoodreporter.com/race/academy-votes-creating-oscar-category-202123 | work=The Hollywood Reporter | first=Jonathan | last=Handel | title=Academy Votes Against Creating Oscar Category for Stunt Coordinators | date=15 June 2011| archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20131026022931/http://www.hollywoodreporter.com:80/race/academy-votes-creating-oscar-category-202123 | archivedate=2013-10-26 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news | url=http://theenvelope.latimes.com/movies/env-fi-stunts4aug04,0,3864314.story?coll=env-movies | title=One stunt they've been unable to pull off|work=Los Angeles Times | author=Michael Hiltzik | date=4 August 2005 | accessdate=13 April 2007| archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130922144011/http://theenvelope.latimes.com/movies/env-fi-stunts4aug04,0,3864314.story?coll=env-movies| archivedate=2013-09-22}}</ref> * Best Title Design: rejected in 1999<!--reference to suite101.com removed, blacklisted site--> == Special categories == The Special Academy Awards are voted on by special committees, rather than by the Academy membership as a whole. They are not always presented on a consistent annual basis. === Current special categories === * [[Academy Honorary Award]]: since 1929 * [[Academy Scientific and Technical Award]]: since 1931 * [[Gordon E. Sawyer Award]]: since 1981 * [[Jean Hersholt Humanitarian Award]]: since 1956 * [[Irving G. Thalberg Memorial Award]]: since 1938 === Discontinued special categories === * [[Academy Juvenile Award]]: 1934 to 1960 * [[Special Achievement Academy Award|Academy Special Achievement Award]]: 1972 to 1995 == Criticism == {{Undue weight section|date=April 2016}} === Accusations of commercialism === Due to the positive exposure and prestige of the Academy Awards, studios spend millions of dollars and hire publicists specifically to promote their films during what is typically called the "[[Oscar season]]". This has generated accusations of the Academy Awards being influenced more by marketing than quality. [[William Friedkin]], an Academy Award-winning film director and former producer of the ceremony, expressed this sentiment at a conference in New York in 2009, describing it as "the greatest promotion scheme that any industry ever devised for itself".<ref>{{cite AV media |people=Friedkin, William (Director) |date=24 February 2009|title=Director William Friedkin at the Hudson Union Society |url=http://fora.tv/2009/02/24/Director_William_Friedkin_at_the_Hudson_Union_Society#William_Friedkin_Says_Oscars_Simply_a_Promotion_Scheme |accessdate=11 March 2009| archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20090310081013/http://fora.tv/2009/02/24/Director_William_Friedkin_at_the_Hudson_Union_Society| archivedate= 10 March 2009| deadurl= no}}</ref> Tim Dirks, editor of [[American Movie Classics|AMC's]] [[filmsite.org]], has written of the Academy Awards, {{quote|Unfortunately, the critical worth, artistic vision, cultural influence and innovative qualities of many films are not given the same voting weight. Especially since the 1980s, moneymaking "formula-made" blockbusters with glossy production values have often been crowd-pleasing titans (and Best Picture winners), but they haven't necessarily been great films with depth or critical acclaim by any measure.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.filmsite.org/oscars.html |title=Academy Awards – The Oscars |accessdate=4 October 2009|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140120093333/http://www.filmsite.org/oscars.html|archivedate=2014-01-20}}</ref>}} === Accusations of bias === {{further|Oscar bait}} Typical criticism of the Academy Awards for Best Picture is that among the winners and nominees there is an over-representation of romantic historical epics, biographical dramas, romantic dramedies, and family melodramas, most of which are released in the U.S. the last three months of the calendar year. The Oscars have been infamously known for selecting specific genres of movies to be awarded. This has led to the coining of the term '[[Oscar bait]]', describing such movies. This has led at times to more specific criticisms that the Academy is disconnected from the audience, e.g. by favoring 'Oscar bait' over audience favorites, or favoring historical melodramas over critically acclaimed movies that depict current life issues.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.nypost.com/p/entertainment/movies/have_the_oscars_jumped_the_shark_LLhBrvPY35EnSH0iQzrqRJ |title=Have the Oscars jumped the shark? |accessdate=24 January 2012 | work=New York Post |first=Kyle |last=Smith|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120418115808/http://www.nypost.com:80/p/entertainment/movies/have_the_oscars_jumped_the_shark_LLhBrvPY35EnSH0iQzrqRJ |archivedate=2012-04-18 }}</ref> The [[88th Academy Awards|88th awards ceremony]] became the target of a boycott, based on critics' perception that its all-white acting nominee list reflected bias. In response, the Academy initiated "historic" changes in membership by the year 2020.<ref>{{cite news|last=Sims|first=David|title=Can a Boycott Change the Oscars?|url=http://www.theatlantic.com/entertainment/archive/2016/01/can-a-boycott-change-the-oscars/424593/|publisher=''[[The Atlantic]]''|date=January 19, 2016|accessdate=February 29, 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|last=Kreps|first=Daniel|title=Academy Promises 'Historic' Changes to Diversify Membership|url=http://www.rollingstone.com/movies/news/academy-promises-historic-changes-to-diversify-membership-20160123|publisher=''[[Rolling Stone]]''|date=January 23, 2016|accessdate=February 29, 2016}}</ref> === Symbolism or sentimentalization === Acting prizes in certain years have been criticized for not recognizing superior performances so much as being awarded for sentimental reasons,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://encyclopedia2.thefreedictionary.com/Taylor,+Elizabeth |title=Taylor, Elizabeth |accessdate=4 October 2009}}</ref>{{better source|date=April 2016}} personal popularity,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://incontention.com/?p=1045 |title=What's the worst Best Actor choice of all time? |accessdate=4 October 2009|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100115115957/http://incontention.com/?p=1045|archivedate=2010-01-15}}</ref> atonement for past mistakes,<ref>{{cite news|url=http://bennylabamba.com/being-an-oscar-voter |title=Being an Oscar voter *doesn't* mean never having to say you're sorry – Los Angeles Times |accessdate=4 October 2009 | publisher=BennyLabamba.com|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140310184453/http://bennylabamba.com/being-an-oscar-voter |archivedate=2014-03-10 }}</ref>{{better source|date=April 2016}} or presented as a "career honor" to recognize a distinguished nominee's entire body of work.<ref>{{cite book| last = Levy| first = Emanuel| title = All about Oscar: the history and politics of the Academy Awards – The Career Oscars| url = https://books.google.com/?id=dH2Lb_YhIhAC&pg=PA268| accessdate = 4 October 2009| year = 2003| publisher = Burns & Oates| isbn = 978-0-8264-1452-6 }}</ref> === Refusing the award === Some winners critical of the Academy Awards have boycotted the ceremonies and refused to accept their Oscars. The first to do so was [[Dudley Nichols]] (Best Writing in 1935 for ''[[The Informer (1935 film)|The Informer]]''). Nichols boycotted the [[8th Academy Awards]] ceremony because of conflicts between the Academy and the Writers' Guild.<ref name="DYK">{{cite web|url=http://www.biography.com/oscars/oscars_didyouknow.jsp|title=The Oscars Did You Know?|accessdate=18 June 2009| archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20090623000022/http://www.biography.com/oscars/oscars_didyouknow.jsp| archivedate= 23 June 2009 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}</ref> [[George C. Scott]] became the second person to refuse his award (Best Actor in 1970 for ''[[Patton (film)|Patton]]'') at the [[43rd Academy Awards]] ceremony. Scott described it as a 'meat parade', saying 'I don't want any part of it."<ref>{{cite news | url = http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/obituaries/455563.stm |publisher=BBC News | title=George C Scott: The man who refused an Oscar | date=23 September 1999| archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140311095900/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/obituaries/455563.stm | archivedate=2014-03-11 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news | url = http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,904789,00.html | work=Time | title=Show Business: Meat Parade | date=8 March 1971| archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20081221203341/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,904789,00.html | archivedate=2008-12-21 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.biography.com/oscars/oscars_didyouknow.jsp |title=Fast Facts – Did You Know? |publisher=Biography.com |date=16 May 1929 |accessdate=6 February 2010| archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20100210075430/http://www.biography.com/oscars/oscars_didyouknow.jsp| archivedate= 10 February 2010 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}</ref> The third was [[Marlon Brando]], who refused his award (Best Actor for 1972's ''[[The Godfather]]''), citing the film industry's discrimination and mistreatment of Native Americans. At the [[45th Academy Awards]] ceremony, Brando sent [[Sacheen Littlefeather]] to read a 15-page speech detailing his criticisms.<ref name=DYK /> == Associated events == The following events are closely associated with the annual Academy Awards: * [[César Award]] * Nominees luncheon * [[Governors Awards]] * The 25th [[Independent Spirit Awards]] (in 2010), usually held in Santa Monica the Saturday before the Oscars, marked the first time it was moved to a Friday and a change of venue to [[L.A. Live]] * The annual "Night Before", traditionally held at the [[Beverly Hills Hotel]], begun in 2002 and generally known as ''the ''party of the season, benefits the [[Motion Picture and Television Fund]], which operates a retirement home for SAG actors in the [[San Fernando Valley]] * [[Elton John AIDS Foundation Academy Award Party]] airs the awards live at the nearby [[Pacific Design Center]] * The Governors' Ball is the Academy's official after-party, including dinner (until 2011), and is adjacent to the awards-presentation venue * The Vanity Fair after-party, historically at the former Morton's restaurant, since 2009 has been at the [[Sunset Tower]] == Presenter and performer gifts == It has become a tradition to give out gift bags to the presenters and performers at the Oscars. In recent years these gifts have also been extended to award nominees and winners.<ref name="ABCGiftBag">{{cite web|last=Valenti|first=Catherine|title=No Oscar? How About a Gift Bag?|url=http://abcnews.go.com/Business/story?id=86683|publisher=ABC News|accessdate=11 March 2014|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140425162335/http://abcnews.go.com/Business/story?id=86683|archivedate=2014-04-25}}</ref> The value of each of these gift bags can reach into the tens of thousands of dollars. In 2014 the value was reported to be as high as US$80,000.<ref name="CBSGiftBag">{{cite news|last=Peterson|first=Kim|title=Oscars' gift bag has $80,000 worth of swag|url=http://www.cbsnews.com/news/oscars-gift-bag-has-80000-worth-of-swag/|publisher=CBS News|accessdate=11 March 2014|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140305230143/http://www.cbsnews.com/news/oscars-gift-bag-has-80000-worth-of-swag/|archivedate=2014-03-05}}</ref> The value has risen to the point where the U.S. [[Internal Revenue Service]] issued a statement regarding the gifts and their taxable status.<ref name="IRSGiftBag">{{cite web|last=Staff|title=IRS Statement on Oscar Goodie Bags|url=http://www.irs.gov/uac/IRS-Statement-on-Oscar-Goodie-Bags|publisher=IRS.gov|accessdate=11 March 2014|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140311093138/http://www.irs.gov/uac/IRS-Statement-on-Oscar-Goodie-Bags|archivedate=2014-03-11}}</ref> Oscar gift bags have included vacation packages to Hawaii and Mexico and Japan, a private dinner party for the recipient and friends at a restaurant, [[videophone]]s, a four-night stay at a hotel, watches, bracelets, vacation packages, spa treatments, bottles of vodka, maple salad dressing, and weight-loss gummie candy.<ref name=ABCGiftBag /><ref name="ABCGiftBag2">{{cite web|last=Valiente|first=Alexa|title=What Surprising Freebies Are Inside the 2014 Oscar Nominees' Gift Bags|url=http://abcnews.go.com/Entertainment/surprising-freebies-inside-2014-oscar-nominees-gift-bags/story?id=22518285|publisher=ABC News|accessdate=11 March 2014|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140311095026/http://abcnews.go.com/Entertainment/surprising-freebies-inside-2014-oscar-nominees-gift-bags/story?id=22518285|archivedate=2014-03-11}}</ref><ref name="VarietyGiftBag">{{cite news|last=Bacardi|first=Francesca|title=Oscar 'Losers' Become Winners with Distinctive Assets Gift Bags|url=http://variety.com/2014/film/news/oscar-losers-become-winners-with-distinctive-assets-gift-bags-1201100762/|publisher=Variety|accessdate=11 March 2014|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140311095625/http://variety.com/2014/film/news/oscar-losers-become-winners-with-distinctive-assets-gift-bags-1201100762/|archivedate=2014-03-11}}</ref> Some of the gifts have even had a "risque" element to them; in 2014 the adult products retailer [[Adam & Eve (company)|Adam & Eve]] had a "Secret Room Gifting Suite". Celebrities visiting the gifting suite included [[Judith Hoag]], [[Carolyn Hennesy]], [[Kate Linder]], [[Chris Mulkey]], [[Jim O'Heir]], and [[NBA]] player [[John Salley]].<ref name="AandEOscarGifts">{{cite web|last=Staff|title=Adam & Eve Had Secret Room Gifting Suite for Oscars' Celebs|url=http://business.avn.com/articles/novelty/Adam-Eve-Had-Secret-Room-Gifting-Suite-for-Oscars-Celebs-551833.html|publisher=Adult Video News|accessdate=11 March 2014|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140311092632/http://business.avn.com/articles/novelty/Adam-Eve-Had-Secret-Room-Gifting-Suite-for-Oscars-Celebs-551833.html|archivedate=2014-03-11}}</ref> == Television ratings and advertisement prices == From 2006 onwards, results are Live+SD, all previous years are Live viewing<ref name = tvbythenumbers /> {| class="wikitable sortable plainrowheaders" style="margin:auto; margin:auto;" |- ! Year ! Viewers,<br />millions<ref name="tvbythenumbers">{{cite web |url=http://tvbythenumbers.zap2it.com/2012/02/24/with-no-blockbusters-up-for-best-picture-expect-academy-awards-viewership-to-fall-ratings-history-your-guess-for-this-year-poll/120239/|title=With No Blockbusters Up For Best Picture, Expect 'Academy Awards' Viewership To Fall; Ratings History + Your Guess For This Year (Poll)|work=TV by the Numbers |first=Sara |last=Bibel |date=February 24, 2012 |accessdate=March 4, 2014|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20131210015818/http://tvbythenumbers.zap2it.com/2012/02/24/with-no-blockbusters-up-for-best-picture-expect-academy-awards-viewership-to-fall-ratings-history-your-guess-for-this-year-poll/120239/|archivedate=2013-12-10}}</ref> ! Ad price,<ref name = tvbythenumbers /><ref name="kantarmedia">{{cite web |url=http://kantarmediana.com/intelligence/press/advertising-vitality-of-the-academy-awards|title=Kantar Media Reports On The Advertising Vitality Of The Academy Awards – Historical Advertising Data Showcases Ad Pricing Trends and Top Marketers; Super Bowl Overlap Increases as Sales Rise |work=[[Kantar Group#Kantar Media|Kantar Media]] |first= |last= |date=February 13, 2013 |accessdate=March 4, 2014|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130420031629/http://kantarmediana.com:80/intelligence/press/advertising-vitality-of-the-academy-awards|archivedate=2013-04-20}}</ref><br /> [[United States Dollar|USD]], millions ! Adjusted Price,<br /> [[United States Dollar|USD]], millions |- | 2016 | 34.3 | Not available | Not available |- | 2015 | 37.260<ref>{{cite web|url=http://tvbythenumbers.zap2it.com/2015/02/24/sunday-final-ratings-oscars-adjusted-up/366838/|title=Sunday Final Ratings: Oscars Adjusted Up|work=TVbytheNumbers|accessdate=27 October 2015}}</ref> | 1.95<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.forbes.com/sites/mikeozanian/2015/02/20/the-oscars-beat-the-super-bowl-in-advertising-premium/|title=The Oscars Beat The Super Bowl In Advertising Premium|author=Mike Ozanian|work=Forbes|accessdate=27 October 2015}}</ref> | {{Inflation|USD|1.95|2015|r=2}} |- | 2014 | 43.740<ref>{{cite news |first=Rick |last=Kissell |title=Oscars on ABC Draw Largest Audience in 10 Years |url=http://variety.com/2014/tv/ratings/early-ratings-oscars-look-to-be-up-slightly-from-last-year-1201124513/ |work=Variety |date=March 3, 2014 |accessdate=March 4, 2014|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140308205925/http://variety.com/2014/tv/ratings/early-ratings-oscars-look-to-be-up-slightly-from-last-year-1201124513/ |archivedate=2014-03-08 }}</ref> | 1.8 – 1.9<ref name="adprices">{{cite news |first= Brian|last=Steinberg |title=Oscar Ad Prices Hit All-Time High as ABC Sells Out 2014 Telecast (EXCLUSIVE) |url=http://variety.com/2013/tv/news/oscar-ad-prices-hit-all-time-high-as-abc-sells-out-2014-telecast-exclusive-1200778642/ |work=Variety |date=March 3, 2014 |accessdate=March 4, 2014|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140407201755/http://variety.com/2013/tv/news/oscar-ad-prices-hit-all-time-high-as-abc-sells-out-2014-telecast-exclusive-1200778642/|archivedate=2014-04-07}}</ref> | {{Inflation|USD|1.8|2014|r=2}} - {{Inflation|USD|1.9|2014|r=2}} |- | 2013 | 40.376<ref name="nielsen">{{cite web |url=http://www.nielsen.com/us/en/newswire/2013/tops-of-2013-tv-and-social-media.html|title=Tops of 2013: TV and Social Media|work=TV by the Numbers |first=Sara |last=Bibel |date=December 12, 2013 |accessdate=March 4, 2014|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140425182227/http://www.nielsen.com/us/en/newswire/2013/tops-of-2013-tv-and-social-media.html|archivedate=2014-04-25}}</ref> | 1.65 – 1.8<ref name = adprices /> | {{Inflation|USD|1.65|2013|r=2}} - {{Inflation|USD|1.8|2013|r=2}} |- | 2012 | 39.460<ref name="var1">{{cite news|url=http://www.variety.com/article/VR1118050758?categoryid=14&cs=1&nid=2562|title=Crystal, social media fuel Oscar ratings | last = Kissell | first=Rick | date=February 27, 2012 |accessdate=April 26, 2012 | work = Variety |publisher=PMC}}</ref> | 1.610 | {{Inflation|USD|1.61|2012|r=2}} |- | 2011 | 37.919 | 1.3684 | {{Inflation|USD|1.3684|2011|r=2}} |- | 2010 | 41.699 | 1.1267 | {{Inflation|USD|1.1267|2010|r=2}} |- | 2009 | 36.310 | 1.3<ref name = adprices /> | {{Inflation|USD|1.3|2009|r=2}} |- | 2008 | 32.006 | 1.82<ref name = adprices /> | {{Inflation|USD|1.82|2008|r=2}} |- | 2007 | 40.172 | 1.6658 | {{Inflation|USD|1.6658|2007|r=2}} |- | 2006 | 38.939 | 1.6468 | {{Inflation|USD|1.6468|2006|r=2}} |- | 2005 | 42.139 | 1.503 | {{Inflation|USD|1.503|2005|r=2}} |- | 2004 | 43.531 | 1.5031 | {{Inflation|USD|1.5031|2004|r=2}} |- | 2003 | 33.043 | 1.3458 | {{Inflation|USD|1.3458|2003|r=2}} |- | 2002 | 41.782 | 1.29 | {{Inflation|USD|1.29|2002|r=2}} |- | 2001 | 42.944 | 1.45 | {{Inflation|USD|1.45|2001|r=2}} |- | 2000 | 46.333 | 1.305 | {{Inflation|USD|1.305|2000|r=2}} |- | 1999 | 45.615 | 1 | {{Inflation|USD|1|1999|r=2}} |- | 1998 | 55.249 | 0.95 | {{Inflation|USD|0.95|1998|r=2}} |- | 1997 | 40.075 | 0.85 | {{Inflation|USD|0.85|1997|r=2}} |- | 1996 | 44.867 | 0.795 | {{Inflation|USD|0.795|1996|r=2}} |- | 1995 | 48.279 | 0.7 | {{Inflation|USD|0.7|1995|r=2}} |- | 1994 | 45.083 | 0.6435 | {{Inflation|USD|0.6435|1994|r=2}} |- | 1993 | 45.735 | 0.6078 | {{Inflation|USD|0.6078|1993|r=2}} |- | 1992 | 44.406 | Not available | Not available |- | 1991 | 42.727 | Not available | Not available |- | 1990 | 40.375 | 0.45 | {{Inflation|USD|0.45|1990|r=2}} |- | 1989 | 42.619 | 0.375 | {{Inflation|USD|0.375|1989|r=2}} |- | 1988 | 42.227 | 0.36 | {{Inflation|USD|0.36|1988|r=2}} |- | 1987 | 37.190 | 0.335 | {{Inflation|USD|0.335|1987|r=2}} |- | 1986 | 37.757 | 0.32 | {{Inflation|USD|0.32|1986|r=2}} |- | 1985 | 38.855 | 0.315 | {{Inflation|USD|0.315|1985|r=2}} |- | 1984 | 42.051 | 0.275 | {{Inflation|USD|0.275|1984|r=2}} |- | 1983 | 53.235 | 0.245 | {{Inflation|USD|0.245|1983|r=2}} |- | 1982 | 46.245 | Not available | Not available |- | 1981 | 39.919 | Not available | Not available |- | 1980 | 48.978 | Not available | Not available |- | 1979 | 46.301 | Not available | Not available |- | 1978 | 48.501 | Not available | Not available |- | 1977 | 39.719 | Not available | Not available |- | 1976 | 46.751 | Not available | Not available |- | 1975 | 48.127 | Not available | Not available |- | 1974 | 44.712 | Not available | Not available |} == Trademark == {{expand section|date=February 2016}} <!--Please expand--> The term "Oscar" is a registered trademark of the AMPAS; however, in the [[Italian language]], it is used [[generic trademark|generically]] to refer to any award or award ceremony, regardless of which field, an activity the AMPAS discourages.<ref>[http://www.hollywoodreporter.com/news/court-oscar-may-be-generic-132235 Court: 'Oscar' may be generic term in Italian - Hollywood Reporter<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref><ref>[http://uk.reuters.com/article/industry-oscar-dc-idUKN1527923720070316 Court: Oscar may be generic term in Italian | Reuters<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> == See also == * [[List of film awards]] == References == {{reflist|30em}} == Further reading == * Brokaw, Lauren (2010). [http://web.archive.org/web/20100307140008/http://thedailytruffle.com:80/2010/03/oscar-week-parties-the-weekly-juice-oscar-edition/ "Wanna see an Academy Awards invite? We got it along with all the major annual events surrounding the Oscars"]. Los Angeles: The Daily Truffle. * {{cite book| last = Cotte| first = Oliver| title = Secrets of Oscar-winning animation: Behind the scenes of 13 classic short animations| year = 2007| publisher = Focal Press| isbn = 978-0-240-52070-4 }} * {{cite book| last1 = Kinn| first1 = Gail| last2 = Piazza| first2 = Jim| title = The Academy Awards: The Complete History of Oscar| year = 2002| publisher = Black Dog & Leventhal Publishers| isbn = 978-1-57912-240-9 }} * {{cite book| last = Levy| first = Emanuel| title = All About Oscar: The History and Politics of the Academy Awards| year = 2003| publisher = Burns & Oates| isbn = 978-0-8264-1452-6 }} * Wright, Jon (2007). ''The Lunacy of Oscar: The Problems with Hollywood's Biggest Night''. Thomas Publishing, Inc. == External links == {{Wiktionary|Academy Awards}} {{Commons category|Academy Awards}} <!-- Please do not list any more fan sites here as per [[WP:NOT]] --> * {{Official website|http://oscar.go.com/}} * {{IMDb event|0000003|Academy Awards}} * [http://www.oscars.org/ Website] of the [[Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences]] * [http://awardsdatabase.oscars.org/ampas_awards/BasicSearchInput.jsp Official Academy Awards Database] (searchable) * {{dmoz|Arts/Movies/Awards/Academy_Awards|Academy Awards}}. * [http://www.time.com/time/archive/collections/0,21428,c_oscars,00.shtml "Oscar Greats"] at ''[[Time (magazine)|Time]]'' magazine. {{Academy Awards}} {{Academy Awards lists}} {{Cinema of the United States}} {{National Cinema Awards}} {{Book bar|Academy Awards}} {{Portal bar|Academy Awards|Film in the United States|Greater Los Angeles}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Academy Awards| ]] [[Category:American film awards]] [[Category:Awards established in 1929]] [[Category:1929 establishments in California]] [[Category:Cinema of Southern California]] [[Category:Hollywood history and culture]] bcv7qa90op3yvkqd0skmetwnabekd4l 0 325 160875351 61398398 2007-09-28T08:27:52Z Closedmouth 372693 R from other capitalisation wikitext text/x-wiki #REDIRECT [[Action film]]{{R from other capitalisation}} 5k8i2fnf0ikroxdc157isw1vs0bp8ed 0 330 717941394 706025468 2016-04-30T16:32:45Z Yobot 7328338 BLP related template + other fixes using [[Project:AWB|AWB]] (12006) wikitext text/x-wiki {{refimprove|date=December 2015}} {{Use dmy dates|date=June 2013}} {{Infobox film | name = Actresses | image = Actrius film poster.jpg | alt = | caption = Catalan language film poster | film name = ([[Catalan language|Catalan]]: '''''Actrius''''') | director = [[Ventura Pons]] | producer = Ventura Pons | writer = [[Josep Maria Benet i Jornet]] | screenplay = Ventura Pons | story = | based on = {{based on|(stage play) ''E.R.''|Josep Maria Benet i Jornet}} | starring = {{ubl|[[Núria Espert]]|[[Rosa Maria Sardà]]|[[Anna Lizaran]]|[[Mercè Pons]]}} | narrator = <!-- or: |narrators = --> | music = Carles Cases | cinematography = Tomàs Pladevall | editing = Pere Abadal | production companies = {{ubl|[[Canal+|Canal+ España]]|Els Films de la Rambla S.A.|[[Generalitat de Catalunya|Generalitat de Catalunya - Departament de Cultura]]|[[Televisión Española]]}} | distributor = [[Buena Vista International]] | released = {{film date|df=yes|1997|1|17|[[Spain]]}} | runtime = 100 minutes | country = Spain | language = Catalan | budget = | gross = <!--(please use condensed and rounded values, e.g. "£11.6 million" not "£11,586,221")--> }} '''''Actresses''''' ([[Catalan language|Catalan]]: '''''Actrius''''') is a 1997 [[Catalan language]] Spanish drama film produced and directed by [[Ventura Pons]] and based on the award-winning stage play ''E.R.'' by [[Josep Maria Benet i Jornet]]. The film has no male actors, with all roles played by females.<ref name="El Pais">{{cite news|last1=Torres|first1=Rosanna|title='E. R', de Benet i Jornet, es llevada al cine y al teatro|url=http://elpais.com/diario/1996/10/15/cultura/845330405_850215.html|accessdate=21 December 2015|language=Spanish|publisher=[[El Pais]]|date=15 October 1996}}</ref> The film was produced in 1996.<ref name="Daily Mail">{{cite news|last1=Tooky|first1=Christopher|title=Ripe for a siesta.|url=https://www.highbeam.com/doc/1G1-109798413.html|accessdate=21 December 2015|agency=[[Highbeam]]|publisher=[[Daily Mail]]|date=16 April 1999}}</ref> ==Synopsis== In order to prepare herself to play a role commemorating the life of legendary actress Empar Ribera, young actress ([[Mercè Pons]]) interviews three established actresses who had been the Ribera's pupils: the international diva Glòria Marc ([[Núria Espert]]), the television star Assumpta Roca ([[Rosa Maria Sardà]]), and dubbing director Maria Caminal ([[Anna Lizaran]]).<ref name=SFF>{{cite web | url=http://www.stockholmfilmfestival.se/en/festival/1997/film/actrius | title=Actrius | publisher=[[Stockholm International Film Festival]] | date=1997 | accessdate=21 December 2015 }}</ref> ==Cast== * [[Núria Espert]] as Glòria Marc * [[Rosa Maria Sardà]] as Assumpta Roca * [[Anna Lizaran]] as Maria Caminal * [[Mercè Pons]] as Estudiant ==Recognition== ===Screenings=== ''Actrius'' screened in 2001 at the [[Grauman's Egyptian Theatre]] in an [[American Cinematheque]] retrospective of the works of its director. The film had first screened at the same location in 1998.<ref name="LA Times">{{cite news|last1=THomas|first1=Kevin|title=Sometimes, the World Gets in the Way|url=http://articles.latimes.com/2001/mar/01/entertainment/ca-31570|accessdate=21 December 2015|publisher=[[Los Angeles Times]]|date=1 March 2001}}</ref> It was also shown at the 1997 [[Stockholm International Film Festival]].<ref name=SFF /> ===Reception=== In ''Movie - Film - Review'', ''[[Daily Mail]]'' staffer Christopher Tookey wrote that though the actresses were "competent in roles that may have some reference to their own careers", the film "is visually unimaginative, never escapes its stage origins, and is almost totally lacking in revelation or surprising incident".<ref name=Tookey/> Noting that there were "occasional, refreshing moments of intergenerational bitchiness", they did not "justify comparisons to ''[[All About Eve]]''", and were "insufficiently different to deserve critical parallels with ''[[Rashomon]]''".<ref name=Tookey/> He also wrote that ''[[The Guardian]]'' called the film a "slow, stuffy chamber-piece", and that ''[[The Evening Standard]]'' stated the film's "best moments exhibit the bitchy tantrums seething beneath the threesome's composed veneers".<ref name=Tookey>{{cite web|last1=Tookey|first1=Chris|title=review: Actresses / Actrius / Actrices|url=http://www.movie-film-review.com/devFilm.asp?ID=12423|publisher=Movie - Film - Review|accessdate=21 December 2015}}</ref> [[MRQE]] wrote "This cinematic adaptation of a theatrical work is true to the original, but does not stray far from a theatrical rendering of the story."<ref name=MRQE>{{cite web|last1=staff|title=Actrius (1997)|url=http://www.mrqe.com/movie_reviews/actrius-m100030469|publisher=[[MRQE]]|accessdate=21 December 2015}}</ref> ===Awards and nominations=== * 1997, won 'Best Catalan Film' at [[Butaca Awards]] for [[Ventura Pons]] * 1997, won 'Best Catalan Film Actress' at Butaca Awards, shared by [[Núria Espert]], [[Rosa Maria Sardà]], [[Anna Lizaran]], and [[Mercè Pons]] * 1998, nominated for 'Best Screenplay' at [[Goya Awards]], shared by [[Josep Maria Benet i Jornet]] and Ventura Pons ==References== {{reflist}} ==External links== * {{IMDb title|0115462|Actresses}} * {{official website|https://web.archive.org/web/20090217140746/http://venturapons.com/filmografia/actrices.html}} [[Wayback Machine|as archived February 17, 2009]] (Spanish) [[Category:1997 films]] [[Category:1990s drama films]] [[Category:Spanish films]] [[Category:Catalan-language films]] [[Category:Films set in Barcelona]] [[Category:Barcelona in fiction]] [[Category:Films directed by Ventura Pons]] 6ia3kutp8p93hoiuwt82ietwg3emssm 0 332 702958373 691832497 2016-02-02T17:10:32Z Widr 13975403 Image renamed wikitext text/x-wiki {{Use dmy dates|date=June 2013}} {{Infobox book|<!-- See Wikipedia:WikiProject_Novels or Wikipedia:WikiProject_Books --> | name = '''Animalia''' | image = Animalia (book cover).jpg | caption = | alt = Book cover: a larger picture framed by smaller pictures, all of which contain different animals, and title with author at the top | author = [[Graeme Base]] | illustrator = [[Graeme Base]] | country = Australia | language = English | genre = [[Picture books]] | publisher = [[Harcourt Brace Jovanovich]] | release_date = 1986 | media_type = Print (hardcover) | pages = 32 | isbn = 0-810-91868-4 | oclc = }} <!--{{Infobox publication|image=Animalia.jpg|caption=Book cover}}--> '''''Animalia''''' is an illustrated [[Children's literature|children's book]] by [[Graeme Base]]. It was originally published in 1986, followed by a tenth anniversary edition in 1996, and a 25th anniversary edition in 2012. Over three million copies have been sold.<ref>{{cite web|last=Puffin Books|title=Animalia 25th Anniversary Edition|url=http://www.puffin.com.au/products/9780670076673/animalia-25th-anniversary-edition|accessdate=7 June 2013}}</ref> A special numbered and signed anniversary edition was also published in 1996, with an embossed gold jacket.<ref>{{cite web|last=ABE Books|title=Animalia (Numbered and Signed anniversary edition)|url=http://www.abebooks.com/Animalia-Numbered-Signed-Anniversary-Edition-Base/3201558151/bd|accessdate=8 June 2013}}</ref> ==Synopsis== ''Animalia'' is an [[alliteration|alliterative]] [[alphabet]] book and contains twenty-six illustrations, one for each letter of the alphabet. Each illustration features an animal from the animal kingdom (A is for [[alligator]], B is for [[butterfly]], etc.) along with a short poem utilizing the letter of the page for many of the words. The illustrations contain many other objects beginning with that letter that the reader can try to identify. As an additional challenge, the author has hidden a picture of himself as a child in every picture. ==Related products== Julia MacRae Books published an ''Animalia'' [[colouring book]] in 2008.<ref>{{cite web|last=Penguin Books|title=Animalia Colouring Book|url=http://www.penguin.com.au/products/9781405904674/animalia-colouring-book|accessdate=8 June 2013}}</ref> [[Abrams Books|H. N. Abrams]] also published a wall calendar colouring book version for children the same year.<ref>{{cite web|last=LibraryThing.com|title=Animalia 2008 Coloring Calendar|url=http://www.librarything.com/work/6090521|accessdate=8 June 2013}}</ref> H. N. Abrams published ''The Animalia Wall Frieze'', a fold-out over 26 feet in length, in which the author created new riddles for each letter.<ref>{{cite web|last=BookFinder.com|title=The Animalia Wall Frieze|url=http://www.bookfinder.com/dir/i/The_Animalia_Wall_Frieze/0810924757/|accessdate=8 June 2013}}</ref> The Great American Puzzle Factory created a 300-piece jigsaw puzzle based on the book's cover.<ref>{{cite web|last=Amazon.com|title=Animalia 300-piece jigsaw puzzle|url=http://www.amazon.com/Animalia-Graeme-Piece-Jigsaw-Puzzle/sim/B000R2ZUCE/2|accessdate=8 June 2013}}</ref> ==Adaptations== A [[Animalia (TV series)|television series]] was also created, based on the book, which airs in the United States, Australia, Canada, the United Kingdom, Norway and [[Venezuela]]. It also airs on [[Minimax (TV channel)|Minimax]] for the [[Czech Republic]] and [[Slovakia]]. And recently in [[Greece]] on the channel [[ET1 (Greece)|ET1]]. The [[Australian Children's Television Foundation]] released a teaching resource DVD-ROM in 2011 to accompany the TV series with teaching aids for classroom use.<ref>{{cite web|last=Curriculum Press|title=Animalia - Primary teaching resource|url=http://www.curriculumpress.edu.au/main/goproduct/13167|accessdate=7 June 2013}}</ref> In 2010, The Base Factory and AppBooks released Animalia as an application for [[iPad]] and [[iPhone]]/[[iPod Touch]].<ref>{{cite web|last=MyBookCorner.com.au|title=Animalia - Anniversary Edition|url=http://www.mybookcorner.com.au/apps/611-animalia-anniversary-edition|accessdate=7 June 2013}}</ref> ==Awards== ''Animalia'' won the Young Australian's Best Book Award in 1987 for Best Picture Story Book.<ref>{{cite web|last=Yabba.org|title=Award Winners - 1986 through 2011|url=http://yabba.org.au/award-winners-1986-through-2011/|accessdate=8 June 2013}}</ref> The [[Children's Book Council of Australia]] designated ''Animalia'' a 1987 [[Children's Book of the Year Award: Picture Book|Picture Book of the Year]]: Honour Book.<ref>{{cite web|last=The Children's Book Council of Australia|title=Winners and Commended Books 1980 - 1989|url=http://cbca.org.au/8089.htm|accessdate=8 June 2013}}</ref> Kid's Own Australian Literature Awards named ''Animalia'' the 1988 Picture Book Winner.<ref>{{cite web|last=KOALA New South Wales|title=Complete list of KOALA winners 1987 to 2012|url=http://www.koalansw.org.au/storage/Complete%20list%20winners%201987%20to%202012.pdf|accessdate=8 June 2013}}</ref> ==References== {{reflist|2}} ==External links== {{Portal |Children's literature}} * [http://www.graemebase.com Graeme Base's official website] * [http://www.animalia.tv Animalia The Television Series official website] * [http://www.thelittlebigbookclub.com.au/sites/thelittlebigbookclub.com.au/files/files/title_resource/learning_time_2-3_years_july2011.pdf A Learning Time activity guide] for ''Animalia'' created by The Little Big Book Club {{Graeme Base}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Animalia (Book)}} [[Category:Children's picture books]] [[Category:Alphabet books]] [[Category:1986 books]] [[Category:Picture books by Graeme Base]] [[Category:Puzzle books]] [[Category:Australian children's books]] i23d95fz201h4qd2ew86t5m2bqknsls 0 334 715394232 715028919 2016-04-15T14:19:03Z Kvng 910180 Reverted [[WP:AGF|good faith]] edits by [[Special:Contributions/Tralala0|Tralala0]] ([[User talk:Tralala0|talk]]): No improvement. ([[WP:TW|TW]]) wikitext text/x-wiki '''International Atomic Time''' ('''TAI''', from the French name '''{{lang|fr|''Temps Atomique International''}}'''<ref>Temps atomique 1975</ref>) is a high-precision atomic [[coordinate time|coordinate]] [[time standard]] based on the notional passage of [[proper time]] on [[Earth]]'s [[geoid]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://adsabs.harvard.edu/cgi-bin/nph-bib_query?bibcode=1986CeMec..38..155G |title=Is the International Atomic Time TAI a coordinate time or a proper time? |publisher=Adsabs.harvard.edu |date= |accessdate=8 May 2013}}</ref> It is the basis for [[Coordinated Universal Time]] (UTC), which is used for civil timekeeping all over the Earth's surface, and for [[Terrestrial Time]], which is used for astronomical calculations. {{as of|2015|6|30}} when the last [[leap second]] was added,<ref name="Bulletin C 49">{{cite web|url=http://hpiers.obspm.fr/eoppc/bul/bulc/bulletinc.49|first=Danie|last=Gambis|title=Bulletin C 49|publisher=[[IERS]]|location=Paris|date=5 January 2015|accessdate=5 January 2015}}</ref> TAI is exactly 36 seconds ahead of UTC. The 36 seconds results from the initial difference of 10 seconds at the start of 1972, plus 26 leap seconds in UTC since 1972. Time coordinates on the TAI scales are conventionally specified using traditional means of specifying days, carried over from non-uniform time standards based on the rotation of the Earth. Specifically, both [[Julian Date]]s and the [[Gregorian calendar]] are used. TAI in this form was synchronised with [[Universal Time]] at the beginning of 1958, and the two have drifted apart ever since, due to the changing motion of the Earth. ==Operation== TAI as a time scale is a [[weighted average]] of the time kept by over 400 [[atomic clock]]s<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://iag.dgfi.badw.de/fileadmin/IAG-docs/Travaux2013/08_BIPM.pdf |title=Bureau International des Poids et Mesures (BIPM) Time Department | publisher=Report of the International Association of Geodesy 2011-2013 |date= |accessdate=19 January 2015}}</ref> in over 50 national laboratories worldwide.{{sfn|Time|n.d.}} The clocks are compared using [[Global Positioning System|GPS]] signals and [[two-way satellite time and frequency transfer]].<ref>Circular T 2009.</ref> Due to the averaging it is far more stable than any clock would be alone (see [[signal averaging]] for a discussion). The majority of the clocks are [[Atomic clock|caesium clocks]]; the definition of the [[International System of Units|SI]] [[second]] is written in terms of [[caesium]].<ref>McCarthy &Seidelmann 2009, 207, 214</ref> The participating institutions each broadcast, in [[real-time data|real time]], a frequency signal with [[timecode]]s, which is their estimate of TAI. Time codes are usually published in the form of UTC, which differs from TAI by a well-known integer number of seconds. These time scales are denoted in the form ''UTC(NPL)'' in the UTC form, where ''NPL'' in this case identifies the [[National Physical Laboratory, UK]]. The TAI form may be denoted ''TAI(NPL)''. The latter is not to be confused with ''TA(NPL)'', which denotes an independent atomic time scale, not synchronised to TAI or to anything else. The clocks at different institutions are regularly compared against each other. The [[International Bureau of Weights and Measures]] (BIPM, France), combines these measurements to retrospectively calculate the weighted average that forms the most stable time scale possible.<ref>"Time" n.d.</ref> This combined time scale is published monthly in [ftp://ftp2.bipm.fr/pub/tai/publication/cirt/ Circular T], and is the [[Canonical form|canonical]] TAI. This time scale is expressed in the form of tables of differences UTC-UTC(''k'') (equivalent to TAI-TAI(''k'')) for each participating institution ''k''. (The same circular also gives tables of TAI-TA(''k''), for the various unsynchronised atomic time scales.) Errors in publication may be corrected by issuing a revision of the faulty Circular T or by errata in a subsequent Circular T. Aside from this, once published in Circular T the TAI scale is not revised. In hindsight it is possible to discover errors in TAI, and to make better estimates of the true proper time scale. Doing so does not create another version of TAI; it is instead considered to be creating a better realisation of [[Terrestrial Time]] (TT). ==History== Early atomic time scales consisted of quartz clocks with frequencies calibrated by a single atomic clock; the atomic clocks were not operated continuously. Atomic timekeeping services started experimentally in 1955, using the first caesium atomic clock at the [[National Physical Laboratory (United Kingdom)|National Physical Laboratory, UK (NPL)]]. The "Greenwich Atomic" (GA) scale began in 1955 at the [[Royal Greenwich Observatory]]. The [[International Time Bureau]] (BIH) began a time scale, T_m or AM, in July 1955, using both local caesium clocks and comparisons to distant clocks using the phase of [[VLF]] radio signals. The [[United States Naval Observatory]] began the A.1 scale 13 September 1956, using an Atomichron commercial atomic clock, followed by the NBS-A scale at the National Bureau of Standards, [[Boulder, Colorado]]. Both the BIH scale and A.1 were defined by an [[epoch (reference date)|epoch]] at the beginning of 1958: it was set to read Julian Date 2436204.5 (1 January 1958 00:00:00) at the corresponding [[UT2]] instant. The procedures used by the BIH evolved, and the name for the time scale changed: "A3" in 1963 and "TA(BIH)" in 1969.<ref>McCarthy & Seidelmann 2009, 199&ndash;201.</ref> This synchronisation was inevitably imperfect, depending as it did on the [[astronomy|astronomical]] realisation of UT2. At the time, UT2 as published by various observatories differed by several hundredths of a second. The SI second was defined in terms of the caesium atom in 1967, and in 1971 the name International Atomic Time (TAI) was assigned to a time scale based on SI seconds with no leap seconds.<ref>McCarthy & Seidelmann 2009, 202&ndash;4.</ref> During this time, irregularities in the atomic time were detected and corrected. In 1967 it was suggested that nearby masses caused clocks to operate at different rates, but this was disproven in 1968.<ref>William Markowitz. "Nondependence of Frequency on Mass: A Differential Experiment" [[doi:10.1126/science.162.3860.1387]]</ref> In the 1970s, it became clear that the clocks participating in TAI were ticking at different rates due to [[gravitational time dilation]], and the combined TAI scale therefore corresponded to an average of the altitudes of the various clocks. Starting from Julian Date 2443144.5 (1 January 1977 00:00:00), corrections were applied to the output of all participating clocks, so that TAI would correspond to proper time at [[mean sea level]] (the geoid). Because the clocks had been on average well above sea level, this meant that TAI slowed down, by about one part in a trillion. The former uncorrected time scale continues to be published, under the name ''EAL'' (''Echelle Atomique Libre'', meaning ''Free Atomic Scale'').<ref>McCarthy & Seidelmann, 215.</ref> The instant that the gravitational correction started to be applied serves as the epoch for [[Barycentric Coordinate Time]] (TCB), [[Geocentric Coordinate Time]] (TCG), and [[Terrestrial Time]] (TT), which represent three fundamental time scales in the solar system.<ref>Brumberg V.A. & Kopeikin S.M., "Relativistic time scales in the solar system", Cel. Mech. Dyn. Astron., Vol. 48, pp. 23 - 44, 1990 http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1990CeMDA..48...23B</ref> All three of these time scales were defined to read JD 2443144.5003725 (1 January 1977 00:00:32.184) exactly at that instant. (The offset is to provide continuity with the older [[Ephemeris Time]].) TAI was henceforth a realisation of TT, with the equation TT(TAI) = TAI + 32.184&nbsp;s.<ref>McCarthy & Seidelmann, 218&ndash;9.</ref> The continued existence of TAI was questioned in a 2007 letter from the BIPM to the ITU-R which stated "In the case of a redefinition of UTC without leap seconds, the CCTF would consider discussing the possibility of suppressing TAI, as it would remain parallel to the continuous UTC."<ref>*{{cite web |title=CCTF 09-27 |url=http://www.bipm.org/cc/CCTF/Allowed/18/CCTF_09-27_note_on_UTC-ITU-R.pdf |date=3 September 2007 |publisher=International Bureau of Weights and Measures}}</ref> In 1961, UTC began. UTC is a discontinuous time scale composed from segments that are linear transformations of atomic time, the discontinuities being arranged so that UTC approximated [[UT2]] until the end of 1971, and [[UT1]] thereafter. This was a compromise arrangement for a broadcast time scale: a linear transformation of the BIH's atomic time meant that the time scale was stable and internationally synchronised, while approximating UT1 means that tasks such as [[navigation]] which require a source of Universal Time continue to be well served by public time broadcasts.<ref>McCarthy & Seidelmann 2009, 227&ndash;9.</ref> ==See also== * [[Time and frequency transfer]] * [[Clock synchronization]] * [[Network Time Protocol]] * [[Precision Time Protocol]], a related though separate technology * [[Magneto-optical trap]] ==Notes== {{Reflist|30em}} ==References== * {{cite web |title=History of TAI−UTC |url=ftp://maia.usno.navy.mil/ser7/tai-utc.dat |publisher=Time Service Dept., United States Naval Observatory |date=2009 |accessdate=4 January 2010 }} * {{cite web |title=International Atomic Time |url=http://www.bipm.org/en/scientific/tai/tai.html |publisher=[[International Bureau of Weights and Measures]] |accessdate=22 February 2013 }} * {{cite web |title = Time |url=http://www.bipm.org/en/scientific/tai/ |publisher = International Bureau of Weights and Measures |date = n.d. |accessdate = 22 May 2013 |ref={{sfnRef|Time|n.d.}} }} * {{Cite book |title=TIME&mdash;From Earth Rotation to Atomic Physics |authorlink1=Dennis McCarthy (scientist) |last1=McCarthy |first1=D. D. |last2=Seidelmann |first2=P. K. |isbn=978-3-527-40780-4 |publisher=Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA |location=Weinheim |date=2009 }} ==External links== * [http://www.bipm.fr/enus/5_Scientific/c_time/time_1.html Bureau International des Poids et Mesures: TAI] * [http://www.npl.co.uk/time/ Time and Frequency Section - National Physical Laboratory, UK] * [http://hpiers.obspm.fr IERS website] * [http://www.nist.gov/physlab/div847/faq.cfm NIST Time and Frequency FAQs] * [http://www.ucolick.org/~sla/leapsecs/timescales.html History of time scales] * [http://www.nist.gov/pml/div688/grp50/primary-frequency-standards.cfm NIST-F1 Cesium Fountain Atomic Clock] * {{cite web|url=http://inms-ienm.nrc-cnrc.gc.ca/research/optical_frequency_projects_e.html#femtosecond|title=Optical frequency comb for metrology and timekeeping|archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20090125051853/http://inms-ienm.nrc-cnrc.gc.ca/research/optical_frequency_projects_e.html#femtosecond|archivedate=25 January 2009}} * [http://jjy.nict.go.jp/index-e.html Japan Standard Time Project, NICT, Japan] * [ftp://ftp2.bipm.org/pub/tai/scale/timeservices09.pdf Bureau International des Poids et Mesures: TAI TIME DISSEMINATION SERVICES, AUTHORITIES RESPONSIBLE FOR THE TIME DISSEMINATION SERVICES] * [http://www.ipses.com/eng/In-depth-analysis/Standard-of-time-definition Standard of time definition: UTC, GPS, LORAN and TAI] {{Time Topics}} {{Time measurement and standards}} {{Use dmy dates|date=July 2015}} [[Category:Time scales]] rofcu3ezxlpexh3a2fp8axbzmea7a5i 0 336 717189062 717129925 2016-04-26T07:24:33Z Mcoop 920410 /* Religious viewpoints */Simplified paragraph text wikitext text/x-wiki {{for|the concept in behavioral ecology|Altruism (biology)}} {{Use dmy dates|date=June 2013}} [[File:Belisaire demandant l'aumone Jacques-Louis David.jpg|thumb|Giving [[alms]] to the poor is often considered an altruistic action.]] '''Altruism''' or '''selflessness''' is the principle or practice of concern for the [[Quality of life|welfare]] of others. It is a traditional [[virtue]] in many cultures and a core aspect of various religious traditions and secular worldviews, though the concept of "others" toward whom concern should be directed can vary among cultures and religions. Altruism or selflessness is the opposite of [[selfishness]]. The word was coined by the French philosopher [[Auguste Comte]] in French, as ''altruisme'', for an [[antonym]] of egoism.<ref>{{cite web|title=altruism (n .)|url=http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=altruism|work=Online Etymology Dictionary|publisher=Douglas Harper|accessdate=19 September 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Teske|first1=Nathan|title=Political Activists in America: The Identity Construction Model of Political Participation|date=2009|publisher=Pennsylvania State University Press|location=University Park, Pa.|isbn=9780271035468|page=101|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7B38I2UEPa0C&dq}}</ref> He derived it from the Italian ''altrui'', which in turn was derived from Latin ''alteri'', meaning "[[alterity|other people]]" or "somebody else".<ref>{{cite book|last1=Ciciloni|first1=Ferdinando|title=A Grammar of the Italian Language|date=1825|publisher=John Murray|location=London|page=64|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=neAGAAAAQAAJ&dq}}</ref> Altruism in biological organisms can be defined as an individual performing an action which is at a cost to themselves (e.g., pleasure and quality of life, time, probability of survival or reproduction), but benefits, either directly or indirectly, another third-party individual, without the expectation of reciprocity or compensation for that action. Steinberg suggests a definition for altruism in the clinical setting, that is "intentional and voluntary actions that aim to enhance the welfare of another person in the absence of any quid pro quo external rewards".<ref>{{Cite journal|url = |title = Altruism in medicine: its definition, nature, and dilemmas|last = Steinberg|first = David|date = 2010|journal = Cambridge Quarterly of Healthcare Ethics |volume=19 |issue=2 |pages=249-57|doi = |pmid = |access-date = }}</ref> Altruism can be distinguished from feelings of [[loyalty]], in that whilst the latter is predicated upon social relationships, altruism does not consider relationships. Much debate exists as to whether ''"true"'' altruism is possible in human psychology. The theory of [[psychological egoism]] suggests that no act of sharing, helping or sacrificing can be described as truly altruistic, as the actor may receive an [[intrinsic]] reward in the form of personal [[gratification]]. The validity of this argument depends on whether [[Motivation#Intrinsic and extrinsic motivation|intrinsic rewards]] qualify as "benefits". The actor also may not be expecting a reward. The term ''[[altruism (ethics)|altruism]]'' may also refer to an ethical doctrine that claims that individuals are morally obliged to benefit others. Used in this sense, it is usually contrasted with [[ethical egoism|egoism]], which is defined as acting to the benefit of one's self. ==The notion of altruism== The concept has a long history in [[Philosophy|philosophical]] and [[Ethics|ethical]] thought. The term was originally coined in the 19th century by the founding [[sociologist]] and [[philosopher of science]], [[Auguste Comte]], and has become a major topic for [[psychologists]] (especially [[evolutionary psychology]] researchers), [[evolutionary biologists]], and [[ethology|ethologists]]. Whilst ideas about altruism from one field can have an impact on the other fields, the different methods and focuses of these fields always lead to different perspectives on altruism. In simple terms, altruism is caring about the welfare of other people and acting to help them. ==Scientific viewpoints<!--linked from 'Evolution of morality'-->== ===Anthropology=== [[Marcel Mauss]]'s book ''The Gift'' contains a passage: "Note on alms." This note describes the evolution of the notion of alms (and by extension of altruism) from the notion of sacrifice. In it, he writes: <blockquote>Alms are the fruits of a moral notion of the gift and of fortune on the one hand, and of a notion of sacrifice, on the other. Generosity is an obligation, because Nemesis avenges the poor and the gods for the superabundance of happiness and wealth of certain people who should rid themselves of it. This is the ancient morality of the gift, which has become a principle of justice. The gods and the spirits accept that the share of wealth and happiness that has been offered to them and had been hitherto destroyed in useless sacrifices should serve the poor and children.</blockquote> * Compare [[altruism (ethics)|Altruism (ethics) – perception of altruism as self-sacrifice]]. * Compare [[alms|explanation of alms in various scriptures]]. ===Evolutionary explanations=== {{Main|Altruism in animals|Evolution of morality|Evolutionary ethics}} [[File:Manner of Francis Wheatley, Giving alms to beggar children.jpg|thumb|Giving alms to beggar children]] In the science of [[ethology]] (the study of animal behaviour), and more generally in the study of [[social evolution]], altruism refers to behaviour by an individual that increases the [[fitness (biology)|fitness]] of another individual while decreasing the fitness of the actor.<ref name="Bell2008">{{cite book| last = Bell| first = Graham| title = Selection: the mechanism of evolution| year = 2008| publisher = Oxford University Press| location = Oxford| isbn = 0-19-856972-6| pages = 367–368 }}</ref> In [[evolutionary psychology]] this may be applied to a wide range of human behaviors such as charity, emergency aid, help to coalition partners, [[Tip (gratuity)|tipping]], courtship gifts, production of [[public good]]s, and [[environmentalism]].<ref name="AEP1">Pat Barcaly. The evolution of charitable behaviour and the power of reputation. In {{Cite journal | last1 = Roberts | first1 = S. C. | editor1-last = Roberts | doi = 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199586073.001.0001 | editor1-first = S. Craig | title = Applied Evolutionary Psychology | year = 2011 | publisher = Oxford University Press| isbn = 9780199586073 | pmid = | pmc = }}</ref> Theories of apparently altruistic behavior were accelerated by the need to produce theories compatible with evolutionary origins. Two related strands of research on altruism have emerged from traditional evolutionary analyses and from [[evolutionary game theory]] a mathematical model and analysis of behavioural strategies. Some of the proposed mechanisms are: * [[Kin selection]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Biological Altruism|url=http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/altruism-biological/#2|work=Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy|last=Okasha|first=Samir|accessdate=13 May 2011}}</ref> That animals and humans are more altruistic towards close kin than to distant kin and non-kin has been confirmed in numerous studies across many different cultures. Even subtle cues indicating kinship may unconsciously increase altruistic behavior. One kinship cue is facial resemblance. One study found that slightly altering photographs so that they more closely resembled the faces of study participants increased the trust the participants expressed regarding depicted persons. Another cue is having the same family name, especially if rare, and this has been found to increase helping behavior. Another study found more cooperative behavior the greater the number of perceived kin in a group. Using kinship terms in political speeches increased audience agreement with the speaker in one study. This effect was especially strong for firstborns, who are typically close to their families.<ref name=AEP1/> * Vested interests. People are likely to suffer if their friends, allies, and similar social [[ingroup]]s suffer or even disappear. Helping such group members may therefore eventually benefit the altruist. Making ingroup membership more noticeable increases cooperativeness. Extreme self-sacrifice towards the ingroup may be adaptive if a hostile [[Ingroups and outgroups|outgroup]] threatens to kill the entire ingroup.<ref name=AEP1/> * [[Reciprocal altruism]].<ref>{{cite journal|doi=10.1086/406755|last1=Trivers|first1=R.L.|year=1971|title=The evolution of reciprocal altruism|journal=Quarterly Review of Biology|volume=46|pages=35–57}}</ref> See also [[Reciprocity (evolution)]]. ** Direct [[Reciprocity (social psychology)|reciprocity]].<ref>{{cite journal|doi=10.1126/science.7466396 |author=R Axelrod and WD Hamilton |title=The evolution of cooperation |journal=[[Science (journal)|Science]] |volume=211 |issue=4489 |date=27 March 1981 |pages=1390–1396 |pmid=7466396 |bibcode = 1981Sci...211.1390A}}</ref> Research shows that it can be beneficial to help others if there is a chance that they can and will reciprocate the help. The effective [[tit for tat]] strategy is one [[game theory|game theoretic]] example. Many people seem to be following a similar strategy by cooperating if and only if others cooperate in return.<ref name=AEP1/> ::One consequence is that people are more cooperative if it is more likely that individuals will interact again in the future. People tend to be less cooperative if they perceive that the frequency of helpers in the population is lower. They tend to help less if they see non-cooperativeness by others and this effect tend to be stronger than the opposite effect of seeing cooperative behaviors. Simply changing the cooperative framing of a proposal may increase cooperativeness such as calling it a "Community Game" instead of a "Wall Street Game."<ref name=AEP1/> ::A tendency towards reciprocity implies that people will feel obligated to respond if someone helps them. This has been used by charities that give small gifts to potential donors hoping thereby to induce reciprocity. Another method is to announce publicly that someone has given a large donation. The tendency to reciprocate can even generalize so people become more helpful toward others in general after being helped. On the other hand, people will avoid or even retaliate against those perceived not to be cooperating. People sometimes mistakenly fail to help when they intended to, or their helping may not be noticed, which may cause unintended conflicts. As such, it may be an optimal strategy to be slightly forgiving of and have a slightly generous interpretation of non-cooperation.<ref name=AEP1/> ::People are more likely to cooperate on a task if they can communicate with one another first. This may be due to better assessments of cooperativeness or due to exchange of promises. They are more cooperative if they can gradually build trust, instead of being asked to give extensive help immediately. Direct reciprocity and cooperation in a group can be increased by changing the focus and incentives from intra-group competition to larger scale competitions such as between groups or against the general population. Thus, giving grades and promotions based only on an individual's performance relative to a small local group, as is common, may reduce cooperative behaviors in the group.<ref name=AEP1/> ** Indirect reciprocity.<ref>{{cite journal|doi=10.1038/nature04131|author=Martin Nowak & Karl Sigmund|title=Evolution of indirect reciprocity|journal=[[Nature (journal)|Nature]]|volume=437|issue=27|date=October 2005|pages=1291–1298|pmid=16251955|bibcode = 2005Natur.437.1291N }}</ref> The avoidance of poor reciprocators and cheaters causes a person's [[reputation]] to become very important. A person with a good reputation for reciprocity have a higher chance of receiving help even from persons they have had no direct interactions with previously.<ref name=AEP1/> ** [[Strong reciprocity]].<ref>{{cite journal|author=[[Herbert Gintis]]|title=Strong Reciprocity and Human Sociality|journal=[[Journal of Theoretical Biology]]|volume=206|issue=2|date=September 2000|pmid=10966755|pages=169–179|doi=10.1006/jtbi.2000.2111}}</ref> A form of reciprocity where some individuals seem to spend more resources on cooperating and punishing than would be most beneficial as predicted by several established theories of altruism. A number of theories have been proposed as explanations as well as criticisms regarding its existence. ** Pseudo-reciprocity.<ref>{{cite journal|year=2003|title=Genetic and Cultural Evolution of Cooperation, Chapter 11|isbn=0-262-08326-4|publisher=Dahlem Workshop Reports|location=Berlin}}</ref> An organism behaves altruistically and the recipient does not reciprocate but has an increased chance of acting in a way that is selfish but also as a byproduct benefits the altruist. * [[Signalling theory|Costly signaling]] and the [[handicap principle]].<ref>{{Cite journal|doi=10.2307/3677205|last1=Zahavi|first1=A.|year=1995|title=Altruism as a handicap – The limitations of kin selection and reciprocity|jstor=3677205|journal=Avian Biol|volume=26|issue=1|pages=1–3}}</ref> Since altruism takes away resources from the altruist it can be an "honest signal" of resource availability and the abilities needed to gather resources. This may signal to others that the altruist is a valuable potential partner. It may also be a signal of interactive and cooperative intentions since those not interacting further in the future gain nothing from the costly signaling. It is unclear if costly signaling can indicate a long-term cooperative personality but people have increased trust for those who help. Costly signaling is pointless if everyone has the same traits, resources, and cooperative intentions but become a potentially more important signal if the population increasingly varies on these characteristics.<ref name=AEP1/> :Hunters widely sharing the meat has been seen as a costly signal of ability and research has found that good hunters have higher reproductive success and more adulterous relations even if they themselves receive no more of the hunted meat than anyone else. Similarly, holding large feasts and giving large donations has been seen as ways of demonstrating one's resources. Heroic risk-taking has also been interpreted as a costly signal of ability.<ref name=AEP1/> [[File:FEMA - 15337 - Photograph by Andrea Booher taken on 09-10-2005 in Texas.jpg|thumb|Volunteers assist Hurricane victims at the [[Houston Astrodome]], following Hurricane Katrina.]] :Both indirect reciprocity and costly signaling depend on the value of reputation and tend to make similar predictions. One is that people will be more helping when they know that their helping behavior will be communicated to people they will interact with later, is publicly announced, is discussed, or is simply being observed by someone else. This have been documented in many studies. The effect is sensitive to subtle cues such as people being more helpful when there were stylized eyespots instead of a logo on a computer screen. Weak reputational cues such as eyespots may become unimportant if there are stronger cues present and may lose their effect with continued exposure unless reinforced with real reputational effects.<ref name=AEP1/> Public displays such as public weeping for dead celebrities and participation in demonstrations may be influenced by a desire to be seen as altruistic. People who know that they are publicly monitored sometimes even wastefully donate money they know are not needed by recipient which may be because of reputational concerns.<ref name="AEP2">Wendy Iredal and Mark van Vugt. Altruism as showing off: a signaling perspective on promoting green behaviour and acts of kindness. In {{Cite journal | last1 = Roberts | first1 = S. C. | editor1-last = Roberts | doi = 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199586073.001.0001 | editor1-first = S. Craig | title = Applied Evolutionary Psychology | year = 2011 | publisher = Oxford University Press| isbn = 9780199586073 | pmid = | pmc = }}</ref> :Women have been found to find altruistic men to be attractive partners. When looking for a long-term partner, altruism may be a preferred trait as it may indicate that he is also willing to share resources with her and her children. It has been shown that men perform altruistic acts in the early stages of a romantic relationship or simply when in the presence of an attractive woman. While both sexes state that kindness is the most preferable trait in a partner there is some evidence that men place less value on this than women and that women may not be more altruistic in presence of an attractive man. Men may even avoid altruistic women in short-term relationships which may be because they expect less success.<ref name=AEP1/><ref name=AEP2/> :People may compete over getting the benefits of a high reputation which may cause [[competitive altruism]]. On the other hand, in some experiments a proportion of people do not seem to care about reputation and they do not help more even if this is conspicuous. This may possibly be due to reasons such as [[psychopathy]] or that they are so attractive that they need not be seen to be altruistic. The reputational benefits of altruism occur in the future as compared to the immediate costs of altruism in the present. While humans and other organisms generally place less value on future costs/benefits as compared to those in the present, some have shorter time horizons than others and these people tend to be less cooperative.<ref name=AEP1/> :Explicit [[extrinsic]] rewards and punishments have been found to sometimes actually have the opposite effect on behaviors compared to intrinsic rewards. This may be because such extrinsic, top-down incentives may replace (partially or in whole) intrinsic and reputational incentives, motivating the person to focus on obtaining the extrinsic rewards, which overall may make the behaviors less desirable. Another effect is that people would like altruism to be due to a personality characteristic rather than due to overt reputational concerns and simply pointing out that there are reputational benefits of an action may actually reduce them. This may possibly be used as derogatory tactic against altruists, especially by those who are non-cooperators. A counterargument is that doing good due to reputational concerns is better than doing no good at all.<ref name=AEP1/> * [[Group selection]]. It has controversially been argued by some evolutionary scientists such as [[E. O. Wilson]] that natural selection can act at the level of non-kin groups to produce adaptations that benefit a non-kin group even if these adaptions are detrimental at the individual level. Thus, while altruistic persons may under some circumstances be outcompeted by less altruistic persons at the individual level, according to group selection theory the opposite may occur at the group level where groups consisting of the more altruistic persons may outcompete groups consisting of the less altruistic persons. Such altruism may only extend to ingroup members while there may instead prejudice and antagonism against outgroup members (See also [[in-group favoritism]]). Group selection theory has been criticized by many other evolutionary scientists.<ref>Leon Neyfakh Where does good come from?, 17 April 2011, http://www.boston.com/bostonglobe/ideas/articles/2011/04/17/where_does_good_come_from/</ref><ref>E. O. Wilson. Biologist E.O. Wilson on Why Humans, Like Ants, Need a Tribe. 2 April 2012. The Daily Beast. http://www.thedailybeast.com/newsweek/2012/04/01/biologist-e-o-wilson-on-why-humans-like-ants-need-a-tribe.html</ref> [[File:Helping the homeless.jpg|right|thumb|Helping the [[Homelessness|homeless]] in New York City]] Such explanations do not imply that humans are always consciously calculating how to increase their [[inclusive fitness]] when they are doing altruistic acts. Instead, evolution has shaped psychological mechanisms, such as emotions, that promote altruistic behaviors.<ref name=AEP1/> Every single instance of altruistic behavior need not always increase inclusive fitness; altruistic behaviors would have been selected for if such behaviors on average increased inclusive fitness in the ancestral environment. This need not imply that on average 50% or more of altruistic acts were beneficial for the altruist in the ancestral environment; if the benefits from helping the right person were very high it would be beneficial to err on the side of caution and usually be altruistic even if in most cases there were no benefits.<ref name=AEP1/> The benefits for the altruist may be increased and the costs reduced by being more altruistic towards certain groups. Research has found that people are more altruistic to kin than to no-kin, to friends than to strangers, to those attractive than to those unattractive, to non-competitors than to competitors, and to members ingroups than to members of outgroup.<ref name=AEP1/> The study of altruism was the initial impetus behind [[George R. Price]]'s development of the [[Price equation]], which is a mathematical equation used to study genetic evolution. An interesting example of altruism is found in the cellular [[slime mould]]s, such as ''[[Dictyostelid|Dictyostelium]] mucoroides.'' These protists live as individual [[amoebae]] until starved, at which point they aggregate and form a multicellular fruiting body in which some cells sacrifice themselves to promote the survival of other cells in the fruiting body. Selective investment theory proposes that close social bonds, and associated emotional, cognitive, and neurohormonal mechanisms, evolved in order to facilitate long-term, high-cost altruism between those closely depending on one another for survival and reproductive success.<ref>{{cite journal|doi=10.1207/s15327965pli1701_01|last1=Brown|first1=S.L.|last2=Brown|first2=R.M.|year=2006|title=Selective investment theory: Recasting the functional significance of close relationships|url=http://icos.groups.si.umich.edu/Brown-Stephanie.pdf|format=PDF|journal=Psychological Inquiry|volume=17|pages=1–29}}</ref><ref>http://www.icts.res.in/media/uploads/Talk/Document/StLouis2011TelmoFIN.pdf</ref> Such cooperative behaviors have sometimes been seen as arguments for left-wing politics such by the Russian zoologist and anarchist [[Peter Kropotkin]] in his 1902 book ''[[Mutual Aid: A Factor of Evolution]]'' and [[Peter Singer]] in his book ''[[A Darwinian Left]].'' ====Initial evolutionary problematics==== There are problems of early stage evolution of altruism. A first emotionally empathic individual would, if it was genetic, have been effectively exploited to death by the preexisting non-empathic individuals.<ref>Epigenetic Inheritance and Evolution; The Lamarckian Dimension. by Eva Jablonka; Marion J. Lamb. Evolution (1996).</ref><ref>Evolution in Four Dimensions: Genetic, Epigenetic, Behavioral and Symbolic Variation in the History of Life by Eva Jablonka; Marion Lamb. (2007).</ref> This applies regardless how far back in evolution the problem is moved, not restricted to hominid but extending to pre-reptilian or anything in between including early mammals.<ref>Margulis, Lynn, and Dorion Sagan (1987). Microcosmos: Four Billion Years of Evolution from Our Microbial Ancestors, HarperCollins</ref> The first empathic individual would effectively be exploited every time another individual was in the right place at the right time to take advantage, so no evolutionary adaptation to exploiting empathic individuals would be required for the lethality to take effect.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Cooper Jr | first1 = W. E. | last2 = Pyron | first2 = R. A. | last3 = Garland Jr | first3 = T. | year = 2014 | title = Island tameness: living on islands reduces flight initiation distance | url = | journal = Proceedings of the Royal Society B | volume = 281 | issue = 1777| pages = 20133019| doi = 10.1098/rspb.2013.3019 }}</ref> It is de facto impossible that mutations for emotional empathy, ability to recognize it in others, and a direction of it towards those individuals would all occur at the same time.<ref>Provine, William B. (1986). Sewall Wright and Evolutionary Biology. University of Chicago Press.</ref><ref>Wright, S. (1932). "The roles of mutation, inbreeding, crossbreeding, and selection in evolution".</ref> An ability to recognize a non-existent behavior is of no evolutionary use and so cannot have pre-evolved.<ref>Edwards, A.W.F. (1994) The fundamental theorem of natural selection. Biological Reviews</ref><ref>Wassersug, J. D., and R. J. Wassersug, 1986. Fitness fallacies. Natural History</ref> ===Neurobiology=== Jorge Moll and Jordan Grafman, neuroscientists at the [[National Institutes of Health]] and LABS-D'Or Hospital Network (J.M.) provided the first evidence for the neural bases of altruistic giving in normal healthy volunteers, using [[functional magnetic resonance imaging]]. In their research, published in the [[Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences]] USA in October 2006,<ref>Human fronto–mesolimbic networks guide decisions about charitable donation, PNAS 2006:103(42);15623–15628</ref> they showed that both pure monetary rewards and charitable donations activated the [[Mesolimbic pathway|mesolimbic]] reward pathway, a primitive part of the brain that usually lights up in response to food and sex. However, when volunteers generously placed the interests of others before their own by making charitable donations, another brain circuit was selectively activated: the subgenual cortex/septal region. These structures are intimately related to social attachment and bonding in other species. Altruism, the experiment suggested, was not a superior moral faculty that suppresses basic selfish urges but rather was basic to the brain, hard-wired and pleasurable.<ref name="brain">{{cite news |url=http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2007/05/27/AR2007052701056.html |title=If It Feels Good to Be Good, It Might Be Only Natural |publisher=Washington Post |date=May 2007 |first=Shankar |last=Vedantam |accessdate=23 April 2010}}</ref> ===Psychology=== The International Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences defines ''psychological altruism'' as "a motivational state with the goal of increasing another’s welfare." Psychological altruism is contrasted with ''psychological egoism,'' which refers to the motivation to increase one’s own welfare.<ref name="encyclopedia">["Altruism." International Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences. Ed. William A. Darity, Jr. 2nd ed. Vol. 1. Detroit: Macmillan Reference USA, 2008. 87-88. Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 10 April 2012.]</ref> There has been some debate on whether or not humans are truly capable of psychological altruism.<ref name="batson3">[Batson, C. (2011). Altruism in humans. New York, NY US: Oxford University Press.]</ref> Some definitions specify a self-sacrificial nature to altruism and a lack of external rewards for altruistic behaviors.<ref name="prosocial">[Batson, C. (2012). A history of prosocial behavior research. In A. W. Kruglanski, [[Wolfgang Stroebe|W. Stroebe]], A. W. Kruglanski, (Eds.), Handbook of the history of social psychology (pp. 243–264). New York, NY US: Psychology Press.]</ref> However, because altruism ultimately benefits the self in many cases, the selflessness of altruistic acts is brought to question. The [[social exchange theory]] postulates that altruism only exists when benefits to the self outweigh costs to the self.<ref name="noaltruism">{{cite journal | last1 = Maner | first1 = J. K. | last2 = Luce | first2 = C. L. | last3 = Neuberg | first3 = S. L. | last4 = Cialdini | first4 = R. B. | last5 = Brown | first5 = S. | last6 = Sagarin | first6 = B. J. | year = 2002 | title = The effects of perspective taking on motivations for helping: Still no evidence for altruism | url = | journal = Personality And Social Psychology Bulletin | volume = 28 | issue = 11| pages = 1601–1610 | doi = 10.1177/014616702237586 }}</ref> [[Daniel Batson]] is a psychologist who examined this question and argues against the social exchange theory. He identified four major motives for altruism: altruism to ultimately benefit the self (egoism), to ultimately benefit the other person (altruism), to benefit a group (collectivism), or to uphold a moral principle ([[principlism]]). Altruism that ultimately serves selfish gains is thus differentiated from selfless altruism, but the general conclusion has been that empathy-induced altruism can be genuinely selfless.<ref name=" baston2">[Batson, C., Ahmad, N., & Stocks, E. L. (2011). Four forms of prosocial motivation: Egoism, altruism, collectivism, and principlism. In D. Dunning, D. Dunning (Eds.), Social motivation (pp. 103–126). New York, NY US: Psychology Press.]</ref> The ''[[empathy-altruism]] hypothesis'' basically states that psychological altruism does exist and is evoked by the empathic desire to help someone who is suffering. Feelings of empathic concern are contrasted with feelings of personal distress, which compel people to reduce their own unpleasant emotions. People with empathic concern help others in distress even when exposure to the situation could be easily avoided, whereas those lacking in empathic concern avoid helping unless it is difficult or impossible to avoid exposure to another's suffering.<ref name="encyclopedia"/> Helping behavior is seen in humans at about two years old, when a toddler is capable of understanding subtle emotional cues.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Svetlova|first1=M.|last2=Nichols|first2=S. R.|last3=Brownell|first3=C. A.|year=2010|title=Toddlers prosocial behavior: From instrumental to empathic to altruistic helping|journal=Child Development|volume=81|issue=6|pages=1814–1827|doi=10.1111/j.1467-8624.2010.01512.x|pmid=21077866|pmc=3088085}}</ref> [[File:Peace Corps Volunteer swearing in Cambodia, 2007.jpg|thumb|[[Peace Corps]] trainees swearing in as volunteers in [[Cambodia]], 4 April 2007]] In psychological research on altruism, studies often observe altruism as demonstrated through prosocial behaviors such as helping, comforting, sharing, cooperation, philanthropy, and community service.<ref name="prosocial"/> Research has found that people are most likely to help if they recognize that a person is in need and feel personal responsibility for reducing the person's distress. Research also suggests that the number of bystanders witnessing distress or suffering affects the likelihood of helping (the ''[[Bystander effect]]''). Greater numbers of bystanders decrease individual feelings of responsibility.<ref name="encyclopedia"/><ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Hudson | first1 = James M. | last2 = Bruckman | first2 = Amy S. | year = 2004 | title = The Bystander Effect: A Lens for Understanding Patterns of Participation | url = | journal = Journal of the Learning Sciences | volume = 13 | issue = 2| pages = 165–195 | doi = 10.1207/s15327809jls1302_2 }}</ref> However, a witness with a high level of empathic concern is likely to assume personal responsibility entirely regardless of the number of bystanders.<ref name="encyclopedia"/> A feeling of personal responsibility or - moral norm - has also strongly been associated with other pro-social behaviors such as charitable giving.<ref>{{cite journal|author=van der Linden, S.|title=Charitable Intent: A Moral or Social Construct? A Revised Theory of Planned Behavior Model|doi=10.1007/s12144-011-9122-1|journal=Current Psychology|year=2011|volume=30|issue=4 |pages=355–374}}</ref> Many studies have observed the effects of [[volunteering|volunteerism]] (as a form of altruism) on happiness and health and have consistently found a strong connection between volunteerism and current and future health and well-being.<ref name="volunteer1">{{cite journal|last1=Musick|first1=M. A.|last2=Wilson|first2=J.|year=2003|title=Volunteering and depression: The role of psychological and social resources in different age groups|journal=Social Science & Medicine|volume=56|issue=2|pages=259–269|doi=10.1016/S0277-9536(02)00025-4}}</ref><ref name="volunteer2">{{cite journal | last1 = Koenig | first1 = L. B. | last2 = McGue | first2 = M. | last3 = Krueger | first3 = R. F. | last4 = Bouchard | first4 = | year = 2007 | title = Religiousness, antisocial behavior, and altruism: Genetic and environmental mediation | url = | journal = Journal of Personality | volume = 75 | issue = 2| pages = 265–290 | doi = 10.1111/j.1467-6494.2007.00439.x }}</ref> In a study of older adults, those who volunteered were significantly higher on life satisfaction and will to live, and significantly lower in [[Depression (mood)|depression]], [[anxiety]], and [[somatization]].<ref name="elderly1">{{cite journal|last1=Hunter|first1=K. I.|last2=Hunter|first2=M. W.|year=1980|title=Psychosocial differences between elderly volunteers and non-volunteers|journal=The International Journal of Aging & Human Development|volume=12|issue=3|pages=205–213|doi=10.2190/0H6V-QPPP-7JK4-LR38}}</ref> Volunteerism and helping behavior have not only been shown to improve mental health, but physical health and longevity as well, attributable to the activity and social integration it encourages.<ref name="volunteer1"/><ref name="volunteer3">{{cite journal | last1 = Kayloe | first1 = J. C. | last2 = Krause | first2 = M. | year = 1985 | title = RARE FIND: or The value of volunteerism | url = | journal = Psychosocial Rehabilitation Journal | volume = 8 | issue = 4| pages = 49–56 | doi=10.1037/h0099659}}</ref><ref name="volunteer4">{{cite journal|last1=Brown|first1=S. L.|last2=Brown|first2=R.|last3=House|first3=J. S.|last4=Smith|first4=D. M.|year=2008|title=Coping with spousal loss: Potential buffering effects of self-reported helping behavior|journal=Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin|volume=34|issue=6|pages=849–861|doi=10.1177/0146167208314972|pmid=18344495}}</ref><ref name="volunteer5">{{cite journal|last1=Post|first1=S. G.|year=2005|title=Altruism, Happiness, and Health: It's Good to Be Good|journal=International Journal of Behavioral Medicine|volume=12|issue=2|pages=66–77|doi=10.1207/s15327558ijbm1202_4|pmid=15901215}}</ref> One study examined the physical health of mothers who volunteered over a 30-year period and found that 52% of those who did not belong to a volunteer organization experienced a major illness while only 36% of those who did volunteer experienced one.<ref name="volunteer6">{{cite journal |last1=Moen |first1=P. |last2=Dempster-Mcclain |first2=D. |last3=Williams |first3=R. M. |year=1992|title=Successful aging: A life-course perspective on women's multiple roles and health|journal=American Journal of Sociology|volume=97|issue=6|pages=1612–1638|doi=10.1086/229941}}</ref> A study on adults ages 55+ found that during the four-year study period, people who volunteered for two or more organizations had a 63% lower likelihood of dying. After controlling for prior health status, it was determined that volunteerism accounted for a 44% reduction in mortality.<ref name="volunteer7">{{cite journal|last1=Oman|first1=D.|last2=Thoresen|first2=C. E.|last3=McMahon|first3=K.|year=1999|title=Volunteerism and mortality among the community-dwelling elderly|journal=Journal of Health Psychology|volume=4|issue=3|pages=301–316|doi=10.1177/135910539900400301|pmid=22021599}}</ref> Merely being aware of kindness in oneself and others is also associated with greater well-being. A study that asked participants to count each act of kindness they performed for one week significantly enhanced their subjective happiness.<ref name="countingkindness">{{cite journal|last1=Otake|first1=K.|last2=Shimai|first2=S.|last3=Tanaka-Matsumi|first3=J.|last4=Otsui|first4=K.|last5=Fredrickson|first5=B. L.|year=2006|title=Happy people become happier through kindness: A counting kindnesses intervention|journal=Journal of Happiness Studies|volume=7|issue=3|pages=361–375|doi=10.1007/s10902-005-3650-z|pmid=17356687|pmc=1820947}}</ref> It is important to note that, while research supports the idea that altruistic acts bring about happiness, it has also been found to work in the opposite direction—that happier people are also kinder. The relationship between altruistic behavior and happiness is bidirectional. Studies have found that generosity increases linearly from sad to happy affective states.<ref name="moodandgenerosity">{{cite journal|last1=Underwood|first1=B.|last2=Froming|first2=W. J.|last3=Moore|first3=B. S.|year=1977|title=Mood, attention, and altruism: A search for mediating variables|journal=Developmental Psychology|volume=13|issue=5|pages=541–542|doi=10.1037/0012-1649.13.5.541}}</ref> Studies have also been careful to note that feeling over-taxed by the needs of others has conversely negative effects on health and happiness.<ref name="volunteer5"/> For example, one study on volunteerism found that feeling overwhelmed by others' demands had an even stronger negative effect on mental health than helping had a positive one (although positive effects were still significant).<ref name="overwhelmed">{{cite journal|last1=Schwartz|first1=C.|last2=Meisenhelder|first2=J.|last3=Ma|first3=Y.|last4=Reed|first4=G.|year=2003|title=Altruistic Social Interest Behaviors Are Associated With Better Mental Health|journal=Psychosomatic Medicine|volume=65|issue=5|pages=778–785|doi=10.1097/01.PSY.0000079378.39062.D4|pmid=14508020}}</ref> Additionally, while generous acts make people feel good about themselves, it is also important for people to appreciate the kindness they receive from others. Studies suggest that gratitude goes hand-in-hand with kindness and is also very important for our well-being. A study on the relationship happiness to various character strengths showed that "a conscious focus on gratitude led to reductions in negative affect and increases in optimistic appraisals, positive affect, offering emotional support, sleep quality, and well-being.".<ref name="gratitude">{{cite journal|last1=Shimai|first1=S.|last2=Otake|first2=K.|last3=Park|first3=N.|last4=Peterson|first4=C.|last5=Seligman|first5=M. P.|year=2006|title=Convergence of character strengths in American and Japanese young adults|journal=Journal of Happiness Studies|volume=7|issue=3|pages=311–322|doi=10.1007/s10902-005-3647-7}}</ref> Psychologists generally refer to this virtuous cycle of helping others, doing good and subsequently feeling good as "the helper's high".<ref>{{cite news|url=http://odewire.com/176916/the-helper%E2%80%99s-high.html|title=The helper's high: Why it feels so good to give|publisher=Ode Magazine|date=December 2011 |first=Sander|last=Van der Linden|accessdate=14 November 2013 }}</ref> ===Sociology=== "Sociologists have long been concerned with how to build the good society" ("Altruism, Morality, and Social Solidarity". American Sociological Association.<ref>[http://www.asanet.org/sections/altruism.cfm American Sociological Association: Altruism, Morality and Social Solidarity<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref>). The structure of our societies and how individuals come to exhibit charitable, philanthropic, and other pro-social, altruistic actions for the common good is a largely researched topic within the field. The American Sociology Association (ASA) acknowledges [[Public sociology]] saying, "The intrinsic scientific, policy, and public relevance of this field of investigation in helping to construct 'good societies' is unquestionable" ("Altruism, Morality, and Social Solidarity" ASA). This type of sociology seeks contributions that aid grassroots and theoretical understandings of what motivates altruism and how it is organized, and promotes an altruistic focus in order to benefit the world and people it studies. How altruism is framed, organized, carried out, and what motivates it at the group level is an area of focus that sociologists seek to investigate in order to contribute back to the groups it studies and "build the good society". {{See also|Public sociology}} ===Pathological altruism=== [[Pathology|Pathological]] altruism is when altruism is taken to an unhealthy extreme, and either harms the altruistic person, or well-intentioned actions cause more harm than good. The term "pathological altruism" was popularised by the book ''[[Pathological Altruism]]''. Examples include depression and burnout seen in healthcare professionals, an unhealthy focus on others to the detriment of one's own needs, hoarding of animals, and ineffective philanthropic and social programs that ultimately worsen the situations they are meant to aid.<ref>http://ukcatalogue.oup.com/product/9780199738571.do</ref> ==Religious viewpoints== {{See also|Evolutionary origin of religions}} Most, if not all, of the world's religions promote altruism as a very important moral value. [[Buddhism]], [[Christianity]], [[Hinduism]], [[Islam]], [[Jainism]], [[Judaism]] and [[Sikhism]], etc., place particular emphasis on altruistic morality. One challenge facing religious followers, is whether altruism should cross the boundary between religious groups, or if altruistic expression to other faiths is selective... which in itself is contrary to the concept of selflessness. ===Buddhism=== [[File:Monks collecting alms - Bun Vat Phu.JPG|thumb|Monks collecting alms]] Altruism figures prominently in Buddhism. Love and compassion are components of all forms of Buddhism, and are focused on all beings equally: love is the wish that all beings be happy, and compassion is the wish that all beings be free from suffering. "Many illnesses can be cured by the one medicine of love and compassion. These qualities are the ultimate source of human happiness, and the need for them lies at the very core of our being" (Dalai Lama).<ref name="Speech by the Dalai Lama">[http://www.dalailama.com/page.65.htm Speech by the Dalai Lama]<br>The phrase "core of our being" is [[Freudian]]; see {{Cite journal | author = Bettina Bock von Wülfingen | year = 2013 | title = Freud's 'Core of our Being' Between Cytology and Psychoanalysis | url = http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/bewi.201301604/pdf | journal = Berichte zur Wissenschaftsgeschichte | volume = 36 | pages = 226–244 | doi = 10.1002/bewi.201301604 | issue = 3 }}</ref> Since "all beings" includes the individual, love and compassion in Buddhism are outside the opposition between self and other. It is even said that the distinction between self and other is part of the root cause of our suffering. In practical terms, however, since most of us are spontaneously self-centered, Buddhism encourages us to focus love and compassion on others, and thus can be characterized as "altruistic." Many would agree with the [[Dalai Lama]] that Buddhism as a religion is kindness toward others.{{Weasel-inline|date=April 2016}} Still, the notion of altruism is modified in such a world-view, since the belief is that such a practice promotes our own happiness: "The more we care for the happiness of others, the greater our own sense of well-being becomes" (Dalai Lama<ref name="Speech by the Dalai Lama"/>). In the context of larger ethical discussions on moral action and judgment, Buddhism is characterized by the belief that negative (unhappy) consequences of our actions derive not from punishment or correction based on moral judgment, but from the law of karma, which functions like a natural law of cause and effect. A simple illustration of such cause and effect is the case of experiencing the effects of what I cause: if I cause suffering, then as a natural consequence I will experience suffering; if I cause happiness, then as a natural consequence I will experience happiness. {{Main|Karma in Buddhism}} In Buddhism, ''karma'' (Pāli ''kamma'') is strictly distinguished from '''''[[vipaka|vipāka]]''''', meaning "fruit" or "result". Karma is categorized within the group or groups of cause (Pāli ''hetu'') in the [[Twelve nidanas|chain]] of [[Pratitya-samutpada|cause and effect]], where it comprises the elements of "volitional activities" (Pali ''sankhara'') and "action" (Pali ''bhava''). Any action is understood to create "seeds" in the mind that sprout into the appropriate results (Pāli ''vipaka'') when they meet the right conditions. Most types of karmas, with good or bad results, will keep one in the wheel of [[Samsara (Buddhism)|samsāra]]; others will liberate one to [[nirvana|nirvāna]]. Buddhism relates karma directly to motives behind an action. Motivation usually makes the difference between "good" and "bad", but motivation also includes the aspect of ignorance; so a well-intended action from an ignorant mind can easily be "bad" in that it creates unpleasant results for the "actor." In Buddhism, karma is not the only cause of all that happens. As taught in the early texts, the commentarial tradition classified causal mechanisms governing the universe in five categories, known as Niyama Dhammas:<ref>{{cite book| last = Davids| first = Rhys| title = Buddhism| url = https://books.google.com/?id=LljcZ_LBeL0C&pg=PA119| year = 2007| publisher = Lightning Source Incorporated| isbn = 978-1-4067-5628-9| page = 119 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book| author = Padmasiri de Silva| title = Environmental Philosophy and Ethics in Buddhism| url = https://books.google.com/?id=M4T3C6ndfZIC&pg=PA41| year = 1998| publisher = Palgrave Macmillan| isbn = 978-0-312-21316-9| page = 41 }}</ref> * Kamma Niyama — Consequences of one's actions * Utu Niyama — Seasonal changes and climate * Biija Niyama — Laws of heredity * Citta Niyama — Will of mind * Dhamma Niyama — Nature's tendency to produce a perfect type ===Jainism=== {{see also|Ahimsa in Jainism}} [[File:Ahinsa.jpg|thumb|Sculpture depicting the Jain concept of ''ahimsa'' (non-injury)]] The fundamental principles of [[Jainism]] revolve around the concept of altruism, not only for humans but for all sentient beings. Jainism preaches the view of ''[[Ahimsa]]'' – to live and let live, thereby not harming sentient beings, i.e. uncompromising reverence for all life. It also considers all living things to be equal. The first [[Tirthankara]], [[Rishabhdev]] introduced the concept of altruism for all living beings, from extending knowledge and experience to others to donation, giving oneself up for others, non-violence and compassion for all living things. Jainism prescribes a path of non-violence to progress the soul to this ultimate goal. A major characteristic of Jain belief is the emphasis on the consequences of not only physical but also mental behaviors. One's unconquered mind with anger, pride (ego), deceit, greed and uncontrolled sense organs are the powerful enemies of humans. Anger spoils good relations, pride destroys humility, deceit destroys peace and greed destroys everything. Jainism recommends conquering anger by forgiveness, pride by humility, deceit by straight-forwardness and greed by contentment. Jains believe that to attain enlightenment and ultimately liberation, one must practice the following ethical principles (major vows) in thought, speech and action. The degree to which these principles are practiced is different for householders and monks. They are: # Non-violence (Ahimsa); # Truthfulness (Satya); # Non-stealing (Asteya); # Celibacy (Brahmacharya); # [[Non-possession]] or non-materialism (Aparigraha); The "great vows" ([[Mahavrata]]) are prescribed for monks and "limited vows" ([[Anuvrata]]) are prescribed for householders. The house-holders are encouraged to practice the above-mentioned five vows. The monks have to observe them very strictly. With consistent practice, it will be possible to overcome the limitations gradually, accelerating the spiritual progress. The principle of non-violence seeks to minimize karmas which limit the capabilities of the soul. Jainism views every [[Soul (Jainism)|soul]] as worthy of respect because it has the potential to become ''Siddha'' ([[God in Jainism]]). Because all living beings possess a soul, great care and awareness is essential in one's actions. Jainism emphasizes the equality of all life, advocating harmlessness towards all, whether the creatures are great or small. This policy extends even to microscopic organisms. Jainism acknowledges that every person has different capabilities and capacities to practice and therefore accepts different levels of compliance for ascetics and householders. ===Christianity=== [[File:StThomasMount Theresa.JPG|thumb|Statue of [[Mother Teresa]] in India]] Altruism is central to the teachings of Jesus found in the [[Gospel]], especially in the [[Sermon on the Mount]] and the [[Sermon on the Plain]]. From biblical to medieval [[Christian traditions]], tensions between self-affirmation and other-regard were sometimes discussed under the heading of "disinterested love", as in the [[Paul the Apostle|Pauline]] phrase "love seeks not its own interests." In his book ''Indoctrination and Self-deception,'' Roderick Hindery tries to shed light on these tensions by contrasting them with impostors of authentic self-affirmation and altruism, by analysis of other-regard within creative individuation of the self, and by contrasting love for the few with love for the many. Love confirms others in their freedom, shuns propaganda and masks, assures others of its presence, and is ultimately confirmed not by mere declarations from others, but by each person's experience and practice from within. As in practical arts, the presence and meaning of love becomes validated and grasped not by words and reflections alone, but in the making of the connection. [[St Thomas Aquinas]] interprets 'You should love your neighbour as yourself'<ref>[[Leviticus]] 19 and Matthew 22</ref> as meaning that love for ourselves is the exemplar of love for others.<ref>''[[Summa Theologica]]'', II:II Quaestio 25, Article 4</ref> Considering that "the love with which a man loves himself is the form and root of friendship" and quotes Aristotle that "the origin of friendly relations with others lies in our relations to ourselves,"<ref>[[Nichomachean Ethics]] IX.4 1166a1</ref> he concluded that though we are not bound to love others more than ourselves, we naturally seek the common good, the good of the whole, more than any private good, the good of a part. However, he thinks we should love God more than ourselves and our neighbours, and more than our bodily life—since the ultimate purpose of loving our neighbour is to share in eternal beatitude: a more desirable thing than bodily well being. In coining the word Altruism, as stated above, [[Auguste Comte|Comte]] was probably opposing this Thomistic doctrine, which is present in some theological schools within Catholicism. Many biblical authors draw a strong connection between love of others and love of God. 1 John 4 states that for one to love God one must love his fellowman, and that hatred of one's fellowman is the same as hatred of God. [[Thomas Jay Oord]] has argued in several books that altruism is but one possible form of love. An altruistic action is not always a loving action. Oord defines altruism as acting for the other's good, and he agrees with feminists who note that sometimes love requires acting for one's own good when the other's demands undermine overall well-being. German philosopher [[Max Scheler]] distinguishes two ways in which the strong can help the weak. One way is a sincere expression of Christian love, "motivated by a powerful feeling of security, strength, and inner salvation, of the invincible fullness of one’s own life and existence".<ref>{{cite book|last=Scheler|first=Max|title=Ressentiment|year=1961|pages=88–89}}</ref> Another way is merely "one of the many modern substitutes for love, ... nothing but the urge to turn away from oneself and to lose oneself in other people’s business."<ref>{{cite book|last=Scheler|first=Max|title=Ressentiment|year=1961|pages=95–96}}</ref> At its worst, Scheler says, "love for the small, the poor, the weak, and the oppressed is really disguised hatred, repressed envy, an impulse to detract, etc., directed against the opposite phenomena: wealth, strength, power, largesse."<ref>{{cite book|last=Scheler|first=Max|title=Ressentiment|year=1961|pages=96–97}}</ref> ===Islam=== In [[Islam]], the concept 'īthār' (إيثار) (altruism) is the notion of 'preferring others to oneself'. For Sufis, this means devotion to others through complete forgetfulness of one's own concerns, where concern for others is rooted to be a demand made by Allah on the human body, considered to be property of Allah alone. The importance lies in sacrifice for the sake of the greater good; [[Islam]] considers those practicing īthār as abiding by the highest degree of nobility.<ref>{{cite book| last = M| title = Key Concepts in the Practice of Sufism: Emerald Hills of the Heart| year = 2004| publisher = Fountain| location = Rutherford, N.J.| isbn = 1-932099-75-1| pages = 10–11 }}</ref> This is similar to the notion of chivalry, but unlike that European concept, in i'thar attention is focused on everything in existence. A constant concern for [[Allah]] (i.e. God) results in a careful attitude towards people, animals, and other things in this world.<ref name="Neusner2005">{{cite book| last = Neusner| first = Jacob Eds| title = Altruism in World Religions| year = 2005| publisher = Georgetown Univ. Press| location = Washington, D.C.| isbn = 1-58901-065-5| pages = 79–80 }}</ref> This concept was emphasized by Sufis of Islam like [[Rabia al-Adawiyya]] who paid attention to the difference between dedication to [[Allah]] (i.e. God) and dedication to people. Thirteenth-century Turkish Sufi poet [[Yunus Emre]] explained this philosophy as "Yaratılanı severiz, Yaratandan ötürü" or ''We love the creature, because of The Creator.'' For many Muslims, i'thar must be practiced as a religious obligation during specific Islamic holidays. However, i'thar is also still an Islamic ideal to which all Muslims should strive to adhere at all times. ===Judaism=== Judaism defines altruism as the desired goal of creation. The famous Rabbi [[Abraham Isaac Kook]] stated that love is the most important attribute in humanity.<ref>{{cite book |author2=Ben Zion Bokser |last1=Kook |first1=Abraham Isaac| title = Abraham Isaac Kook: The lights of penitence, The moral principles, Lights of holiness, essays, letters, and poems| year = 1978| publisher = Paulist Press| isbn = 978-0-8091-2159-5| pages = 135–136}}</ref> This is defined as [[Tzedakah|bestowal]], or giving, which is the intention of altruism. This can be altruism towards humanity that leads to altruism towards the creator or God. [[Kabbalah]] defines God as the force of giving in [[existence]]. Rabbi [[Moshe Chaim Luzzatto]] in particular focused on the 'purpose of creation' and how the will of God was to bring creation into perfection and adhesion with this upper force.<ref>{{cite book| last = Luzzatto| first = Moshe Ḥayyim| title = The way of God| year = 1997| publisher = Feldheim Publishers| isbn = 978-0-87306-769-0| pages = 37–38}}</ref> Modern Kabbalah developed by Rabbi [[Yehuda Ashlag]], in his writings about the future generation, focuses on how society could achieve an altruistic social framework.<ref>{{cite book| last = Ashlag| first = Yehuda| title = Building the Future Society| url = http://www.kabbalah.info/eng/content/view/frame/3811?/eng/content/view/full/3811&main| year = 2006| publisher = Laitman Kabbalah Publishers| location = Thornhill, Canada| isbn = 965-7065-34-8| pages = 120–130 }}</ref> Ashlag proposed that such a framework is the purpose of creation, and everything that happens is to raise humanity to the level of altruism, love for one another. Ashlag focused on society and its relation to [[divinity]].<ref>{{cite book| last = Ashlag| first = Yehuda| title = Building the Future Society| url = http://www.kabbalah.info/eng/content/view/frame/3811?/eng/content/view/full/3811&main| year = 2006| publisher = Laitman Kabbalah Publishers| location = Thornhill, Canada| isbn = 965-7065-34-8| pages = 175–180 }}</ref> ===Sikhism=== Altruism is essential to the Sikh religion. The central faith in Sikhism is that the greatest deed any one can do is to imbibe and live the godly qualities like love, affection, sacrifice, patience, harmony, truthfulness. The fifth Nanak, Guru Arjun Dev sacrificed his life to uphold 22 carats of pure truth, the greatest gift to humanity, the Guru Granth. The ninth Guru , Guru Tegh Bahadur, sacrificed his head to protect weak and defenseless people against atrocity. In the late seventeenth century, [[Guru Gobind Singh]] Ji (the tenth [[guru]] in Sikhism), was in war with the [[Moghul]] rulers to protect the people of different faiths when a fellow Sikh, [[Bhai Kanhaiya]], attended the troops of the enemy. He gave water to both friends and foes who were wounded on the battlefield. Some of the enemy began to fight again and some Sikh warriors were annoyed by Bhai Kanhaiya as he was helping their enemy. Sikh soldiers brought Bhai Kanhaiya before Guru Gobind Singh Ji, and complained of his action that they considered counter-productive to their struggle on the battlefield. "What were you doing, and why?" asked the Guru. "I was giving water to the wounded because I saw your face in all of them," replied Bhai Kanhaiya. The Guru responded, "Then you should also give them ointment to heal their wounds. You were practicing what you were coached in the house of the Guru." It was under the tutelage of the Guru that Bhai Kanhaiya subsequently founded a volunteer corps for altruism. This volunteer corps still to date is engaged in doing good to others and trains new volunteering recruits for doing the same.<ref>{{cite book| author = O. P. Ralhan| title = The great gurus of the Sikhs| year = 1997| publisher = Anmol Publications Pvt Ltd.| location = New Delhi| isbn = 81-7488-479-3| page = 253 }}</ref> ===Hinduism=== [[Swami Sivananda]], an [[Advaita]] scholar, reiterates the same views in his commentary synthesising Vedanta views on the [[Brahma Sutras]], a Vedantic text. In his commentary on Chapter 3 of the Brahma Sutras, Sivananda notes that karma is insentient and short-lived, and ceases to exist as soon as a deed is executed. Hence, karma cannot bestow the fruits of actions at a future date according to one's merit. Furthermore, one cannot argue that karma generates [[apurva]] or [[Merit (Buddhism)|punya]], which gives fruit. Since apurva is non-sentient, it cannot act unless moved by an intelligent being such as a god. It cannot independently bestow reward or punishment.<ref>Sivananda, Swami. ''Phaladhikaranam, Topic 8'', Sutras 38–41.</ref> ==Philosophy== {{main|Altruism (ethics)}} There exists a wide range of philosophical views on man's obligations or motivations to act altruistically. Proponents of [[Altruism (ethics)|ethical altruism]] maintain that individuals are morally obligated to act altruistically. The opposing view is [[ethical egoism]], which maintains that moral agents should always act in their own self-interest. Both ethical altruism and ethical egoism contrast with [[utilitarianism]], which maintains that each agent should act in order to maximise the efficacy of their function and the benefit to both themselves and their co-inhabitants. A related concept in [[descriptive ethics]] is [[psychological egoism]], the thesis that humans always act in their own self-interest and that true altruism is impossible. [[Rational egoism]] is the view that [[rationality]] consists in acting in one's self-interest (without specifying how this affects one's moral obligations). ==See also== {{Columns-list|2| * [[Altruria, California|Altruria]] * [[Charity (practice)]] * [[Charitable organization]] * [[Comedy of the commons]] * [[Cool To Be Kind]] * [[Effective altruism]] * [[Egotism]] * [[Empathy]] * [[Empathy-altruism]] * [[Family economics]] * [[Gene-centered view of evolution]] * [[Giving Pledge]], pledge by Gates, Buffett and others to donate to charity at least half of their wealth * [[Inclusive fitness]] * [[Group selection]] * [[Kin selection]] * [[Misanthropy]] * [[Mutual aid (organization)|Mutual aid]] * [[Philanthropy]] * ''[[The Power of Half]]'', how a family came to decide to sell its home, so that it could donate half the proceeds to charity * [[Prisoner's dilemma]] * [[Prosocial behavior]] * [[Random act of kindness]] * [[Reciprocal altruism]] * [[Selfishness]] * [[Social psychology]] * [[Solidarity (sociology)]] * [[Tit for tat]] }} == Notes == {{Reflist|2}} ==References== {{Refbegin|2}} * {{cite book| last = Oord| first = Thomas| title = The Altruism Reader| year = 2007| publisher = Templeton Foundation Press| location = Philadelphia| isbn = 978-1-59947-127-3 }} * {{cite book| last = Oord| first = Thomas| title = Defining Love| year = 2010| publisher = Brazos Press| location = Grand Rapids| isbn = 1-58743-257-9 }} * {{cite book| last = Batson| first = Charles| title = The Altruism Question| year = 1991| publisher = L. Erlbaum, Associates| location = Mahwah| isbn = 978-0-8058-0245-0 }} * {{Cite journal | pages = 1560–1563 | year = 2006 | pmid = 17158317 | pmc = 3279745 | doi = 10.1126/science.1133755 | issue = 5805 | volume = 314 | title = Five Rules for the Evolution of Cooperation | journal = Science | last1 = Nowak | first1 = M. A. |bibcode = 2006Sci...314.1560N }} * {{Cite journal | last1 = Fehr | first1 = E. | last2 = Fischbacher | first2 = U. | title = The nature of human altruism | journal = Nature | volume = 425 | issue = 6960 | pages = 785–791 | year = 2003 | pmid = 14574401 | doi = 10.1038/nature02043 |bibcode = 2003Natur.425..785F }} * [[Auguste Comte|Comte, Auguste]], ''Catechisme positiviste'' (1852) or ''Catechism of Positivism'', tr. R. Congreve, (London: Kegan Paul, 1891) * {{Cite journal | last1 = Knox | first1 = T. | title = The volunteer's folly and socio-economic man: some thoughts on altruism, rationality, and community | journal = Journal of Socio-Economics | volume = 28 | issue = 4 | pages = 475–967 | year = 1999 | doi = 10.1016/S1053-5357(99)00045-1 }} * [[Peter Kropotkin|Kropotkin, Peter]], ''[[Mutual Aid: A Factor of Evolution]]'' (1902) * {{cite book| last = Oord| first = Thomas| title = Science of Love| year = 2004| publisher = Templeton Foundation Press| location = Philadelphia| isbn = 978-1-932031-70-6 }} * [[Nietzsche, Friedrich]], ''[[Beyond Good and Evil]]'' * [[Pierre-Joseph Proudhon]], ''The Philosophy of Poverty'' (1847) * [[Lysander Spooner]], ''Natural Law'' * [[Matt Ridley]], ''[[The Origins of Virtue]]'' * Oliner, Samuel P. and Pearl M. Towards a Caring Society: Ideas into Action. West Port, CT: Praeger, 1995. * {{cite book| last = Axelrod| first = Robert| title = The Evolution of Cooperation| year = 1984| publisher = Basic Books| location = New York| isbn = 0-465-02121-2 }} * {{cite book| last = Dawkins| first = Richard| title = The Selfish Gene| year = 1989| publisher = Oxford University Press| location = Oxford Oxfordshire| isbn = 0-19-286092-5 }} * {{cite book|last=Wright|first=Robert|title=The Moral Animal|publisher=Vintage Books|location=New York|year=1995|isbn=0-679-76399-6}} * {{Cite journal | last1 = Madsen | first1 = E. A. | last2 = Tunney | first2 = R. J. | last3 = Fieldman | first3 = G. | last4 = Plotkin | first4 = H. C. | last5 = Dunbar | first5 = R. I. M. | last6 = Richardson | first6 = J. M. | last7 = McFarland | first7 = D. | title = Kinship and altruism: A cross-cultural experimental study | journal = British Journal of Psychology | volume = 98 | issue = Pt 2 | pages = 339–359 | year = 2007 | pmid = 17456276 | doi = 10.1348/000712606X129213 }} * {{cite journal | last1 = Wedekind | first1 = C. | last2 = Milinski | first2 = M. | year = 1996 | title = Human Cooperation in the simultaneous and the alternating Prisoner's Dilemma: Pavlov versus Generous Tit-for-tat | url = | journal = Evolution | volume = 93 | issue = | pages = 2686–2689 | doi=10.1073/pnas.93.7.2686|bibcode = 1996PNAS...93.2686W }} * {{Cite journal | last1 = Monk-Turner | first1 = E. | last2 = Blake | first2 = V. | last3 = Chniel | first3 = F. | last4 = Forbes | first4 = S. | last5 = Lensey | first5 = L. | last6 = Madzuma | first6 = J. | title = Helping hands: A study of altruistic behavior | journal = Gender Issues | volume = 20 | issue = 4 | pages = 65–70 | year = 2002 | doi = 10.1007/s12147-002-0024-2 }} {{Refend}} ==External links== {{Wiktionary|altruism}} ;General {{In Our Time|Altruism|p0038x9c|Altruism}} * {{cite episode|series=Radiolab |title=The Good Show|url=http://www.radiolab.org/2010/dec/14/|station=WNYC|city=New York|airdate=14 December 2011|season=9|number=1}} ;Society * [http://altruists.org/215 What is Altruism?] from Altruists International * [http://www.doneet.com Altruistic Fundraisers] Doneet, Fundraising for altruistic causes ;Philosophy and religion * [http://www.kabbalah.info/engkab/kabbalah-video-clips/giving-and-receiving "Giving and Receiving"] from ''Kabbalah.info'' * [http://them.polylog.org/3/fcs-en.htm Selflessness: Toward a Buddhist Vision of Social Justice] by Sungtaek Cho ;Science * [http://beta.in-mind.org/node/211 ''Altruism: Myth or Reality?''], by Dan Batson and Nadia Ahmad * {{SEP|altruism-biological|Biological Altruism|}} * [http://www.humboldt.edu/altruism/ The Altruistic Personality and Prosocial Behavior Institute] at [[Humboldt State University]] * {{cite journal|author=Dharol Tankersley, C. Jill Stowe & Scott A. Huettel|title=Altruism is associated with an increased neural response to agency|journal=[[Nature (journal)|Nature]]|volume=10|issue=2|pages=150–151|date=21 January 2007|pmid=17237779|doi=10.1038/nn1833|url=http://www.nature.com/neuro/journal/v10/n2/abs/nn1833.html}} * [http://ibcsr.org/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=114:unraveling-moral-condemnation&catid=25:research-news&Itemid=59 "Unraveling altruism, conscience, and condemnation"] {{Navboxes |title=Articles and topics related to Altruism |state=collapsed |list1= {{Defence mechanisms}} {{Philosophy topics}} {{Charity}} }} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Altruism| ]] [[Category:Auguste Comte]] [[Category:Defence mechanisms]] [[Category:Evolutionary psychology]] [[Category:Morality]] [[Category:Philanthropy]] [[Category:Social philosophy]] [[Category:Social psychology]] [[Category:Virtue]] t8lckruhz1re3zhiuo28jem34i6njgq 0 338 160875429 15899073 2007-09-28T08:28:44Z Closedmouth 372693 R from CamelCase wikitext text/x-wiki #REDIRECT [[Auto racing]]{{R from CamelCase}} t59iza1rg3pkv689k1ivnm0hq6s7lur 0 339 715955336 715954842 2016-04-18T23:43:04Z Music1201 27871940 Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/Wikipedia_nitin|Wikipedia_nitin]] ([[User talk:Wikipedia_nitin|talk]]) ([[WP:HG|HG]]) (3.1.20) wikitext text/x-wiki {{Use mdy dates|date=June 2013}} {{Good article}} {{Infobox writer | name = Ayn Rand | image = Ayn Rand.jpg | alt = | caption = Ayn Rand in 1925 | birth_name = {{nowrap|Alisa Zinov'yevna Rosenbaum}} | birth_date = {{birth date|mf=yes|1905|02|02}} | birth_place = [[Saint Petersburg|St. Petersburg]], [[Russian Empire|Russia]] | death_date = {{death date and age|mf=yes|1982|03|06|1905|02|02}} | death_place = [[New York City]], [[New York]], U.S. | resting_place = [[Kensico Cemetery]]<br />[[Valhalla, New York|Valhalla]], New York, U.S. | pseudonym = Ayn Rand | occupation = Writer | language = English | ethnicity = [[Russian Jew]]ish | citizenship = 1905–22&nbsp;&nbsp;[[Russian Empire|Russia]]n<br /> 1922–31&nbsp;&nbsp;[[Soviet Union|Soviet]]<br /> 1931–82&nbsp;&nbsp;American | alma_mater = [[Saint Petersburg State University#History|Petrograd State University]] ([[diploma]] in history, 1924) | period = 1934–1982 | subject = [[Philosophy]] | notableworks = ''[[The Fountainhead]]''<br /> ''[[Atlas Shrugged]]'' | awards = [[Prometheus Award]] Hall of Fame inductee in 1987 (for ''[[Anthem (novella)|Anthem]]'') and co-inaugural inductee in 1983 (for ''Atlas Shrugged'') | spouse = {{marriage|Frank O'Connor|1929|1979|end=w.}} | signature = Ayn Rand signature 1949.svg | signature_alt = Ayn Rand }} '''Ayn Rand''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|aɪ|n|_|ˈ|r|æ|n|d}};<ref>{{harvnb|Branden|1986|p=71}}; {{harvnb|Gladstein|1999|p=9}}</ref> born '''Alisa Zinov'yevna Rosenbaum''', {{lang-ru|Али́са Зино́вьевна Розенба́ум}}; {{OldStyleDate|February 2|1905|January 20}}&nbsp;– March 6, 1982) was a Russian-born American [[novelist]], philosopher,<!-- DO NOT REMOVE WITHOUT CONSENSUS --><ref>{{harvnb|Den Uyl|Rasmussen|1986|p=x}}; {{harvnb|Sciabarra|1995|pp=1–2}}; {{harvnb|Kukathas|1998|p=55}}; {{harvnb|Badhwar|Long|2010}}.</ref> playwright, and screenwriter. She is known for her two best-selling novels, ''[[The Fountainhead]]'' and ''[[Atlas Shrugged]]'', and for developing a philosophical system she called [[Objectivism (Ayn Rand)|Objectivism]]. Born and educated in [[Russian American|Russia]], Rand moved to the United States in 1926. She had a play produced on Broadway in 1935–1936. After two early novels that were initially unsuccessful in America, she achieved fame with her 1943 novel, ''The Fountainhead''. In 1957, she published her best-known work, the novel ''Atlas Shrugged''. Afterward, she turned to non-fiction to promote her philosophy, publishing her own magazines and releasing several collections of essays until her death in 1982. Rand advocated [[reason]] as the only means of acquiring [[knowledge]], and rejected faith and religion. She supported [[rational egoism|rational]] and [[ethical egoism]], and rejected [[Altruism (ethics)|altruism]]. In politics, she condemned the [[initiation of force]] as immoral,<ref>{{harvnb|Barry|1987|p=122}}; {{harvnb|Peikoff|1991|pp=309–314}}; {{harvnb|Sciabarra|1995|p=298}}; {{harvnb|Gotthelf|2000|p=91}}; {{harvnb|Gladstein|2009|p=46}}</ref> and opposed [[collectivism]] and [[statism]] as well as [[anarchism]], and instead supported ''[[laissez-faire]]'' [[capitalism]], which she defined as the system based on recognizing [[individual rights]].<ref name="rights">{{harvnb|Gotthelf|2000|pp=91–92}}; {{harvnb|Peikoff|1991|pp=379–380}}</ref> In art, Rand promoted [[romantic realism]]. She was sharply critical of most philosophers and philosophical traditions known to her, except for [[Aristotle]] and some [[Aristotelianism|Aristotelians]], and [[classical liberals]].<ref>{{harvnb|O'Neill|1977|pp=18–20}}; {{harvnb|Sciabarra|1995|pp=12, 118}}</ref> Literary critics received Rand's fiction with mixed reviews,<ref name="Gladstein 117-119">{{harvnb|Gladstein|1999|pp=117–119}}</ref> and academia generally ignored or rejected her philosophy, though academic interest has increased in recent decades.<ref name="growing">{{cite news |last=Cohen |first=David |url=http://www.theguardian.com/education/2001/dec/07/internationaleducationnews.highereducation |title=A growing concern |work=[[The Guardian]] |date=December 7, 2001 |location=London |accessdate=April 15, 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=Marcus |first=Jon |url=http://www.timeshighereducation.co.uk/407357.article |title=Ayn Rand revival gathers pace in US universities, despite detractors |work=Times Higher Education |date=July 16, 2009 |accessdate=April 4, 2014}}</ref><ref name="Badhwar 2010">{{harvnb|Badhwar|Long|2010}}</ref> The [[Objectivist movement]] attempts to spread her ideas, both to the public and in academic settings.<ref name="reception">{{harvnb|Sciabarra|1995|pp=1–2}}</ref> She has been a significant influence among [[libertarians]] and [[Conservatism in the United States|American conservatives]].<ref name="politicalinfluence">{{harvnb|Burns|2009|p=4}}; {{harvnb|Gladstein|2009|pp=107–108, 124}}</ref> ==Life== ===Early life=== Rand was born Alisa Zinov'yevna Rosenbaum ({{lang-ru|Али́са Зиновьевна Розенбаум}}) on February 2, 1905, to a [[Russian Jew]]ish [[bourgeois]]<ref>{{harvnb|Heller|2009|p=xiii}}</ref> family living in [[Saint Petersburg]]. She was the eldest of the three daughters of Zinovy Zakharovich Rosenbaum and his wife, Anna Borisovna (née Kaplan), largely non-observant [[Jews]]. Zinovy Rosenbaum was a successful pharmacist and businessman, eventually owning a pharmacy and the building in which it was located.<ref>{{harvnb|Heller|2009|pp=3–5}}; {{harvnb|Britting|2004|pp=2–3}}; {{harvnb|Burns|2009|p=9}}</ref> With a passion for the liberal arts, Rand later said she found school unchallenging and she began writing screenplays at the age of eight and novels at the age of ten.<ref>{{cite episode|series=The Tomorrow Show|author=Tom Snyder|network=NBC|airdate=July 2, 1979}}</ref> At the prestigious Stoiunina Gymnasium, her closest friend was [[Vladimir Nabokov]]'s younger sister, Olga. The two girls shared an intense interest in politics and would engage in debates at the [[Nabokov house|Nabokov mansion]]: while Nabokova defended constitutional monarchy, Rand supported republican ideals.<ref>{{harvnb|Sciabarra|1995|pp=69, 367–8}}; {{harvnb|Gladstein|2009|p=2}}</ref> She was twelve at the time of the [[February Revolution]] of 1917, during which she favored [[Alexander Kerensky]] over [[Tsar]] [[Nicholas II]]. The subsequent [[October Revolution]] and the rule of the [[Bolshevik]]s under [[Vladimir Lenin]] disrupted the life the family had previously enjoyed. Her father’s business was confiscated and the family displaced. They fled to the [[Crimean Peninsula]], which was initially under control of the [[White Army]] during the [[Russian Civil War]]. She later recalled that, while in high school, she determined that she was an [[atheist]] and that she valued [[reason]] above any other human virtue. After graduating from high school in the Crimea at 16, Rand returned with her family to Petrograd (as Saint Petersburg was renamed at that time), where they faced desperate conditions, on occasion nearly starving.<ref>{{harvnb|Branden|1986|pp=35–39}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Britting|2004|pp=14–20}}</ref> [[File:Spb 06-2012 University Embankment 06.jpg|thumb|left|alt=The Twelve Collegia of what was then Petrograd State University|Rand completed a three-year program at [[Petrograd State University]].]] After the Russian Revolution, universities were opened to women, allowing Rand to be in the first group of women to enroll at [[Petrograd State University]],<ref>{{harvnb|Burns|2009|p=15}}</ref> where, at the age of 16, she began her studies in the department of [[social pedagogy]], majoring in history.<ref>{{harvnb|Sciabarra|1995|p=77}}</ref> At the university she was introduced to the writings of [[Aristotle]] and [[Plato]],<ref>{{harvnb|Sciabarra|1999|pp=5–8}}</ref> who would be her greatest influence and counter-influence, respectively.<ref>{{harvnb|Heller|2009|p=41}}; {{harvnb|Peikoff|1991|pp=451–460}}</ref> A third figure whose philosophical works she studied heavily was [[Friedrich Nietzsche]].<ref>{{harvnb|Britting|2004|pp=17–18, 22–24}}</ref> Able to read French, German and Russian, Rand also discovered the writers [[Fyodor Dostoevsky]], [[Victor Hugo]], [[Edmond Rostand]], and [[Friedrich Schiller]], who became her perennial favorites.<ref>{{harvnb|Britting|2004|pp=17, 22}}</ref> Along with many other "bourgeois" students, Rand was purged from the university shortly before graduating. However, after complaints from a group of visiting foreign scientists, many of the purged students were allowed to complete their work and graduate,<ref>{{harvnb|Heller|2009|p=47}}; {{harvnb|Britting|2004|p=24}}</ref> which Rand did in October 1924.<ref>{{harvnb|Sciabarra|1999|p=1}}</ref> She subsequently studied for a year at the State [[Technicum]] for Screen Arts in Leningrad. For one of her assignments, she wrote an essay about the Polish actress [[Pola Negri]], which became her first published work.<ref name="Heller49-50">{{harvnb|Heller|2009|pp=49–50}}</ref> By this time she had decided her professional surname for writing would be ''Rand'',<ref>{{harvnb|Britting|2004|p=33}}</ref> possibly as a [[Cyrillic]] contraction of her birth surname,<ref>{{harvnb|Gladstein|2009|p=7}}; {{harvnb|Heller|2009|p=55}}</ref> and she adopted the first name ''Ayn'', either from a [[Finnish language|Finnish]] name ''[[Aino (given name)|Aino]]'' or from the [[Hebrew]] word {{lang|he| עין}} (''ayin'', meaning "eye").<ref>Rand said the origin of ''Ayn'' was Finnish {{harv|Rand|1995|p=40}}, but some biographical sources question this, suggesting it may come from a Hebrew nickname. {{harvnb|Heller|2009|pp=55–57}} provides a detailed discussion.</ref> ===Arrival in the United States=== [[File:Pola Negri by Ayn Rand cover.jpg|thumb|upright|alt=A brown book cover with black-and-white drawings and text in Russian. The drawing on the left is a portrait of a woman with dark hair; the drawing on the right is of skyscrapers.|Cover of Rand's first published work, a 2,500-word monograph on ''femme fatale'' [[Pola Negri]] published in 1925.<ref name="Heller49-50"/>]] In the autumn of 1925, Rand was granted a [[Visa (document)|visa]] to visit American relatives.<ref>{{harvnb|Branden|1986|p=32}}; {{harvnb|Burns|2009|pp=18–19}}</ref> She departed on January 17, 1926.<ref>{{harvnb|Heller|2009|pp=50–51}}</ref> When she arrived in New York City on February 19, 1926, she was so impressed with the skyline of [[Manhattan]] that she cried what she later called "tears of splendor".<ref>{{harvnb|Heller|2009|p=53}}</ref> Intent on staying in the United States to become a screenwriter, she lived for a few months with relatives in [[Chicago]], one of whom owned a movie theater and allowed her to watch dozens of films for free. She then set out for [[Hollywood, California]].<ref>{{harvnb|Heller|2009|pp=57–60}}</ref> Initially, Rand struggled in Hollywood and took odd jobs to pay her basic living expenses. A chance meeting with famed director [[Cecil B. DeMille]] led to a job as an [[extra (drama)|extra]] in his film ''[[The King of Kings (1927 film)|The King of Kings]]'' as well as subsequent work as a junior screenwriter.<ref>{{harvnb|Britting|2004|pp=34–36}}</ref> While working on ''The King of Kings'', she met an aspiring young actor, Frank O'Connor; the two were married on April 15, 1929. She became a [[Permanent residence (United States)|permanent US resident]] in July 1929, and [[United States nationality law#Naturalization|became an American citizen]] on March 3, 1931.<ref>{{harvnb|Britting|2004|p=39}}; {{harvnb|Heller|2009|p=71}}</ref> Taking various jobs during the 1930s to support her writing, she worked for a time as the head of the costume department at [[RKO]] Studios.<ref>{{harvnb|Britting|2004|pp=35–40}}; {{harvnb|Paxton|1998|pp=74, 81, 84}}</ref> She made several attempts to bring her parents and sisters to the United States, but they were unable to acquire permission to emigrate.<ref>{{harvnb|Heller|2009|pp=96–98}}; {{harvnb|Britting|2004|pp=43–44, 52}}</ref> ===Early fiction=== {{See also|Night of January 16th|We the Living|Anthem (novella)}} Rand's first literary success came with the sale of her screenplay ''[[Red Pawn]]'' to [[Universal Studios]] in 1932, although it was never produced.<ref>{{harvnb|Britting|2004|pp=40, 42}}</ref> This was followed by the courtroom drama ''[[Night of January 16th]]'', first produced by [[E.E. Clive]] in Hollywood in 1934 and then successfully reopened on [[Broadway theater|Broadway]] in 1935. Each night the "jury" was selected from members of the audience, and one of the two different endings, depending on the jury's "verdict", would then be performed.<ref>{{harvnb|Heller|2009|pp=76, 92}}</ref> In 1941, [[Paramount Pictures]] produced a [[The Night of January 16th (film)|movie loosely based on the play]]. Rand did not participate in the production and was highly critical of the result.<ref>{{harvnb|Heller|2009|pp=78}}; {{harvnb|Gladstein|2009|p=87}}</ref> ''[[Ideal (novel)|Ideal]]'' is a novel and play written in 1934 which were first published in 2015 by her estate. The heroine is an actress who embodies Randian ideals.<ref name=NYT81015>{{cite news|author1=Michiko Kakutani|title=Review: Ayn Rand’s ‘Ideal’ Presents a Protagonist Familiar in Her Superiority|url=http://www.nytimes.com/2015/08/11/books/review-ayn-rands-ideal-presents-a-protagonist-familiar-in-her-superiority.html|accessdate=August 11, 2015|work=The New York Times|date=August 10, 2015}}</ref> Rand's first published novel, the semi-autobiographical ''[[We the Living]]'', was published in 1936. Set in [[Soviet Russia]], it focused on the struggle between the individual and the state. In a 1959 foreword to the novel, Rand stated that ''We the Living'' "is as near to an autobiography as I will ever write. It is not an autobiography in the literal, but only in the intellectual sense. The plot is invented, the background is not..."<ref>{{cite book |last=Rand |first=Ayn |chapter=Foreword |title=We the Living |location=New York |publisher=Dutton |page=xviii |isbn=0-525-94054-5 |oclc=32780458 |edition=60th Anniversary |year=1995 |origyear=1936}}</ref> Initial sales were slow and the American publisher let it go out of print,<ref>{{harvnb|Gladstein|2009|p=13}}</ref> although European editions continued to sell.<ref>Ralston, Richard E. "Publishing ''We the Living''". In {{harvnb|Mayhew|2004|p=141}}</ref> After the success of her later novels, Rand was able to release a revised version in 1959 that has since sold over three million copies.<ref>Ralston, Richard E. "Publishing ''We the Living''". In {{harvnb|Mayhew|2004|p=143}}</ref> In 1942, without Rand's knowledge or permission, the novel was made into a pair of Italian films, ''Noi vivi'' and ''Addio, Kira''. Rediscovered in the 1960s, these films were re-edited into a new version which was approved by Rand and re-released as ''[[We the Living (film)|We the Living]]'' in 1986.<ref>{{harvnb|Paxton|1998|p=104}}</ref> Her novella ''[[Anthem (novella)|Anthem]]'' was written during a break from the writing of her next major novel, ''The Fountainhead''. It presents a vision of a [[dystopian]] future world in which [[totalitarian]] collectivism has triumphed to such an extent that even the word 'I' has been forgotten and replaced with 'we'.<ref>{{harvnb|Burns|2009|p=50}}; {{harvnb|Heller|2009|p=102}}</ref> It was published in England in 1938, but Rand initially could not find an American publisher. As with ''We the Living'', Rand's later success allowed her to get a revised version published in 1946, which has sold more than 3.5 million copies.<ref>Ralston, Richard E. "Publishing ''Anthem''". In {{harvnb|Mayhew|2005a|pp=24–27}}</ref> ===''The Fountainhead'' and political activism=== {{See also|The Fountainhead|The Fountainhead (film)}} During the 1940s, Rand became politically active. Both she and her husband worked full-time in volunteer positions for the 1940 presidential campaign of Republican [[Wendell Willkie]]. This work led to Rand's first public speaking experiences, including fielding the sometimes hostile questions from New York City audiences who had just viewed pro-Willkie [[newsreels]], an experience she greatly enjoyed.<ref>{{harvnb|Britting|2004|p=57}}</ref> This activity also brought her into contact with other intellectuals sympathetic to free-market capitalism. She became friends with journalist [[Henry Hazlitt]] and his wife, and Hazlitt introduced her to the [[Austrian School]] economist [[Ludwig von Mises]]. Despite her philosophical differences with them, Rand strongly endorsed the writings of both men throughout her career, and both of them expressed admiration for her. Once Mises referred to Rand as "the most courageous man in America", a compliment that particularly pleased her because he said "man" instead of "woman".<ref>{{harvnb|Burns|2009|p=114}}; {{harvnb|Heller|2009|p=249}}; {{harvnb|Branden|1986|pp=188–189}}</ref> Rand also developed a friendship with libertarian writer [[Isabel Paterson]]. Rand questioned the well-informed Paterson about American history and politics long into the night during their numerous meetings and gave Paterson ideas for her only nonfiction book, ''[[The God of the Machine]]''.<ref>{{harvnb|Burns|2009|pp=75–78}}</ref> Rand's first major success as a writer came with ''[[The Fountainhead]]'' in 1943, a romantic and philosophical novel that she wrote over a period of seven years.<ref>{{harvnb|Britting|2004|pp=61–78}}</ref> The novel centers on an uncompromising young architect named [[Howard Roark]] and his struggle against what Rand described as "second-handers"—those who attempt to live through others, placing others above themselves. It was rejected by twelve publishers before finally being accepted by the [[Bobbs-Merrill Company]] on the insistence of editor Archibald Ogden, who threatened to quit if his employer did not publish it.<ref>{{harvnb|Britting|2004|pp=58–61}}</ref> While completing the novel, Rand was prescribed [[Benzedrine]], a brand of [[amphetamine]], to fight fatigue.<ref>{{harvnb|Burns|2009|p=85}}</ref> The drug helped her to work long hours to meet her deadline for delivering the finished novel, but when the book was done, she was so exhausted that her doctor ordered two weeks' rest.<ref>{{harvnb|Burns|2009|p=89}}</ref> Her use of the drug for approximately three decades may have contributed to what some of her later associates described as volatile mood swings.<ref>{{harvnb|Burns|2009|p=178}}; {{harvnb|Heller|2009|pp=304–305}}</ref> ''The Fountainhead'' eventually became a worldwide success, bringing Rand fame and financial security.<ref>{{harvnb|Doherty|2007|p=149}}; {{harvnb|Branden|1986|pp=180–181}}</ref> In 1943, Rand sold the rights for a [[The Fountainhead (film)|film version]] to [[Warner Bros.]], and she returned to Hollywood to write the screenplay. Finishing her work on that screenplay, she was hired by producer [[Hal Wallis]] as a screenwriter and script-doctor. Her work for Wallis included the screenplays for the [[Academy Award|Oscar]]-nominated ''[[Love Letters (1945 film)|Love Letters]]'' and ''[[You Came Along]]''.<ref>{{harvnb|Britting|2004|pp=68–80}}; {{harvnb|Branden|1986|pp=183–198}}</ref> This role gave Rand time to work on other projects, including a planned nonfiction treatment of her philosophy to be called ''The Moral Basis of Individualism''. Although the planned book was never completed, a condensed version was published as an essay titled "The Only Path to Tomorrow", in the January 1944 edition of ''[[Reader's Digest]]'' magazine.<ref>{{harvnb|Sciabarra|1995|p=112}}; {{harvnb|Heller|2009|p=171}}</ref> {{Wikisource|Ayn Rand's testimony before the House of Representatives Committee on Un-American Activities}} Rand extended her involvement with free-market and [[anti-communist]] activism while working in Hollywood. She became involved with the [[Motion Picture Alliance for the Preservation of American Ideals]], a Hollywood anti-Communist group, and wrote articles on the group's behalf. She also joined the anti-Communist [[American Writers Association]].<ref>{{harvnb|Burns|2009|pp=100–101, 123}}</ref> A visit by Isabel Paterson to meet with Rand's California associates led to a final falling out between the two when Paterson made comments to valued political allies, which Rand considered rude.<ref>{{harvnb|Burns|2009|pp=130–131}}; {{harvnb|Heller|2009|pp=214–215}}</ref> In 1947, during the [[Second Red Scare]], Rand testified as a "friendly witness" before the United States [[House Un-American Activities Committee]]. Her testimony described the disparity between her personal experiences in the [[Soviet Union]] and the portrayal of it in the 1944 film ''[[Song of Russia]]''.<ref>{{harvnb|Mayhew|2005b|pp=91–93}}</ref> Rand argued that the film grossly misrepresented conditions in the Soviet Union, portraying life there as being much better and happier than it actually was.<ref>{{harvnb|Mayhew|2005b|pp=188–189}}</ref> She wanted to also criticize the lauded 1946 film ''[[The Best Years of Our Lives]]'' for what she interpreted as its negative presentation of the business world, but she was not allowed to testify about it.<ref>{{harvnb|Burns|2009|p=125}}</ref> When asked after the hearings about her feelings on the effectiveness of the investigations, Rand described the process as "futile".<ref>{{harvnb|Mayhew|2005b|p=83}}</ref> After several delays, the film version of ''The Fountainhead'' was released in 1949. Although it used Rand's screenplay with minimal alterations, she "disliked the movie from beginning to end", complaining about its editing, acting, and other elements.<ref>{{harvnb|Britting|2004|p=71}}</ref> ===''Atlas Shrugged'' and Objectivism=== [[File:Famous fantastic mysteries 195306.jpg|thumb|Rand's novella ''Anthem'' was reprinted in the June 1953 issue of the pulp magazine ''[[Famous Fantastic Mysteries]]''.]] {{See also|Atlas Shrugged|Objectivism (Ayn Rand)|Objectivist movement}} In the years following the publication of ''The Fountainhead'', Rand received numerous letters from readers, some of whom it profoundly influenced. In 1951 Rand moved from Los Angeles to New York City, where she gathered a group of these admirers around her. This group (jokingly designated "The Collective") included future [[Federal Reserve Chairman]] [[Alan Greenspan]], a young psychology student named Nathan Blumenthal (later [[Nathaniel Branden]]) and his wife [[Barbara Branden|Barbara]], and Barbara's cousin [[Leonard Peikoff]]. At first the group was an informal gathering of friends who met with Rand on weekends at her apartment to discuss philosophy. Later she began allowing them to read the drafts of her new novel, ''Atlas Shrugged'', as the manuscript pages were written. In 1954 Rand's close relationship with the younger Nathaniel Branden turned into a romantic affair, with the consent of their spouses.<ref>{{harvnb|Branden|1986|pp=256–264, 331–343}}</ref> ''Atlas Shrugged'', published in 1957, was considered Rand's ''[[magnum opus]]''.<ref>{{harvnb|Sciabarra|1995|p=113}}; {{harvnb|Mayhew|2005b|p=78}}</ref> Rand described the theme of the novel as "the role of the mind in man's existence—and, as a corollary, the demonstration of a new moral philosophy: the morality of rational self-interest."<ref>Salmieri, Gregory. "''Atlas Shrugged'' on the Role of the Mind in Man's Existence". In {{harvnb|Mayhew|2009|p=248}}</ref> It advocates the core tenets of Rand's philosophy of [[Objectivism (Ayn Rand)|Objectivism]] and expresses her concept of human achievement. The plot involves a [[dystopia]]n United States in which the most creative industrialists, scientists, and artists respond to a [[welfare state]] government by going on [[strike action|strike]] and retreating to a mountainous hideaway where they build an independent free economy. The novel's hero and leader of the strike, [[John Galt]], describes the strike as "stopping the motor of the world" by withdrawing the minds of the individuals most contributing to the nation's wealth and achievement. With this fictional strike, Rand intended to illustrate that without the efforts of the rational and productive, the economy would collapse and society would fall apart. The novel includes elements of [[Romance novel|romance]],<ref>{{cite news |last=Dowd |first=Maureen |authorlink=Maureen Dowd |title=Atlas Without Angelina |url=http://www.nytimes.com/2011/04/17/opinion/17dowd.html |date=April 17, 2011 |newspaper=[[The New York Times]] |accessdate=July 30, 2012 }}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|McConnell|2010|p=507}}</ref> [[mystery (fiction)|mystery]], and [[science fiction]],<ref>{{harvnb|Gladstein|1999|p=42}}</ref> and it contains Rand's most extensive statement of Objectivism in any of her works of fiction, a lengthy monologue delivered by Galt. Despite many negative reviews, ''Atlas Shrugged'' became an international bestseller. In an interview with [[Mike Wallace]], Rand declared herself "the most creative thinker alive".<ref>{{harvnb|Burns|2009|p=2}}</ref> After completing the novel, Rand fell into a severe depression.<ref>{{harvnb|Burns|2009|p=178}}; {{harvnb|Heller|2009|pp=303–306}}</ref> ''Atlas Shrugged'' was Rand's last completed work of fiction; a turning point in her life, it marked the end of Rand's career as a novelist and the beginning of her role as a popular philosopher.<ref name="ASturningpoint">{{harvnb|Gladstein|2000|p=28}}; {{harvnb|Younkins|2007|p=1}}; {{harvnb|Baker|1987|p=17}}</ref> In 1958 Nathaniel Branden established Nathaniel Branden Lectures, later incorporated as the [[Nathaniel Branden Institute]] (NBI), to promote Rand's philosophy. Collective members gave lectures for NBI and wrote articles for [[Objectivist periodicals]] that she edited. Rand later published some of these articles in book form. Critics, including some former NBI students and Branden himself, have described the culture of NBI as one of intellectual conformity and excessive reverence for Rand, with some describing NBI or the [[Objectivist movement]] itself as a [[cult]] or religion.<ref>{{harvnb|Gladstein|2009|pp=105–106}}; {{harvnb|Burns|2009|pp=232–233}}</ref> Rand expressed opinions on a wide range of topics, from literature and music to sexuality and facial hair, and some of her followers mimicked her preferences, wearing clothes to match characters from her novels and buying furniture like hers.<ref>{{harvnb|Burns|2009|pp=236–237}}</ref> Rand was unimpressed with many of the NBI students<ref>{{harvnb|Heller|2009|p=303}}</ref> and held them to strict standards, sometimes reacting coldly or angrily to those who disagreed with her.<ref>{{harvnb|Doherty|2007|pp=237–238}}; {{harvnb|Heller|2009|p=329}}; {{harvnb|Burns|2009|p=235}}</ref> However, some former NBI students believe the extent of these behaviors has been exaggerated, with the problem being concentrated among Rand's closest followers in New York.<ref>{{harvnb|Doherty|2007|p=235}}; {{harvnb|Burns|2009|p=235}}</ref> ===Later years=== Throughout the 1960s and 1970s, Rand developed and promoted her Objectivist philosophy through her nonfiction works and by giving talks to students at institutions such as [[Yale]], [[Princeton University|Princeton]], [[Columbia University|Columbia]],<ref>{{harvnb|Branden|1986|pp=315–316}}</ref> [[Harvard]], and [[MIT]].<ref>{{harvnb|Gladstein|1999|p=14}}</ref> She received an honorary doctorate from [[Lewis & Clark College]] in 1963.<ref>{{harvnb|Branden|1986|p=318}}</ref> She also began delivering annual lectures at the [[Ford Hall Forum]], responding afterward to questions from the audience.<ref>{{harvnb|Gladstein|1999|p=16}}</ref> During these speeches and Q&A sessions, she often took controversial stances on political and social issues of the day. These included supporting abortion rights,<ref>{{harvnb|Heller|2009|pp=320–321}}</ref> opposing the [[Vietnam War]] and the [[military draft]] (but condemning many [[draft dodgers]] as "bums"),<ref>{{harvnb|Burns|2009|pp=228–229, 265}}; {{harvnb|Heller|2009|p=352}}</ref> supporting [[Israel]] in the [[Yom Kippur War]] of 1973 against a coalition of Arab nations as "civilized men fighting savages",<ref>{{harvnb|Rand|2005|p=96}}; {{harvnb|Burns|2009|p=266}}</ref> saying [[European colonization of the Americas|European colonists]] had the right to develop land taken from [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|American Indians]],<ref>{{harvnb|Burns|2009|p=266}}; {{harvnb|Heller|2009|p=391}}</ref> and calling [[homosexuality]] "immoral" and "disgusting", while also advocating the repeal of all laws about it.<ref>{{harvnb|Heller|2009|pp=362, 519}}</ref> She also endorsed several [[Republican Party (United States)|Republican]] candidates for President of the United States, most strongly [[Barry Goldwater]] in [[United States presidential election, 1964|1964]], whose candidacy she promoted in several articles for ''The Objectivist Newsletter''.<ref>{{harvnb|Burns|2009|pp=204–206}}; {{harvnb|Heller|2009|pp=322–323}}</ref> [[File:Ayn Rand Marker.jpg|thumb|left|Grave marker for Rand and her husband at [[Kensico Cemetery]] in [[Valhalla, New York]]|alt=A twin gravestone bearing the name "Frank O'Connor" on the left, and "Ayn Rand O'Connor" on the right]] In 1964 Nathaniel Branden began an affair with the young actress Patrecia Scott,<!--note: spelling is correct, please do not remove--> whom he later married. Nathaniel and Barbara Branden kept the affair hidden from Rand. When she learned of it in 1968, though her romantic relationship with Branden had already ended,<ref>{{harvnb|Britting|2004|p=101}}</ref> Rand terminated her relationship with both Brandens, which led to the closure of NBI.<ref>{{harvnb|Branden|1986|pp=344–358}}</ref> Rand published an article in ''The Objectivist'' repudiating Nathaniel Branden for dishonesty and other "irrational behavior in his private life".<ref>{{harvnb|Heller|2009|pp=378–379}}</ref> Branden later apologized in an interview to "every student of Objectivism" for "perpetuating the Ayn Rand mystique" and for "contributing to that dreadful atmosphere of intellectual repressiveness that pervades the Objectivist movement."<ref>{{harvnb|Heller|2009|p=411}}</ref> In subsequent years, Rand and several more of her closest associates parted company.<ref>{{harvnb|Branden|1986|pp=386–389}}</ref> Rand underwent surgery for [[lung cancer]] in 1974 after decades of heavy smoking.<ref>{{harvnb|Heller|2009|pp=391–393}}</ref> In 1976, she retired from writing her newsletter and, despite her initial objections, allowed Evva Pryor, a social worker from her attorney's office, to enroll her in [[Social Security (United States)|Social Security]] and [[Medicare (United States)|Medicare]].<ref>{{harvnb|McConnell|2010|pp=520–521}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Weiss|2012|p=62}}</ref> During the late 1970s her activities within the Objectivist movement declined, especially after the death of her husband on November 9, 1979.<ref>{{harvnb|Branden|1986|pp=392–395}}</ref> One of her final projects was work on a never-completed television adaptation of ''Atlas Shrugged''.<ref>{{harvnb|Heller|2009|p=406}}</ref> Rand died of [[heart failure]] on March 6, 1982, at her home in New York City,<ref>{{harvnb|Heller|2009|p=410}}</ref> and was interred in the [[Kensico Cemetery]], [[Valhalla, New York]].<ref>{{harvnb|Heller|2009|pp=405, 410}}</ref> Rand's funeral was attended by some of her prominent followers, including [[Alan Greenspan]]. A {{convert|6|ft|m|adj=on}} floral arrangement in the shape of a dollar sign was placed near her casket.<ref>{{harvnb|Branden|1986|p=403}}</ref> In her will, Rand named [[Leonard Peikoff]] the heir to her estate.<ref>{{harvnb|Heller|2009|p=400}}</ref> ==Philosophy== {{Objectivist movement}}{{Main article|Objectivism (Ayn Rand)}} Rand called her philosophy "Objectivism", describing its essence as "the concept of man as a heroic being, with his own happiness as the moral purpose of his life, with productive achievement as his noblest activity, and reason as his only absolute."<ref>{{harvnb|Rand|1992|pp=1170–1171}}</ref> She considered Objectivism a [[systematic philosophy]] and laid out positions on [[metaphysics]], [[epistemology]], [[ethics]], [[political philosophy]] and [[aesthetics]].<ref>{{harvnb|Peikoff|1991|pp=2–3}}; {{harvnb|Den Uyl|Rasmussen|1986|p=224}}; {{harvnb|Gladstein|Sciabarra|1999|p=2}}</ref> In metaphysics, Rand supported [[philosophical realism]], and opposed anything she regarded as mysticism or supernaturalism, including all forms of religion.<ref>Den Uyl, Douglas J. & Rasmussen, Douglas B. "Ayn Rand's Realism". In {{harvnb|Den Uyl|Rasmussen|1986|pp=3–20}}</ref> In [[epistemology]], she considered all knowledge to be based on sense perception, the validity of which she considered [[axiom]]atic,<ref>{{harvnb|Peikoff|1991|pp=38–39}}; {{harvnb|Gotthelf|2000|p=54}}</ref> and [[reason]], which she described as "the faculty that identifies and integrates the material provided by man's senses."<ref>{{harvnb|Rand|1964|p=22}}</ref> She rejected all claims of non-perceptual or ''[[A priori and a posteriori|a priori]]'' knowledge, including "'instinct,' 'intuition,' 'revelation,' or any form of 'just knowing.{{' "}}<ref>{{harvnb|Rand|1982|pp=62–63}}</ref> Rand argued that the requirements of cognition determine the objective criteria of conceptualization, which she summarized in the form of a [[Razor (philosophy)|philosophical razor]]. Known as "Rand's razor," it states that "concepts are not to be multiplied beyond necessity—the corollary of which is: nor are they to be integrated in disregard of necessity."<ref>{{cite web|title=Rand's Razor|work=[[The Ayn Rand Lexicon]]|url=http://aynrandlexicon.com/lexicon/rands_razor.html|accessdate=2015-05-30}}</ref> In her ''[[Introduction to Objectivist Epistemology]]'', Rand presented a theory of concept formation and rejected the [[analytic–synthetic dichotomy]].<ref>{{harvnb|Salmieri|Gotthelf|2005|p=1997}}; {{harvnb|Gladstein|1999|pp=85–86}}</ref> In ethics, Rand argued for [[rational egoism|rational]] and [[ethical egoism]] (rational self-interest), as the guiding moral principle. She said the individual should "exist for his own sake, neither sacrificing himself to others nor sacrificing others to himself."<ref>{{harvnb|Rand|1989|p=3}}</ref> She referred to egoism as "the virtue of selfishness" in her [[The Virtue of Selfishness|book of that title]],<ref name="Kukathas">{{harvnb|Kukathas|1998|p=55}}</ref> in which she presented her solution to the [[is-ought problem]] by describing a [[meta-ethical]] theory that based morality in the needs of "man's survival ''qua'' man".<ref>{{harvnb|Rand|1964|p=25}}; {{harvnb|Badhwar|Long|2010}}; {{harvnb|Peikoff|1991|pp=207, 219}}</ref> She condemned ethical altruism as incompatible with the requirements of human life and happiness,<ref name="Badhwar 2010"/> and held that the [[initiation of force]] was evil and irrational, writing in ''Atlas Shrugged'' that "Force and mind are opposites."<ref>{{harvnb|Rand|1992|p=1023}}; {{harvnb|Peikoff|1991|pp=313–320}}</ref> Rand's political philosophy emphasized [[individual rights]] (including [[Private property|property rights]]),<ref>{{harvnb|Peikoff|1991|pp=350–352}}</ref> and she considered ''[[laissez-faire]]'' [[capitalism]] the only moral social system because in her view it was the only system based on the protection of those rights.<ref name="rights"/> She opposed [[statism]], which she understood to include [[theocracy]], [[absolute monarchy]], [[Nazism]], [[fascism]], [[communism]], [[democratic socialism]], and [[dictatorship]].<ref>{{harvnb|Peikoff|1991|pp=369}}</ref> Rand believed that natural rights should be enforced by a constitutionally limited government.<ref>{{harvnb|Peikoff|1991|p=367}}</ref> Although her political views are often classified as [[Conservatism in the United States|conservative]] or [[libertarian]], she preferred the term "radical for capitalism". She worked with conservatives on political projects, but disagreed with them over issues such as religion and ethics.<ref>{{harvnb|Burns|2009|pp=174–177, 209, 230–231}}; {{harvnb|Den Uyl|Rasmussen|1986|pp=225–226}}; {{harvnb|Doherty|2007|pp=189–190}}; {{harvnb|Branden|1986|p=252}}</ref> She denounced libertarianism, which she associated with [[anarchism]].<ref>{{harvnb|Sciabarra|1995|pp=266–267}}; {{harvnb|Burns|2009|pp=268–269}}</ref> She rejected anarchism as a naïve theory based in [[subjectivism]] that could only lead to collectivism in practice.<ref>{{harvnb|Sciabarra|1995|pp=280–281}}; {{harvnb|Peikoff|1991|pp=371–372}}; {{harvnb|Merrill|1991|p=139}}</ref> Rand's aesthetics defined art as a "selective re-creation of reality according to an artist's metaphysical value-judgments." According to Rand, art allows philosophical concepts to be presented in a concrete form that can be easily grasped, thereby fulfilling a need of human consciousness.<ref>{{harvnb|Sciabarra|1995|pp=204–205}}</ref> As a writer, the art form Rand focused on most closely was literature, where she considered [[romanticism]] to be the approach that most accurately reflected the existence of human [[free will]].<ref>{{harvnb|Peikoff|1991|p=428}}</ref> She described her own approach to literature as "[[romantic realism]]".<ref>{{harvnb|Sciabarra|1995|p=207}}; {{harvnb|Peikoff|1991|p=437}}</ref> Rand acknowledged [[Aristotle]] as her greatest influence<ref>{{harvnb|Rand|1992|p=1171}}</ref> and remarked that in the [[history of philosophy]] she could only recommend "three A's"—Aristotle, [[Aquinas]], and Ayn Rand.<ref name="Sciabarra1995p12">{{harvnb|Sciabarra|1995|p=12}}</ref> In a 1959 interview with [[Mike Wallace]], when asked where her philosophy came from, she responded, "Out of my own mind, with the sole acknowledgement of a debt to Aristotle, the only philosopher who ever influenced me. I devised the rest of my philosophy myself."<ref>{{harvnb|Podritske|Schwartz|2009|pp=174–175}}</ref> However, she also found early inspiration in [[Friedrich Nietzsche]],<ref>{{harvnb|Heller|2009|p=42}}; {{harvnb|Burns|2009|pp=16, 22}}; {{harvnb|Sciabarra|1995|pp=100–106}}</ref> and scholars have found indications of his influence in early notes from Rand's journals,<ref>{{harvnb|Rand|1997|p=21}}; {{harvnb|Burns|2009|pp=24–25}}; {{harvnb|Sciabarra|1998|pp=136, 138–139}}</ref> in passages from the first edition of ''We the Living'' (which Rand later revised),<ref>{{harvnb|Merrill|1991|pp=38–39}}; {{harvnb|Sciabarra|1998|p=135}}; Loiret-Prunet, Valerie. "Ayn Rand and Feminist Synthesis: Rereading ''We the Living''". In {{harvnb|Gladstein|Sciabarra|1999|p=97}}</ref> and in her overall writing style.<ref>{{harvnb|Badhwar|Long|2010}}; Sheaffer, Robert. "Rereading Rand on Gender in the Light of Paglia". In {{harvnb|Gladstein|Sciabarra|1999|p=313}}.</ref> However, by the time she wrote ''The Fountainhead'', Rand had turned against Nietzsche's ideas,<ref>{{harvnb|Burns|2009|pp=41, 68}}; {{harvnb|Heller|2009|p=42}}; {{harvnb|Merrill|1991|pp=47–49}}</ref> and the extent of his influence on her even during her early years is disputed.<ref>{{harvnb|Burns|2009|pp=303–304}}; {{harvnb|Sciabarra|1998|pp=135, 137–138}}; Mayhew, Robert. "''We the Living'' '36 and '59". In {{harvnb|Mayhew|2004|p=205}}.</ref> Among the philosophers Rand held in particular disdain was [[Immanuel Kant]], whom she referred to as a "monster",<ref>{{harvnb|Rand|1971|p=4}}</ref> although philosophers George Walsh<ref name="Walsh">{{harvnb|Walsh|2000}}</ref> and Fred Seddon<ref>{{harvnb|Seddon|2003|pp=63–81}}</ref> have argued that she misinterpreted Kant and exaggerated their differences. Rand said her most important contributions to philosophy were her "theory of concepts, [her] ethics, and [her] discovery in politics that evil—the violation of rights—consists of the initiation of force."<ref>{{harvnb|Rand|2005|p=166}}</ref> She believed epistemology was a foundational branch of philosophy and considered the advocacy of reason to be the single most significant aspect of her philosophy,<ref>{{cite book |title=[[Return of the Primitive: The Anti-Industrial Revolution]] |chapter=The Left: Old and New |page=62 |isbn=0-452-01184-1 |oclc=39281836 |year=1999 |location=New York |publisher=Meridian |last=Rand |first=Ayn |others=Edited by Peter Schwartz}}</ref> stating, "I am not ''primarily'' an advocate of capitalism, but of egoism; and I am not ''primarily'' an advocate of egoism, but of reason. If one recognizes the supremacy of reason and applies it consistently, all the rest follows."<ref>{{harvnb|Rand|1971|p=1}}</ref> ==Reception and legacy== {{See also|List of people influenced by Ayn Rand}} ===Reviews=== During Rand's lifetime, her work evoked both extreme praise and condemnation. Rand's first novel, ''We the Living'', was admired by the literary critic [[H. L. Mencken]],<ref>{{harvnb|Rand|1995|pp=10, 13–14}}</ref> her Broadway play ''Night of January 16th'' was both a critical and popular success,<ref name="Branden 122-124">{{harvnb|Branden|1986|pp=122–124}}</ref> and ''The Fountainhead'' was hailed by a reviewer in ''[[The New York Times]]'' as "masterful".<ref name="Pruette">{{cite news |first=Lorine |last=Pruette |work=The New York Times |date=May 16, 1943 |title=Battle Against Evil |page=BR7 |url=http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F20610FD3D5C167B93C4A8178ED85F478485F9 |accessdate=April 15, 2011 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110511114039/http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F20610FD3D5C167B93C4A8178ED85F478485F9 |archivedate=May 11, 2011 |deadurl=no}} Reprinted in {{cite book |title=Books of the Century |editor-first=Charles |editor-last=McGrath |year=1998 |location=New York |publisher=Times Books |isbn=0-8129-2965-9 |oclc=38439024 |pages=135–136}}</ref> Rand's novels were derided by some critics when they were first published as being long and melodramatic.<ref name="Gladstein 117-119"/> However, they became [[bestseller]]s largely through word of mouth.<ref>{{harvnb|Paxton|1998|p=120}}; {{harvnb|Britting|2004|p=87}}</ref> The first reviews Rand received were for ''Night of January 16th''. Reviews of the production were largely positive, but Rand considered even positive reviews to be embarrassing because of significant changes made to her script by the producer.<ref name="Branden 122-124"/> Rand believed that her first novel, ''We the Living'', was not widely reviewed, but Rand scholar Michael S. Berliner says "it was the most reviewed of any of her works", with approximately 125 different reviews being published in more than 200 publications. Overall these reviews were more positive than the reviews she received for her later work.<ref>Berliner, Michael S. "Reviews of ''We the Living''". In {{harvnb|Mayhew|2004|pp=147–151}}</ref> Her 1938 novella ''Anthem'' received little attention from reviewers, both for its first publication in England and for subsequent re-issues.<ref>Berliner, Michael S. "Reviews of ''Anthem''". In {{harvnb|Mayhew|2005a|pp=55–60}}</ref> Rand's first bestseller, ''The Fountainhead'', received far fewer reviews than ''We the Living'', and reviewers' opinions were mixed.<ref name="tfreviews">Berliner, Michael S. "''The Fountainhead'' Reviews". In {{harvnb|Mayhew|2006|pp=77–82}}</ref> There was a positive review in ''The New York Times'' that Rand greatly appreciated.<ref>{{harvnb|Rand|1995|p=74}}</ref> The reviewer called Rand "a writer of great power" who wrote "brilliantly, beautifully and bitterly", and stated that "you will not be able to read this masterful book without thinking through some of the basic concepts of our time".<ref name="Pruette"/> There were other positive reviews, but Rand dismissed most of them as either not understanding her message or as being from unimportant publications.<ref name="tfreviews"/> Some negative reviews focused on the length of the novel,<ref name="Gladstein 117-119"/> such as one that called it "a whale of a book" and another that said "anyone who is taken in by it deserves a stern lecture on paper-rationing". Other negative reviews called the characters unsympathetic and Rand's style "offensively pedestrian".<ref name="tfreviews"/> Rand's 1957 novel ''Atlas Shrugged'' was widely reviewed, and many of the reviews were strongly negative.<ref name="Gladstein 117-119"/><ref name="asreviews">Berliner, Michael S. "The ''Atlas Shrugged'' Reviews". In {{harvnb|Mayhew|2009|pp=133–137}}</ref> In the ''[[National Review]]'', conservative author [[Whittaker Chambers]] called the book "sophomoric" and "remarkably silly". He described the tone of the book as "shrillness without reprieve" and accused Rand of supporting a godless system (which he related to that of the [[Religion in the Soviet Union|Soviets]]), claiming "From almost any page of ''Atlas Shrugged'', a voice can be heard, from painful necessity, commanding: 'To a gas chamber—go!{{' "}}<ref>{{cite journal |last=Chambers |first=Whittaker |authorlink=Whittaker Chambers |title=Big Sister is Watching You |journal=[[National Review]] |pages=594–596 |url=http://www.nationalreview.com/articles/222482/big-sister-watching-you/flashback |date=December 8, 1957 |accessdate=April 15, 2011 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110511214136/http://www.nationalreview.com/articles/222482/big-sister-watching-you/flashback |archivedate=May 11, 2011 |deadurl=no}}</ref> ''Atlas Shrugged'' received positive reviews from a few publications, including praise from the noted book reviewer [[John Chamberlain (journalist)|John Chamberlain]],<ref name="asreviews"/> but Rand scholar [[Mimi Reisel Gladstein]] later wrote that "reviewers seemed to vie with each other in a contest to devise the cleverest put-downs", calling it "execrable claptrap" and "a nightmare"; they said it was "written out of hate" and showed "remorseless hectoring and prolixity".<ref name="Gladstein 117-119"/> Author [[Flannery O'Connor]] wrote in a letter to a friend that "The fiction of Ayn Rand is as low as you can get re fiction. I hope you picked it up off the floor of the subway and threw it in the nearest garbage pail."<ref>{{cite book |last=O'Connor |first=Flannery |title=The Habit of Being: Letters of Flannery O'Connor |editor-first=Sally |editor-last=Fitzgerald |location=New York |publisher=Farrar, Straus, and Giroux |year=1979 |isbn=0-374-52104-2 |oclc=18175642 |page=398}}</ref> Rand's nonfiction received far fewer reviews than her novels had. The tenor of the criticism for her first nonfiction book, ''[[For the New Intellectual]]'', was similar to that for ''Atlas Shrugged'',<ref name="Gladstein119">{{harvnb|Gladstein|1999|p=119}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Burns|2009|pp=193–194}}</ref> with philosopher [[Sidney Hook]] likening her certainty to "the way philosophy is written in the Soviet Union",<ref>{{cite news |first=Sidney |last=Hook |authorlink=Sidney Hook |title=Each Man for Himself |work=[[The New York Times Book Review]] |date=April 9, 1961 |page=28 |url=http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F70914F83B5B147A93CBA9178FD85F458685F9 |accessdate=April 15, 2011 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110511114045/http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F70914F83B5B147A93CBA9178FD85F458685F9 |archivedate=May 11, 2011 |deadurl=no}}</ref> and author [[Gore Vidal]] calling her viewpoint "nearly perfect in its immorality".<ref>{{cite book |first=Gore |last=Vidal |authorlink=Gore Vidal |title=Rocking the Boat |chapter=Two Immoralists: Orville Prescott and Ayn Rand |publisher=Little, Brown |location=Boston |year=1962 |oclc=291123 |page=234}} Reprinted from ''[[Esquire (magazine)|Esquire]]'', July 1961.</ref> Her subsequent books got progressively less attention from reviewers.<ref name="Gladstein119"/> On the 100th anniversary of Rand's birth in 2005, Edward Rothstein, writing for ''The New York Times'', referred to her fictional writing as quaint [[utopian]] "retro fantasy" and programmatic [[neo-Romanticism]] of the misunderstood artist, while criticizing her characters' "isolated rejection of democratic society".<ref name="NYT100">{{cite news |url=http://www.nytimes.com/2005/02/02/books/02rand.html?pagewanted=all |work=The New York Times |title=Considering the Last Romantic, Ayn Rand, at 100 |first=Edward |last=Rothstein |date=February 2, 2005 |accessdate=April 15, 2011 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110512144841/http://www.nytimes.com/2005/02/02/books/02rand.html?pagewanted=all |archivedate=May 12, 2011 |deadurl=no}}</ref> In 2007, book critic Leslie Clark described her fiction as "romance novels with a patina of [[pseudo-philosophy]]".<ref>{{cite news |first=Leslie |last=Clark |title=The philosophical art of looking out number one |url=http://www.heraldscotland.com/the-philosophical-art-of-looking-out-number-one-1.835066 |work=[[The Herald (Glasgow)|The Herald]] |date=February 17, 2007 |accessdate=April 2, 2010}}</ref> In 2009, ''[[GQ]]''{{'}}s critic columnist Tom Carson described her books as "capitalism's version of middlebrow religious novels" such as ''[[Ben-Hur: A Tale of the Christ|Ben-Hur]]'' and the ''[[Left Behind]]'' series.<ref name = "GQB">{{cite journal |url=http://www.gq.com/entertainment/books/200911/ayn-rand-dick-books-fountainhead?printable=true |title=The Bitch is Back |first=Andrew |last=Corsello |journal=[[GQ]] |publisher=Condé Nast Publications |date=October 27, 2009 |accessdate=April 9, 2011 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110514133528/http://www.gq.com/entertainment/books/200911/ayn-rand-dick-books-fountainhead?printable=true |archivedate=May 14, 2011 |deadurl=no}}</ref> ===Popular interest=== [[File:Ayn Rand quote, American Adventure, Epcot Center, Walt Disney World.jpg.jpg|thumb|right|alt=An engraving in all capital letters that reads: "Throughout the centuries there were men who took first steps down new roads armed with nothing but their own vision." Ayn Rand|A quote from Rand's book ''The Fountainhead'', on the wall directly across from the entrance to [[The American Adventure (Epcot)|The American Adventure]] rotunda at [[Walt Disney World Resort|Walt Disney World's]] [[Epcot]].]] In 1991, a survey conducted for the [[Library of Congress]] and the [[Book-of-the-Month Club]] asked club members what the most influential book in the respondent's life was. Rand's ''Atlas Shrugged'' was the second most popular choice, after the [[Bible]].<ref name="Doherty11">{{harvnb|Doherty|2007|p=11}}</ref> Rand's books continue to be widely sold and read, with over 29&nbsp;million copies sold as of 2013 (with about 10% of that total purchased for free distribution to schools by the [[Ayn Rand Institute]]).<ref>{{cite web |url=http://ari.aynrand.org/media-center/press-releases/2013/05/14/ayn-rand-hits-a-million-again |title=Ayn Rand Hits a Million...Again! |publisher=Ayn Rand Institute |date=May 14, 2013 |accessdate=April 21, 2014}}</ref> In 1998, [[Modern Library]] readers voted ''Atlas Shrugged'' the 20th century's finest work of fiction, followed by ''The Fountainhead'' in second place, ''Anthem'' in seventh, and ''We the Living'' eighth; none of the four appeared on the critics' list.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.modernlibrary.com/top-100/100-best-novels/ |title=''100 Best Novels'' |publisher=Modern Library |accessdate=November 23, 2015}}</ref> Although Rand's influence has been greatest in the United States, there has been international interest in her work.<ref name="growing"/><ref>{{harvnb|Gladstein|2003|pp=384–386}}; {{cite book |last=Delbroy |first=Bibek |authorlink=Bibek Debroy |chapter=Ayn Rand—The Indian Connection |title=Ayn Rand at 100 |editor-last=Machan |editor-first=Tibor R |editor-link=Tibor R. Machan |location=New Delhi, India |publisher=Pragun Publications |year=2006 |isbn=81-89645-57-9 |oclc=76829742 |pages=2–4}}</ref> Rand's work continues to be among the top sellers among books in India.<ref>{{cite news |agency=[[Agence France-Presse]]/[[Jiji Press]] |title=In India, Ayn Rand never out of style |work=[[Japan Times]] |date=June 2, 2012 |page=4}}</ref> Rand's contemporary admirers included fellow novelists, such as [[Ira Levin]], [[Kay Nolte Smith]] and [[L. Neil Smith]], and later writers such as [[Erika Holzer]] and [[Terry Goodkind]] have been influenced by her.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Riggenbach |first=Jeff |journal=[[The Journal of Ayn Rand Studies]] |title=Ayn Rand's Influence on American Popular Fiction |volume=6 |issue=1 |date=Fall 2004 |pages=91–144 |url=http://www.aynrandstudies.com/jars/archives/jars6-1/jars6_1jriggenbach.pdf |accessdate=April 20, 2011 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110514042655/http://www.aynrandstudies.com/jars/archives/jars6-1/jars6_1jriggenbach.pdf |archivedate=May 14, 2011 |deadurl=no |jstor=41560271}}</ref> Other artists who have cited Rand as an important influence on their lives and thought include [[comic book]] artist [[Steve Ditko]]<ref>{{harvnb|Sciabarra|2004|pp=8–11}}</ref> and musician [[Neil Peart]] of [[Rush (band)|Rush]].<ref>{{cite journal |last=Sciabarra |first=Chris Matthew |authorlink=Chris Matthew Sciabarra |journal=[[The Journal of Ayn Rand Studies]] |title=Rand, Rush, and Rock |volume=4 |issue=1 |date=Fall 2002 |pages=161–185 |url=http://www.nyu.edu/projects/sciabarra/essays/rush.htm |accessdate=April 20, 2011}}</ref> Rand provided a positive view of business, and in response business executives and entrepreneurs have admired and promoted her work.<ref>{{harvnb|Burns|2009|pp=168–171}}</ref> [[John A. Allison IV|John Allison]] of [[BB&T]] and [[Ed Snider]] of [[Comcast Spectacor]] have funded the promotion of Rand's ideas,<ref>{{harvnb|Burns|2009|p=298}}; {{harvnb|Branden|1986|p=419}}</ref> while [[Mark Cuban]], owner of the [[Dallas Mavericks]], and [[John P. Mackey]], CEO of [[Whole Foods]], among others, have said they consider Rand crucial to their success.<ref name="NYTimes07">{{cite news |url=http://www.nytimes.com/2007/09/15/business/15atlas.html?_r=3&oref=slogin&pagewanted=print |work=The New York Times |title=Ayn Rand's Literature of Capitalism |first=Harriet |last=Rubin |date=September 15, 2007 |accessdate=April 15, 2011 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110512144741/http://www.nytimes.com/2007/09/15/business/15atlas.html?_r=3&oref=slogin&pagewanted=print |archivedate=May 12, 2011 |deadurl=no}}</ref> Rand and her works have been referred to in a variety of media: on television shows including animated sitcoms, live-action comedies, dramas, and game shows,<ref name="illustrated4-5">{{harvnb|Sciabarra|2004|pp=4–5}}</ref> as well as in movies and video games.<ref>{{harvnb|Burns|2009|p=282}}</ref> She, or a character based on her, figures prominently (in positive and negative lights) in literary and science fiction novels by prominent American authors.<ref>{{harvnb|Sciabarra|2004|p=3}}</ref> [[Nick Gillespie]], editor in chief of ''[[Reason (magazine)|Reason]]'', has remarked that "Rand's is a tortured immortality, one in which she's as likely to be a punch line as a protagonist..." and that "jibes at Rand as cold and inhuman, run through the popular culture".<ref>{{cite episode |title=Book Bag: Marking the Ayn Rand Centennial |episodelink= |url=http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=4475441 |series=Day to Day |serieslink=Day to Day |network=National Public Radio |airdate=February 2, 2005 |credits=[[Alex Chadwick]] (host), Nick Gillespie (contributor)}}</ref> Two movies have been made about Rand's life. A 1997 documentary film, ''[[Ayn Rand: A Sense of Life]]'', was nominated for the [[Academy Award for Documentary Feature]].<ref>{{harvnb|Gladstein|1999|p=128}}</ref> ''[[The Passion of Ayn Rand (film)|The Passion of Ayn Rand]]'', a 1999 television adaptation of the [[The Passion of Ayn Rand (book)|book of the same name]], won several awards.<ref name="Gladstein122">{{harvnb|Gladstein|2009|p=122}}</ref> Rand's image also appears on a [[List of people on stamps of the United States#R|1999]] [[Postage stamps and postal history of the United States|U.S. postage stamp]] designed by artist [[Nick Gaetano]].<ref>{{cite book |title=Krause-Minkus Standard Catalog of U.S. Stamps |editor-first=Maurice D. |editor-last=Wozniak |publisher=[[Krause Publications]] |year=2001 |edition=5th |isbn=0-87349-321-4 |oclc=48663542 |page=380}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.virtualstampclub.com/us1999.html|title=U.S. Stamp Schedule 1999|date=September 22, 1999|work=Virtual Stamp Club|accessdate=August 12, 2013}}</ref> ===Political influence=== {{See also|Libertarianism and Objectivism}} Although she rejected the labels "[[Conservatism in the United States|conservative]]" and "[[libertarian]]",<ref>{{harvnb|Burns|2009|p=258}}; {{harvnb|Rand|2005|p=73}}</ref> Rand has had continuing influence on [[right-wing politics]] and libertarianism.<ref name="politicalinfluence"/> [[Jim Powell (historian)|Jim Powell]], a senior fellow at the [[Cato Institute]], considers Rand one of the three most important women (along with [[Rose Wilder Lane]] and [[Isabel Paterson]]) of modern [[American libertarianism]],<ref>{{cite journal |last=Powell |first=Jim |authorlink=Jim Powell (historian) |title=Rose Wilder Lane, Isabel Paterson, and Ayn Rand: Three Women Who Inspired the Modern Libertarian Movement |url=http://www.thefreemanonline.org/featured/rose-wilder-lane-isabel-paterson-and-ayn-rand-three-women-who-inspired-the-modern-libertarian-movement/ |journal=[[The Freeman|The Freeman: Ideas on Liberty]] |date=May 1996 |volume=46 |issue=5 |page=322 |accessdate=April 15, 2011 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110511104313/http://www.thefreemanonline.org/featured/rose-wilder-lane-isabel-paterson-and-ayn-rand-three-women-who-inspired-the-modern-libertarian-movement/ |archivedate=May 11, 2011 |deadurl=no}}</ref> and [[David Nolan (libertarian)|David Nolan]], one of the founders of the [[Libertarian Party (United States)|Libertarian Party]], stated that "without Ayn Rand, the libertarian movement would not exist".<ref>{{harvnb|Branden|1986|p=414}}</ref> In his history of the [[libertarian movement]], journalist [[Brian Doherty (journalist)|Brian Doherty]] described her as "the most influential libertarian of the twentieth century to the public at large",<ref name="Doherty11" /> and biographer Jennifer Burns referred to her as "the ultimate gateway drug to life on the right".<ref>{{harvnb|Burns|2009|p=4}}</ref> [[File:TDTP08.JPG|thumb|left|A protester at an April 2009 [[Tea Party protests|Tea Party rally]] carries a sign referring to [[John Galt]], the hero of Rand's novel ''[[Atlas Shrugged]]''|alt=In a large outdoor crowd, a man holds up a poster with the words "I am John Galt" in all capital letters]] She faced intense opposition from [[William F. Buckley, Jr.]] and other contributors for the ''[[National Review]]'' magazine. They published numerous criticisms in the 1950s and 1960s by [[Whittaker Chambers]], [[Garry Wills]], and [[M. Stanton Evans]]. Nevertheless, her influence among conservatives forced Buckley and other ''National Review'' contributors to reconsider how traditional notions of virtue and Christianity could be integrated with support for capitalism.<ref>{{harvnb|Burns|2004}}</ref> The political figures who cite Rand as an influence are usually conservatives (often members of the United States Republican Party),<ref>{{harvnb|Doherty|2009|pp=54}}</ref> despite Rand taking some positions that are atypical for conservatives, such as being [[pro-choice]] and an atheist.<ref name="MJones">{{cite journal |url=http://motherjones.com/media/2009/07/and-rand-played |title=And the Rand Played On |first=Amy |last=Benfer |work=[[Mother Jones (magazine)|Mother Jones]] |date=July–August 2009 |accessdate=April 15, 2011 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110503215311/http://motherjones.com/media/2009/07/and-rand-played |archivedate=May 3, 2011 |deadurl=no}}</ref> A 1987 article in ''[[The New York Times]]'' referred to her as the [[Reagan administration]]'s "novelist laureate".<ref>{{harvnb|Burns|2009|p=279}}</ref> Republican [[United States Congress|Congressmen]] and conservative [[pundits]] have acknowledged her influence on their lives and recommended her novels.<ref>{{harvnb|Gladstein|2009|p=124}}; {{harvnb|Heller|2009|p=xi}}; {{harvnb|Doherty|2009|p=51}}; {{harvnb|Burns|2009|p=283}}</ref> The [[late-2000s financial crisis]] spurred renewed interest in her works, especially ''Atlas Shrugged'', which some saw as foreshadowing the crisis,<ref>{{harvnb|Burns|2009|pp=283–284}}; {{harvnb|Doherty|2009|pp=51–52}}; {{harvnb|Gladstein|2009|p=125}}</ref> and opinion articles compared real-world events with the plot of the novel.<ref>{{harvnb|Gladstein|2009|p=125}}; {{harvnb|Doherty|2009|pp=54}}</ref> During this time, signs mentioning Rand and her fictional hero [[John Galt]] appeared at [[Tea Party protests]].<ref>{{harvnb|Doherty|2009|pp=51–52}}</ref> There was also increased criticism of her ideas, especially from the [[political left]], with critics blaming the economic crisis on her support of [[Rational egoism|selfishness]] and [[free markets]], particularly through her influence on [[Alan Greenspan]].<ref>{{harvnb|Burns|2009|p=283}}</ref> For example, ''[[Mother Jones (magazine)|Mother Jones]]'' remarked that "Rand's particular genius has always been her ability to turn upside down traditional hierarchies and recast the wealthy, the talented, and the powerful as the oppressed",<ref name="MJones" /> while equating Randian individual well-being with that of the ''Volk'' according to Goebbels. Corey Robin of ''[[The Nation]]'' alleged similarities between the "moral syntax of Randianism" and fascism.<ref>{{cite journal |first=Corey |last=Robin |title=Garbage and Gravitas |url=http://www.thenation.com/article/garbage-and-gravitas |journal=[[The Nation]] |date=June 7, 2010 |accessdate=April 15, 2011 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110514200011/http://www.thenation.com/article/garbage-and-gravitas |archivedate=May 14, 2011 |deadurl=no}}</ref> ===Academic reaction=== During Rand's lifetime her work received little attention from academic scholars.<ref name="reception"/> When the first academic book about Rand's philosophy appeared in 1971, its author declared writing about Rand "a treacherous undertaking" that could lead to "guilt by association" for taking her seriously.<ref>{{harvnb|O'Neill|1977|p=3}}</ref> A few articles about Rand's ideas appeared in academic journals before her death in 1982, many of them in ''[[The Personalist]]''.<ref name="Gladstein115">{{harvnb|Gladstein|1999|p=115}}</ref> One of these was "On the Randian Argument" by libertarian philosopher [[Robert Nozick]], who argued that her [[meta-ethical]] argument is unsound and fails to solve the [[is–ought problem]] posed by [[David Hume]].<ref>{{cite journal |title=On the Randian Argument |last=Nozick |first=Robert |authorlink=Robert Nozick |journal=[[The Personalist]] |date=Spring 1971 |volume=52 |pages=282–304}}</ref> Some responses to Nozick by other academic philosophers were also published in ''The Personalist'' arguing that Nozick misstated Rand's case.<ref name="Gladstein115" /> Academic consideration of Rand as a literary figure during her life was even more limited. Academic Mimi Gladstein was unable to find any scholarly articles about Rand's novels when she began researching her in 1973, and only three such articles appeared during the rest of the 1970s.<ref>{{harvnb|Gladstein|2003|pp=373–374, 379–381}}</ref> Since Rand's death, interest in her work has gradually increased.<ref>{{harvnb|Gladstein|2009|pp=114–122}}; {{harvnb|Salmieri|Gotthelf|2005|p=1995}}; {{cite journal |last=McLemee |first=Scott |url=http://linguafranca.mirror.theinfo.org/9909/rand.html |title=The Heirs Of Ayn Rand: Has Objectivism Gone Subjective? |journal=[[Lingua Franca (magazine)|Lingua Franca]] |date=September 1999 |volume=9 |issue=6 |pages=45–55 |accessdate=April 15, 2011 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110515004459/http://linguafranca.mirror.theinfo.org/9909/rand.html |archivedate=May 15, 2011 |deadurl=no}}</ref> Historian Jennifer Burns has identified "three overlapping waves" of scholarly interest in Rand, the most recent of which is "an explosion of scholarship" since the year 2000.<ref>{{harvnb|Burns|2009|pp=295–296}}</ref> However, few universities currently include Rand or Objectivism as a philosophical specialty or research area, with many literature and philosophy departments dismissing her as a pop culture phenomenon rather than a subject for serious study.<ref>{{harvnb|Gladstein|2009|p=116}}</ref> Gladstein, [[Chris Matthew Sciabarra]], [[Allan Gotthelf]], [[Edwin A. Locke]] and [[Tara Smith (philosopher)|Tara Smith]] have taught her work in academic institutions. Sciabarra co-edits the ''[[Journal of Ayn Rand Studies]]'', a nonpartisan [[peer-reviewed journal]] dedicated to the study of Rand's philosophical and literary work.<ref>{{harvnb|Gladstein|2009|p=118}}</ref> In 1987 Gotthelf helped found the [[Ayn Rand Society]] with George Walsh and David Kelley, and has been active in sponsoring seminars about Rand and her ideas.<ref>{{harvnb|Gotthelf|2000|pp=2, 25}}; {{cite journal |first=William |last=Thomas |title=Ayn Rand Through Two Lenses |journal=Navigator |date=April 2000 |volume=3 |issue=4 |pages=15–19 |url=http://www.atlassociety.org/on-ayn-rand-gotthelf}}</ref> Smith has written several academic books and papers on Rand's ideas, including ''Ayn Rand's Normative Ethics: The Virtuous Egoist'', a volume on Rand's ethical theory published by [[Cambridge University Press]]. Rand's ideas have also been made subjects of study at [[Clemson University|Clemson]] and [[Duke University|Duke]] universities.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.rutlandherald.com/apps/pbcs.dll/article?AID=/20050515/NEWS/505150346/1014 |title=Ayn Rand at 100: An 'ism' struts its stuff |first=Benjamin |last=Harvey |work=[[Rutland Herald]] |agency=Columbia News Service |date=May 15, 2005 |accessdate=June 4, 2009}}</ref> Scholars of English and American literature have largely ignored her work,<ref>{{harvnb|Gladstein|2003|p=375}}</ref> although attention to her literary work has increased since the 1990s.<ref>{{harvnb|Gladstein|2003|pp=384–391}}</ref> Rand scholars Douglas Den Uyl and [[Douglas B. Rasmussen]], while stressing the importance and originality of her thought, describe her style as "literary, hyperbolic and emotional".<ref>{{harvnb|Den Uyl|Rasmussen|1978|p=203}}</ref> Philosopher Jack Wheeler says that despite "the incessant bombast and continuous venting of Randian rage", Rand's ethics are "a most immense achievement, the study of which is vastly more fruitful than any other in contemporary thought."<ref>Wheeler, Jack. "Rand and Aristotle". In {{harvnb|Den Uyl|Rasmussen|1986|p=96}}</ref> In the ''[[The Literary Encyclopedia (English)|Literary Encyclopedia]]'' entry for Rand written in 2001, [[John David Lewis]] declared that "Rand wrote the most intellectually challenging fiction of her generation".<ref>{{cite web |last=Lewis |first=John David |authorlink=John David Lewis |url=http://www.litencyc.com/php/speople.php?rec=true&UID=3705 |work=[[The Literary Encyclopedia (English)|The Literary Encyclopedia]] |title=Ayn Rand |accessdate=August 2, 2009 |date=October 20, 2001}}</ref> In a 1999 interview in the ''[[Chronicle of Higher Education]]'', Sciabarra commented, "I know they laugh at Rand", while forecasting a growth of interest in her work in the academic community.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Sharlet |first=Jeff |authorlink=Jeff Sharlet (writer) |work=[[The Chronicle of Higher Education]] |url=http://chronicle.com/article/Ayn-Rand-Has-Finally-Caught/20237/ |title=Ayn Rand Has Finally Caught the Attention of Scholars |date=April 9, 1999 |volume=45 |issue=31 |pages=A17–A18 |accessdate=April 15, 2011}}</ref> Libertarian philosopher [[Michael Huemer]] has argued that very few people find Rand's ideas convincing, especially her ethics,<ref name="whyrand">{{cite web |first=Michael |last=Huemer |url=http://www.cato-unbound.org/2010/01/22/michael-huemer/why-ayn-rand-some-alternate-answers |title=Why Ayn Rand? Some Alternate Answers |work=[[Cato Unbound]] |date=January 22, 2010 |accessdate=August 18, 2012}}</ref> which he believes is difficult to interpret and may lack logical coherence.<ref>{{cite journal |first=Michael |last=Humer |title=Is Benevolent Egoism Coherent? |work=[[The Journal of Ayn Rand Studies]] |volume=3 |issue=2 |date=Spring 2002 |pages=259–288 |url=http://aynrandstudies.com/jars/archives/jars3-2/jars3_2mhuemer.pdf |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110915095043/http://www.aynrandstudies.com/jars/archives/jars3-2/jars3_2mhuemer.pdf |archivedate=September 15, 2011}}</ref> He attributes the attention she receives to her being a "compelling writer", especially as a novelist. Thus, ''Atlas Shrugged'' outsells not only the works of other philosophers of [[classical liberalism]] such as [[Ludwig von Mises]], [[Friedrich Hayek]], or [[Frederic Bastiat]], but also Rand's own non-fiction works.<ref name="whyrand"/> Political scientist [[Charles Murray (political scientist)|Charles Murray]], while praising Rand's literary accomplishments, criticizes her claim that her only "philosophical debt" was to Aristotle, instead asserting that her ideas were derivative of previous thinkers such as [[John Locke]] and [[Friedrich Nietzsche]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.claremont.org/publications/crb/id.1708/article_detail.asp |publisher=The Claremont Institute |title=Who is Ayn Rand? |first=Charles |last=Murray |year=2010 |accessdate=December 7, 2012 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20131501431000/http://www.claremont.org/publications/crb/id.1708/article_detail.asp |archivedate=December 1, 2013}}</ref> Although Rand maintained that Objectivism was an integrated philosophical system, philosopher Robert H. Bass has argued that her central ethical ideas are inconsistent and contradictory to her central political ideas.<ref>{{cite journal |first=Robert H. |last=Bass |title=Egoism versus Rights |work=[[The Journal of Ayn Rand Studies]] |volume=7 |issue=2 |date=Spring 2006 |pages=329–349 |url=http://aynrandstudies.com/jars/archives/jars7-2/jars7_2rbass1.pdf |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20121105111109/http://www.aynrandstudies.com/jars/archives/jars7-2/jars7_2rbass1.pdf |archivedate=November 5, 2012}}</ref> ===Objectivist movement=== {{Main article|Objectivist movement}} In 1985, Rand's heir Leonard Peikoff established the [[Ayn Rand Institute]], a nonprofit organization dedicated to promoting Rand's ideas and works. In 1990, philosopher [[David Kelley]] founded the Institute for Objectivist Studies, now known as [[The Atlas Society]].<ref>{{harvnb|Burns|2009|pp=280–281}}; {{harvnb|Gladstein|2009|pp=19, 114}}</ref> In 2001 historian John McCaskey organized the Anthem Foundation for Objectivist Scholarship, which provides grants for scholarly work on Objectivism in academia.<ref>{{harvnb|Gladstein|2009|p=117}}</ref> The charitable foundation of [[BB&T Corporation]] has also given grants for teaching Rand's ideas or works. The [[University of Texas at Austin]], the [[University of Pittsburgh]], and [[University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill]] are among the schools that have received grants. In some cases these grants have been controversial due to their requiring research or teaching related to Rand.<ref>{{harvnb|Gladstein|2009|pp=116–117}}; {{harvnb|Burns|2009|p=297}}</ref> ==Selected works== {{Main article|Bibliography of Ayn Rand and Objectivism}} <!-- NOTE: This is a selected bibliography and not meant to be comprehensive. Only major works published in her lifetime are included. Please start a discussion on the talkpage if you think the selection ought to be altered. Thank you. --> '''Novels:''' * 1936 ''[[We the Living]]'' * 1943 ''[[The Fountainhead]]'' * 1957 ''[[Atlas Shrugged]]'' '''Other fiction:''' * 1934 ''[[Night of January 16th]]'' * 1938 ''[[Anthem (novella)|Anthem]]'' * 2015 ''[[Ideal (novel)|Ideal]]'' '''Non-fiction:''' * 1961 ''[[For the New Intellectual]]'' * 1964 ''[[The Virtue of Selfishness]]'' * 1966 ''[[Capitalism: The Unknown Ideal]]'' * 1969 ''[[The Romantic Manifesto]]'' * 1971 ''[[The New Left: The Anti-Industrial Revolution]]'' * 1979 ''[[Introduction to Objectivist Epistemology]]'' * 1982 ''[[Philosophy: Who Needs It]]'' ==References== {{Reflist|20em}} ===Works cited=== {{Refbegin|40em}} * {{Cite web |ref=harv |url=http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/ayn-rand/ |title=Ayn Rand |last1=Badhwar |first1=Neera |last2=Long |first2=Roderick T. |authorlink2=Roderick Long |editor-first=Edward N. (ed) |editor-last=Zalta |editor-link=Edward N. Zalta |date=June 8, 2010 |work=[[Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy]] |accessdate=June 16, 2010}} *{{Cite book |ref=harv |title=Ayn Rand |last=Baker |first=James T. |location=Boston, Massachusetts |publisher=Twayne Publishers |year=1987 |oclc=14933003 |isbn=0-8057-7497-1}} * {{Cite book |ref=harv |title=On Classical Liberalism and Libertarianism |last=Barry |first=Norman P. |authorlink=Norman P. Barry |location=New York |publisher=[[St. Martin's Press]] |year=1987 |isbn=0-312-00243-2 |oclc=14134854}} * {{Cite book |ref=harv |title=[[The Passion of Ayn Rand]] |last=Branden |first=Barbara |authorlink=Barbara Branden |location=Garden City, New York |publisher=Doubleday & Company |year=1986 |isbn=0-385-19171-5 |oclc=12614728}} * {{Cite book |ref=harv |title=Ayn Rand |last=Britting |first=Jeff |authorlink=Jeff Britting |location=New York |publisher=Overlook Duckworth |year=2004 |isbn=1-58567-406-0 |oclc=56413971 |series=Overlook Illustrated Lives series}} * {{Cite journal |ref=harv |last=Burns |first=Jennifer |date=November 2004 |title=Godless Capitalism: Ayn Rand and the Conservative Movement |journal=Modern Intellectual History |volume=1 |issue=3 |pages=359–385 |doi=10.1017/S1479244304000216}} * {{Cite book |ref=harv |title=[[Goddess of the Market: Ayn Rand and the American Right]] |last=Burns |first=Jennifer |location=New York |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2009 |isbn=978-0-19-532487-7 |oclc=313665028}} * {{Cite journal |ref=harv |title=Nozick On the Randian Argument |last1=Den Uyl |first1=Douglas |last2=Rasmussen |first2=Douglas |journal=[[The Personalist]] |date=April 1978 |volume=59 |pages=184–205 |lastauthoramp=y}} * {{Cite book |ref=harv |title=The Philosophic Thought of Ayn Rand |editor1-last=Den Uyl |editor1-first=Douglas |editor1-link=Douglas Den Uyl |editor2-last=Rasmussen |editor2-first=Douglas |editor2-link=Douglas B. Rasmussen |location=Chicago |publisher=University of Illinois Press |year=1986 |origyear=1984 |isbn=0-252-01407-3 |edition=paperback |lastauthoramp=y |oclc=15669115}} * {{Cite book |ref=harv |title=[[Radicals for Capitalism: A Freewheeling History of the Modern American Libertarian Movement]] |last=Doherty |first=Brian |authorlink=Brian Doherty (journalist) |location=New York |publisher=Public Affairs |year=2007 |isbn=1-58648-350-1 |oclc=76141517}} * {{Cite journal |ref=harv |first=Brian |last=Doherty |title=She's Back! |url=http://reason.com/archives/2009/11/09/ayn-rand-is-back/singlepage |journal=[[Reason (magazine)|Reason]] |date=December 2009 |volume=41 |issue=7 |pages=51–58 |accessdate=April 15, 2011 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110511102914/http://reason.com/archives/2009/11/09/ayn-rand-is-back/singlepage |archivedate=May 11, 2011 |deadurl=no}} * {{Cite book |ref=harv |title=The New Ayn Rand Companion |last=Gladstein |first=Mimi Reisel |authorlink=Mimi Reisel Gladstein |location=Westport, Connecticut |publisher=Greenwood Press |year=1999 |isbn=0-313-30321-5 |oclc=40359365}} * {{Cite book |ref=harv |title=Atlas Shrugged: Manifesto of the Mind |last=Gladstein |first=Mimi Reisel |location=New York |publisher=Twayne Publishers |year=2000 |isbn=0-8057-1638-6 |oclc=43569158 |series=Twayne's Masterwork Studies series}} * {{Cite journal |ref=harv |title=Ayn Rand Literary Criticism |last=Gladstein |first=Mimi Reisel |journal=[[The Journal of Ayn Rand Studies]] |volume=4 |issue=2 |date=Spring 2003 |pages=373–394 |url=http://www.aynrandstudies.com/jars/archives/jars4-2/jars4_2mgladstein.pdf |accessdate=April 20, 2011 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110514042510/http://www.aynrandstudies.com/jars/archives/jars4-2/jars4_2mgladstein.pdf |archivedate=May 14, 2011 |deadurl=yes |jstor=41560226}} * {{Cite book |ref=harv |title=Ayn Rand |last=Gladstein |first=Mimi Reisel |location=New York |publisher=Continuum |year=2009 |isbn=978-0-8264-4513-1 |oclc=319595162 |series=Major Conservative and Libertarian Thinkers series}} * {{Cite book |ref=harv |title=Feminist Interpretations of Ayn Rand |editor1-last=Gladstein |editor1-first=Mimi Reisel |editor2-last=Sciabarra |editor2-first=Chris Matthew |editor1-link=Mimi Reisel Gladstein |editor2-link=Chris Matthew Sciabarra |location=University Park, Pennsylvania |publisher=Pennsylvania State University Press |year=1999 |isbn=0-271-01830-5 |oclc=38885754 |series=Re-reading the Canon series |lastauthoramp=y}} * {{Cite book |ref=harv |title=[[On Ayn Rand]] |last=Gotthelf |first=Allan |authorlink=Allan Gotthelf |location=Belmont, California |publisher=Wadsworth Publishing |year=2000 |isbn=0-534-57625-7 |oclc=43668181 |series=Wadsworth Philosophers Series}} * {{Cite book |ref=harv |title=[[Ayn Rand and the World She Made]] |last=Heller |first=Anne C. |location=New York |publisher=Doubleday |year=2009 |isbn=978-0-385-51399-9 |oclc=229027437}} * {{Cite encyclopedia |ref=harv |last=Kukathas |first=Chandran |authorlink=Chandran Kukathas |year=1998 |title=Rand, Ayn (1905–82) |editor-last=Craig |editor-first=Edward (ed) |encyclopedia=[[Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy]] |location=New York |publisher=Routledge |volume=8 |pages=55–56 |isbn=0-415-07310-3 |oclc=318280731}} * {{Cite book |ref=harv |title=Essays on Ayn Rand's We the Living |editor-last=Mayhew |editor-first=Robert |location=Lanham, Maryland |publisher=Lexington Books |year=2004 |isbn=0-7391-0697-X |oclc=52979186}} * {{Cite book |ref=harv |title=Essays on Ayn Rand's Anthem |editor-last=Mayhew |editor-first=Robert |location=Lanham, Maryland |publisher=Lexington Books |year=2005a |isbn=0-7391-1031-4 |oclc=57577415}} * {{Cite book |ref=harv |title=Ayn Rand and Song of Russia |last=Mayhew |first=Robert |location=Lanham, Maryland |publisher=Scarecrow Press |year=2005b |isbn=0-8108-5276-4 |oclc=55474309}} * {{Cite book |ref=harv |title=Essays on Ayn Rand's The Fountainhead |editor-last=Mayhew |editor-first=Robert |location=Lanham, Maryland |publisher=Lexington Books |year=2006 |isbn=0-7391-1578-2 |oclc=70707828}} * {{Cite book |ref=harv |title=Essays on Ayn Rand's Atlas Shrugged |editor-last=Mayhew |editor-first=Robert |location=Lanham, Maryland |publisher=Lexington Books |year=2009 |isbn=978-0-7391-2780-3 |oclc=315237945}} * {{Cite book |ref=harv |title=100 Voices: An Oral History of Ayn Rand |last=McConnell |first=Scott |location=New York |publisher=[[New American Library]] |year=2010 |isbn=978-0-451-23130-7 |oclc=555642813}} * {{Cite book |ref=harv |title=The Ideas of Ayn Rand |last=Merrill |first=Ronald E. |location=La Salle, Illinois |publisher=Open Court Publishing |year=1991 |isbn=0-8126-9157-1 |oclc=23254190}} * {{Cite book |ref=harv |title=With Charity Toward None: An Analysis of Ayn Rand's Philosophy |last=O'Neill |first=William F. |location=New York |publisher=Littlefield, Adams & Company |year=1977 |origyear=1971 |isbn=0-8226-0179-6 |oclc=133489}} * {{Cite book |ref=harv |title=[[Ayn Rand: A Sense of Life]] (The Companion Book) |last=Paxton |first=Michael |authorlink=Michael Paxton |location=Layton, Utah |publisher=Gibbs Smith |year=1998 |isbn=0-87905-845-5 |oclc=38048196}} * {{Cite book |ref=harv |title=[[Objectivism: The Philosophy of Ayn Rand]] |last=Peikoff |first=Leonard |authorlink=Leonard Peikoff |location=New York |publisher=[[E. P. Dutton]] |year=1991 |isbn=0-452-01101-9 |oclc=28423965}} *{{Cite book |ref=harv |title=Objectively Speaking: Ayn Rand Interviewed |editor1-last=Podritske |editor1-first=Marlene |editor2-last=Schwartz |editor2-first=Peter |editor2-link=Peter Schwartz (writer) |location=Lanham, Maryland |publisher=Lexington Books |year=2009 |isbn=978-0-7391-3195-4 |oclc=267048088 |lastauthoramp=y}} * {{Cite book |ref=harv |last=Rand |first=Ayn |title=[[The Virtue of Selfishness]] |isbn=0-451-16393-1 |oclc=28103453 |year=1964 |publisher=Penguin |location=New York}} * {{Cite journal |ref=harv |last=Rand |first=Ayn |title=Brief Summary |journal=[[The Objectivist]] |date=September 1971 |volume=10 |issue=9 |pages=1–4}} * {{Cite book |ref=harv |last=Rand |first=Ayn |title=[[Philosophy: Who Needs It]] |editor-last=Peikoff |editor-first=Leonard |year=1982 |location=New York |publisher=Signet |edition=paperback |isbn=0-451-13249-1}} * {{Cite book |ref=harv |title=[[The Voice of Reason]] |first=Ayn |last=Rand |editor-first=Leonard |editor-last=Peikoff |location=New York |publisher=New American Library |year=1989 |isbn=0-453-00634-5 |oclc=18048955}} * {{Cite book |ref=harv |last=Rand |first=Ayn |title=[[Atlas Shrugged]] |location=New York |publisher=Dutton |year=1992 |origyear=1957 |edition=35th anniversary |isbn=0-525-94892-9 |oclc=60339555}} * {{Cite book |ref=harv |title=[[Letters of Ayn Rand]] |last=Rand |first=Ayn |editor-first=Michael S |editor-last=Berliner |location=New York |publisher=Dutton |year=1995 |isbn=0-525-93946-6 |oclc=31412028}} * {{Cite book |ref=harv |last=Rand |first=Ayn |editor-last=Harriman |editor-first=David |title=[[Journals of Ayn Rand]] |location=New York |publisher=Dutton |year=1997 |isbn=0-525-94370-6 |oclc=36566117}} * {{Cite book |ref=harv |last=Rand |first=Ayn |editor-last=Mayhew |editor-first=Robert |year=2005 |title=Ayn Rand Answers, the Best of Her Q&A |isbn=0-451-21665-2 |oclc=59148253 |publisher=New American Library |location=New York}} * {{Cite book |ref=harv |editor-first=John R. |editor-last=Shook |first1=Gregory |last1=Salmieri |first2=Allan |last2=Gotthelf |author2-link=Allan Gotthelf |chapter=Rand, Ayn (1905–82) |title=The Dictionary of Modern American Philosophers |publisher=Thoemmes Continuum |location=London |year=2005 |isbn=1-84371-037-4 |oclc=53388453 |lastauthoramp=y |volume=4 |pages=1995–1999}} * {{Cite book |ref=harv |title=[[Ayn Rand: The Russian Radical]] |last=Sciabarra |first=Chris Matthew |authorlink=Chris Matthew Sciabarra |location=University Park, Pennsylvania |publisher=Pennsylvania State University Press |year=1995 |isbn=0-271-01440-7 |oclc=31133644}} * {{Cite journal |ref=harv |title=A Renaissance in Rand Scholarship |last=Sciabarra |first=Chris Matthew |journal=Reason Papers |volume=23 |date=Fall 1998 |pages=132–159 |url=http://www.reasonpapers.com/pdf/23/rp_23_16.pdf |accessdate=April 15, 2011 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110513120014/http://www.reasonpapers.com/pdf/23/rp_23_16.pdf |archivedate=May 13, 2011 |deadurl=no}} * {{Cite journal |ref=harv |last=Sciabarra |first=Chris Matthew |url=http://www.aynrandstudies.com/jars/archives/jars1-1/jars1_1csciabarra.pdf |title=The Rand Transcript |journal=[[The Journal of Ayn Rand Studies]] |volume=1 |issue=1 |date=Fall 1999 |pages=1–26 |accessdate=April 15, 2011 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110514042557/http://www.aynrandstudies.com/jars/archives/jars1-1/jars1_1csciabarra.pdf |archivedate=May 14, 2011 |deadurl=yes |jstor=41560109}} * {{Cite journal |ref=harv |last=Sciabarra |first=Chris Matthew |title=The Illustrated Rand |journal=[[The Journal of Ayn Rand Studies]] |volume=6 |issue=1 |date=Fall 2004 |url=http://www.nyu.edu/projects/sciabarra/essays/illustratedrand.pdf |pages=1–20 |accessdate=April 15, 2011 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20121012191607/http://www.nyu.edu/projects/sciabarra/essays/illustratedrand.pdf |archivedate=October 12, 2012 |deadurl=no |jstor=41560268}} * {{Cite book |ref=harv |last=Seddon |first=Fred |title=Ayn Rand, Objectivists, and the History of Philosophy |publisher=University Press of America |location=Lanham, Maryland |year=2003 |pages=63–81 |isbn=0-7618-2308-5 |oclc=51969016}} * {{Cite journal |ref=harv |last=Walsh |first=George V. |title=Ayn Rand and the Metaphysics of Kant |journal=[[The Journal of Ayn Rand Studies]] |date=Fall 2000 |volume=2 |issue=1 |pages=69–103 |url=http://www.aynrandstudies.com/jars/archives/jars2-1/jars2_1gwalsh.pdf |accessdate=April 15, 2011 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110514042532/http://www.aynrandstudies.com/jars/archives/jars2-1/jars2_1gwalsh.pdf |archivedate=May 14, 2011 |deadurl=yes |jstor=41560132}} * {{Cite book| ref=harv| title= Ayn Rand Nation: The Hidden struggle for America's Soul | last=Weiss| first=Gary| authorlink=Gary Weiss| location= New York | publisher= [[St. Martin's Press]]|year=2012|isbn=978-0-312-59073-4}} * {{Cite book |ref=harv |title=Ayn Rand's Atlas Shrugged: A Philosophical and Literary Companion |editor-last=Younkins |editor-first=Edward W. |location=Burlington, Vermont |publisher=Ashgate Publishing |year=2007 |isbn=978-0-7546-5533-6 |oclc=69792104}} {{Refend}} ==External links== {{Sister project links|voy=no|Ayn Rand|n=no|v=no|wikt=no|b=no|author=yes}} {{Spoken Wikipedia-2|2007-06-02|Ayn_Rand1.ogg|Ayn_Rand2.ogg|...}} * [http://ari.aynrand.org/faq Frequently Asked Questions About Ayn Rand] from the [[Ayn Rand Institute]] * {{Gutenberg author |id=Rand,+Ayn | name=Ayn Rand}} * {{Internet Archive author |sname=Ayn Rand}} * {{Librivox author |id=4301}} * [http://hdl.loc.gov/loc.mss/eadmss.ms002006 Rand's papers at The Library of Congress] * [http://www.aynrandlexicon.com Ayn Rand Lexicon] – searchable database * {{IEP|r/rand.htm}} * {{SEP|ayn-rand|Ayn Rand|Neera K. Badhwar and Roderick T. Long|October 4, 2010}} * {{IMDb name|0709446}} * {{OL author|OL59188A}} * {{Dmoz|Society/Philosophy/Movements/Objectivism/People/Rand%2C_Ayn/}} * [http://www.c-span.org/video/?169959-1/writings-ayn-rand "Writings of Ayn Rand"] from [[C-SPAN]]'s ''[[American Writers: A Journey Through History]]'' * {{Goodreads author|432.Ayn_Rand}} {{Ayn Rand|state=expanded}} {{Social and political philosophy}} {{Criticism of religion}} {{Atlas Shrugged}} {{Authority control}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Rand, Ayn}} [[Category:Ayn Rand| ]] [[Category:1905 births]] [[Category:1982 deaths]] [[Category:20th-century American dramatists and playwrights]] [[Category:20th-century American novelists]] [[Category:20th-century philosophers]] [[Category:20th-century women writers]] [[Category:American anti-communists]] [[Category:American anti-fascists]] [[Category:American atheists]] [[Category:American anti-socialists]] [[Category:American classical liberals]] [[Category:American essayists]] [[Category:American ethicists]] [[Category:American people of Russian-Jewish descent]] [[Category:American political theorists]] [[Category:American science fiction writers]] [[Category:American screenwriters]] [[Category:American women dramatists and playwrights]] [[Category:American women novelists]] [[Category:American women philosophers]] [[Category:American women screenwriters]] [[Category:American writers of Russian descent]] [[Category:Atheism activists]] [[Category:Atheist philosophers]] [[Category:Burials at Kensico Cemetery]] [[Category:Critics of religions]] [[Category:Epistemologists]] [[Category:Female critics of feminism]] [[Category:Imperial Russian atheists]] [[Category:Imperial Russian emigrants to the United States]] [[Category:Imperial Russian Jews]] [[Category:Jewish American dramatists and playwrights]] [[Category:Jewish American novelists]] [[Category:Jewish atheists]] [[Category:Jewish philosophers]] [[Category:Jewish women writers]] [[Category:Metaphysicians]] [[Category:Objectivists]] [[Category:People of the New Deal arts projects]] [[Category:Political philosophers]] [[Category:Prometheus Award winners]] [[Category:Pseudonymous writers]] [[Category:Russian anti-communists]] [[Category:Russian dramatists and playwrights]] [[Category:Russian essayists]] [[Category:Russian novelists]] [[Category:Russian women philosophers]] [[Category:Russian science fiction writers]] [[Category:Russian screenwriters]] [[Category:Russian women writers]] [[Category:Saint Petersburg State University alumni]] [[Category:Soviet emigrants to the United States]] [[Category:Women atheists]] [[Category:Women essayists]] [[Category:Women science fiction and fantasy writers]] [[Category:Writers from New York City]] [[Category:Writers from Saint Petersburg]] 6xbiliy2shaqxc0cceur6a32752uabi 0 340 702093022 702092988 2016-01-28T11:17:16Z Xaosflux 502540 Reverted edits by [[Special:Contribs/Xaosflux|Xaosflux]] ([[User talk:Xaosflux|talk]]) to last version by Magioladitis wikitext text/x-wiki {{Use dmy dates|date=June 2013}} {{More footnotes|date=February 2012}} {{Infobox scientist |name = Alain Connes |image = Alain_Connes.jpg |image_size = 200px |caption = Alain Connes in 2004 |birth_date = {{birth date and age|1947|04|01|df=y}} |birth_place = [[Draguignan]], France |death_date = |death_place = |nationality = French |field = [[Mathematics]] |work_institutions = [[IHÉS]], France |alma_mater = [[École Normale Supérieure]], France |doctoral_advisor = [[Jacques Dixmier]] |doctoral_students = [[Georges Skandalis]] |known_for = [[Baum–Connes conjecture]]<br>[[Noncommutative geometry]]<br>[[Operator algebra]]s |prizes = [[CNRS]] Silver Medal (1977)<br/> [[Prize Ampère]] (1980)<br/> [[Fields Medal]] (1982)<br/> [[Clay Research Award]] (2000)<br/> [[Crafoord Prize]] (2001)<br/> [[CNRS Gold medal]] (2004) |footnotes = }} '''Alain Connes''' ({{IPA-fr|alɛ̃ kɔn|lang}}; born 1 April 1947) is a French [[mathematician]], currently Professor at the [[Collège de France]], [[IHÉS]], [[The Ohio State University]] and [[Vanderbilt University]]. He was an Invited Professor at the [[Conservatoire national des arts et métiers]] (2000).<ref>Alain Connes, « Géométrie non-commutative », ''Université de tous les savoirs'', '''4''', 175-190, Editions Odile Jacob, 2001.</ref> ==Work== Alain Connes studies [[operator algebra]]s. In his early work on [[von Neumann algebras]] in the 1970s, he succeeded in obtaining the almost complete classification of injective [[Von Neumann algebra#Factors|factor]]s. Following this he made contributions in [[K-theory|operator K-theory]] and [[index theory]], which culminated in the [[Baum–Connes conjecture]]. He also introduced [[cyclic homology|cyclic cohomology]] in the early 1980s as a first step in the study of [[noncommutative geometry|noncommutative differential geometry]]. He was a member of [[Nicolas Bourbaki|Bourbaki]].<ref>{{citation|title=Bourbaki: a secret society of mathematicians|first=Maurice|last=Mashaal|publisher=[[American Mathematical Society]]|year=2006|page=18|isbn=978-0-8218-3967-6|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-CXn6y_1nJ8C&pg=PA18}}.</ref> Connes has applied his work in areas of [[mathematics]] and [[theoretical physics]], including [[number theory]], [[differential geometry]] and [[particle physics]].<ref>[http://www.scientificamerican.com/article.cfm?id=the-geometer-of-particle Scientific Americain, ''The Geometer of Particle Physics'', 24 July 2006]</ref> ==Awards and honours== Connes was awarded the [[Fields Medal]] in 1982, the [[Crafoord Prize]] in 2001 and the gold medal of the [[CNRS]] in 2004. He was an [[invited speaker at the International Congress of Mathematicians|invited speaker at the ICM]] in 1974 at Vancouver and in 1986 at Berkeley and a [[plenary speaker at the International Congress of Mathematicians|plenary speaker at the ICM]] in 1978 at Helsinki. He is a member of the [[French Academy of Sciences]] and several foreign academies and societies, including the [[Royal Danish Academy of Sciences and Letters|Danish Academy of Sciences]], [[Norwegian Academy of Science and Letters|Norwegian Academy of Sciences]], [[Russian Academy of Sciences]], and [[United States National Academy of Sciences|US National Academy of Sciences]]. ==Books== * Alain Connes and [[Matilde Marcolli]]: ''Noncommutative Geometry, Quantum Fields and Motives'', Colloquium Publications, American Mathematical Society, 2007, ISBN 978-0821842102 [http://www.alainconnes.org/docs/bookwebfinal.pdf] * Alain Connes, Andre Lichnerowicz, Marcel Paul Schutzenberger, Jennifer Gage (translator): ''Triangle of Thought'', American Mathematical Society, 2001, ISBN 978-0821826140 * [[Jean-Pierre Changeux]], Alain Connes, M. B. DeBevoise (translator): ''Conversations on Mind, Matter, and Mathematics'', Princeton University Press, 1998, ISBN 978-0691004051 * Alain Connes: ''Noncommutative Geometry'', Academic Press, 1994, ISBN 978-0121858605<ref>{{cite journal|author=Segal, Irving|authorlink=Irving Segal|title=Review: ''Noncommutative geometry'', by Alain Connes|journal=Bull. Amer. Math. Soc. (N.S.)|year=1996|volume=33|issue=4|pages=459–465|url=http://www.ams.org/journals/bull/1996-33-04/S0273-0979-96-00687-8/S0273-0979-96-00687-8.pdf|doi=10.1090/s0273-0979-96-00687-8}}</ref> ==See also== * [[Cyclic homology]] * [[Factor (functional analysis)]] * [[Higgs boson]] * [[C*-algebra]] * [[M Theory]] * [[Groupoid]] *[[Criticism of non-standard analysis]] ==References== {{reflist}} ==External links== * [http://www.alainconnes.org/ Alain Connes Official Web Site] containing [http://www.alainconnes.org/en/downloads.php downloadable papers], and his book [http://www.alainconnes.org/docs/book94bigpdf.pdf ''Non-commutative geometry''], ISBN 0-12-185860-X. * {{nlab|id=Alain+Connes|title=Alain Connes}} * [http://resonaances.blogspot.com/2007/02/alain-connes-standard-model.html Alain Connes' Standard Model] * An [http://www.ipm.ac.ir/ViewNewsInfo.jsp?NTID=227 interview with Alain Connes] and a [http://www.math.columbia.edu/~woit/wordpress/?p=313 discussion about it] * {{MacTutor|id=Connes}} * {{MathGenealogy|id=34220}} {{Fields medalists}} {{Authority control}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Connes, Alain}} [[Category:1947 births]] [[Category:Living people]] [[Category:20th-century mathematicians]] [[Category:Members of the United States National Academy of Sciences]] [[Category:21st-century mathematicians]] [[Category:Collège de France faculty]] [[Category:French mathematicians]] [[Category:Fields Medalists]] [[Category:Mathematical analysts]] [[Category:Differential geometers]] [[Category:École Normale Supérieure alumni]] [[Category:Vanderbilt University faculty]] [[Category:Foreign Members of the Russian Academy of Sciences]] [[Category:Members of the French Academy of Sciences]] [[Category:Members of the Norwegian Academy of Science and Letters]] [[Category:Members of the Royal Danish Academy of Sciences and Letters]] [[Category:Clay Research Award recipients]] [[Category:Participants in the Les Houches Physics Summer School]] lhdvi9jalgapzs9f0yq5efus1s9u6ht 0 344 717799304 717558177 2016-04-29T19:52:25Z Crh23 15364288 /* Early life */clean up, [[WP:AWB/T|typo(s) fixed]]: nee → née using [[Project:AWB|AWB]] wikitext text/x-wiki {{Use dmy dates|date=October 2013}} {{Infobox person | name = Allan Dwan | image = Allan Dwan 1920.jpg | caption = Dwan in 1920 |birth_name=Joseph Aloysius Dwan | birth_date = {{Birth date|df=yes|1885|4|3}} | birth_place = [[Toronto]], Canada | death_date = {{Death date and age|df=yes|1981|12|28|1885|4|3}} | death_place = Los Angeles, United States | spouse = [[Pauline Bush (actress)|Pauline Bush]] (1915–1919)<br/> Marie Shelton (1927–1949) | occupation = Film director<br>Film producer<br>Screenwriter | years_active = 1911–1961 }} '''Allan Dwan''' (3 April 1885 – 28 December 1981) was a pioneering Canadian-born American motion picture director, producer and screenwriter. ==Early life== Born '''Joseph Aloysius Dwan''' in [[Toronto|Toronto, Ontario]], Canada, Dwan,who was the younger son of commercial traveller of woolen clothing Joseph Michael Dwan (1857-1917) and his wife Mary Jane Dwan, née Hunt, moved with his family to the United States when he was seven years old, on December 4, 1892 by ferry from Windsor to Detroit, according to his naturalization petition of August 1939. His elder brother, Leo Garnet Dwan (1883-1964), became a physician. At the [[University of Notre Dame]], Allan Dwan studied engineering and began working for a lighting company in Chicago. However, he had a strong interest in the fledgling motion picture industry and when [[Essanay Studios]] offered him the opportunity to become a scriptwriter, he took the job.<ref name="Kevin Brownlow 1968">{{cite book |author=Brownlow, Kevin |title=The Parade's Gone By . . . |publisher=Ballantine Books, Inc. |location=New York |year=1969 |page=111 }}</ref> At that time, some of the [[East Coast of the United States|East Coast]] movie makers began to spend winters in California where the climate allowed them to continue productions requiring warm weather. Soon, a number of movie companies worked there year-round and, in 1911, Dwan began working part-time in Hollywood. While still in New York, in 1917 he was the founding president of the East Coast chapter of the [[Motion Picture Directors Association]].<ref name="frankenstein">{{cite news |last=Fournier |first=Pierre |url= http://io9.gizmodo.com/5706057/the-first-frankenstein-of-the-movies |title=The first Frankenstein of the movies |work=[[io9]] |date=2010-12-04 |accessdate=2016-04-28}}</ref> ==Career== Dwan operated [[Flying A Studios]] in [[La Mesa, California]] from August 1911 to July 1912.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://eastcountymagazine.org/node/6833|title=La mesa to honor its tinseltown roots aug. 12–13}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://lamesa.patch.com/articles/100-simple-melodramas-were-made-in-la-mesa-100-years-ago|title=Proto-Hollywood: 100 Melodramas Were Made In La Mesa 100 Years Ago}}</ref> Flying A was one of the first motion pictures studios in California history. On 12 August 2011, a plaque was unveiled on the Wolff building at Third Avenue and La Mesa Boulevard commemorating Dwan and the [[Flying A Studios]] origins in [[La Mesa, California]]. After making a series of westerns and comedies, Dwan directed fellow Canadian-American [[Mary Pickford]] in several very successful movies as well as her husband, [[Douglas Fairbanks]], notably in the acclaimed 1922 ''[[Robin Hood (1922 film)|Robin Hood]]''. Dwan directed [[Gloria Swanson]] in eight feature films, and one short film made in the short-lived sound-on-film process [[Phonofilm]]. This short, also featuring [[Thomas Meighan]] and [[Henri de la Falaise]], was produced as a joke, for the 26 April 1925 "Lambs' Gambol" for [[The Lambs]], with the film showing Swanson crashing the all-male club. Following the introduction of the [[sound film|talkies]], Dwan directed child-star [[Shirley Temple]] in ''[[Heidi]]'' (1937) and ''[[Rebecca of Sunnybrook Farm (1938 film)|Rebecca of Sunnybrook Farm]]'' (1938). Dwan helped launch the career of two other very successful Hollywood directors, [[Victor Fleming]], who went on to direct ''[[The Wizard of Oz (1939 film)|The Wizard of Oz]]'' and ''[[Gone with the Wind (film)|Gone With the Wind]]'', and [[Marshall Neilan]], who became an actor, director, writer and producer. Over a long career spanning almost 50 years, Dwan directed 125 motion pictures, some of which were highly acclaimed, such as the 1949 box office hit, ''[[Sands of Iwo Jima]]''. He directed his last movie in 1961.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.afi.com/members/catalog/SearchResult.aspx?s=&retailCheck=&Type=PN&CatID=DATABIN_DIRECTOR&ID=11207&AN_ID=&searchedFor=Allan_Dwan_ | publisher=American Film Institute | title=Allan Dwan, Filmography | accessdate=December 27, 2015}}</ref> He died in Los Angeles at the age of ninety-six, and is interred in the [[San Fernando Mission Cemetery]], [[Mission Hills, California]]. Dwan has a star on the [[Hollywood Walk of Fame]] at 6263 [[Hollywood Boulevard]]. ==Partial filmography as director== {{div col|colwidth=25em}} *''[[The Gold Lust]]'' (1911) *''[[The Picket Guard]]'' (1913) *''[[The Restless Spirit]]'' (1913) *''[[Back to Life (1913 film)|Back to Life]]'' (1913) *''[[Bloodhounds of the North]]'' (1913) *''[[The Lie (1914 film)|The Lie]]'' (1914) *''[[The Honor of the Mounted]]'' (1914) *''[[Remember Mary Magdalen]]'' (1914) *''[[Discord and Harmony]]'' (1914) *''[[The Embezzler (1914 film)|The Embezzler]]'' (1914) *''[[The Lamb, the Woman, the Wolf]]'' (1914) *''[[The End of the Feud]]'' (1914) *''[[The Tragedy of Whispering Creek]]'' (1914) *''[[The Unlawful Trade]]'' (1914) *''[[The Forbidden Room (1914 film)|The Forbidden Room]]'' (1914) *''[[The Hopes of Blind Alley]]'' (1914) *''[[Richelieu (film)|Richelieu]]'' (1914) * ''[[Wildflower (1914 film)|Wildflower]]'' (1914) *''[[A Small Town Girl]]'' (1915) *''[[David Harum (1915 film)|David Harum]]'' (1915) *''[[A Girl of Yesterday]]'' (1915) *''[[The Pretty Sister of Jose (1915 film)|The Pretty Sister of Jose]]'' (1915) *''[[Jordan Is a Hard Road]]'' (1915) *''[[Betty of Graystone]]'' (1916) *''[[The Habit of Happiness]]'' (1916) *''[[The Good Bad Man]]'' (1916) *''[[An Innocent Magdalene]]'' (1916) *''[[The Half-Breed (1916 film)|The Half-Breed]]'' (1916) *''[[Manhattan Madness]]'' (1916) *''[[Accusing Evidence]]'' (1916) *''[[Panthea (1917 film)|Panthea]]'' (1917) *''[[A Modern Musketeer]]'' (1917) *''[[Headin' South]]'' (1918) *''[[Mr. Fix-It (1918 film)|Mr. Fix-It]]'' (1918) *''[[He Comes Up Smiling]]'' (1918) *''[[Getting Mary Married]]'' (1919) *''[[In The Heart of a Fool]]'' (1920) also producer *''[[The Forbidden Thing]]'' (1920) also producer * ''[[A Splendid Hazard (1920)]]'' *''[[Robin Hood (1922 film)|Robin Hood]]'' (1922) *''[[Zaza (1923 film)|Zaza]]'' (1923) *''[[Big Brother (1923 film)|Big Brother]]'' (1923) *''[[Manhandled (1924 film)|Manhandled]]'' (1924) *''[[Night Life of New York]]'' (1925) *''[[Stage Struck (1925 film)|Stage Struck]]'' (1925) *''[[Gloria Swanson Dialogue]]'' (1925) short film made in [[Phonofilm]] for [[The Lambs]] annual "Gambol" held at [[Metropolitan Opera House (39th Street)|Metropolitan Opera House]] *''[[Tin Gods]]'' (1926) *''[[The Joy Girl]]'' (1927) *''[[East Side, West Side (1927 film)|East Side, West Side]]'' (1927) *''[[The Big Noise]]'' (1928) *''[[The Iron Mask]]'' (1929) *''[[Tide of Empire]]'' (1929) *''[[The Far Call]]'' (1929) *''[[What a Widow!]]'' (1930) *''[[Man to Man (1930 film)|Man to Man]]'' (1930) *''[[Chances (1931 film)|Chances]]'' (1931) *''[[Wicked (1931 film)|Wicked]]'' (1931) *''[[While Paris Sleeps (1932 film)|While Paris Sleeps]]'' (1932) *''[[Counsel's Opinion]]'' (1933) *''[[Black Sheep (1935 film)|Black Sheep]]'' (1935) *''[[High Tension (1936 film)|High Tension]]'' (1936) *''[[15 Maiden Lane]]'' (1936) *''[[One Mile from Heaven]]'' (1937) *''[[Heidi (1937 film)|Heidi]]'' (1937) *''[[Rebecca of Sunnybrook Farm (1938 film)|Rebecca of Sunnybrook Farm]]'' (1938) *''[[Suez (film)|Suez]]'' (1938) * ''[[Josette (1938 film)|Josette]]'' (1938) *''[[The Three Musketeers (1939 film)|The Three Musketeers]]'' (1939) *''[[The Gorilla (1939 film)|The Gorilla]]'' (1939) *''[[Frontier Marshal (1939 film)|Frontier Marshal]]'' (1939) *''[[Sailor's Lady]]'' (1940) *''[[Young People (1940 film)|Young People]]'' (1940) *''[[Trail of the Vigilantes]]'' (1940) *''[[Look Who's Laughing]]'' (1941) also producer *''[[Rise and Shine (film)|Rise and Shine]]'' (1941) *''[[Friendly Enemies]]'' (1942) *''[[Around the World (1943 film)|Around the World]]'' (1943) also producer *''[[Up in Mabel's Room (1944 film)|Up in Mabel's Room]]'' (1944) *''[[Abroad with Two Yanks]]'' (1944) *''[[Getting Gertie's Garter]]'' (1945) also screenwriter *''[[Brewster's Millions (1945 film)|Brewster's Millions]]'' (1945) *''[[Rendezvous with Annie]]'' (1946) *''Driftwood'' (1947) *''[[Calendar Girl (1947 film)|Calendar Girl]]'' (1947) *''[[Northwest Outpost]]'' (1947) also associate producer *''[[The Inside Story (film)|The Inside Story]]'' (1948) *''[[Angel in Exile]]'' (1948) (with [[Philip Ford (film director)|Philip Ford]]) *''[[Sands of Iwo Jima]]'' (1949) *''[[Surrender (1950 film)|Surrender]]'' (1950) *''[[Belle Le Grand]]'' (1951) *''[[Wild Blue Yonder (film)|Wild Blue Yonder]]'' (1951) *''[[I Dream of Jeanie (film)|I Dream of Jeanie]]'' (1952) *''[[Montana Belle]]'' (1952) *''[[Woman They Almost Lynched]]'' (1953) * ''[[Sweethearts on Parade]]'' (1953) *''[[Silver Lode (1954 film)|Silver Lode]]'' (1954) *''[[Passion (1954 film)|Passion]]'' (1954) *''[[Cattle Queen of Montana]]'' (1954) *''[[Tennessee's Partner]]'' (1955) *''[[Pearl of the South Pacific]]'' (1955) *''[[Escape to Burma]]'' (1955) *''[[Slightly Scarlet (1956 film)|Slightly Scarlet]]'' (1956) *''[[Hold Back the Night (film)|Hold Back the Night]]'' (1956) *''[[The Restless Breed]]'' (1957) *''[[The River's Edge]]'' (1957) *''[[Enchanted Island (film)|Enchanted Island]]'' (1958) *''[[Most Dangerous Man Alive]]'' (1961) {{div col end}} ==See also== *[[Canadian pioneers in early Hollywood]] ==References== {{reflist}} ==Further reading== * Brownlow, Kevin, ''The Parade's Gone By...'' (1968) ISBN 0520030680 ISBN 978-0520030688 * Bogdanovich, Peter, ''Allan Dwan: The Last Pioneer'' (1971) ISBN 0289701228 ISBN 978-0289701225 * Foster, Charles, ''Stardust and Shadows: Canadians in Early Hollywood'' (2000) ISBN 1-55002-348-9 * Lombardi, Frederic, ''Allan Dwan and the Rise and Decline of the Hollywood Studios'' (2013) Print ISBN 978-0-7864-3485-5 Ebook ISBN 978-0-7864-9040-0 ==External links== {{Commons category|Allan Dwan}} *{{IMDb name|id=0245385|name=Allan Dwan}} *[http://www.virtual-history.com/movie/person/2643/allan-dwan Allan Dwan profile], virtual-history.com; accessed 16 June 2014 {{Allan Dwan}} {{Authority control}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Dwan, Allan}} [[Category:1885 births]] [[Category:1981 deaths]] [[Category:American film directors]] [[Category:American film producers]] [[Category:American male screenwriters]] [[Category:Western (genre) film directors]] [[Category:Canadian film directors]] [[Category:Canadian emigrants to the United States]] [[Category:Film directors from Toronto]] [[Category:Writers from Toronto]] [[Category:Disease-related deaths in California]] [[Category:Burials at San Fernando Mission Cemetery]] qvjn4oph4919trcybckpvouysvpssrk 0 347 629644125 179567227 2014-10-14T23:55:13Z Jdaloner 4460044 Changed "R from CamelCase" tag to "R from subpage". wikitext text/x-wiki #REDIRECT [[Demographics of Algeria]] {{R from subpage}} 1hdsh8z5q4mode6uao0gz5r53phd1ep 0 353 629644210 215475986 2014-10-14T23:56:08Z Jdaloner 4460044 Changed "R from CamelCase" tag to "R from subpage". wikitext text/x-wiki #REDIRECT [[Foreign relations of Algeria]] {{R from subpage}} 9kv40fcmy0rqicxjhj31dk4c0ljedkb 0 358 718031932 718031856 2016-05-01T04:21:27Z Materialscientist 7852030 Reverted edits by [[Special:Contribs/2601:3C6:4200:9D61:9045:1AA6:2043:F9D8|2601:3C6:4200:9D61:9045:1AA6:2043:F9D8]] ([[User talk:2601:3C6:4200:9D61:9045:1AA6:2043:F9D8|talk]]) to last version by Materialscientist wikitext text/x-wiki {{see also|Portal:Algeria{{!}}Algeria portal|Outline of Algeria}} {{pp-move|small=yes}} {{pp-move-indef}} {{Use dmy dates|date=January 2016}} {{coord|28|N|2|E|scale:10000000_type:country_region:DZ|format=dms|display=title}} {{Infobox country |conventional_long_name = People's Democratic Republic of Algeria |native_name = ''{{small|{{native name|ar|{{noitalic|الجمهورية الجزائرية الديمقراطية الشعبية}}}}}}<br>{{small|{{native name|ber|{{noitalic|ⵟⴰⴳⴷⵓⴷⴰ ⵜⴰⵎⴻⴳⴷⴰⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵖⴻⵔⴼⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵣⵣⴰⵢⵔⵉⵜ}}}}}}'' |common_name = Algeria |image_flag = Flag of Algeria.svg |image_coat = Algeria emb (1976).svg |symbol_type = Emblem |national_motto = ''{{small|بالشّعب وللشّعب}}''<br>By the people and for the people<ref name="CONST-AR">{{cite web|url=http://www.el-mouradia.dz/arabe/symbole/textes/constitution96.htm |title=Constitution of Algeria, Art. 11 |language=Arabic |publisher=El-mouradia.dz |accessdate=17 January 2013}}</ref><ref name="CONST-EN">{{cite web|url=http://www.apn-dz.org/apn/english/constitution96/titre_01.htm |title=Constitution of Algeria; Art. 11 |publisher=Apn-dz.org |date=28 November 1996 |accessdate=17 January 2013 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130725130249/http://www.apn-dz.org/apn/english/constitution96/titre_01.htm |archivedate=25 July 2013 }}</ref> |national_anthem = ''[[Kassaman]]''<br>{{small|We Pledge}} |image_map = Algeria_(orthographic_projection).svg |map_caption = {{map caption |location_color=dark green || | |}} |capital = [[Algiers]] |latd = 36 |latm = 42 |latNS = N |longd = 3 |longm = 13 |longEW = E |largest_city = capital |official_languages = {{hlist |[[Arabic]]<ref name="constitution">{{cite web|url=http://www.apn-dz.org/apn/english/constitution96/titre_01.htm |title=Constitution of Algeria; Art. 3 |publisher=Apn-dz.org |date=28 November 1996 |accessdate=17 January 2013 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130725130249/http://www.apn-dz.org/apn/english/constitution96/titre_01.htm |archivedate=25 July 2013 }}</ref> |[[Berber languages|Berber]] <ref name="APS">{{cite web |url=http://www.aps.dz/images/doc/PROJET-DE%20REVISION-DE-LA-CONSTITUTION-28-DECEMBRE-2015.pdf|title=APS |publisher=[[Algeria Press Service]] |date=6 January 2016 |accessdate=6 January 2016}}</ref>}} | ethnic_groups = {{vunblist | 99% {{nowrap|Arab-Berber<ref name="AlgeriaFactbook">{{cite web |url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/ag.html |title=The World Factbook – Algeria |publisher=[[Central Intelligence Agency]] |date=4 December 2013 |accessdate=24 December 2013}}</ref>{{ref label|Amazigh|a|}}<!--end nowrap:-->}} | 1% Others<ref name="AlgeriaFactbook"/>}} |religion = [[Sunni Islam]] |demonym = Algerian |government_type = {{nowrap|[[Unitary state|Unitary]] [[Semi-presidential system|semi-presidential]]}} [[people's republic]] |leader_title1 = [[President of Algeria|President]] |leader_name1 = [[Abdelaziz Bouteflika]] |leader_title2 = [[Prime Minister of Algeria|Prime Minister]] |leader_name2 = [[Abdelmalek Sellal]] |legislature = [[Parliament of Algeria|Parliament]] |upper_house = [[Council of the Nation]] |lower_house = [[People's National Assembly]] |sovereignty_type = [[Algerian War|Independence]] {{nobold|from [[France]]}} |established_event1 = Recognised |established_date1 = 5 July 1962 |established_event2 = Declared |established_date2 = 3 July 1962 |area_km2 = 2381741 |area_sq_mi = 919595 |area_rank = 10th |area_magnitude = 1 E12 |percent_water = negligible |population_estimate = 40,400,000<ref name="ONS">{{cite web |url=http://www.ons.dz/-Demographie-.html |title=Démographie (ONS) |publisher=ONS |date=19 January 2016 |accessdate=19 January 2014}}</ref> |population_estimate_year = 2016 |population_estimate_rank = 33rd |population_census = 37,900,000<ref name="ONS"/> |population_census_year = 2013 |population_density_km2 = 15.9 |population_density_sq_mi = 37.9 |population_density_rank = 208th |GDP_PPP_year = 2016 |GDP_PPP = $599.83 billion <ref>IMF World Economic Outlook (WEO), October 2015 http://knoema.com/IMFWEO2015Oct/imf-world-economic-outlook-weo-october-2015?tsId=1000880 </ref> |GDP_PPP_rank = |GDP_PPP_per_capita = $14,610 <ref>IMF World Economic Outlook (WEO), October 2015 http://knoema.com/IMFWEO2015Oct/imf-world-economic-outlook-weo-october-2015?tsId=1001240</ref> |GDP_nominal_year = 2016 |GDP_nominal = $181.71 billion <ref>IMF World Economic Outlook (WEO), October 2015 http://knoema.com/IMFWEO2015Oct/imf-world-economic-outlook-weo-october-2015?tsId=1000500</ref> |GDP_nominal_per_capita = $4,425 <ref>IMF World Economic Outlook (WEO), October 2015 http://knoema.com/IMFWEO2015Oct/imf-world-economic-outlook-weo-october-2015?tsId=1001260</ref> |Gini_year = 1995 |Gini = 35.3 |Gini_ref = <ref>{{cite web |author=Staff |url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2172.html |title=Distribution of Family Income&nbsp;– Gini Index |work=[[The World Factbook]] |publisher=[[Central Intelligence Agency]] |accessdate=1 September 2009 |archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/5rRcwIiYs |archivedate=23 July 2010 |deadurl=no}}</ref> |HDI_year = 2015<!-- Please use the year to which the data refers, not the publication year --> |HDI_change = increase<!-- increase/decrease/steady --> |HDI = 0.736<!-- number only --> |HDI_ref = <ref name="HDI">{{cite web |url=http://hdr.undp.org/sites/default/files/hdr_2015_statistical_annex.pdf |title=2015 Human Development Report |date=14 December 2015 |accessdate=14 December 2015 |publisher=United Nations Development Programme |pages=21–25}}</ref> |HDI_rank = 83rd |currency = [[Algerian dinar|Dinar]] |currency_code = DZD |time_zone = [[Central European Time|CET]] |utc_offset = +1 |drives_on = right<ref>{{cite news |last=Geoghegan |first=Tom |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/8239048.stm |title=Could the UK drive on the right? |publisher=BBC News |date=7 September 2009 |accessdate=14 January 2013}}</ref> |calling_code = [[Telephone numbers in Algeria|+213]] |country_code = DZ |cctld = [[.dz]]<br>''الجزائر.'' |footnote_a = {{note|arabberberbox}} The ''[[The World Factbook|CIA World Factbook]]'' states that about 15% of Algerians, a minority, identify as Berber even though many Algerians have Berber origins. The Factbook explains that of the approximately 15% who identify as Berber, most live in the [[Kabylie]] region, more closely identify with Berber heritage instead of Arab heritage, and are Muslim. }} '''Algeria''' ({{lang-ar|{{large|الجزائر}}}} ''{{transl|ar|al-Jazā'ir}}''; {{lang-ber|ⵍⵣⵣⴰⵢⴻⵔ}} ''Dzayer''), officially '''People's Democratic Republic of Algeria''', is a [[sovereign state]] in [[North Africa]] on the [[Mediterranean Sea|Mediterranean coast]]. Its capital and most populous city is [[Algiers]], located in the country's far north. With an area of {{convert|2381741|km2|sqmi|0}}, Algeria is the [[list of countries and dependencies by area|tenth-largest country in the world]], and the largest in Africa and the [[Arab world]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/rankorder/2147rank.html|title=Country Comparison: Area |publisher=CIA World Factbook |accessdate=17 January 2013}}</ref> Algeria is bordered to the northeast by [[Tunisia]], to the east by [[Libya]], to the west by [[Morocco]], to the southwest by [[Western Sahara]], [[Mauritania]], and [[Mali]], to the southeast by [[Niger]], and to the north by the [[Mediterranean Sea]]. The country is a [[Semi-presidential system|semi-presidential republic]] consisting of 48 provinces and 1,541 communes. [[Abdelaziz Bouteflika]] has been [[President of Algeria|President]] since 1999. Ancient Algeria has known many empires and dynasties, including ancient [[Numidia]]ns, [[Phoenicia]]ns, [[Punic|Carthaginians]], [[Ancient Rome|Romans]], [[Vandals]], [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantines]], [[Umayyad]]s, [[Abbasid]]s, [[Idrisid]], [[Aghlabid]], [[Rustamid]], [[Fatimid]]s, [[Zirid]], [[Hammadids]], [[Almoravids]], [[Almohads]], [[Ottomans]] and the [[French Algeria|French colonial empire]]. [[Berbers]] are generally considered to be the indigenous inhabitants of Algeria. Following the [[Muslim conquest of the Maghreb|Arab conquest of North Africa]], most indigenous inhabitants were [[Arabization|Arabised]]; thus, although most Algerians are Berber in origin, most identify with [[Arab]] identity . En masse, Algerians are a mix of Berbers with some additional elements such as [[Arabs]], [[Turkic peoples|Turks]] and Andalusians (people from southern Spain who migrated after the [[reconquista]]). Algeria is a regional and middle power. The North African country supplies large amounts of [[natural gas]] to Europe, and energy exports are the backbone of the economy. According to [[OPEC]] Algeria has the [[List of countries by proven oil reserves|17th largest]] oil reserves in the world and the second largest in [[Africa]], while it has the [[List of countries by natural gas proven reserves|9th largest reserves]] of [[natural gas]]. [[Sonatrach]], the national oil company, is the largest company in Africa. Algeria has one of the largest militaries in Africa and the largest defence budget on the continent; most of Algeria's weapons are imported from [[Russia]], with whom they are a close ally.<ref name="AlgeriaSpending">{{cite web|url=http://www.upi.com/Business_News/Security-Industry/2013/03/11/Algerias-military-goes-on-an-arms-spree/UPI-89581363031700/ |title=Algeria buying military equipment |publisher=UPI.com |accessdate=24 December 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/nukevault/ebb228/index.htm |title=The Nuclear Vault: The Algerian Nuclear Problem |publisher=Gwu.edu |accessdate=14 March 2013}}</ref> Algeria is a member of the [[African Union]], the [[Arab League]], [[OPEC]], the [[United Nations]] and is the founding member of the [[Arab Maghreb Union|Maghreb Union]]. ==Etymology== The country's name derives from the city of [[Algiers]]. The city's name in turn derives from the Arabic ''al-Jazā'ir'' (الجزائر, "The Islands"),<ref>{{OEtymD|algeria}}</ref> a truncated form of the older ''Jazā'ir Banī Mazghanna'' (جزائر بني مزغنة, "Islands of the Mazghanna Tribe"),<ref name=idrisi>al-Idrisi, Muhammad (12th century) ''Nuzhat al-Mushtaq''</ref>{{page needed|date=February 2013}}<ref name=khaldun>{{cite book|last=Abderahman|first=Abderrahman|title=History of Ibn Khaldun&nbsp;– Volume 6|year=1377}}</ref>{{page needed|date=February 2013}} employed by medieval geographers such as [[Muhammad al-Idrisi|al-Idrisi]]. ==History== {{Main|History of Algeria}} ===Ancient history=== {{main|Prehistoric North Africa|North Africa during Antiquity}} In the region of Ain Hanech ([[Saïda Province]]), early remnants (200,000 BC) of hominid occupation in North Africa were found. Neanderthal tool makers produced hand axes in the [[Levallois technique|Levalloisian]] and [[Mousterian]] styles (43,000 BC) similar to those in the [[Levant]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.gi.ulpgc.es/tarha/Ain_Hanech.pdf |title=The Site of Ain Hanech Revisited: New Investigations at this Lower Pleistocene Site in Northern Algeria |publisher=Journal of Archaeological Science |author=Sahnouni, Mohamed and de Heinzelin, Jean |accessdate=14 January 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.stoneageinstitute.org/ain-hanech.html |title=Research at Ain Hanech, Algeria |publisher=Stoneageinstitute.org |accessdate=14 January 2013}}</ref> Algeria was the site of the highest state of development of [[Middle Paleolithic]] [[Flake tool]] techniques. Tools of this era, starting about 30,000 BC, are called [[Aterian]] (after the archeological site of [[Bir el Ater]], south of [[Tebessa]]). The earliest blade industries in North Africa are called [[Iberomaurusian]] (located mainly in [[Oran]] region). This industry appears to have spread throughout the coastal regions of the [[Maghreb]] between 15,000 and 10,000 BC. Neolithic civilization (animal domestication and agriculture) developed in the Saharan and Mediterranean Maghreb perhaps as early as 11,000 BC<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.plosgenetics.org/article/info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pgen.1002397 |title=Genomic Ancestry of North Africans Supports Back-to-Africa Migrations |publisher=PLOS Genetics |date=12 January 2012 |accessdate=18 July 2014}}</ref> or as late as between 6000 and 2000 BC. This life, richly depicted in the [[Tassili n'Ajjer]] paintings, predominated in Algeria until the classical period. The amalgam of peoples of North Africa coalesced eventually into a distinct native population that came to be called [[Berber people|Berbers]], who are the indigenous peoples of northern Africa.<ref>{{cite book|title=The Berbers|publisher=[[Wiley-Blackwell]]|year=1997|chapter=Berbers in Antiquity|isbn=978-0-631-20767-2|url=https://books.google.com/?id=8Zcz91t29ukC|author=Brett, Michael; Fentress, Elizabeth}}</ref> [[File:Timgad rue.jpg|thumbnail|right|Ancient [[Roman Empire]] ruins of [[Timgad]]. Street leading to the Arch of Trajan.]] [[File:GM Djemila Roman Theatre02.jpg|thumbnail|left|Ancient Roman theatre in Djémila]] From their principal center of power at Carthage, the [[Carthaginians]] expanded and established small settlements along the North African coast; by 600 BC, a [[Phoenicia]]n presence existed at [[Tipasa]], east of [[Cherchell]], [[Hippo Regius]] (modern [[Annaba]]) and [[Rusicade]] (modern [[Skikda]]). These settlements served as market towns as well as anchorages. As Carthaginian power grew, its impact on the indigenous population increased dramatically. Berber civilization was already at a stage in which agriculture, manufacturing, trade, and political organization supported several states. Trade links between Carthage and the Berbers in the interior grew, but territorial expansion also resulted in the enslavement or military recruitment of some Berbers and in the extraction of tribute from others. [[File:Egypt, Rome, Carthage and Numidia.jpg|thumbnail|right|Numidia along with Egypt, Rome, and Carthage 200 BCE]] By the early 4th century BC, Berbers formed the single largest element of the Carthaginian army. In the [[Mercenary War|Revolt of the Mercenaries]], Berber soldiers rebelled from 241 to 238 BC after being unpaid following the defeat of Carthage in the [[First Punic War]]. They succeeded in obtaining control of much of Carthage's North African territory, and they minted coins bearing the name Libyan, used in Greek to describe natives of North Africa. The Carthaginian state declined because of successive defeats by the Romans in the [[Punic Wars]]. In 146 BC the city of [[Carthage]] was destroyed. As Carthaginian power waned, the influence of Berber leaders in the hinterland grew. By the 2nd century BC, several large but loosely administered Berber kingdoms had emerged. Two of them were established in [[Numidia]], behind the coastal areas controlled by Carthage. West of Numidia lay [[Mauretania]], which extended across the [[Moulouya River]] in modern-day [[Morocco]] to the Atlantic Ocean. The high point of Berber civilization, unequaled until the coming of the [[Almohads]] and [[Almoravids]] more than a millennium later, was reached during the reign of [[Massinissa]] in the 2nd century BC. After Masinissa's death in 148 BC, the Berber kingdoms were divided and reunited several times. Massinissa's line survived until 24 AD, when the remaining Berber territory was annexed to the [[Roman Empire]]. [[File:GM Massinissa.png|upright|thumbnail|left|Berber King [[Masinissa]]]] For several centuries Algeria was ruled by the Romans, who founded many colonies in the region. Like the rest of North Africa, Algeria was one of the breadbaskets of the empire, exporting cereals and other agricultural products. [[Augustine of Hippo|Saint Augustine]] was the bishop of [[Hippo Regius]] (modern-day Algeria), located in the Roman province of [[Africa (Roman province)|Africa]]. The Germanic [[Vandals]] of [[Geiseric]] moved into North Africa in 429, and by 435 controlled coastal Numidia.<ref name="vandaf">{{cite book|last1=Cameron|first1=Averil|last2=Ward-Perkins|first2=Bryan|title=The Cambridge Ancient History|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Qf8mrHjfZRoC&pg=RA1-PA124|volume=14|year=2001|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-32591-2|pages=124–126|chapter=Vandal Africa, 429–533}}</ref> They did not make any significant settlement on the land, as they were harassed by local tribes, in fact by the time the Byzantines arrived Lepcis Magna was abandoned and the Msellata region was occupied by the indigenous [[Amazigh|Laguatan]] who had been busy facilitating an [[Amazigh]] political, military and cultural revival.<ref name="vandaf"/><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Mattingly|first1=D.J.|title=The Laguatan: A Libyan Tribal Confederation in the late Roman Empire.|journal=Libyan Studies|date=1983|volume=14}}</ref> [[File:Jugurtha.JPG|thumb|upright|[[Jugurtha]]]] ===Middle Ages=== {{main|Medieval Muslim Algeria}} [[File:Mansourah-1.jpg|thumbnail|right|Mansourah mosque, Tlemcen]] [[File:FatimidCaliphate969.png|thumbnail|Fatimid Caliphate at its greatest extent.]] After negligible resistance from the locals, the Arabs conquered Algeria in the mid-7th century and a large number of the indigenous people converted to the new faith. After the fall of the [[Umayyad]] Caliphate, numerous local dynasties emerged, including the [[Aghlabids]], [[Almohads]], [[Abdalwadid]], [[Zirids]], [[Rustamids]], [[Hammadids]], [[Almoravids]] and the [[Fatimids]]. During the Middle Ages, North Africa was home to many great Scholars, Saints, and Sovereigns including [[Judah ibn Kuraish|Judah Ibn Quraysh]] the first grammarian to suggest the [[Afroasiatic languages|Afroasiatic]] language family, the great Sufi masters [[Abu Madyan|Sidi Boumediene (Abu Madyan)]] and [[Sidi El Houari]], as well as the Emirs [[Abd al-Mu'min|Abd Al Mu'min]] and [[Yaghmurasen Ibn Zyan|Yāghmūrasen]]. It was during this time period that the [[Fatimids]] or children of Fatima, daughter of Muhammad, came to the Maghreb. These "Fatimids" went on to found a long lasting dynasty stretching across the Maghreb, Hejaz, and the Levant, boasting a secular inner government, as well as a powerful army and navy, primarily made of [[Arabs]] and [[levant]]ians extending from Algeria to their capital state of [[Cairo]]. The [[Fatimid caliphate]] began to collapse when its governors the [[Zirids]] seceded. In order to punish them the Fatimids sent the [[Arab]] [[Banu Hilal]] and [[Banu Sulaym]] against them. The resultant war is recounted in the epic [[Taghribat Bani Hilal|Tāghribāt]]. In Al-Tāghrībāt the Amazigh Zirid Hero [[Khalifa al-Zanati|Khālīfā Al-Zānatī]] asks daily, for duels, to defeat the Hilalan hero [[Abu Zayd al-Hilali|Ābu Zayd al-Hilalī]] and many other Arab knights in a string of victories. The [[Zirid]]s however were ultimately defeated ushering in an adoption of Arab customs and culture. The indigenous [[Berber people|Amazigh]] tribes however remained largely independent, and depending on tribe, location, and time controlled varying parts of the Maghreb, at times unifying it (as under the Fatimids). The Fatimid Islamic state, also known as [[Fatimid Caliphate]] made an Islamic empire that included North Africa, Sicily, [[Palestine (region)|Palestine]], [[Jordan]], [[Lebanon]], [[Syria]], the [[Red Sea]] coast of Africa, Tihamah, [[Hejaz]], and [[Yemen]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/202580/Fatimid-Dynasty/2238/Conquest-of-Egypt|title=Fatimid Dynasty (Islamic dynasty)|publisher=Encyclopædia Britannica|accessdate=29 August 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.qantara-med.org/qantara4/public/show_carte.php?carte=carte-05 |title=Qantara |publisher=Qantara-med.org |accessdate=13 September 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.qantara-med.org/qantara4/public/show_document.php?do_id=595 |title=Qantara – Les Almoravides (1056–1147) |publisher=Qantara-med.org |accessdate=13 September 2013}}</ref> Caliphates from Northern Africa traded with the other empires of their time, as well as forming part of a confederated support and trade network with other Islamic states during the Islamic Era. The [[Berber people|Amazighs]] historically consisted of several tribes. The two main branches were the Botr and Barnès tribes, who were divided into tribes, and again into sub-tribes. Each region of the Maghreb contained several tribes (for example, [[Sanhadja]], Houaras, [[Zenata]], [[Masmuda|Masmouda]], Kutama, Awarba, and [[Berghwata]]). All these tribes made independent territorial decisions.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/?id=H3RBAAAAIAAJ&pg=PR2|title=Histoire des Berbères et des dynasties musulmanes de l'Afrique Septentrionale Par Ibn Khaldūn, William MacGuckin Slane| trans_title =History of the Berbers and the Muslim dynasties of northern Africa | language= French |page=XV|author=Khaldūn, Ibn|year=1852}}</ref> Several [[Berber people|Amazigh]] dynasties emerged during the Middle Ages in the Maghreb and other nearby lands. [[Ibn Khaldun]] provides a table summarizing the Amazigh dynasties of the Maghreb region, the Zirid, [[Banu Ifran]], [[Maghrawa]], [[Almoravid]], [[Hammadid]], [[Almohad]], [[Merinid]], Abdalwadid, [[Wattasid]], [[Meknassa]] and [[Hafsid]] dynasties.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/?id=H3RBAAAAIAAJ&pg=PR115|title=Histoire des Berbères et des dynasties musulmanes de l'Afrique Septentrionale Par Ibn Khaldūn, William MacGuckin Slane |trans_title =History of the Berbers and the Muslim dynasties of northern Africa | language= French |pages=X |author=Khaldūn, Ibn|year=1852}}</ref> In the early 16th century, Spain constructed fortified outposts ([[presidio]]s) on or near the Algerian coast. Spain took control of few coastal towns like [[Mers el Kebir]] in 1505; [[Oran]] in 1509; and [[Tlemcen]], [[Mostaganem]], and [[Ténès]], in 1510. In the same year, few merchants of Algiers ceded one of the rocky islets in their harbor to Spain, which built a fort on it. The presidios in North Africa turned out to be a costly and largely ineffective military endeavor that did not guarantee access for Spain's merchant fleet.<ref>{{cite web|title=European Offensive|url=http://countrystudies.us/algeria/14.htm|publisher=Country Studies}}</ref> ===Arabization=== {{Main|Banu Hilal}}Reigned in [[Ifriqiya]], current Tunisia, a [[Berbers|Berber]] family, [[Zirid dynasty|Zirid]], somehow recognizing the suzerainty of the [[Fatimid Caliphate|Fatimid]] caliph of [[Cairo]]. Probably in 1048, the Zirid ruler or viceroy, el-Mu'izz, decided to end this suzerainty. The [[Fatimid]] state was too weak to attempt a punitive expedition; The Viceroy, el-Mu'izz, also found another means of revenge. Between the [[Nile]] and the [[Red Sea]] were living [[Bedouin]] tribes expelled from [[Arabia]] for their disruption and turbulent influence, both [[Banu Hilal]] and [[Banu Sulaym]] among others, whose presence disrupted farmers in the [[Nile Valley]] since the nomads would often loot. The then [[Fatimid Caliphate|Fatimid]] vizier devised to relinquish control of the [[Maghreb]] and obtained the agreement of his sovereign. This not only prompted the Bedouins to leave, but the [[Fatimid]]treasury even gave them a light expatriation cash allowance. Whole tribes set off with women, children, ancestors, animals and camping equipment. Some stopped on the way, especially in [[Cyrenaica]], where they are still one of the essential elements of the settlement but most arrived in [[Ifriqiya]] by the [[Gabès Governorate|Gabe]]s region. The [[Zirid]] ruler tried to stop this rising tide, but each meeting, the last under the walls of [[Kairouan]], his troops were defeated and [[Arabs]] remained masters of the field. The flood was still rising and in 1057, the [[Arabs]] spread on the high plains of [[Constantine, Algeria|Constantine]] where they gradually choked [[Beni Hammad Fort|Qalaa of Banu Hammad]], as they had done Kairouan few decades ago. From there, they gradually gained the upper [[Algiers]] and [[Oran]] plains, some were forcibly taken by the [[Almohads]] in the second half of the 12th century. We can say that in the 13th century there were in all of [[North Africa]], with the exception of the main mountain ranges and certain coastal regions remained entirely [[Berbers|Berber]]. ===Ottoman Algeria=== {{main|Ottoman Algeria}} [[File:Barbarossa Hayreddin Pasha.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Hayreddin Barbarossa]]]] [[File:Old algiers 16th century.jpg|thumb|Old [[Algiers]] in the 16th century, with the [[Spain|Spanish]]-built [[Peñón of Algiers]] in the forefront]] The region of Algeria was partially ruled by [[Ottomans]] for three centuries from 1516 to 1830. In 1516 the [[Turkish people|Turkish]] privateer brothers [[Aruj]] and [[Hayreddin Barbarossa]], who operated successfully under the [[Hafsids]], moved their base of operations to Algiers. They succeeded in conquering Jijel and Algiers from the [[Spaniards]] but eventually assumed control over the city and the surrounding region, forcing the previous ruler, Abu Hamo Musa III of the ''Bani Ziyad'' dynasty, to flee.<ref>[[Hayreddin Barbarossa#Rulers of Algiers]]</ref> When Aruj was killed in 1518 during his invasion of [[Kingdom of Tlemcen|Tlemcen]], Hayreddin succeeded him as military commander of Algiers. The [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] sultan gave him the title of [[beylerbey]] and a contingent of some 2,000 [[janissaries]]. With the aid of this force, Hayreddin conquered the whole area between Constantine and Oran (although the city of Oran remained in Spanish hands until 1791).<ref name="csa16" /> The next beylerbey was Hayreddin's son [[Hasan Pasha (son of Barbarossa)|Hasan]], who assumed the position in 1544. Until 1587 the area was governed by officers who served terms with no fixed limits. Subsequently, with the institution of a regular Ottoman administration, governors with the title of pasha ruled for three-year terms. The pasha was assisted by janissaries, known in Algeria as the ojaq and led by an [[Agha (Ottoman Empire)|agha]]. Discontent among the ojaq rose in the mid-1600s because they were not paid regularly, and they repeatedly revolted against the pasha. As a result, the agha charged the pasha with corruption and incompetence and seized power in 1659.<ref name="csa16" /> [[Plague (disease)|Plague]] had repeatedly struck the cities of North Africa. Algiers lost from 30,000 to 50,000 inhabitants to the plague in 1620–21, and suffered high fatalities in 1654–57, 1665, 1691, and 1740–42.<ref name="Davis" /> In 1671, the [[taifa]] rebelled, killed the agha, and placed one of its own in power. The new leader received the title of [[dey]]. After 1689, the right to select the dey passed to the [[divan]], a council of some sixty nobles. It was at first dominated by the ''[[ojaq]]''; but by the 18th century, it had become the dey's instrument. In 1710, the dey persuaded the sultan to recognize him and his successors as regent, replacing the [[pasha]] in that role, although Algiers remained a part of the Ottoman Empire.<ref name="csa16" /> The dey was in effect a constitutional autocrat. The dey was elected for a life term, but in the 159 years (1671–1830) that the system survived, fourteen of the twenty-nine deys were assassinated. Despite usurpation, military coups, and occasional mob rule, the day-to-day operation of Ottomon government was remarkably orderly. Although the regency patronized the tribal chieftains, it never had the unanimous allegiance of the countryside, where heavy taxation frequently provoked unrest. Autonomous tribal states were tolerated, and the regency's authority was seldom applied in the [[Kabylie]].<ref name="csa16">{{cite web|title=Algeria&nbsp;– Ottoman Rule|url=http://countrystudies.us/algeria/16.htm|publisher=Country Studies}}</ref> ====Privateers era==== [[File:Debarquement et maltraitement de prisonniers a alger.JPG|thumb|[[Slavery in the Ottoman Empire|Christian slaves]] in Algiers, 1706]] The [[Barbary pirates]] preyed on Christian and other non-Islamic shipping in the western Mediterranean Sea.<ref name="Davis">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/?id=5q9zcB3JS40C&pg&dq#v=onepage&q=&f=false |title=Christian Slaves, Muslim Masters: White Slavery in the Mediterranean, the Barbary Coast and Italy, 1500–1800 |author=Robert Davis |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |year= 2003|isbn=9780333719664}}</ref> The pirates often took the passengers and crew on the ships and sold them or used them as [[slavery|slaves]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Gazetteer/Topics/history/American_and_Military/Barbary_Pirates/Britannica_1911*.html |title=Barbary Pirates—Encyclopædia Britannica, 1911 |publisher=Penelope.uchicago.edu |accessdate=23 April 2010}}</ref> They also did a brisk business in ransoming some of the captives. According to Robert Davis, from the 16th to 19th century, pirates captured 1 million to 1.25 million Europeans as slaves.<ref name="barbary">{{cite web|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/empire_seapower/white_slaves_01.shtml |title=British Slaves on the Barbary Coast |publisher=Bbc.co.uk |date=17 February 2011 |author=Robert Davis}}</ref> They often made raids, called [[Ghazi (warrior)|Razzias]], on European coastal towns to capture Christian slaves to sell at [[Arab slave trade|slave markets]] in North Africa and the [[Ottoman Empire]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/empire_seapower/white_slaves_02.shtml |title=British Slaves on the Barbary Coast}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | author=[[Christopher Hitchens|Hitchens, Christopher]] | date = Spring 2007 | url=http://www.city-journal.org/html/17_2_urbanities-thomas_jefferson.html |title=Jefferson Versus the Muslim Pirates | work=[[City Journal (New York)|City Journal]] | accessdate =15 September 2011}}</ref> In 1544, Hayreddin captured the island of [[Ischia]], taking 4,000 prisoners, and enslaved some 9,000 inhabitants of [[Lipari]], almost the entire population.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.nytimes.com/2003/09/26/style/26iht-trsic_ed3_.html |title=The Mysteries and Majesties of the Aeolian Islands |work=International Herald Tribune | first=Elisabetta |last=Povoledo |date=26 September 2003}}</ref> In 1551, [[Turgut Reis]] enslaved the entire population of the Maltese island of [[Gozo]], between 5,000 and 6,000, sending the captives to Libya. In 1554, pirates sacked [[Vieste]] in southern Italy and took an estimated 7,000 captives as slaves.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.centrovacanzeoriente.it/cvoriente/en/dintorni.jsp|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110722025813/http://www.centrovacanzeoriente.it/cvoriente/en/dintorni.jsp |archivedate=22 July 2011 |title=Monte Sant'Angelo |publisher=centrovacanzeoriente.it |date=22 July 2011 |accessdate=17 January 2013}}</ref> In 1558, Barbary corsairs captured the town of [[Ciutadella]] (Minorca), destroyed it, slaughtered the inhabitants and took 3,000 survivors as slaves to [[Istanbul]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.holidays2menorca.com/history.php |title=History of Menorca}}</ref> Barbary pirates often attacked the [[Balearic Islands]], and in response, the residents built many coastal watchtowers and fortified churches. The threat was so severe that residents abandoned the island of [[Formentera]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://researchnews.osu.edu/archive/whtslav.htm |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110725220038/http://researchnews.osu.edu/archive/whtslav.htm |archivedate=25 July 2011 |title=When Europeans were slaves: Research suggests white slavery was much more common than previously believed|work=Ohio State Research COmmunications}}</ref> Between 1609 and 1616, England lost 466 merchant ships to Barbary pirates.<ref name="barbary"/> [[File:De Engels-Nederlandse vloot in de Baai van Algiers ter ondersteuning van het ultimatum tot vrijlating van blanke slaven, 26 augustus 1816. Rijksmuseum SK-A-1377.jpeg|thumb|The [[Bombardment of Algiers (1816)|Bombardment of Algiers]] by the Anglo-Dutch fleet, to support the ultimatum to release European slaves, August 1816]] In July 1627 two pirate ships from Algiers sailed as far as [[Iceland]],<ref>[http://www.visindavefur.is/svar.php?id=5770 "Vísindavefurinn: Hverjir stóðu raunverulega að Tyrkjaráninu?"]. ''Vísindavefurinn''.</ref> [[Turkish Abductions|raiding and capturing slaves]].<ref>[http://www.visindavefur.is/svar.php?id=5743 "Vísindavefurinn: Hvað gerðist í Tyrkjaráninu?"]. ''Vísindavefurinn''.</ref><ref>[http://www.heimaslod.is/index.php/Turkish_invasion_walk "Turkish invasion walk"]. ''heimaslod.is''.</ref><ref>Etravel Travel service. [http://www.visitwestmanislands.com/sidur/turkish-invasion "Turkish Invasion – Visit Westman Islands .com"]. ''visitwestmanislands.com''.</ref> Two weeks earlier another pirate ship from [[Sale, Morocco|Salé]] in [[Saadi dynasty|Morocco]] had also raided in Iceland. Some of the slaves brought to Algiers were later ransomed back to Iceland, but some chose to stay in Algeria. In 1629 pirate ships from Algeria raided the [[Faroe Islands]].<ref>[http://www.visindavefur.is/svar.php?id=66655 "Vísindavefurinn: Voru Tyrkjarán framin í öðrum löndum?"]. ''Vísindavefurinn''.</ref> In the 19th century, the pirates forged affiliations with Caribbean powers, paying a "license tax" in exchange for safe harbor of their vessels.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Mackie|first=Erin Skye|title=Welcome the Outlaw: Pirates, Maroons, and Caribbean Countercultures|journal=Cultural Critique|date=1 January 2005|volume=59|issue=1|pages=24–62|doi=10.1353/cul.2005.0008}}</ref> One American slave reported that the Algerians had enslaved 130 American seamen in the Mediterranean and Atlantic from 1785 to 1793.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Gazetteer/Topics/history/American_and_Military/Barbary_Pirates/Britannica_1911*.html |title=Barbary Pirates&nbsp;– Encyclopædia Britannica}}</ref> Piracy on American vessels in the Mediterranean resulted in the United States initiating the [[First Barbary War|First]] (1801–1805) and [[Second Barbary War]]s (1815). Following those wars, Algeria was weaker, and Europeans, with an Anglo-Dutch fleet commanded by the British [[Edward Pellew, 1st Viscount Exmouth|Lord Exmouth]], [[Bombardment of Algiers (1816)|attacked Algiers]]. After a nine-hour bombardment, they obtained a treaty from the Dey that reaffirmed the conditions imposed by [[Stephen Decatur|Decatur]] (US navy) concerning the demands of tributes. In addition, the Dey agreed to end the practice of enslaving Christians.<ref>{{cite book|author=Littell, Eliakim |title=The Museum of foreign literature, science and art |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=48L1w21XYI4C&pg=PA231 |year=1836 |publisher=E. Littell |page=231}}</ref> ===French colonisation of Algeria=== {{main|French Algeria|Algerian War}} [[File:Arrival of Marshal Randon in Algier-Ernest-Francis Vacherot mg 5120.jpg|thumb|left|Arrival of Marshal [[Jacques Louis Randon|Randon]] in Algiers in 1857]] Under the pretext of [[French conquest of Algeria#The Fan Affair|a slight to their consul]], the French invaded and captured Algiers in 1830.<ref>{{cite web|title=Background Note: Algeria|url=http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/8005.htm|work=U.S. Department of State}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author=Horne, Alistair |title=A Savage War of Peace: Algeria 1954–1962 |publisher=NYRB Classics |location=1755 Broadway, New York, NY 10019 |year=2006 |pages=29–30 |isbn=978-1-59017-218-6}}</ref> The conquest of Algeria by the French took some time and resulted in considerable bloodshed. A combination of violence and disease epidemics caused the [[indigenous peoples|indigenous]] Algerian population to decline by nearly one-third from 1830 to 1872.<ref name="Ricoux1880">{{cite book|last=Ricoux|first=René|title=La démographie figurée de l'Algérie: étude statistique des... |url=http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k103772b/f299.image|accessdate=14 February 2013|year=1880|publisher=G. Masson|pages=260–261|trans_title=The figurative demographics of Algeria}}</ref>{{unreliable source?|date=February 2013}} The population of Algeria, which stood at about 1.5 million in 1830, reached nearly 11 million in 1960.<ref>{{cite web|title=Algeria (Djazaïria) historical demographic data of the whole country|url=http://www.populstat.info/Africa/algeriac.htm|work=Population Statistics|publisher=populstat.info|accessdate=9 June 2012|author=Lahmeyer, Jan |date=11 October 2003}}</ref> French policy was predicated on "civilizing" the country.<ref>{{cite book|author=Ruedy, John Douglas |title=Modern Algeria: The Origins And Development of a Nation |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WIRWgrbE_fEC&pg=PA103 |year=2005 |publisher=Indiana University Press |isbn=978-0-253-21782-0 |page=103}}</ref> Algeria's social fabric suffered during the occupation: literacy plummeted.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.country-data.com/cgi-bin/query/r-365.html |title=Country Data |publisher=Country-data.com |accessdate=24 November 2008}}{{unreliable source?|date=January 2013}}</ref> During this period, a small but influential French-speaking indigenous elite was formed, made up of Berbers mostly from [[Kabyle People|Kabyles]]. As a consequence, French government favored the Kabyles.<ref>{{cite book|author=Hargreaves, Alec G. and McKinney, Mark |title=Post-Colonial Cultures in France |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0xk6235fcNcC&pg=PA104 |year=1997 |publisher=Psychology Press |isbn=978-0-415-14487-2 |page=104}}</ref> About 80% of Indigenous Schools were constructed for Kabyles. [[File:Abd al-Qadir.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Abdelkader El Djezairi|Emir Abdelkader]] 1865]] From 1848 until independence, France administered the whole Mediterranean region of Algeria as an integral part and ''département'' of the nation. One of France's longest-held overseas territories, Algeria became a destination for hundreds of thousands of [[European ethnic groups|European]] [[immigrants]], who became known as ''colons'' and later, as ''[[Pied-Noir]]s.'' Between 1825 and 1847, 50,000 French people immigrated to Algeria.<ref>{{cite book|last=Randell|first=Keith|title=France: Monarchy, Republic and Empire, 1814–70|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AvyGHAAACAAJ|year=1986|publisher=Hodder & Stoughton|isbn=978-0-340-51805-2}}</ref>{{page needed|date=February 2013}} These settlers benefited from the French government's confiscation of communal land from tribal peoples, and the application of modern agricultural techniques that increased the amount of arable land.<ref>{{cite book |author=Horne, Alistair |title=A Savage War of Peace: Algeria 1954–1962 (New York Review Books Classics) |publisher=NYRB Classics |location=1755 Broadway, New York, NY 10019 |year=2006 |isbn=978-1-59017-218-6 |page=32}}</ref> Many Europeans settled in [[Oran]] and [[Algiers]], and by the early 20th century they formed a majority of the population in both cities.<ref>Albert Habib Hourani, Malise Ruthven (2002). "''[https://books.google.com/books?id=egbOb0mewz4C&pg=PA323&dq&hl=en#v=onepage&q=&f=false A history of the Arab peoples]''". Harvard University Press. p.323. ISBN 0-674-01017-5</ref> Gradually, dissatisfaction among the Muslim population, which lacked political and economic status in the colonial system, gave rise to demands for greater political autonomy, and eventually independence from France. Tensions between the two population groups came to a head in 1954, when the first violent events of what was later called the [[Algerian War]] began. Historians have estimated that between 30,000 and 150,000 [[Harkis]] and their dependents were killed by the [[National Liberation Front (Algeria)|Front de Libération Nationale]] (FLN) or by [[lynching|lynch]] mobs in Algeria.<ref>{{cite news | url = http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/7130307.stm |publisher=BBC News | title=French 'Reparation' for Algerians | date=6 December 2007}}</ref> The FLN used hit and run attacks in Algeria and France as part of its war, and the French conducted severe reprisals. The war led to the death of hundreds of thousands of Algerians and hundreds of thousands of injuries. The war concluded in 1962, when Algeria gained complete independence following the March 1962 [[Evian agreements]] and the July 1962 [[Algerian self-determination referendum, 1962|self-determination referendum]]. The number of European ''Pied-Noirs'' who fled Algeria totaled more than 900,000 between 1962 and 1964.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=2VlR9Uh22EgC&pg=PA160&dq=pied+noir+pain&sig=XAM1hOpp4qgug3TmQPb1ce3ZR6g Memory and Violence in the Middle East and North Africa] By Ussama Samir Makdisi, Paul A. Silverstein, Published 2006 by Indiana University Press, ISBN 0253217989 page 160.</ref> The exodus to mainland France accelerated after the [[Oran massacre of 1962]], in which hundreds of militants entered European sections of the city, and began attacking civilians. ===Independence=== {{main|History of Algeria (1962–99)}} [[File:Houari Boumediene's Portrait.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Houari Boumediene]]]] Algeria's first president was the Front de Libération Nationale ([[FLN (Algeria)|FLN]]) leader [[Ahmed Ben Bella]]. Morocco's claim to [[Greater Morocco|portions of western Algeria]] led to the [[Sand War]] in 1963. Ben Bella was [[1965 Algerian coup d'état|overthrown in 1965]] by [[Houari Boumediene]], his former ally and defence minister. Under Ben Bella, the government had become increasingly socialist and [[authoritarianism|authoritarian]]; Boumédienne continued this trend. But, he relied much more on the army for his support, and reduced the sole legal party to a symbolic role. He [[collective farming|collectivised]] agriculture and launched a massive industrialization drive. [[Extraction of petroleum|Oil extraction]] facilities were nationalized. This was especially beneficial to the leadership after the international [[1973 oil crisis]]. In the 1960s and 1970s under President Houari Boumediene, Algeria pursued a programme of industrialisation within a state-controlled socialist economy. Boumediene's successor, [[Chadli Bendjedid]], introduced some liberal economic reforms. He promoted a policy of [[Arabisation]] in Algerian society and public life. Teachers of Arabic, brought in from other Muslim countries, spread conventional Islamic thought in schools and sowed the seeds of a return to Orthodox Islam.<ref name="faco" /> The Algerian economy became increasingly dependent on oil, leading to hardship when the price collapsed during the [[1980s oil glut]].<ref name="autogenerated1" /><ref name="autogenerated1">{{cite web|last=Prochaska|first=David|title=That Was Then, This Is Now: The Battle of Algiers and After.|url=http://muse.jhu.edu/journals/rhr/summary/v085/85.1prochaska.html|page=141|accessdate=10 March 2012}}</ref> Economic recession caused by the crash in world oil prices resulted in Algerian social unrest during the 1980s; by the end of the decade, Bendjedid introduced a multi-party system. Political parties developed, such as the [[Islamic Salvation Front]] (FIS), a broad coalition of Muslim groups.<ref name="faco" /> ===Civil War and aftermath=== {{main|Algerian Civil War}} In December 1991 the [[Islamic Salvation Front]] dominated the first of two rounds of [[Algerian legislative election, 1991|legislative elections]]. Fearing the election of an Islamist government, the authorities intervened on 11 January 1992, cancelling the elections. Bendjedid resigned and a [[High Council of State (Algeria)|High Council of State]] was installed to act as Presidency. It banned the FIS, triggering a civil [[insurgency]] between the Front's armed wing, the [[Armed Islamic Group of Algeria|Armed Islamic Group]], and the national armed forces, in which more than 100,000 people are thought to have died. The Islamist militants conducted a violent campaign of [[List of massacres during the Algerian Civil War|civilian massacres]].<ref>"[http://www.nytimes.com/1997/08/30/world/98-die-in-one-of-algerian-civil-war-s-worst-massacres.html 98 Die in One of Algerian Civil War's Worst Massacres ]". ''The New York Times''. 30 August 1997.</ref> At several points in the conflict, the situation in Algeria became a point of international concern, most notably during the crisis surrounding [[Air France Flight 8969]], a hijacking perpetrated by the Armed Islamic Group. The Armed Islamic Group declared a ceasefire in October 1997.<ref name="faco" /> Algeria held [[Algerian presidential election, 1999|elections in 1999]], considered biased by international observers and most opposition groups<ref>{{cite web| url = http://freedomhouse.org/report/freedom-world/2013/algeria#.Ut_5Aig4m2w |title = Freedom in the World 2013: Algeria|publisher = Freedom House| author = "Freedom House"}}</ref> which were won by President [[Abdelaziz Bouteflika]]. He worked to restore political stability to the country and announced a 'Civil Concord' initiative, approved in a [[Algerian Civil Concord referendum, 1999|referendum]], under which many political prisoners were pardoned, and several thousand members of armed groups were granted exemption from prosecution under a limited amnesty, in force until 13 January 2000. The AIS disbanded and levels of insurgent violence fell rapidly. The [[Groupe Salafiste pour la Prédication et le Combat]] (GSPC), a splinter group of the Group Islamic Armée, continued a terrorist campaign against the Government.<ref name="faco" /> [[File:A Market in Algeria.jpg|thumb|Algeria is more stable than other North African countries]] Bouteflika was re-elected in the [[Algerian presidential election, 2004|April 2004 presidential election]] after campaigning on a programme of national reconciliation. The programme comprised economic, institutional, political and social reform to modernise the country, raise living standards, and tackle the causes of alienation. It also included a second amnesty initiative, the [[Charter for Peace and National Reconciliation]], which was approved in a [[Algerian national reconciliation referendum, 2005|referendum in September 2005]]. It offered amnesty to most guerrillas and Government security forces.<ref name="faco" /> In November 2008, the [[Algerian Constitution]] was amended following a vote in Parliament, removing the two-term limit on Presidential incumbents. This change enabled Bouteflika to stand for re-election in the [[Algerian presidential election, 2009|2009 presidential elections]], and he was re-elected in April 2009. During his election campaign and following his re-election, Bouteflika promised to extend the programme of national reconciliation and a $150-billion spending programme to create three million new jobs, the construction of one million new housing units, and to continue public sector and infrastructure modernisation programmes.<ref name="faco" /> A continuing series of protests throughout the country started on 28 December 2010, inspired by similar [[Arab Spring|protests across the Middle East and North Africa]]. On 24 February 2011, the government lifted Algeria's 19-year-old [[state of emergency]].<ref>{{cite news| url = http://articles.cnn.com/2011-02-24/world/algeria.emergency_1_islamist-party-algerian-press-service-emergency-declaration?_s=PM:WORLD | title = Algeria Officially Lifts State of Emergency |publisher=CNN |date=24 February 2011|accessdate=27 February 2011| archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20110301134330/http://articles.cnn.com/2011-02-24/world/algeria.emergency_1_islamist-party-algerian-press-service-emergency-declaration?_s=PM:WORLD| archivedate= 1 March 2011 | deadurl= no}}</ref> The government enacted legislation dealing with political parties, the electoral code, and the representation of women in elected bodies.<ref name="aaeo" /> In April 2011, Bouteflika promised further constitutional and political reform.<ref name="faco">{{cite web|title=Country Profile: Algeria |url=http://www.fco.gov.uk/en/travel-and-living-abroad/travel-advice-by-country/country-profile/middle-east-north-africa/algeria/?profile=all |publisher=Foreign and Commonwealth Office |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20101213054455/http://www.fco.gov.uk/en/travel-and-living-abroad/travel-advice-by-country/country-profile/middle-east-north-africa/algeria/?profile=all |archivedate=13 December 2010 }}</ref> However, elections are routinely criticized by opposition groups as unfair and international human rights groups say that media censorship and harassment of political opponents continue. ==Geography== {{Main|Geography of Algeria}} <gallery mode=packed> File:Kabylie-neige.jpg|The [[Djurdjura]] Range in snow File:Tadrart Rouge.jpg|The [[Tadrart Rouge]] near [[Djanet]]. File:El Tarf-Algerie.jpg|[[El Taref Province]], In eastern Algeria. File:Ouarsenis 2012, Wilaya de Tissemsilt (Algérie).jpg|[[Ouarsenis]], range of mountains in North-Western (1985m) File:Les Aiguades.jpg|Maritime front of [[Bejaïa]] File:Djanet, Tassili.jpg|The [[Tassili]] n'Ajjer. File:Seraidi-Annaba.jpg|[[Edough]] National Park, [[Annaba]] </gallery> Algeria is the largest country in Africa, the [[Arab world]], and the [[Mediterranean Basin]]. Its southern part includes a significant portion of the [[Sahara]]. To the north, the [[Tell Atlas]] form with the [[Saharan Atlas]], further south, two parallel sets of reliefs in approaching eastbound, and between which are inserted vast plains and highlands. Both Atlas tend to merge in eastern Algeria. The vast mountain ranges of [[Aures]] and [[Tebessa|Nememcha]] occupy the entire northeastern Algeria and are delineated by the Tunisian border. The highest point is [[Mount Tahat]] ({{formatnum: 3003}} m). [[File:Algeria relief.png|thumb|The [[Sahara]], the [[Ahaggar Mountains|Ahaggar]] and the [[Atlas Mountains|Atlas mountains]] compose the Algerian relief]] Algeria lies mostly between latitudes [[19th parallel north|19°]] and [[37th parallel north|37°N]] (a small area is north of 37°), and longitudes [[9th meridian west|9°W]] and [[12th meridian east|12°E]]. Most of the coastal area is hilly, sometimes even mountainous, and there are a few natural [[harbour]]s. The area from the coast to the Tell Atlas is fertile. South of the Tell Atlas is a [[steppe]] landscape ending with the [[Saharan Atlas]]; farther south, there is the Sahara desert.<ref name=LOC>{{cite web|last=Metz|first=Helen Chapin|title=Algeria : a country study|url=http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/dztoc.html|publisher=United States Library of Congress|accessdate=18 May 2013}}</ref> The [[Ahaggar Mountains]] ({{lang-ar|جبال هقار}}), also known as the Hoggar, are a highland region in central Sahara, southern Algeria. They are located about {{convert|1500|km|0|abbr=on}} south of the capital, Algiers, and just west of [[Tamanghasset]]. Algiers, [[Oran]], [[Constantine, Algeria|Constantine]], and [[Annaba]] are Algeria's main cities.<ref name=LOC /> ===Climate and hydrology=== {{Main|Climate of Algeria}} [[File:Algeria map of Köppen climate classification.svg|thumb|300px|Algeria map of Köppen climate classification.]] [[File:Vue de Taghit.jpg|thumb|Saharan [[oasis]] town of [[Taghit]]]] [[File:Agoulmime.jpg|thumb|left|Lake Agoulmime, [[Tikjda]].]] In this region, midday desert temperatures can be hot year round. After sunset, however, the clear, dry air permits rapid loss of heat, and the nights are cool to chilly. Enormous daily ranges in temperature are recorded. The highest official temperature was {{convert|50.6|°C|°F}} at In Salah.<ref>{{cite web|title=Extreme Weather&nbsp;– A Guide and Record Book|url=http://www.mherrera.org/temp.htm|publisher=W.W. Norton Press|archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/5mgEKD3NJ|archivedate=10 January 2010|year=2007}}</ref> Rainfall is fairly plentiful along the coastal part of the Tell Atlas, ranging from {{convert|400|to|670|mm|1|abbr=on}} annually, the amount of precipitation increasing from west to east. [[Precipitation (meteorology)|Precipitation]] is heaviest in the northern part of eastern Algeria, where it reaches as much as {{convert|1000|mm|1|abbr=on}} in some years. Farther inland, the rainfall is less plentiful. Algeria also has [[erg (landform)|ergs]], or sand dunes, between mountains. Among these, in the summer time when winds are heavy and gusty, temperatures can get up to {{convert|110|°F|°C|1|abbr=on|disp=flip}}. ===Fauna and flora=== {{Main|Wildlife of Algeria}} [[File:Cèdre du Chélia 13 (Algeria).jpg|thumb|left|[[Cedrus]] of Chélia in the [[Aures]]]] The varied vegetation of Algeria includes [[coastal]], [[mountainous]] and grassy [[desert]]-like regions which all support a wide range of wildlife. Many of the creatures comprising the Algerian wildlife live in close proximity to civilization. The most commonly seen animals include the wild [[boar]]s, [[jackal]]s, and [[gazelle]]s, although it is not uncommon to spot [[fennecs]] (foxes), and [[jerboas]]. Algeria also has a small [[African leopard]] and [[Saharan cheetah]] population, but these are seldom seen. A variety of bird species makes the country an attraction for bird watchers. The forests are inhabited by boars and jackals. [[Barbary macaque]]s are the sole native monkey. Snakes, [[monitor lizard]]s, and numerous other reptiles can be found living among an array of [[rodent]]s throughout the [[semi arid]] regions of Algeria. Many animals are now extinct, including the [[Barbary lion]]s, [[Atlas bear]]s and [[West African crocodile|crocodile]]s.<ref>"[http://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0014734 Crocodiles in the Sahara Desert: An Update of Distribution, Habitats and Population Status for Conservation Planning in Mauritania]". ''[[PLOS ONE]]''. 25 February 2011.</ref> In the north, some of the native flora includes [[Macchia]] scrub, [[olive trees]], [[oak]]s, [[cedrus|cedars]] and other [[conifers]]. The mountain regions contain large forests of evergreens ([[Aleppo pine]], [[juniper]], and [[evergreen oak]]) and some deciduous trees. [[Ficus|Fig]], [[eucalyptus]], [[agave]], and various [[palm trees]] grow in the warmer areas. The [[grape vine]] is indigenous to the coast. In the Sahara region, some oases have palm trees. [[Acacias]] with wild [[olives]] are the predominant flora in the remainder of the [[Sahara]]. [[Camel]]s are used extensively; the desert also abounds with venomous and nonvenomous snakes, [[scorpion]]s, and numerous insects. ==Politics== {{Main|Politics of Algeria}} [[File:Hémicycle de l'assemblée populaire nationale (Algérie).jpg|thumb|The [[People's National Assembly]]]] [[File:President-abdelaziz-bouteflika.JPG|thumb|left|upright=.67|[[Algerian President]] [[Abdelaziz Bouteflika]]]] Algeria is an [[authoritarian regime]], according to the [[Democracy Index]] 2014.<ref>{{cite web | title=Democracy Index 2014 | url=http://graphics.eiu.com/PDF/Democracy_Index_2010_web.pdf|work=eiu.com }}</ref> The [[Freedom of the Press (report)|Freedom of the Press 2015]] report gives it a rating of "Not Free".<ref>{{cite web | title=Freedom of the Press 2009 | url=http://www.freedomhouse.org/uploads/fop/2009/FreedomofthePress2009_tables.pdf | publisher=[[Freedom House]] | accessdate=7 May 2009| archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20090520232850/http://www.freedomhouse.org/uploads/fop/2009/FreedomofthePress2009_tables.pdf| archivedate= 20 May 2009 | deadurl= no}}</ref> Elected politicians are considered to have relatively little sway over Algeria. Instead, a group of unelected civilian and military "décideurs", known as "le pouvoir" ("the power"), actually rule the country, even deciding who should be president. The most powerful man may be [[Mohamed Mediène]], head of the military intelligence.<ref>{{cite news|title=Still waiting for real democracy|url=http://www.economist.com/node/21554565|publisher=The Economist|date=12 May 2012}}</ref> In recent years, many of these generals have died or retired. After the death of General [[Larbi Belkheir]], Bouteflika put loyalists in key posts, notably at [[Sonatrach]], and secured constitutional amendments that make him re-electable indefinitely.<ref>{{cite news|title=The president and the police|url=http://www.economist.com/node/15612455|publisher=The Economist|date=4 May 2010}}</ref> The head of state is the president of Algeria, who is elected for a five-year term. The president was formerly limited to two five-year terms, but a constitutional amendment passed by the Parliament on 11 November 2008 removed this limitation.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/7724635.stm |title= Algeria Deputies Scrap Term Limit |publisher=BBC News |date=12 November 2008 |accessdate=24 November 2008| archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20081114015503/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/7724635.stm| archivedate= 14 November 2008 | deadurl= no}}</ref> Algeria has universal [[suffrage]] at 18 years of age.<ref name="AlgeriaFactbook"/> The President is the head of the [[Algerian Army|army]], the [[Council of Ministers of Algeria|Council of Ministers]] and the [[High Security Council]]. He appoints the [[Prime Minister of Algeria|Prime Minister]] who is also the head of government.<ref name="president">Articles: 85, 87, 77, 78 and 79 of the Algerian constitution {{cite web|last=Algerian government|title=Constitution|url=http://www.conseil-constitutionnel.dz/Constitution08_6.htm|accessdate=25 September 2011}}</ref> The Algerian parliament is [[bicameral]]; the lower house, the [[People's National Assembly]], has 462 members who are directly elected for five-year terms, while the upper house, the [[Council of the Nation]], has 144 members serving six-year terms, of which 96 members are chosen by local assemblies and 48 are appointed by the president.<ref name=fitw13 /> According to the [[Constitution of Algeria|constitution]], no political association may be formed if it is "based on differences in religion, language, race, gender, profession, or region". In addition, political campaigns must be exempt from the aforementioned subjects.<ref>Article 42 of the Algerian constitution – {{cite web|last=Algerian Government|title=Algerian constitution الحـقــوق والحــرّيـات|url=http://www.conseil-constitutionnel.dz/Constitution08_4-1.htm|accessdate=25 September 2011}}</ref> Parliamentary elections were last held in [[Algerian legislative election, 2012|May 2012]], and were judged to be largely free by international monitors, though local groups alleged fraud and irregularities.<ref name=fitw13>{{cite web|title=Algeria|url=http://www.freedomhouse.org/report/freedom-world/2013/algeria|work=Freedom in the World 2013|publisher=Freedom House|accessdate=8 March 2013}}</ref> In the elections, the [[National Liberation Front (Algeria)|FLN]] won 221 seats, the military-backed [[National Rally for Democracy (Algeria)|National Rally for Democracy]] won 70, and the Islamist [[Green Algeria Alliance]] won 47.<ref name=fitw13/> ===Foreign relations=== {{Main|Foreign relations of Algeria}} [[File:Ramtane Lamamra (cropped).jpg|thumb|upright=.67|Mr. Ramtane Lamamra, [[Ministry of Foreign Affairs (Algeria)|Minister for Foreign Affairs of Algeria]]]] [[File:Abdelaziz Bouteflika and George W Bush 20080707.jpg|thumb|President [[Abdelaziz Bouteflika]] and [[George W. Bush]] exchange handshakes at the Windsor Hotel Toya Resort and Spa in Tōyako Town, Abuta District, Hokkaidō in 2008. With them are [[Dmitriy Medvedev]], left, and [[Yasuo Fukuda]], right.]] In October 2009, Algeria cancelled a weapons deal with France over the possibility of inclusion of Israeli parts in them.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.infoprod.co.il/article/2/301 |title=Algeria Cancels Weapons Deal over Israeli Parts |publisher=[[Info Prod Research]] |accessdate=23 April 2010 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100101035737/http://www.infoprod.co.il/article/2/301 |archivedate=1 January 2010}}</ref> Tensions between Algeria and Morocco in relation to the [[Western Sahara]] have been an obstacle to tightening the [[Arab Maghreb Union]], nominally established in 1989, but which has carried little practical weight.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.arabicnews.com/ansub/Daily/Day/990219/1999021906.html |publisher=ArabicNews.com |title=Bin Ali calls for reactivating Arab Maghreb Union, Tunisia-Maghreb, Politics |date=19 February 1999 |accessdate=4 April 2006 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130725090738/http://www.arabicnews.com/ansub/Daily/Day/990219/1999021906.html |archivedate=25 July 2013 }}</ref> Algeria is included in the European Union's [[European Neighbourhood Policy]] (ENP) which aims at bringing the EU and its neighbours closer. Giving incentives and rewarding best performers, as well as offering funds in a faster and more flexible manner, are the two main principles underlying the European Neighbourhood Instrument (ENI) that came into force in 2014. It has a budget of €15.4 billion and provides the bulk of funding through a number of programmes. ===Military=== {{Main|Military of Algeria}} [[File:Su-30dz.jpg|thumb|Algerian Air Force [[Su-30]]MKA]] The military of Algeria consists of the [[People's National Army]] (ANP), the [[Algerian National Navy]] (MRA), and the [[Algerian Air Force]] (QJJ), plus the [[Territorial Air Defence Forces]].<ref name="AlgeriaFactbook"/> It is the direct successor of the [[National Liberation Army (Algeria)|National Liberation Army]] (Armée de Libération Nationale or ALN), the armed wing of the nationalist National Liberation Front which fought French colonial [[military occupation|occupation]] during the Algerian War of Independence (1954–62). Total military personnel include 147,000 active, 150,000 reserve, and 187,000 paramilitary staff (2008 estimate).<ref name=IISS_TMB>{{cite book |title=The Military Balance 2008 |author=Hackett, James (ed.)|others= [[International Institute for Strategic Studies]] |date=5 February 2008|publisher=Europa |isbn=978-1-85743-461-3| url=http://www.zawya.com/printstory.cfm?storyid=v51n20-1TS05&l=134200080519|accessdate=16 July 2008}}</ref> Service in the military is compulsory for men aged 19–30, for a total of 12 months.<ref>"Loi 14-06 relative au service national", JORADP 48, August, 10th 2014</ref> The military expenditure was 4.3% of the [[gross domestic product]] (GDP) in 2012.<ref name="AlgeriaFactbook"/> Algeria has the [[List of countries by number of military and paramilitary personnel|second largest military]] in North Africa with the largest defence budget in Africa ($10 billion).<ref name="AlgeriaSpending"/> In 2007, the Algerian Air Force signed a deal with Russia to purchase 49 [[MiG-29]]SMT and 6 MiG-29UBT at an estimated cost of $1.9&nbsp;billion. It also agreed to return old aircraft purchased from the [[former USSR]]. Russia is also building two [[Kilo class submarine|636-type]] diesel [[submarines]] for Algeria.<ref>{{cite news| url=http://www.warandpeace.ru/en/news/view/12214/| title=Venezuela's Chavez To Finalise Russian Submarines Deal|agency=[[Agence France-Presse]]|date=14 June 2007| accessdate=31 August 2011}}</ref> ==Administrative divisions== {{Main|Provinces of Algeria|Districts of Algeria|Municipalities of Algeria}} Algeria is divided into 48 [[provinces of Algeria|provinces]] (''[[wilaya]]s''), 553 [[districts of Algeria|districts]] (''[[daïra]]s'') and 1,541 [[Municipalities of Algeria|municipalities]] (''[[baladiyah]]s''). Each province, district, and municipality is named after its [[Capital (political)|seat]], which is usually the largest city. The administrative divisions have changed several times since independence. When introducing new provinces, the numbers of old provinces are kept, hence the non-alphabetical order. With their official numbers, currently (since 1983) they are<ref name="AlgeriaFactbook"/> {{Algeria Wilayas}} ==Economy== {{Main|Economy of Algeria}} [[File:Algeria Export Treemap.jpg|thumb|250px|Graphical depiction of the country's exports in 28 colour-coded categories.]] Algeria is classified as an upper middle income country by the [[World Bank Group|World Bank]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://siteresources.worldbank.org/DATASTATISTICS/Resources/CLASS.XLS |title=World Bank list of economies |date= January 2011 |publisher=World Bank |accessdate=27 May 2011}}</ref> Algeria's currency is the [[Algerian dinar|dinar]] (DZD). The economy remains dominated by the state, a legacy of the country's socialist post-independence development model. In recent years, the Algerian government has halted the privatization of state-owned industries and imposed restrictions on imports and foreign involvement in its economy.<ref name="AlgeriaFactbook"/> Algeria has struggled to develop industries outside hydrocarbons in part because of high costs and an inert state bureaucracy. The government's efforts to diversify the economy by attracting foreign and domestic investment outside the energy sector have done little to reduce high youth unemployment rates or to address housing shortages.<ref name="AlgeriaFactbook"/> The country is facing a number of short-term and medium-term problems, including the need to diversify the economy, strengthen political, economic and financial reforms, improve the business climate and reduce inequalities amongst regions.<ref name=aaeo/> A wave of economic protests in February and March 2011 prompted the Algerian government to offer more than $23 billion in public grants and retroactive salary and benefit increases. Public spending has increased by 27% annually during the past 5 years. The 2010–14 public-investment programme will cost US$286 billion, 40% of which will go to human development.<ref name=aaeo/> [[File:Theatre d'oran.jpg|thumb|left|The port city of Oran]] The Algerian economy grew by 2.6% in 2011, driven by public spending, in particular in the construction and public-works sector, and by growing internal demand. If hydrocarbons are excluded, growth has been estimated at 4.8%. Growth of 3% is expected in 2012, rising to 4.2% in 2013. The rate of inflation was 4% and the budget deficit 3% of GDP. The current-account surplus is estimated at 9.3% of GDP and at the end of December 2011, official reserves were put at US$182 billion.<ref name=aaeo/> Inflation, the lowest in the region, has remained stable at 4% on average between 2003 and 2007.<ref name="MFW4A">{{cite web|url=http://www.mfw4a.org/algeria/algeria-financial-sector-profile.html |title=Algeria: Financial Sector Profile |publisher=Making Finance Work for Africa |accessdate=17 January 2013}}</ref> [[File:Algeria, Trends in the Human Development Index 1970-2010.png|thumb|250px|Algeria, trends in the [[Human Development Index]] 1970–2010]] In 2011 Algeria announced a budgetary surplus of $26.9 billion, 62% increase in comparison to 2010 surplus. In general, the country exported $73 billion worth of commodities while it imported $46 billion.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://english.nuqudy.com/General_Overview/North_Africa/Algeria_Non-Oil_Exp-676 |title=Algeria Non-Oil Exports Surge 41% |publisher=nuqudy.com |date=25 January 2012 |accessdate=17 January 2013}}</ref> Thanks to strong hydrocarbon revenues, Algeria has a cushion of $173 billion in [[foreign currency reserves]] and a large hydrocarbon stabilization fund. In addition, Algeria's [[List of countries by external debt|external debt]] is extremely low at about 2% of GDP.<ref name="AlgeriaFactbook"/> The economy remains very dependent on hydrocarbon wealth, and, despite high foreign exchange reserves (US$178 billion, equivalent to three years of imports), current expenditure growth makes Algeria's budget more vulnerable to the risk of prolonged lower hydrocarbon revenues.<ref name=imfart4/> In 2011, the agricultural sector and services recorded growth of 10% and 5.3%, respectively.<ref name=aaeo/> About 14% of the labor force are employed in the [[Agriculture in Algeria|agricultural sector]].<ref name="AlgeriaFactbook"/> Fiscal policy in 2011 remained expansionist and made it possible to maintain the pace of public investment and to contain the strong demand for jobs and housing.<ref name=aaeo/> Algeria has not joined the [[WTO]], despite several years of negotiations.<ref>{{cite web|title=Doing Business in Algeria|url=http://algiers.usembassy.gov/doing_business_algeria.html|publisher=Embassy of the United States Algiers, Algeria}}</ref> In March 2006, Russia agreed to erase $4.74&nbsp;billion of Algeria's [[Soviet Union|Soviet]]-era debt<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.brtsis.com/ |title=Brtsis, Brief on Russian Defence, Trade, Security and Energy |publisher=Brtsis.com |accessdate=24 November 2008 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080219035941/http://www.brtsis.com/ |archivedate=19 February 2008}}</ref> during a visit by [[President of Russia|Russian President]] [[Vladimir Putin]] to the country, the first by a Russian leader in half a century. In return, [[President of Algeria|Algerian President]] [[Abdelaziz Bouteflika]] agreed to buy $7.5&nbsp;billion worth of combat planes, air-defence systems and other arms from Russia, according to the head of Russia's state arms exporter [[Rosoboronexport]].<ref>{{cite news |title=Russia Agrees Algeria Arms Deal, Writes Off Debt |agency=Reuters |date=11 March 2006 |url=http://www.sauress.com/en/spaen/338083}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |author=Marsaud, Olivia | title=La Russie efface la dette algérienne| language = French | publisher=[[Radio France Internationale]] |date=10 March 2006 |url=http://www.rfi.fr/actufr/articles/075/article_42379.asp | accessdate =31 August 2011| archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20110721020655/http://www.rfi.fr/actufr/articles/075/article_42379.asp| archivedate= 21 July 2011 | deadurl= no}}</ref> ===Hydrocarbons=== {{see also|Mining industry of Algeria}} [[File:Algeria pipelines map.jpg|thumb|left|Pipelines across Algeria]] Algeria, whose economy is reliant on petroleum, has been an [[OPEC]] member since 1969. Its crude oil production stands at around 1.1 million barrels/day, but it is also a major gas producer and exporter, with important links to Europe.<ref name=opb15>{{cite web|title=OPEC Bulletin 8-9/12|url=http://www.opec.org/opec_web/flipbook/OB08092012/OB08092012/assets/basic-html/page17.html|page=15}}</ref> Hydrocarbons have long been the backbone of the economy, accounting for roughly 60% of budget revenues, 30% of GDP, and over 95% of export earnings. Algeria has the [[List of countries by natural gas proven reserves|10th-largest reserves of natural gas]] in the world and is the [[List of countries by natural gas exports|sixth-largest gas exporter]]. The U.S. [[Energy Information Administration]] reported that in 2005, Algeria had {{convert|160|Tcuft}} of proven [[natural gas reserves|natural-gas reserves]].<ref name="ciawfb">{{cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/rankorder/2253rank.html|title=Country Comparison: Natural Gas – Proved Reserves|publisher=Cia.gov |accessdate=17 January 2013}}</ref> It also ranks [[List of countries by proven oil reserves|16th in oil reserves]].<ref name="AlgeriaFactbook"/> Non-hydrocarbon growth for 2011 was projected at 5%. To cope with social demands, the authorities raised expenditure, especially on basic food support, employment creation, support for SMEs, and higher salaries. High hydrocarbon prices have improved the current account and the already large international reserves position.<ref name=imfart4/> Income from oil and gas rose in 2011 as a result of continuing high oil prices, though the trend in production volume is downwards.<ref name=aaeo/> Production from the oil and gas sector in terms of volume, continues to decline, dropping from 43.2 million tonnes to 32 million tonnes between 2007 and 2011. Nevertheless, the sector accounted for 98% of the total volume of exports in 2011, against 48% in 1962,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.tsa-algerie.com/actualite/item/622-le-temps-des-crapules |title=Le temps des crapules&nbsp;– Tout sur l'Algérie |publisher=Tsa-algerie.com |date=27 May 2013 |author=Benchicou, Mohamed |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140311022328/http://www.tsa-algerie.com/actualite/item/622-le-temps-des-crapules |archivedate=11 March 2014 }}</ref> and 70% of budgetary receipts, or USD 71.4 billion.<ref name=aaeo/> The Algerian national oil company is [[Sonatrach]], which plays a key role in all aspects of the oil and natural gas sectors in Algeria. All foreign operators must work in partnership with Sonatrach, which usually has majority ownership in production-sharing agreements.<ref>{{cite web|title=Country Analysis Briefs&nbsp;– Algeria |url=http://www.eia.gov/cabs/Algeria/pdf.pdf |publisher=Energy Information Administration |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130531053812/http://www.eia.gov/cabs/Algeria/pdf.pdf |archivedate=31 May 2013 }}</ref> ===Labour market=== Despite a decline in total unemployment, youth and women unemployment is high.<ref name=imfart4>{{cite web|title=Algeria: 2011 Article IV Consultation|url=http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/scr/2012/cr1220.pdf|publisher=IMF}}</ref> Unemployment particularly affects the young, with a jobless rate of 21.5% among the 15–24 age group.<ref name=aaeo/> The overall rate of unemployment was 10% in 2011, but remained higher among young people, with a rate of 21.5% for those aged between 15 and 24. The government strengthened in 2011 the job programmes introduced in 1988, in particular in the framework of the programme to aid those seeking work (Dispositif d'Aide à l'Insertion Professionnelle).<ref name=aaeo>{{cite web|title=Algeria|url=http://www.africaneconomicoutlook.org/en/countries/north-africa/algeria/|publisher=African Economic Outlook}}</ref> ===Tourism=== {{Main|Tourism in Algeria}} [[File:Djanet-Algeria-night.jpg|thumb|[[Djanet]]]] The development of the tourism sector in Algeria had previously been hampered by a lack of facilities, but since 2004 a broad tourism development strategy has been implemented resulting in many hotels of a high modern standard being built. There are several [[UNESCO]] [[World Heritage Sites]] in Algeria<ref>{{cite web|last=UNESCO|title=UNESCO World Heritage Centre|url=http://whc.unesco.org/en/statesparties/dz|accessdate=25 September 2011}}</ref> including [[Al Qal'a of Beni Hammad]], the first capital of the [[Hammadid]] empire; [[Tipasa]], a Phoenician and later Roman town; and [[Djémila]] and [[Timgad]], both [[Ancient Rome|Roman]] ruins; [[M'Zab Valley]], a limestone valley containing a large urbanized [[oasis]]; also the [[Casbah]] of Algiers is an important citadel. The only natural [[World Heritage Sites]] is the [[Tassili n'Ajjer]], a mountain range. ===Transport=== {{Main|Transport in Algeria}} [[File:Les fusillés-métro-Alger.jpg|thumb|left|[[Algiers Metro]]]] [[File:Autoroute est ouest ghomri2.JPG|thumb|The main highway connecting the Moroccan to the Tunisian border, was a part of the [[Cairo–Dakar Highway]] project]] The Algerian road network is the densest in Africa; its length is estimated at 180,000&nbsp;km of highways, with more than 3,756 structures and a paving rate of 85%. This network will be complemented by the [[Algeria East–West Highway|East-West Highway]], a major infrastructure project currently under construction. It is a 3-way, 1,216&nbsp;km long highway, linking [[Annaba]] in the extreme east to the [[Tlemcen]] in the far west. Algeria is also crossed by the [[Trans-Sahara Highway]], which is now completely paved. This road is supported by the Algerian government to increase trade between the six countries crossed: Algeria, [[Mali]], Niger, [[Nigeria]], Chad and [[Tunisia]]. ===Water supply and sanitation=== {{Main|Water supply and sanitation in Algeria}} There is a substantial increase in the amount of drinking water supplied from reservoirs, long-distance water transfers and [[desalination]] at a low price to consumers, thanks to the country's substantial oil and gas revenues. In 2011 the capital Algiers transformed its intermittent [[water supply]] into a to continuous one, along with considerable improvements in [[wastewater treatment]]. However, there is still poor service quality in many cities outside Algiers with 78% of urban residents suffering from intermittent water supply. Another challenge is the pollution of water resources. ==Demographics== {{Main|Demographics of Algeria}} {{Historical populations |title = Historical populations (in thousands) |width = 170px |percentages = |source = (1856–1872)<ref name="Kateb2001">{{cite book|author=Kamel Kateb|title=Européens, "indigènes" et juifs en Algérie (1830–1962)|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yEvQZ7bdybgC&pg=PA30|year=2001|publisher=INED|isbn=978-2-7332-0145-9|page=30}}</ref> (1886–2008)<ref name=rgp08p82>{{cite web|title=Armature Urbaine|url=http://www.ons.dz/IMG/armature2008-%20FINAL%281%29.pdf|work=V° Recensement Général de la Population et de l'Habitat – 2008|publisher=Office National des Statistiques|page=82|date=September 2011}}</ref> |1856 |2496 |1872 |2416 |1886 |3752 |1906 |4721 |1926 |5444 |1931 |5902 |1936 |6510 |1948 |7787 |1954 |8615 |1966 |12022 |1977 |16948 |1987 |23051 |1998 |29113 |2008 |34080 |2013 |37900 }} In January 2013 Algeria's population was an estimated 37.9&nbsp;million, who are mainly [[Arab-Berber]] ethnically.<ref name="AlgeriaFactbook"/><ref name="Algeria360">{{cite web |url=http://www.algerie360.com/algerie/l%E2%80%99algerie-comptait-379-millions-d%E2%80%99habitants-au-1er-janvier-2013-ons/ |title=L'Algérie comptait 37,9 millions d'habitants au 1er janvier 2013 (ONS) |publisher=Algerie360 |date=17 April 2013 |accessdate=24 December 2013}}</ref><ref name="ber_evidance">{{cite journal|last1=Arredi|first1=Barbara|first2=Estella S.|last2=Poloni|first3=Silvia|last3=Paracchini|first4=Tatiana |last4=Zerjal|last5=Dahmani |first5=M. Fathallah|first6=Mohamed |last6=Makrelouf|last7=Vincenzo |first7=L. Pascali|first8=Andrea |last8=Novelletto|first9=Chris |last9=Tyler-Smith|title=A Predominantly Neolithic Origin for Y-Chromosomal DNA Variation in North Africa|date=7 June 2004 |pmc=1216069 |pmid=15202071 |doi=10.1086/423147 |volume=75 |issue=2 |journal=Am. J. Hum. Genet. |pages=338–45}}</ref> At the outset of the 20th century, its population was approximately four million.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://countrystudies.us/algeria/48.htm |title=Algeria&nbsp;– Population |publisher=Library of Congress Country Studies |accessdate=17 January 2013}}</ref> About 90% of Algerians live in the northern, coastal area; the inhabitants of the Sahara desert are mainly concentrated in [[oasis|oases]], although some 1.5&nbsp;million remain [[nomad]]ic or partly nomadic. 28.1% of Algerians are under the age of 15.<ref name="AlgeriaFactbook"/> Women make up 70% of the country's lawyers and 60% of its judges and also dominate the field of medicine. Increasingly, women are contributing more to household income than men. 60% of university students are women, according to university researchers.<ref>{{cite news| author=Slackman, Michael |url=http://www.nytimes.com/2007/05/26/world/africa/26algeria.html |title=A Quiet Revolution in Algeria: Gains by Women |work=The New York Times |date=26 May 2007 |accessdate=29 August 2011}}</ref> Between 90,000 and 165,000 [[Sahrawi people|Sahrawis]] from Western Sahara live in the [[Sahrawi refugee camps]],<ref name="UNHCRAlgeria">{{cite web |url=http://www.unhcr.org/pages/49e485e16.html |title=2013 UNHCR country operations profile – Algeria |publisher=[[United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees]] |year=2013 |accessdate=9 December 2013}}</ref><ref name="USCRIAlgeria">{{cite web|url=http://www.refugees.org/resources/refugee-warehousing/archived-world-refugee-surveys/2009-wrs-country-updates/algeria.html |title=World Refugee Survey 2009: Algeria |publisher=[[U.S. Committee for Refugees and Immigrants]] |year=2009 |accessdate=9 December 2013 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140812185303/http://www.refugees.org/resources/refugee-warehousing/archived-world-refugee-surveys/2009-wrs-country-updates/algeria.html |archivedate=12 August 2014 }}</ref> in the western Algerian Sahara desert.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.irinnews.org/report/74134/western-sahara-lack-of-donor-funds-threatens-humanitarian-projects |title=Western Sahara: Lack of Donor Funds Threatens Humanitarian Projects |publisher=[[IRIN]] |date=5 September 2007 |accessdate=9 December 2013}}</ref> There are also more than 4,000 [[Palestinian refugee]]s, who are well integrated and have not asked for assistance from the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR).<ref name="UNHCRAlgeria"/><ref name="USCRIAlgeria"/> In 2009, 35,000 [[Overseas Chinese|Chinese]] migrant workers lived in Algeria.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/8184499.stm |title=Chinese Migrants in Algiers Clash |publisher=BBC News |date=4 August 2009 |accessdate=17 January 2013}}</ref> The largest concentration of Algerian migrants outside Algeria is in France, which has reportedly over 1.7 million Algerians of up to the second generation.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.insee.fr/fr/themes/document.asp?reg_id=0&ref_id=IMMFRA12_g_Flot1_pop |title=Fiches thématiques – Population immigrée&nbsp;– Immigrés 2012 |publisher=Insee |accessdate=18 January 2013}}</ref> ===Ethnic groups=== {{Main|Ethnic groups in Algeria}} Indigenous [[Berbers]] as well as [[Phoenicians]], [[Ancient Rome|Romans]], [[Byzantine Greeks|Byzantines]], [[Arab people|Arabs]], [[Turkish people|Turks]], various [[Sub-Saharan Africans]], and [[French people|French]] have contributed to the history of Algeria.<ref>{{cite web|author=UNESCO |year=2009 |title=Diversité et interculturalité en Algérie |url=http://rabat.unesco.org/IMG/pdf/Diversite_InterculturalitAlgerie.pdf |publisher=UNESCO |page=9 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130725111743/http://rabat.unesco.org/IMG/pdf/Diversite_InterculturalitAlgerie.pdf |archivedate=25 July 2013 }}</ref> Descendants of [[Al-Andalus|Andalusian]] refugees are also present in the population of Algiers and other cities.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WIRWgrbE_fEC&pg=PA22 |title=Modern Algeria&nbsp;– The Origins and Development of a Nation |page=22 |author=Ruedy, John Douglas |publisher=Indiana University Press|isbn=9780253217820|year=2005}}</ref> Moreover, [[Spanish language|Spanish]] was spoken by these [[Aragon]]ese and [[Castilian people|Castillian]] [[Moriscos|Morisco]] descendants deep into the 18th century, and even [[Catalan language|Catalan]] was spoken at the same time by [[Catalonia|Catalan]] [[Moriscos|Morisco]] descendants in the small town of Grish El-Oued.<ref>{{cite book|last=De Epalza|first=Mikel|title=El español hablado en Túnez por los moriscos (siglos XVII-XVIII)|year=2011|publisher=Universitat de València|pages=32–38–39–444|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=D7_VKzdSIzwC&printsec=frontcover|isbn=9788437084152}}</ref> [[File:Tenus traditionnelles algériennes 27.png|left|thumb|Some of Algeria's traditional clothes]] There are 600,000 to 2 million former [[Turks in Algeria|Algerian Turks]], descendants of Turkish rulers, soldiers, doctors and others who ruled the region during the [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] rule in North Africa.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Turkish Embassy in Algeria |year=2008 |url=http://www.musavirlikler.gov.tr/altdetay.cfm?AltAlanID=368&dil=TR&ulke=DZ |title=Cezayir Ülke Raporu 2008 |publisher=Ministry of Foreign Affairs |page=4 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130929205227/http://www.musavirlikler.gov.tr/altdetay.cfm?AltAlanID=368&dil=TR&ulke=DZ |archivedate=29 September 2013 }}</ref> Today's [[Turkish people|Turkish]] descendants are often called ''[[Kouloughlis]]'', meaning descendants of Turkish men and native Algerian women.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Ruedy|first=John Douglas|year=2005|title=Modern Algeria: The Origins and Development of a Nation|publisher=Indiana University Press|isbn=0-253-21782-2|page=22}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Stone|first=Martin|year=1997|title=The Agony of Algeria|publisher=C. Hurst & Co. Publishers|isbn=1-85065-177-9|page=29 }}</ref> Despite the dominance of the Berber culture and ethnicity in Algeria, majority of Algerians identify with an Arabic-based identity, especially after the Arab nationialism rising in the 20th century.<ref>{{cite book|last=Stokes|first=Jamie|title=Encyclopedia of the Peoples of Africa and the Middle East: L to Z|year=2009|publisher=Infobase Publishing|page=21|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=stl97FdyRswC&pg=PA21|isbn=978-1-4381-2676-0}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Oxford Business Group|title=The Report: Algeria 2011|year=2011|publisher=Oxford Business Group|page=9|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uSGzIPz8cYIC|isbn=978-1-907065-37-8}}</ref> Berbers and Berber-speaking Algerians are divided into many groups with varying languages. The largest of these are the Kabyles, who live in the [[Kabylie]] region east of Algiers, the Chaoui of Northeast Algeria, the Tuaregs in the southern desert and the [[Chenouas|Shenwa people]] of North Algeria.<ref>{{cite book|last=Marion Mill Preminger|title=The sands of Tamanrasset: the story of Charles de Foucauld|year=1961|publisher=Hawthorn Books|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xfCfAAAAMAAJ}}</ref>{{page needed|date=February 2013}} During the colonial period, there was a large (10% in 1960)<ref name="Cook">{{Cite book | author=Cook, Bernard A. | title=Europe since 1945: an encyclopedia | year=2001 | publisher=Garland | location=New York | isbn=0-8153-4057-5 | page=398}}</ref> [[Ethnic groups in Europe|European]] population who became known as ''[[Pied-Noir]]s''. They were primarily of French, [[Spanish people|Spanish]] and [[Italian people|Italian]] origin. Almost all of this population left during the war of independence or immediately after its end.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=N8VHizsqaH0C&pg=PA25 |title=Migration and Development Co-Operation |page=25 |author=De Azevedo, Raimond Cagiano |publisher=Council of Europe|isbn=9789287126115|year=1994}}</ref> ===Languages=== {{Main|Languages of Algeria}} {{see also|French language in Algeria}} [[File:Panneau de signalisation multilingue à Issers (Algérie).jpg|thumb|Traffic sign in [[Isser (municipality)|Isser]] in three languages: [[Arabic]], [[Berber languages|Berber]], and French]] [[Modern Standard Arabic]] is the official language.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.diplomatie.gouv.fr/fr/pays-zones-geo_833/algerie_406/presentation-algerie_922/index.html |title=Présentation de l'Algérie |publisher=French Ministry of Foreign and European Affairs |date=23 October 2012 |accessdate=17 January 2013}}</ref> [[Algerian Arabic]] (Darja) is the language used by the majority of the population. Colloquial Algerian Arabic is heavily infused with borrowings from French and Berber. [[Berber language|Berber]] has been recognized as a "national language" by the constitutional amendment of 8 May 2002.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://web.archive.org/web/20110216045948/http://www.magharebia.com/cocoon/awi/xhtml1/fr/features/awi/features/2007/06/21/feature-01 |title=L'Algérie crée une académie de la langue amazigh |publisher=Magharebia.com |date=2 June 2006}}</ref> [[Kabyle language|Kabyle]], the predominant Berber language, is taught and is partially co-official (with a few restrictions) in parts of [[Kabylie]]. Although [[French language|French]] has no official status, Algeria is the second-largest Francophone country in the world in terms of speakers,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.senat.fr/colloques/actes_mondialisation_francophonie/actes_mondialisation_francophonie10.html |title=La mondialisation, une chance pour la francophonie |publisher=Senat.fr |accessdate=17 January 2013}} ([http://www.webcitation.org/6FhBDeanP Archive]) "L'Algérie, non-membre de l'Organisation internationale de la Francophonie, comptabilise la seconde communauté francophone au monde, avec environ 16 millions de locuteurs, suivie par la Côte d'Ivoire avec près de 12 millions de locuteurs francophones, le Québec avec 6 millions et la Belgique avec plus de 4 millions de francophones."</ref> and French is widely used in government, media (newspapers, radio, local television), and both the education system (from primary school onwards) and academia due to [[French rule in Algeria|Algeria's colonial history]]. It can be regarded as the ''de facto'' co-official language of Algeria. In 2008, 11.2 million Algerians could read and write in French.<ref>{{cite web|title=Le dénombrement des francophones|url=http://www.francophonie.org/IMG/pdf/1e.pdf|publisher=Organisation internationale de la Francophonie}} ([http://www.webcitation.org/6FhBO8XsN Archive]) p. 9 "Nous y agrégeons néanmoins quelques données disponibles pour des pays n'appartenant pas à l'OIF mais dont nous savons, comme pour l'Algérie (11,2 millions en 2008¹)," and "1. Nombre de personnes âgées de cinq ans et plus déclarant savoir lire et écrire le français, d'après les données du recensement de 2008 communiquées par l'[[Office national des statistiques d'Algérie]]."</ref> An Abassa Institute study in April 2000 found that 60% of households could speak and understand French or 18 million in a population of 30 million then. In recent decades the government has reinforced the study of French and TV programs have reinforced use of the language. Algeria emerged as a bilingual state after 1962.<ref>{{cite news|last=New |first=The |url=http://topics.blogs.nytimes.com/2008/11/19/algerias-liberation-terrorism-and-arabization/ |title=Algeria's liberation terrorism and Arabization |publisher=blogs.nytimes.com |date= 19 November 2008|accessdate=17 January 2013}}</ref> Colloquial [[Algerian Arabic]] is spoken by about 72% of the population and Berber by 27–30%.<ref name="leclerc">{{cite web | author=Leclerc, Jacques | title = ''Algérie: Situation géographique et démolinguistique'' | work=L'aménagement linguistique dans le monde | language = French | publisher=[[Université Laval]] | date = 5 April 2009 | url = http://www.tlfq.ulaval.ca/AXL/AFRIQUE/algerie-1demo.htm | accessdate =8 January 2010| archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20100124150058/http://www.tlfq.ulaval.ca/axl/afrique/algerie-1demo.htm| archivedate= 24 January 2010 | deadurl= no}}</ref> ===Religion=== {{Main|Religion in Algeria}} {{See also|Early African Church}} {{See also|History of the Jews in Algeria}} {{bar box | title=Religion in Algeria, 2010 ([[Pew Research Center|Pew Research]])<ref name=pew>[http://www.globalreligiousfutures.org/countries/algeria/religious_demography#/?affiliations_religion_id=0&affiliations_year=2010 Pew Research Center's Religion & Public Life Project: Algeria]. [[Pew Research Center]]. 2010.</ref> | titlebar=#ddd | left1=Religion | right1=Percent | float=right | bars= {{bar percent|[[Islam in Algeria|Muslim]]|green|98}} {{bar percent|[[Christianity in Algeria|Christian]]|black|1}} {{bar percent|[[Freedom of religion in Algeria|Other]]|gray|0.4}} }} Islam is the predominant religion with 99% of the population.<ref name="AlgeriaFactbook"/> There are about 150,000 [[Ibadi]]s in the M'zab Valley in the region of [[Ghardaia]].<ref>{{unreliable source?|date=August 2011|reason=angelfire.com is a user-generated website. linked page is to a "chapter 8" of an unknown work. it presents no credentials of author and no link to a main page.}} {{cite web|url=http://www.angelfire.com/az/rescon/mgcibadi.html |title=Ibadis and Kharijis |publisher=(via [[Angelfire]]) |accessdate=23 April 2010}}</ref> There were an estimated 10,000 [[Christianity in Algeria|Christians in Algeria]] in 2008.<ref>{{cite news|title=Algerian Christian converts fined|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/7433869.stm|publisher=BBC News | date=3 June 2008}}</ref> In a 2009 study the UNO estimated there were 45,000 [[Catholics]]<ref>Deeb, Mary Jane. "Religious minorities" ''Algeria (Country Study)''. Federal Research Division, Library of Congress; Helen Chapan Metz, ed. December 1993. ''This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the [[public domain]].[http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/about.html]</ref> and 50,000–100,000 [[Protestants]] in Algeria.<ref>Deeb, Mary Jane. "[http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd/cstdy:@field(DOCID+dz0074) Religious minorities]" ''Algeria (Country Study)''. Federal Research Division, Library of Congress; Helen Chapan Metz, ed. December 1993. ''This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the [[public domain]].</ref> A 2015 study estimates 380,000 Muslims converted to [[Christianity]] in Algeria.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Johnstone|first1=Patrick|last2=Miller|first2=Duane Alexander|title=Believers in Christ from a Muslim Background: A Global Census|journal=Interdisciplinary Journal of Research on Religion|date=2015|volume=11|page=8|url=https://www.academia.edu/16338087/Believers_in_Christ_from_a_Muslim_Background_A_Global_Census|accessdate=30 October 2015}}</ref> Following the [[Algerian Revolution|Revolution]] and Algerian independence, all but 6,500 of the country's 140,000 Jews left the country, of whom about 90% moved to France with the Pied-Noirs and 10% moved to [[Israel]]. ===Cities=== {{main|List of cities in Algeria}} Below is a list of the most important Algerian cities: {{Largest cities of Algeria}} ==Culture== {{Main|Culture of Algeria}} [[File:Bensari2.jpg|thumb|Algerian musicians in Tlemcen. Painting by [[Bachir Yellès]]]] Modern Algerian literature, split between Arabic, [[Berber languages|Tamazight]] and French, has been strongly influenced by the country's recent history. [[List of Algerian writers|Famous novelists]] of the 20th century include [[Mohammed Dib]], [[Albert Camus]], [[Kateb Yacine]] and [[Ahlam Mosteghanemi]] while [[Assia Djebar]] is widely translated. Among the important novelists of the 1980s were [[Rachid Mimouni]], later vice-president of [[Amnesty International]], and [[Tahar Djaout]], murdered by an [[Islamist]] group in 1993 for his secularist views.<ref>{{cite web |title=Tahar Djaout |publisher=French Publishers' Agency |url=http://www.frenchpubagency.com/?fuseaction=people.main&pid=517 |accessdate=17 January 2013}}</ref> [[Malek Bennabi]] and [[Frantz Fanon]] are noted for their thoughts on [[decolonization]]; [[Augustine of Hippo]] was born in [[Tagaste]] (modern-day [[Souk Ahras]]); and [[Ibn Khaldun]], though born in [[Tunis]], wrote the [[Muqaddima]] while staying in Algeria. The works of the [[Sanusi]] family in pre-colonial times, and of [[Emir Abdelkader]] and Sheikh [[Ben Badis]] in colonial times, are widely noted. The Latin author [[Apuleius]] was born in [[Madaurus]] (Mdaourouch), in what later became Algeria. Contemporary [[Algerian cinema]] is various in terms of genre, exploring a wider range of themes and issues. There has been a transition from cinema which focused on the war of independence to films more concerned with the everyday lives of Algerians.<ref>{{cite web |title=Short guide to contemporary Algerian cinema |publisher=Mapping Contemporary Cinema |url=http://www.mcc.sllf.qmul.ac.uk/?p=550}}</ref> ===Art=== [[File:Portrait-racim.jpg|thumb|Mohammed Racim was a Painter and founder of the Algerian school of miniature painting]] Algerian painters, like [[:fr:Mohamed Racim|Mohamed Racim]] or Baya, attempted to revive the prestigious Algerian past prior to French colonization, at the same time that they have contributed to the preservation of the authentic values of Algeria. In this line, [[Mohamed Temam]], [[Abdelkhader Houamel]] have also returned through this art, scenes from the history of the country, the habits and customs of the past and the country life. Other new artistic currents including the one of [[M'hamed Issiakhem]], [[Mohammed Khadda]] and [[Bachir Yelles]], appeared on the scene of Algerian painting, abandoning figurative classical painting to find new pictorial ways, in order to adapt Algerian paintings to the new realities of the country through its struggle and its aspirations. [[Mohammed Khadda]]<ref name=art>{{cite web|url=http://www.khadda.com/ |title=Mohammed Khadda |publisher=Khadda.com |accessdate=18 January 2013}}</ref> and [[M'hamed Issiakhem]] have been notable in recent years.<ref name=art/> ===Literature=== {{Main|Algerian literature|List of Algerian writers}} The historic roots of Algerian literature goes back to the [[Numidia]]n era, when [[Apuleius]] wrote ''[[The Golden Ass]]'', the only Latin novel to survive in its entirety. This period had also known [[Augustine of Hippo]], [[Nonius Marcellus]] and [[Martianus Capella]], among many others. The Middle Ages have known many Arabic writers who revolutionized the Arab world literature, with authors like [[Ahmad al-Buni]], [[Ibn Manzur]] and [[Ibn Khaldoun]], who wrote the [[Muqaddimah]] while staying in Algeria, and many others. [[Albert Camus]] was an Algerian-born French Pied-Noir author. In 1957 he was awarded the [[Nobel Prize in literature]]. {{double image|right|Lucius Apuleius Platonicus, from 'Crabbes Historical Dictionary', published in 1825 (C19).jpg|120|Kateb Yacine Nedjma authograph.jpg|120|[[Apuleius]]|[[Kateb Yacine]]}} Today Algeria contains, in its literary landscape, big names having not only marked the Algerian literature, but also the universal literary heritage in Arabic and French. As a first step, Algerian literature was marked by works whose main concern was the assertion of the Algerian national entity, there is the publication of novels as the ''Algerian trilogy'' of [[Mohammed Dib]], or even ''Nedjma'' of [[Kateb Yacine]] novel which is often regarded as a monumental and major work. Other known writers will contribute to the emergence of Algerian literature whom include [[Mouloud Feraoun]], [[Malek Bennabi]], [[Malek Haddad]], [[Moufdi Zakaria]], [[Abdelhamid Ben Badis]], Mohamed Laïd Al-Khalifa, [[Mouloud Mammeri]], [[Frantz Fanon]], and [[Assia Djebar]]. In the aftermath of the independence, several new authors emerged on the Algerian literary scene, they will attempt through their works to expose a number of social problems, among them there are [[Rachid Boudjedra]], [[Rachid Mimouni]], [[Leila Sebbar]], [[Tahar Djaout]] and [[Tahir Wattar]]. Currently, a part of Algerian writers tends to be defined in a literature of shocking expression, due to the terrorism that occurred during the 1990s, the other party is defined in a different style of literature who staged an individualistic conception of the human adventure. Among the most noted recent works, there is the writer, ''the swallows of Kabul'' and ''the attack'' of [[Yasmina Khadra]], ''the oath of barbarians'' of [[Boualem Sansal]], ''memory of the flesh'' of [[Ahlam Mosteghanemi]] and the last novel by Assia Djebar ''nowhere in my father's House''. ===Music=== {{Main| Music of Algeria}} <!-- Commented out: [[File:Dahman harrachi.jpg|upright|thumbnail|left|[[Dahmane El Harrachi]]]] --> [[Chaabi (Algeria)|Chaâbi music]] is a typically Algerian musical genre characterized by specific rhythms and of Qacidate (Popular poems) in Arabic dialect. The undisputed master of this music is [[El Hadj M'Hamed El Anka]]. The Constantinois [[Andalusian classical music|Malouf]] style is saved by musician from whom [[Mohamed Tahar Fergani]] is one of the best performers. [[File:Anka.jpg|thumb|[[El Hadj M'Hamed El Anka]]]] [[File:Cheb Khaled performed in Oran on July 5th 2011.jpg|thumb|[[Khaled (musician)|Cheb Khaled]] King [[raï]]]] Folk music styles include [[Bedouin music]], characterized by the poetic songs based on long kacida (poems); Kabyle music, based on a rich repertoire that is poetry and old tales passed through generations; Shawiya music, a folklore from diverse areas of the [[Aurès Mountains]]. Rahaba music style is unique to the Aures. [[Souad Massi]] is a rising Algerian folk singer. Other Algerian singers of the diaspora include [[Manel Filali]] in Germany and [[Kenza Farah]] in France. Tergui music is sung in [[Tuareg languages]] generally, [[Tinariwen]] had a worldwide success. Finally, the staïfi music is born in [[Sétif]] and remains a unique style of its kind. Modern music is available in several facets, [[Raï]] music is a style typical of Western Algeria. [[Algeria Rap|Rap]], relatively recent style in Algeria, is experiencing significant growth. ===Cinema=== {{Main|Cinema of Algeria}} [[File:Chronique des annees de braise.jpg|thumb|[[Chronicle of the Years of Fire]], the film won the [[Palme d'Or]] prize at the [[1975 Cannes Film Festival]].<ref name="festival-cannes.com">{{cite web |url=http://www.festival-cannes.com/en/archives/ficheFilm/id/2162/year/1975.html |title=Festival de Cannes: Chronicle of the Years of Fire |accessdate=27 April 2009|work=festival-cannes.com}}</ref>]] The Algerian state's interest in film-industry activities can be seen in the annual budget of DZD 200 million (EUR 1.8) allocated to production, specific measures and an ambitious programme plan implemented by the Ministry of Culture in order to promote national production, renovate the cinema stock and remedy the weak links in distribution and exploitation. The financial support provided by the state, through the Fund for the Development of the Arts, Techniques and the Film Industry (FDATIC) and the Algerian Agency for Cultural Influence (AARC), plays a key role in the promotion of national production. Between 2007 and 2013, FDATIC subsidised 98 films (feature films, documentaries and short films). In mid-2013, AARC had already supported a total of 78 films, including 42 feature films, 6 short films and 30 documentaries. According to the European Audiovisual Observatory's LUMIERE database, 41 Algerian films were distributed in Europe between 1996 and 2013; 21 films in this repertoire were Algerian-French co-productions. [[Days of Glory (2006 film)|''(Days of Glory)'' (2006)]] and [[Outside the Law (2010 film)|''Outside the Law'' (2010)]] recorded the highest number of admissions in the European Union, 3,172,612 and 474,722, respectively.<ref>Ali, Sahar (25 March 2014) [http://www.obs.coe.int/documents/205595/412951/Rapport_Alg%C3%A9rie_FR_21-05-2014.pdf ALGÉRIE]. European Audiovisual Observatory</ref> Algeria won the [[Palme d'Or]] for ''[[Chronicle of the Years of Fire]]'' (1975), two Oscars for [[Z (1969 film)|''Z'' (1969)]], and other awards for ''[[The Battle of Algiers]]''. ===Sports=== {{Main|Sport in Algeria}} [[File:ACON 2015 CIV ALG (16511337801).jpg|thumb|The Algeria national football team in 2015]] Various games have existed in Algeria since antiquity. In the [[Aurès Mountains|Aures]], people played several games such As El Kherdba or El khergueba ([[chess]] variant). Playing cards, [[checkers]] and chess games are part of Algerian culture. Racing ([[Fantasia (culture)|fantasia]]) and the [[rifle shooting]] are part of cultural recreation of the Algerians.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/15001/Algeria/220546/Sports-and-recreation | title=Sports and recreation | accessdate=9 December 2012}}</ref> The first Algerian and African gold medalist is [[Boughera El Ouafi]] in [[1928 Summer Olympics|1928 Olympics of Amsterdam]] in the [[Marathon]]. The second Algerian Medalist was [[Alain Mimoun]] in [[1956 Summer Olympics]] in Melbourne. Several men and women were champions in athletics in the 1990s including [[Noureddine Morceli]], [[Hassiba Boulmerka]], [[Nouria Mérah-Benida|Nouria Merah-Benida]], and [[Taoufik Makhloufi]], all specialized in [[middle distance running]].<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.bbc.com/sport/olympics/2012/countries/algeria/athletes | title=Algeria | accessdate=9 December 2012}}</ref> [[Football in Algeria|Football]] is the most popular sport in Algeria. Several names are engraved in the history of the sport, including [[Lakhdar Belloumi]], [[Rachid Mekhloufi]], [[Hacène Lalmas|Hassen Lalmas]], [[Rabah Madjer]], [[Salah Assad]] and [[Djamel Zidane]]. The [[Algeria national football team]] qualified for the [[1982 FIFA World Cup]], [[1986 FIFA World Cup]], [[2010 FIFA World Cup]] and [[2014 FIFA World Cup]]. In addition, several football clubs have won continental and international trophies as the club [[ES Sétif]] or [[JS Kabylia]]. The [[Algerian Football Federation]] is an association of Algeria football clubs organizing national competitions and international matches of the selection of Algeria national football team.<ref>{{cite news | url=http://www1.skysports.com/football/teams/algeria | title=Algeria national football team | accessdate=9 December 2012 | work=Sky Sports}}</ref> ===Cuisine=== {{Main|Algerian cuisine}} [[File:Bulgur wheat salad.jpg|thumb|A [[Couscous]] based Salad]] Algerian cuisine is rich and diverse. The country was considered as the "granary of Rome". It offers a component of dishes and varied dishes, depending on the region and according to the seasons. The cuisine uses cereals as the main products, since they are always produced with abundance in the country. There is not a dish where cereals are not present. Algerian cuisine varies from one region to another, according to seasonal vegetables. It can be prepared using meat, fish and vegetables. Among the dishes known, [[couscous]],<ref name="WDL">{{cite web |url = http://www.wdl.org/en/item/8804/ |title = Luce Ben Aben, Moorish Women Preparing Couscous, Algiers, Algeria |website = [[World Digital Library]] |year = 1899 |accessdate = 26 September 2013 }}</ref> [[chorba]], Rechta, Chakhchoukha, Berkoukes, Shakshouka, Mthewem, Chtitha, Mderbel, Dolma, Brik or Bourek, Garantita, Lham'hlou, etc. [[Merguez]] sausage is widely used in Algeria, but it differs, depending on the region and on the added spices. Cakes are marketed and can be found in cities either in Algeria, in Europe or North America. However, traditional cakes are also made at home, following the habits and customs of each family. Among these cakes, there are Tamina, Chrik, Garn logzelles, Griouech, Kalb el-louz, Makroud, Mbardja, Mchewek, Samsa, Tcharak, Baghrir, Khfaf, Zlabia, Aarayech, Ghroubiya and Mghergchette. Algerian pastry also contains Tunisian or French cakes. Marketed and home-made bread products include varieties such as Kessra or Khmira or Harchaya, chopsticks and so-called washers Khoubz dar or Matloue. Other tradionel meals (Chakhchokha-Hassoua-T'chicha-Mahjouba and Doubara) are famous in Biskra. ==Health== {{Main|Health in Algeria}} In 2002, Algeria had inadequate numbers of physicians (1.13 per 1,000 people), nurses (2.23 per 1,000 people), and dentists (0.31 per 1,000 people). Access to "improved water sources" was limited to 92% of the population in urban areas and 80% of the population in rural areas. Some 99% of Algerians living in urban areas, but only 82% of those living in rural areas, had access to "improved sanitation". According to the World Bank, Algeria is making progress toward its goal of "reducing by half the number of people without sustainable access to improved drinking water and basic sanitation by 2015". Given Algeria's young population, policy favors preventive health care and clinics over hospitals. In keeping with this policy, the government maintains an immunization program. However, poor sanitation and unclean water still cause [[tuberculosis]], [[hepatitis]], [[measles]], [[typhoid fever]], [[cholera]] and [[dysentery]]. The poor generally receive health care free of charge.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/profiles/Algeria.pdf |title=Library of Congress Country Studies – Algeria |format=PDF }}</ref> Health records have been maintained in Algeria since 1882 and began adding Muslims living in the South to their Vital record database in 1905 during French rule.<ref>{{cite book|author=Kemp, Thomas Jay |title=International Vital Records Handbook|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=afnc6_o5AqoC&pg=PA347|year=2009|publisher=Genealogical Publishing Com|isbn=978-0-8063-1793-9|page=347}}</ref> ==Education== {{Main|Education in Algeria|List of universities in Algeria}} [[File:Nouria Benghabrit-Remaoun in Blida.JPG|thumb|[[Nouria Benghabrit-Remaoun]], Minister of National education]] Since the 1970s, in a centralized system that was designed to significantly reduce the rate of illiteracy, the Algerian government introduced a decree by which school attendance became compulsory for all children aged between 6 and 15 years who have the ability to track their learning through the 20 facilities built since independence, now the literacy rate is around 78.7%.<ref name="illit"/> Since 1972, Arabic is used as the language of instruction during the first nine years of schooling. From the third year, French is taught and it is also the language of instruction for science classes. The students can also learn English, Italian, Spanish and German. In 2008, new programs at the elementary appeared, therefore the compulsory schooling does not start at the age of six anymore, but at the age of five.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.presse-dz.com/revue-de-presse/version-imprimable/1045-les-verites-de-benbouzid.html |title=Ecoles privées, Tamazight, enseignement du Français, syndicats&nbsp;... – Les vérités de Benbouzid |publisher=Presse-dz.com |accessdate=18 January 2013}}</ref> Apart from the 122 private, learning at school, the Universities of the State are free of charge. After nine years of primary school, students can go to the high school or to an educational institution. The school offers two programs: general or technical. At the end of the third year of secondary school, students pass the exam of the bachelor's degree, which allows once it is successful to pursue graduate studies in universities and institutes.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.algerie-dz.com/article10808.html |title=Le taux d'analphabétisme en Algérie est de 21,3% |publisher=Algerie-dz.com |accessdate=18 January 2013}}</ref> [[File:Des élevesen Algérie.jpg|thumb|left|Algerian school children]] Education is officially compulsory for children between the ages of six and 15. In 2008, the illiteracy rate for people over 10 was 22.3%, 15.6% for men and 29.0% for women. The province with the lowest rate of illiteracy was [[Algiers Province]] at 11.6%, while the province with the highest rate was [[Djelfa Province]] at 35.5%.<ref name="illit">{{cite web|title=Taux d'Analphabétisme et taux d'Alphabétisation de la population âgée de 10 ans et plus selon le sexe et la wilaya de résidence|url=http://www.ons.dz/IMG/pdf/pop9_national.pdf|publisher=Office National des Statistiques}}</ref> Algeria has 26 universities and 67 institutions of higher education, which must accommodate a million Algerians and 80,000 foreign students in 2008. The [[University of Algiers]], founded in 1879, is the oldest, it offers education in various disciplines (law, medicine, science and letters). 25 of these universities and almost all of the institutions of higher education were founded after the independence of the country. Even if some of them offer instruction in [[Arabic]] like areas of law and the economy, most of the other sectors as science and medicine continue to be provided in French and English. Among the most important universities, there are the [[University of Sciences and Technology Houari Boumediene]], the [[University of Mentouri]] Constantine, [[University of Oran]] Es-Senia. Best universities of qualifications remain the [[University of Abou Bekr Belkaïd]] in Tlemcen and [[University of Batna]] Hadj Lakhdar, they occupy the 26th and 45th row in Africa.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://webometrics.info/en/Africa/Algeria |title=Algeria &#124; Ranking Web of Universities |publisher=Webometrics.info |accessdate=18 January 2013 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140208084507/http://webometrics.info/en/Africa/Algeria |archivedate=8 February 2014 }}</ref> ==See also== {{Contains Tifinagh text|compact=yes}} * [[Index of Algeria-related articles]] * [[Outline of Algeria]] * {{books-inline|Algeria}} ==References== {{Reflist|30em}} ==Bibliography== {{refbegin|30em}} * Ageron, Charles-Robert (1991). ''Modern Algeria&nbsp;– A History from 1830 to the Present''. Translated from French and edited by Michael Brett. London: [[C. Hurst & Co|Hurst]]. ISBN 978-0-86543-266-6. * Aghrout, Ahmed; Bougherira, Redha M. (2004). ''Algeria in Transition&nbsp;– Reforms and Development Prospects''. [[Routledge]]. ISBN 978-0-415-34848-5. * Bennoune, Mahfoud (1988). ''The Making of Contemporary Algeria&nbsp;– Colonial Upheavals and Post-Independence Development, 1830–1987''. Cambridge: [[Cambridge University Press]]. ISBN 978-0-521-30150-3. * [[Frantz Fanon|Fanon, Frantz]] (1966; 2005 paperback). ''The Wretched of the Earth''. [[Grove Press]]. ASIN B0007FW4AW, ISBN 978-0-8021-4132-3. * [[Alistair Horne|Horne, Alistair]] (1977). ''A Savage War of Peace: Algeria 1954–1962''. [[Viking Adult]]. ISBN 978-0-670-61964-1, ISBN 978-1-59017-218-6 (2006 reprint) * Laouisset, Djamel (2009). ''A Retrospective Study of the Algerian Iron and Steel Industry''. New York City: [[Nova Publishers]]. ISBN 978-1-61761-190-2. * Roberts, Hugh (2003). ''The Battlefield&nbsp;– Algeria, 1988–2002. Studies in a Broken Polity''. London: [[Verso Books]]. ISBN 978-1-85984-684-1. * Ruedy, John (1992). ''Modern Algeria&nbsp;– The Origins and Development of a Nation''. Bloomington: [[Indiana University Press]]. ISBN 978-0-253-34998-9. * Stora, Benjamin (2001). ''Algeria, 1830–2000&nbsp;– A Short History''. Ithaca, New York: [[Cornell University Press]]. ISBN 978-0-8014-3715-1. * Sidaoui, Riadh (2009). "Islamic Politics and the Military&nbsp;– Algeria 1962–2008". [https://books.google.com/books?id=UouRFVxywIQC ''Religion and Politics&nbsp;– Islam and Muslim Civilisation'']. Farnham: [[Ashgate Publishing]]. ISBN 0-7546-7418-5. {{refend}} ==External links== Algeria{{Sister project links|voy=Algeria|Algeria}} {{Wikibooks|Wikijunior:Countries A-Z|Algeria}} * [http://www.el-mouradia.dz/ People's Democratic Republic of Algeria] ''official government website'' {{ar icon}} / {{fr icon}} * {{CIA World Factbook link|ag|Algeria}} * {{GovPubs|algeria}} * {{dmoz|Regional/Africa/Algeria}} * [http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-14118852 Algeria profile] from the [[BBC News]] * {{Wikiatlas|Algeria}} * [http://www.ifs.du.edu/ifs/frm_CountryProfile.aspx?Country=DZ Key Development Forecasts for Algeria] from [[International Futures]] * [http://www.enpi-info.eu/countrymed.php?country=1 EU Neighbourhood Info Centre: Algeria] * [http://www.zmne.hu/aarms/docs/Volume9/Issue1/pdf/07.pdf Saharawi refugees in Algeria] {{Geographic location | Northwest = '''[[Mediterranean Sea]]''' | North = '''[[Mediterranean Sea]]''' | Northeast ='''[[Mediterranean Sea]]''' | West = {{flagicon|MAR}}<br />{{flagicon|ESH}} | Centre = {{flagicon|ALG|50px}} | East = {{flagicon|TUN}}<br />{{flagicon|LBY}} | Southwest = {{flagicon|MTN}} | South = {{flagicon|MLI}} | Southeast = {{flagicon|NIG}} }} {{Navboxes |title = Articles relating to Algeria |list = {{Algeria topics|state=uncollapsed}} {{Navboxes |title = Geographic locale |list = {{Countries and territories of North Africa}} {{Countries and territories of the Mediterranean Sea}} {{Middle East}} {{Navboxes |title = International membership |list = {{Arab League}} {{African Union}} {{Organisation of Islamic Cooperation|state=collapsed}} {{G-15 nations}} }} }} }} {{Portal bar|Algeria|Africa|Mediterranean|Arab world|Berbers|Geography}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Algeria| ]] [[Category:Arabic-speaking countries and territories]] [[Category:Berber-speaking countries and territories]] [[Category:Countries in Africa]] [[Category:French-speaking countries and territories]] [[Category:G15 nations]] [[Category:Maghrebi countries]] [[Category:Member states of OPEC]] [[Category:Member states of the African Union]] [[Category:Member states of the Arab League]] [[Category:Member states of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation]] [[Category:Member states of the Union for the Mediterranean]] [[Category:Member states of the United Nations]] [[Category:Muslim-majority countries]] [[Category:North African countries]] [[Category:Republics]] [[Category:Requests for audio pronunciation (Arabic)]] [[Category:Requests for audio pronunciation (Berber)]] [[Category:States and territories established in 1962]] [[Category:World Digital Library related]] 4y85eqc7swi8a08191zimwtfa9yxk4f 0 359 717177942 717177682 2016-04-26T05:22:00Z Alakasingh09 28182153 wikitext text/x-wiki {{DISPLAYTITLE:List of ''Atlas Shrugged'' characters}} This is a list of characters in [[Ayn Rand]]'s novel ''[[Atlas Shrugged]].'' ==Major characters== The following are major characters from the novel.<ref>Characters are listed as "major" if they meet one of the following criteria: *they are listed as "major" characters in a widely available study guide, such as [[CliffsNotes]], [[SparkNotes]], or [[Gale (Cengage)|Gale's]] ''Novels for Students''; *they are listed as "primary heroic" or "arch-villain" characters in Gladstein's ''The New Ayn Rand Companion''; *they are the focus of an essay in a scholarly book about the novel, such as ''Essays on Ayn Rand's Atlas Shrugged'' or ''Ayn Rand's Atlas Shrugged''.</ref> ===Protagonists=== ====Dagny Taggart==== <!-- Deleted image removed: [[Image:Taylor-Schilling-as-Dagny-Taggart.jpg|thumb|upright=0.56|right|[[Taylor Schilling]] as Dagny Taggart in the 2011 film.]] --> Dagny Taggart is the [[protagonist]] of the novel. She is Vice-President in Charge of Operations for Taggart Transcontinental, under her brother, James Taggart. Given James' incompetence, Dagny is responsible for all the workings of the railroad. ====Francisco d'Anconia==== Francisco d'Anconia is one of the central characters in ''Atlas Shrugged'', an owner by inheritance of the world's largest [[copper]] mining operation. He is a childhood friend, and the first love, of Dagny Taggart. A child prodigy of exceptional talents, Francisco was dubbed the "climax" of the d'Anconia line, an already prestigious family of skilled industrialists. He was a classmate of John Galt and Ragnar Danneskjöld and student of both Hugh Akston and Robert Stadler. He began working while still in school, proving that he could have made a fortune without the aid of his family's wealth and power. Later, Francisco bankrupts the d'Anconia business to put it out of others' reach. His full name is given as "Francisco Domingo Carlos Andres Sebastián d'Anconia".<ref>The accent in the given name ''Sebastián'' is in accordance with [[Spanish orthography]]; however, the same rule would require writing ''Andrés''.</ref> ====John Galt==== {{Main|John Galt}} John Galt is the primary male hero of ''Atlas Shrugged''. He initially appears as an unnamed menial worker for Taggart Transcontinental, who often dines with Eddie Willers in the employees' cafeteria, and leads Eddie to reveal important information about Dagny Taggart and Taggart Transcontinental. Only Eddie's side of their conversations is given in the novel. Later in the novel, the reader discovers this worker's true identity. Before working for Taggart Transcontinental, Galt worked as an engineer for the Twentieth Century Motor Company, where he secretly invented a generator of usable electric energy from ambient static electricity, but abandoned his prototype, and his employment, when dissatisfied by an easily corrupted novel system of payment. This prototype was found by Dagny Taggart and Hank Rearden. Galt himself remains concealed, throughout much of the novel, in a valley concealed by himself, where he unites the most skillful inventors and business leaders under his leadership. Much of the book's third division is given to his broadcast speech, which presents the author's philosophy of Objectivism. ====Henry "Hank" Rearden==== Henry (known as "Hank") Rearden is one of the central characters in ''Atlas Shrugged''. He owns the most important steel company in the United States, and invents Rearden Metal, an [[alloy]] stronger than steel (with similar properties to stainless steel). He lives in [[Philadelphia]] with his wife Lillian, his brother Philip, and his elderly mother. Rearden represents a type of [[self-made man]] or prototypical hero, and illustrates Rand's [[Atlas Shrugged#Theory of sex|theory of sex]] in so far as he accepts the traditional view of sexual congress as a subhuman instinct, but responds sexually to Dagny Taggart. ====Eddie Willers==== Edwin "Eddie" Willers is the Special Assistant to the Vice-President in Charge of Operations at Taggart Transcontinental. His father and grandfather worked for the Taggarts, and himself likewise. He is completely loyal to Dagny and to Taggart Transcontinental. Willers does not possess the creative ability of Galt's associates, but matches them in moral courage and is capable of appreciating and making use of their creations. After Dagny shifts her attention and loyalty to saving the captive Galt, Willers maintains the railroad until its collapse. ====Ragnar Danneskjöld==== One of Galt's first followers, and world famous as a [[pirate]], who seizes relief ships sent from the United States to the People's States of Europe. He works to ensure that once those espousing Galt's philosophy are restored to their rightful place in society, they have enough capital to rebuild the world. Kept in the background for much of the book, Danneskjöld makes a personal appearance to encourage Rearden to persevere in his increasingly difficult situation, and gives him a bar of gold as compensation for the income taxes he has paid over the last several years. Danneskjöld is married to the actress Kay Ludlow; their relationship is kept hidden from the outside world, which only knows of Ludlow as a retired [[film star]]. Considered a misfit by Galt's other adherents, he views his actions as a means to speed the world along in understanding Galt's perspective. According to [[Barbara Branden]], who was closely associated with Rand at the time the book was written, there were sections written describing Danneskjöld's adventures at sea, cut from the final published text.<ref>Reedstrom, Karen. [http://barbarabranden.com/interview4.html 1992 Interview with Full Context]. Barbara Branden interview in ''Full Context'', October 1992. Republished on barbarabranden.com. Retrieved 1 June 2007.</ref> In a 1974 comment at a lecture, Ayn Rand admitted that Danneskjöld's name was a tribute to Victor Hugo's novel, ''Hans of Iceland'', wherein the hero becomes the first of the Counts of Danneskjöld. In the published book, Danneskjöld is always seen through the eyes of others (Dagny Taggart or Hank Rearden), except for a brief paragraph in the very last chapter. ===Antagonists=== ====James Taggart==== The President of Taggart Transcontinental and the book's most important antagonist. Taggart is an expert influence peddler but incapable of making operational decisions on his own. He relies on his sister, Dagny Taggart, to actually run the railroad, but nonetheless opposes her in almost every endeavor because of his various anti-capitalist moral and political beliefs. In a sense, he is the antithesis of Dagny. This contradiction leads to the recurring absurdity of his life: the desire to overcome those on whom his life depends, and the horror that he will succeed at this. In the final chapters of the novel, he suffers a complete mental breakdown upon realizing that he can no longer deceive himself in this respect. ====Lillian Rearden==== The unsupportive wife of Hank Rearden, who dislikes his habits and (secretly at first) seeks to ruin Rearden to prove her own value. Lillian achieves this, when she passes information to James Taggart about her husband's affair with his sister. This information is used to persuade Rearden to sign a Gift Certificate which delivers all the property rights of Rearden Metal to others. Lillian thereafter uses James Taggart for sexual satisfaction, until Hank abandons her. ====Dr. Floyd Ferris==== Ferris is a biologist who works as "co-ordinator" at the State Science Institute. He uses his position there to deride reason and productive achievement, and publishes a book entitled ''Why Do You Think You Think?'' He clashes on several occasions with Hank Rearden, and twice attempts to blackmail Rearden into giving up Rearden Metal. He is also one of the group of looters who tries to get Rearden to agree to the Steel Unification Plan. Ferris hosts the demonstration of the Project X weapon, and is the creator of the Ferris Persuader, a torture machine. When John Galt is captured by the looters, Ferris uses the device on Galt, but it breaks down before extracting the information Ferris wants from Galt. Ferris represents the group which uses brute force on the heroes to achieve the ends of the looters. ====Dr. Robert Stadler==== A former professor at Patrick Henry University, and along with colleague Hugh Akston, mentor to Francisco d'Anconia, John Galt and Ragnar Danneskjöld. He has since become a sell-out, one who had great promise but squandered it for social approval, to the detriment of the free. He works at the State Science Institute where all his inventions are perverted for use by the military, including the instrument of his demise: Project X (Xylophone). The character was, in part, modeled on [[J. Robert Oppenheimer]], whom Rand had interviewed for an earlier project, and his part in the creation of [[nuclear weapons]].<ref>David Harriman, ''[[Journals of Ayn Rand]]'', pp. 311-344, esp. 330-331.</ref> To his former student Galt, Stadler represents the epitome of human evil, as the "man who knew better" but chose not to act for the good. ====Wesley Mouch==== The incompetent and treacherous lobbyist whom Hank Rearden reluctantly employs in [[Washington, D.C.|Washington]], who rises to prominence and authority throughout the novel through trading favours and disloyalty. In return for betraying Hank by helping broker the Equalization of Opportunity Bill (which, by restricting the number of businesses each person may own to one, forces Hank to divest most of his companies), he is given a senior position at the Bureau of Economic Planning and National Resources. Later in the novel he becomes its Top Co-ordinator, a position that eventually becomes Economic Dictator of the country. ==Secondary characters== The following secondary characters also appear in the novel.<ref>Secondary characters are listed if they appear in character lists from any of the works used to establish the list of major characters above, but do not meet the criteria for "major." Minor characters who are not listed in secondary works are not listed here.</ref> *'''Hugh Akston''' is identified as "One of the last great advocates of reason." He was a renowned philosopher and the head of the Department of Philosophy at Patrick Henry University, where he taught Francisco d'Anconia, John Galt, and Ragnar Danneskjöld. He was, along with Robert Stadler, a father figure to these three. Akston's name is so hallowed that a young lady, on hearing that Francisco had studied under him, is shocked. She thought he must have been one of those great names from an earlier century. He now works as a cook in a roadside diner, and proves extremely skillful at the job. When Dagny tracks him down, and before she discovers his true identity, he rejects her enthusiastic offer to manage the dining car services for Taggart Transcontinental. He is based on [[Aristotle]]. *'''Jeff Allen''' is a tramp who stows away on a Taggart train during one of Dagny's cross-country trips. Instead of throwing him out, she allows him to ride as her guest. It is from Allen that she learns the full story behind the collapse of the Twentieth Century Motor Company (Rand's extensive metaphor for the inherent flaws of communism), as well as a hint of John Galt's true background. *'''Calvin Atwood''' is owner of Atwood Light and Power Company and joins Galt's strike. *'''Mayor Bascom''' is the mayor of Rome, Wisconsin, who reveals part of the history of the Twentieth Century Motor Company. *'''Dr. Blodgett''' is the scientist who pulls the lever to demonstrate Project X. *'''Orren Boyle''' is the head of Associated Steel, antithesis of Hank Rearden and a friend of James Taggart. He is an investor in the San Sebastián Mines. He disappears from the story after having a nervous breakdown following the failed 'unification' of the steel industry. *'''Laura Bradford''' is an actress and Kip Chalmers's mistress. *'''Bill Brent''' is the chief dispatcher for the Colorado Division of Taggart Transcontinental, who tries to prevent the Taggart Tunnel disaster. *'''Cherryl Brooks''' is a dime store shopgirl who marries James Taggart after a chance encounter in her store the night the John Galt Line was falsely deemed his greatest success. She marries him thinking he is the heroic person behind Taggart Transcontinental. Cherryl is at first harsh towards Dagny, having believed Jim Taggart's descriptions of his sister, until she questions employees of the railroad. Upon learning that her scorn had been misdirected, Cherryl puts off apologizing to Dagny out of shame until the night before she commits suicide, when she confesses to Dagny that when she married Jim, she thought he had the heroic qualities that she had looked up to - she thought she was marrying someone like Dagny. She eventually commits suicide, unable to live with her worthless husband, and unable to escape. *'''Millie Bush''' was "a mean, ugly little eight-year-old" girl voted to receive gold braces to straighten her teeth by the Marxist "family" committee who determined how pay was allocated at The Twentieth Century Motor Company. Her teeth are later knocked out by a man denied an allowance by the committee to purchase the things he valued. *'''Emma Chalmers''', Kip Chalmers' mother, gains some influence after his death. Known as "Kip's Ma," she starts a soybean-growing project in Louisiana and commandeers thousands of railcars to move the harvest. As a result, the year's wheat crop from Minnesota never reaches the rest of the country, but instead rots in storage; also, the soybean crop is lost, having been reaped too early. *'''Kip Chalmers''' is a Washington man who has decided to run for election as Legislator from California. On the way to his campaign, the Taggart Transcontinental train that is carrying him encounters a split rail, resulting in the destruction of its diesel engine. His demands lead to a coal-burning steam engine being attached to his train in its stead and used to pull it through an eight-mile tunnel. The result is the suffocation of all passengers and the destruction of the Taggart Tunnel. *'''Dan Conway''' is the middle-aged president of the Phoenix-Durango railroad. Running a railroad is just about the only thing he knows. When the Anti-dog-eat-dog Rule is used to drive his business out of [[Colorado]], he loses the will to fight, and resigns himself to a quiet life of books and fishing. *'''Ken Danagger''' owns Danagger Coal in Pennsylvania. He helps Hank Rearden illegally make Rearden Metal, then later decides to quit and join Galt's strike moments before Dagny arrives to try to persuade him otherwise. *'''Quentin Daniels''' is an enterprising engineer hired by Dagny Taggart to reconstruct John Galt's motor. Partway through this process, Quentin withdraws his effort for the same reasons John Galt himself had. Dagny's pursuit of Quentin leads her to Galt's Gulch. *'''Sebastian d'Anconia''' was the 16th (or 17th) Century founder of the d'Anconia dynasty. Escaped from Spain because of expressing his opinions too freely and coming in conflict with the [[Inquisition]], leaving behind a palace and his beloved. Started a small mine in South America, which became the beginning of a mining empire and a new fortune (and a new palace). Eventually sent for his beloved who had waited for him many years. He is the role model which Francisco d'Anconia looks to, as Dagny Taggart looks to Nathaniel Taggart. Francisco remarks that their respective ancestors would have liked each other. *'''Balph Eubank''' is called "the literary leader of the age", despite the fact that no book he has written has sold more than 3,000 copies. He complains that it is disgraceful that artists are treated as peddlers, and that there should be a law limiting the sales of books to 10,000 copies. He is a [[misogynist]] who thinks it disgusting that Dagny Taggart is a railroad vice-president. *The '''Fishwife''' is one of the strikers, who earns her living by providing the fish for Hammond’s grocery market; she is described as having "dark, disheveled hair and large eyes", and is a writer. Galt says she "wouldn't be published outside. She believes that when one deals with words, one deals with the mind." According to Barbara Branden in her book ''[[The Passion of Ayn Rand]]'', "The [[Fishwife]] is Ayn's [[List of Hitchcock cameo appearances|Hitchcock-like]] appearance in ''Atlas Shrugged''."<ref name="Branden1986">{{cite book|author=Barbara Branden|title=The passion of Ayn Rand|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=B-AEAQAAIAAJ|accessdate=24 October 2010|date=20 May 1986|publisher=Doubleday|page=229}}</ref> So says too Leonard Peikoff.<ref>{{cite web|author=Leonard Peikoff |url=http://www.peikoff.com/2012/09/10/in-atlas-shrugged-when-john-is-giving-dagny-the-tour |title=In Atlas Shrugged, when John is giving Dagny the tour of the valley, there is a character briefly introduced who is identified as a writer and who matches Ayn Rand’s physical description. Did Ayn Rand intend this character to be a representation of herself? « Podcast « Peikoff |publisher=Peikoff.com |date=10 September 2012 |accessdate=21 September 2012}}</ref> *'''Lawrence Hammond''' runs Hammond Cars in Colorado, one of the few companies in existence that still produces top-quality vehicles. He eventually quits and joins the strike. *'''Richard Halley''' is Dagny Taggart's favorite composer, who mysteriously disappeared after the evening of his greatest triumph. Halley spent years as a struggling and unappreciated composer. At age 24, his opera ''[[Phaethon]]'' was performed for the first time, to an audience who booed and heckled it. After 19 years, ''Phaethon'' was performed again, but this time it was received to the greatest ovation the opera house had ever heard. The following day, Halley retired, sold the rights to his music, and disappeared. It is later revealed that he has joined the strike and settled in Galt's Gulch. *'''Mrs. William Hastings''' is the widow of the chief engineer at the Twentieth Century Motor Company. Her husband quit shortly after Galt did and joined the strike some years later. Her lead allows Dagny to find Hugh Akston. *'''Dr. Thomas Hendricks''' is a famous brain surgeon who developed a new method of preventing strokes. He joined Galt's strike when the American medical system was put under government control. *'''Tinky Holloway''' is one of the "looters" and is frequently referred to and quoted by other characters in the story, but he has only one major appearance: during the Washington meeting with Hank Rearden. *'''Lee Hunsacker''' is in charge of a company called Amalgamated Service when takes over the Twentieth Century Motor Company. He files a lawsuit that eventually leads to Midas Mulligan and Judge Narragansett joining the strike. A failed businessman, he laments constantly that no-one ever gave him a chance. *'''Gwen Ives''' is Hank Rearden's secretary. *'''Owen Kellogg''' is Assistant to the Manager of the Taggart Terminal in New York. He catches Dagny Taggart's eye as one of the few competent men on staff. After seeing the sorry state of the Ohio Division, she decides to make him its new Superintendent. However, as soon as she returns to New York, Kellogg informs her that he is quitting his job. Owen Kellogg eventually reaches, and settles in, Galt's Gulch. *'''Gilbert Keith-Worthing''' is a British novelist of erstwhile fame, now neglected but still considered a "walking classic". Rand introduces him only for a few pages as a guest of Kip Chalmers ("for no reason that either of them could discover") to then implicitly have him asphyxiated in the Tunnel catastrophe, after giving some statements. *'''Fred Kinnan''' is a labor leader and member of the looter cabal. Unlike the others, however, Kinnan is straightforward and honest about his purpose. Kinnan is the only one to openly state the true motivations of himself and his fellow conspirators. At the end of Galt's three-hour speech, he expresses admiration for the man, as he says what he means. Despite this, Kinnan admits that he is one of the people Galt is out to destroy. *'''Paul Larkin''' is an unsuccessful, middle-aged businessman, a friend of the Rearden family. He meets with the other Looters to work out a plan to bring Rearden down. James Taggart knows he is friends with Hank Rearden and challenges his loyalty, and Larkin assures Taggart that he will go along with them. *'''Eugene Lawson''' heads the Community Bank of Madison, then gets a job with the government when it his bank goes bankrupt. One of the looter's cabal, he is a collectivist who abhors production and money-making. *'''Mort Liddy''' is a [[hack writer|hack]] composer who writes trite scores for movies and modern symphonies to which no one listens. He believes melody is a primitive vulgarity. He is one of Lillian Rearden's friends and a member of the cultural elite. *'''Clifton Locey''' is a friend of Jim Taggart who takes the position of vice-president of operation when Dagny Taggart quits. *'''Pat Logan''' is the engineer on the first run of the John Galt Line. He later strikes. *'''Kay Ludlow''' is a beautiful actress and the wife of Ragnar Danneskjöld. *'''Dick McNamara''' is a contractor who finished the San Sebastian Line. Dagny Taggart plans to hire him to lay the new Rearden Metal track for the Rio Norte Line, but before she does so, he mysteriously disappears. She later discovers that he has joined the strike and settled in Galt's Gulch. *'''Cuffy Meigs''' is the Director of Unification for the railroad business. He carries a pistol and a lucky rabbit's foot, and he dresses in a military uniform, and has been described as "impervious to thought". Meigs seizes control of Project X and accidentally destroys it, demolishing the country's last railroad bridge across the Mississippi River and killing himself, his men, and Dr. Stadler. *'''Dave Mitchum''' is a state-hired superintendent of the Colorado Division of Taggart Transcontinental. He is partially responsible for the Taggart Tunnel disaster. *'''Chick Morrison''' holds the position of "Morale Conditioner" in the government. He quits when society begins to collapse and flees to a stronghold in Tennessee. His fellow looters consider it unlikely that he will survive. *'''Horace Bussby Mowen''' is the president of the Amalgamated Switch and Signal Company, Inc. of Connecticut. He is a businessman who sees nothing wrong with the moral code that is destroying society and would never dream of saying he is in business for any reason other than the good of society. Dagny Taggart hires Mowen to produce switches made of Rearden Metal. He is reluctant to build anything with this unproven technology, and has to be cajoled into accepting the contract. When pressured by public opinion, he discontinues production of the switches, forcing Dagny to find an alternative source. *'''Midas Mulligan''' is a wealthy banker who mysteriously disappeared in protest after he was given a court order to lend money to an incompetent applicant. When the order came down, he liquidated his entire business, paid off his depositors, and joined Galt's strike. He is the legal owner of the land where Galt's Gulch is located. Mulligan's birth name was Michael, but he had it legally changed after a news article called him "[[Midas]]" in a derogatory fashion, which Mulligan took as a compliment. *'''Judge Narragansett''' is an American jurist who ruled in favor of Midas Mulligan during the case brought against him by the incompetent loan applicant. When Narragansett's ruling was reversed on appeal, he retired and joined the strike. At the end of the novel, he is seen editing the [[United States Constitution]], crossing out the contradicting amendments of it and adding an amendment to prohibit Congress from passing laws that restrain freedom of trade. *'''Ben Nealy''' is a railroad contractor whom Dagny Taggart hires to replace the track on the Rio Norte Line with Rearden Metal. Nealy is incompetent, but Dagny can find no one better in all the country. Nealy believes that anything can get done with enough muscle power. He sees no role for intelligence in human achievement. He relies on Dagny and Ellis Wyatt to run things, and resents them for doing it, because it appears to him like they are just bossing people around. *'''Ted Nielsen''' is the head of Nielsen Motors. He eventually goes on strike, along with most of the other industrialist "producer" types, by closing his motor factory. Dagny later finds him when she visits Galt's Gulch for the first time. *'''Betty Pope''' is a wealthy socialite who is having a meaningless sexual affair with James Taggart. She is deliberately crude in a way that casts ridicule on her high social position. *'''Dr. Potter''' holds some undefined position with the State Science Institute. He is sent to try to obtain the rights to Rearden Metal. *'''Dr. Simon Pritchett''' is the prestigious head of the Department of Philosophy at Patrick Henry University and is considered the leading philosopher of the age. He believes that man is nothing but a collection of chemicals, reason is a superstition, it is futile to seek meaning in life, and the duty of a philosopher is to show that nothing can be understood. *'''Rearden's mother''', whose name is not mentioned, lives with Rearden at his home in Philadelphia. She is involved in charity work, and berates Rearden whenever she can. She dotes on her weak son Philip Rearden. *'''Philip Rearden''' is the younger brother of Hank Rearden. He lives in his brother's home in Philadelphia and is completely dependent on him. He is resentful of his brother's charity. *'''Dwight Sanders''' owns Sanders Aircraft, a producer of high-quality airplanes, and joins the strike. *'''Bertram Scudder''' is an editorial writer for the magazine ''The Future''. He typically bashes business and businessmen, but he never says anything specific in his articles, relying on innuendo, sneers, and denunciation. He wrote a hatchet job on Hank Rearden called ''The Octopus''. He is also vocal in support of the Equalization of Opportunity Bill. Scudder claims that the most important thing in life is "brother love" but seems to have nothing but hatred for those around him. He loses his job after Dagny Taggart reveals her affair with Hank Rearden over air on his radio show. *'''Claude Slagenhop''' is president of political organization Friends of Global Progress and one of Lillian Rearden's friends. He believes that ideas are just air, that this is no time for talk, but for action. Global Progress is a sponsor of the Equalization of Opportunity Bill. *'''Gerald and Ivy Starnes''' are the two surviving children of Jed Starnes, the founder of the Twentieth Century Motor Company. Together with their since-deceased brother Eric, they instituted a communistic payment-and-benefits program that drove the company into bankruptcy. Gerald, a dying alcoholic, and Ivy, a [[New Age|pseudo-Buddhist]] ascetic, continue to insist that the plan was perfect and that the failure of their father's company was entirely due to the workers. Eric was a weak, attention-seeking man with a pathological desire to be loved. He committed suicide after the woman he loved married another man. Gerald claims that he always acted for the good of the employees, but he was vain and incompetent and often threw lavish parties using company funds. Ivy, on the other hand, is described as a sadist who relishes seeing others in poverty, but who has no desire for wealth of her own. *'''Andrew Stockton''' runs the Stockton Foundry in Stockton, Colorado. When he joins the strike, he opens a foundry in Galt's Gulch. *'''Nathaniel "Nat" Taggart''' was the founder of Taggart Transcontinental. He built his railroad without any government handouts, and ran the business for no other reason than to turn a profit. He began as a penniless adventurer and ended up as one of the wealthiest men in the country. He never earned money by force or fraud (except for bribing government officials and throwing an opponent down a flight of stairs), and never apologized for becoming wealthy and successful. He was one of the most hated men of his time. Dagny is often inspired by looking at a statue of Nat Taggart at the railroad headquarters, and draws a dollar sign on its base as a signal to Francisco when she is ready to join Galt's strike. It is suspected that he is modeled after James Jerome Hill, builder or the Great Northern Railroad. *'''Mr. Thompson''' is the "[[Head of State|Head of the State]]" for the United States. He is not particularly intelligent and has a very undistinguished look. He knows politics, however, and is a master of public relations and back-room deals. Rand's notes indicate that she modeled him on President [[Harry S. Truman]], and that she deliberately decided not to call him "President of the United States" as this title has "honorable connotations" which the character does not deserve. *'''Lester Tuck''' is the press agent for Kip Chalmers. *'''Clem Weatherby''' is a government representative on the board of directors of Taggart Transcontinental. Dagny considers him the least bad of the government representatives, since he does have some real knowledge on the running of trains. She notices, however, that he is the least appreciated by his own bosses. *The '''Wet Nurse (Tony)''' is a young bureaucrat sent by the government to watch over Rearden’s mills. Though he starts out as a cynical follower of the looters’ code, his experience at the mills transforms him, and he comes to respect and admire the producers. He is shot attempting to inform Hank Rearden about a government plot, but does succeed in warning Rearden just before he dies. *'''Ellis Wyatt''' is the head of Wyatt Oil. He has almost single-handedly revived the economy of Colorado by discovering a new process for extracting more oil from what were thought to be exhausted oil wells. When first introduced, he is aggressive towards Dagny, whom he does not yet know and whom he blames for what are, in fact, her brother's policies which directly threaten his business. When the government passes laws and decrees which make it impossible for him to continue, he sets all his oil wells on fire, leaving a jeering note: "I am leaving it as I found it. Take over. It's yours." One particular burning well that resists all efforts to extinguish it becomes known as "Wyatt's Torch". Later Dagny meets him in Galt's Gulch. ==See also== *[[Companies in Atlas Shrugged]] *[http://www.atlaslisted.com Website with comprehensive list of individuals mentioned in Atlas Shrugged] ==Notes== {{Reflist|30em}} ==References== *{{cite book |title=The New Ayn Rand Companion |last=Gladstein |first=Mimi Reisel |location=Westport, Connecticut |publisher=Greenwood Press |year=1999 |isbn=0-313-30321-5 |oclc=40359365}} *{{cite book |title=Essays on Ayn Rand's Atlas Shrugged |editor-last=Mayhew |editor-first=Robert |location=Lanham, Maryland |publisher=Lexington Books |year=2009 |isbn=978-0-7391-2779-7}} *{{cite book|title=Atlas Shrugged | last1=Rand | first1=Ayn | last2=Peikoff | first2=Leonard | location=University of Michigan | publisher=Dutton | year=1992 | isbn=0-525-93418-9}} *{{cite book |title=Ayn Rand's Atlas Shrugged: A Philosophical and Literary Companion |editor-last=Younkins |editor-first=Edward W. |location=Burlington, Vermont |publisher=Ashgate Publishing |year=2007 |isbn=0-7546-5533-4}} {{Atlas Shrugged}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Atlas Shrugged Characters, List of}} [[Category:Atlas Shrugged characters| ]] [[Category:Fictional socialites]] [[Category:Lists of literary characters]] 0gphfm0lpz8wqv9itg8yhy5lva5hqmy 0 369 47338120 46943215 2006-04-07T01:13:13Z IrishJew 1177728 Redirect to Atlas Shrugged, moved content. See talk page. wikitext text/x-wiki #REDIRECT [[Atlas Shrugged]] 8y6kuee175vma542zlu1xj89yrdvova 0 569 717072569 717072349 2016-04-25T15:40:29Z Espoo 115938 /* top */ wikitext text/x-wiki {{About|Anthropology in the 20th and 21st centuries|earlier development|History of anthropology|other uses}} {{Use dmy dates|date=June 2013}} {{Anthropology|image=[[File:P human body.svg|140px|alt=human body Da Vinci-style]]}} [[File:Encyclopedia of Anthropology.jpg|thumb|5 volume Encyclopedia of Anthropology]] '''Anthropology''' is the study of [[human]]s and their [[society|societies]] in the past and present.<ref name=oed>{{cite web | title=anthropology | url=http://oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/anthropology?q=anthropology |work=Oxford Dictionaries | publisher=Oxford University Press | accessdate=10 August 2013}}</ref><ref name=eb>{{cite web | url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/27505/anthropology | title=anthropology | work=Encyclopedia Britannica | accessdate=23 March 2015}}</ref><ref name=aaa>{{cite web | title=What is Anthropology? | url=http://www.aaanet.org/about/whatisanthropology.cfm | publisher=[[American Anthropological Association]] | accessdate=10 August 2013}}</ref> Its main subdivisions are [[social anthropology]] and [[cultural anthropology]],<ref name=oed/><ref name=eb/><ref name=aaa/> which describes the workings of societies around the world, [[linguistic anthropology]], which investigates the influence of language in social life, and [[biological anthropology|biological or physical anthropology]],<ref name=oed/><ref name=eb/><ref name=aaa/> which concerns long-term development of the human organism. [[Archaeology]], which studies past human cultures through investigation of physical evidence, is thought of as a branch of anthropology in the United States,<ref>{{citation| title=Cultural Anthropology: The Human Challenge |first1=William A. |last= Haviland |first2= Harald E. L. |last2= Prins |first3=Bunny |last3=McBride |first4=Dana |last4=Walrath |publisher=Cengage Learning |year= 2010 |edition=13th |isbn=0-495-81082-7}}</ref> while in Europe, it is viewed as a discipline in its own right, or grouped under other related disciplines such as history. ==Origin and development of the term== {{main|History of anthropology}} The abstract noun ''[[wiktionary:anthropology|anthropology]]'' is first attested in reference to [[history]].<ref name=oed2/>{{refn|group=n|[[Richard Harvey (astrologer)|Richard Harvey]]'s 1593 ''Philadelphus'', a defense of the legend of [[Brutus of Britain|Brutus]] in [[History of Britain|British history]], includes the passage "Genealogy or issue which they had, Artes which they studied, Actes which they did. This part of History is named Anthropology."}} Its present use first appeared in [[German Renaissance|Renaissance]] [[Holy Roman Empire|Germany]] in the works of [[Magnus Hundt]] and [[Otto Casmann]].<ref name="Medicine">{{cite book|author=Israel Institute of the History of Medicine|title=Koroth|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lev_H1Ie0zcC&pg=PA19|publisher=BRILL|page=19|id=GGKEY:34XGYHLZ7XY}}</ref> Their [[New Latin]] ''{{lang|la|anthropologia}}'' derived from the [[combining form]]s of the [[Ancient Greek|Greek]] words ''ánthrōpos'' ({{lang|grc|{{linktext|ἄνθρωπος}}}}, "[[human]]") and ''lógos'' ({{lang|grc|{{linktext|λόγος}}}}, "[[science|study]]").<ref name=oed2>''Oxford English Dictionary'', 1st&nbsp;ed. "anthropology, ''n.''" Oxford University Press (Oxford), 1885.</ref> (Its adjectival form appeared in the works of [[Aristotle]].)<ref name=oed2/> It began to be used in English, possibly via [[French language|French]] ''{{lang|fr|anthropologie}}'', by the early 18th century.<ref name=oed2/>{{refn|group=n|[[John Kersey]]'s 1706 edition of ''[[The New World of English Words]]'' includes the definition "''Anthropology'', a Discourse or Description of Man, or of a Man's Body."}} ===Through the 19th century=== In 1647, the Bartholins, founders of the [[University of Copenhagen]], defined ''{{lang|fr|l'anthropologie}}'' as follows:<ref name=frenchy>{{cite book | last1=Bartholin | first1=Caspar | last2=Bartholin | first2=Thomas | author-link1=Caspar Bartholin the Younger | author-link2=Thomas Bartholin | others=Translated from the Latin by Abr. Du Prat | year=1647 | title=Institutions anatomiques de Gaspar Bartholin, augmentées et enrichies pour la seconde fois tant des opinions et observations nouvelles des modernes | location=Paris | publisher=M. Hénault et J. Hénault | chapter=Preface }}.</ref> <blockquote> Anthropology, that is to say the science that treats of man, is divided ordinarily and with reason into Anatomy, which considers the body and the parts, and Psychology, which speaks of the soul.{{refn|group=n|In French: ''L'Anthropologie, c'est à dire la science qui traite de l'homme, est divisée ordinairment & avec raison en l'Anatomie, qui considere le corps & les parties, et en la Psychologie, qui parle de l'Ame''.<ref name=frenchy/>}} </blockquote> Sporadic use of the term for some of the subject matter occurred subsequently, such as the use by [[Étienne Serres]] in 1838 to describe the natural history, or paleontology, of man, based on comparative anatomy, and the creation of a chair in anthropology and ethnography in 1850 at the [[National Museum of Natural History (France)]] by [[Jean Louis Armand de Quatrefages de Bréau]]. Various short-lived organizations of anthropologists had already been formed. The [[Société Ethnologique de Paris]], the first to use [[Ethnology]], was formed in 1839. Its members were primarily anti-slavery activists. When slavery was abolished in France in 1848 the Société was abandoned. Meanwhile, the Ethnological Society of New York, currently the [[American Ethnological Society]], was founded on its model in 1842, as well as the [[Ethnological Society of London]] in 1843, a break-away group of the [[Aborigines' Protection Society]].<ref name=Schiller131>{{harvnb|Schiller|1979|pp=130–132}}</ref> These anthropologists of the times were liberal, anti-slavery, and pro-[[Human rights|human-rights activists.]] They maintained international connections. Anthropology and many other current fields are the intellectual results of the comparative methods developed in the earlier 19th century. Theorists in such diverse fields as [[comparative anatomy|anatomy]], [[Comparative method (linguistics)|linguistics]], and [[Ethnology]], making feature-by-feature comparisons of their subject matters, were beginning to suspect that similarities between animals, languages, and folkways were the result of processes or laws unknown to them then.<ref>{{harvnb|Schiller|1979|p=221}}</ref> For them, the publication of [[Charles Darwin]]'s ''[[On the Origin of Species]]'' was the epiphany of everything they had begun to suspect. Darwin himself arrived at his conclusions through comparison of species he had seen in [[agronomy]] and in the wild. Darwin and Wallace unveiled evolution in the late 1850s. There was an immediate rush to bring it into the social sciences. [[Paul Broca]] in Paris was in the process of breaking away from the [[Société de biologie]] to form the first of the explicitly anthropological societies, the [[Society of Anthropology of Paris|Société d'Anthropologie de Paris]], meeting for the first time in Paris in 1859.<ref name=Fletcher>{{cite book | first=Robert | last=Fletcher | chapter=Paul Broca and the French School of Anthropology | title=The Saturday Lectures, Delivered in the Lecture-room of the U. S. National Museum under the Auspices of the Anthropological and Biological Societies of Washington in March and April 1882 | year=1882 | location=Boston; Washington, D.C. | publisher=D. Lothrop & Co.; Judd & Detweiler | url={{Google books|9dEJAQAAIAAJ|plainurl=yes}}}}.</ref>{{refn|group=n|As [[Robert Fletcher (anthropologist)|Fletcher]] points out, the French society was by no means the first to include anthropology or parts of it as its topic. Previous organizations used other names. The German Anthropological Association of St. Petersburg, however, in fact met first in 1861, but due to the death of its founder never met again.<ref name=Fletcher/>}} When he read Darwin he became an immediate convert to ''Transformisme'', as the French called [[evolutionism]].<ref>{{harvnb|Schiller|1979|p=143}}</ref> His definition now became "the study of the human group, considered as a whole, in its details, and in relation to the rest of nature".<ref>{{harvnb|Schiller|1979|p=136}}</ref> Broca, being what today would be called a [[Neurosurgery|neurosurgeon]], had taken an interest in the pathology of speech. He wanted to localize the difference between man and the other animals, which appeared to reside in speech. He discovered the speech center of the human brain, today called [[Broca's area]] after him. His interest was mainly in [[Biological anthropology]], but a German philosopher specializing in psychology, [[Theodor Waitz]], took up the theme of general and social anthropology in his six-volume work, entitled ''Die Anthropologie der Naturvölker'', 1859–1864. The title was soon translated as "The Anthropology of Primitive Peoples". The last two volumes were published posthumously. Waitz defined anthropology as "the science of the nature of man". By nature he meant matter animated by "the Divine breath";<ref>{{harvnb|Waitz|1863|p=1}}</ref> i.e., he was an [[Animism|animist]]. Following Broca's lead, Waitz points out that anthropology is a new field, which would gather material from other fields, but would differ from them in the use of comparative anatomy, physiology, and psychology to differentiate man from "the animals nearest to him". He stresses that the data of comparison must be empirical, gathered by experimentation.<ref>{{harvnb|Waitz|1863|p=5}}</ref> The history of civilization as well as ethnology are to be brought into the comparison. It is to be presumed fundamentally that the species, man, is a unity, and that "the same laws of thought are applicable to all men".<ref>{{harvnb|Waitz|1863|pp=11–12}}</ref> Waitz was influential among the British ethnologists. In 1863 the explorer [[Richard Francis Burton]] and the speech therapist [[James Hunt (speech therapist)|James Hunt]] broke away from the [[Ethnological Society of London]] to form the [[Anthropological Society of London]], which henceforward would follow the path of the new anthropology rather than just ethnology. It was the 2nd society dedicated to general anthropology in existence. Representatives from the French ''Société'' were present, though not Broca. In his keynote address, printed in the first volume of its new publication, ''The Anthropological Review'', Hunt stressed the work of Waitz, adopting his definitions as a standard.<ref name=hunt>{{harvnb|Hunt|1863|loc=Introductory Address}}</ref>{{refn|group=n|Hunt's choice of theorists does not exclude the numerous other theorists that were beginning to publish a large volume of anthropological studies.<ref name=hunt/>}} Among the first associates were the young [[Edward Burnett Tylor]], inventor of [[cultural anthropology]], and his brother [[Alfred Tylor]], a geologist. Previously Edward had referred to himself as an ethnologist; subsequently, an anthropologist. Similar organizations in other countries followed: The [[American Anthropological Association]] in 1902, the Anthropological Society of Madrid (1865), the Anthropological Society of Vienna (1870), the Italian Society of Anthropology and Ethnology (1871), and many others subsequently. The majority of these were evolutionist. One notable exception was the [[:de:Berliner Gesellschaft für Anthropologie, Ethnologie und Urgeschichte|Berlin Society of Anthropology]] (1869) founded by [[Rudolph Virchow]], known for his vituperative attacks on the evolutionists. Not religious himself, he insisted that Darwin's conclusions lacked empirical foundation. During the last three decades of the 19th century a proliferation of anthropological societies and associations occurred, most independent, most publishing their own journals, and all international in membership and association. The major theorists belonged to these organizations. They supported the gradual osmosis of anthropology curricula into the major institutions of higher learning. By 1898 the American Association for the Advancement of Science was able to report that 48 educational institutions in 13 countries had some curriculum in anthropology. None of the 75 faculty members were under a department named anthropology.<ref>{{cite journal | title=Extent of Instruction in Anthropology in Europe and the United States | first=George Grant | last=Maccurdy | journal=Proceedings of the American Association for the Advancement of Science | year=1899 | pages=382–390 | url={{Google books|PA385&dq|plainurl=yes}}}}</ref> ===20th and 21st centuries=== This meagre statistic expanded in the 20th century to comprise anthropology departments in the majority of the world's higher educational institutions, many thousands in number. Anthropology has diversified from a few major subdivisions to dozens more. Practical anthropology, the use of anthropological knowledge and technique to solve specific problems, has arrived; for example, the presence of buried victims might stimulate the use of a forensic archaeologist to recreate the final scene. Organization has reached global level. For example, the World Council of Anthropological Associations (WCAA), "a network of national, regional and international associations that aims to promote worldwide communication and cooperation in anthropology", currently contains members from about three dozen nations.<ref>{{cite web | title=Home | publisher=World Council of Anthropological Associations | accessdate=29 March 2015 | url= http://www.wcaanet.org/index.shtml}}</ref> Since the work of [[Franz Boas]] and [[Bronisław Malinowski]] in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, ''social'' anthropology in Great Britain and [[cultural anthropology|''cultural'' anthropology]] in the US have been distinguished from other social sciences by its emphasis on [[cross-cultural studies|cross-cultural comparisons]], long-term in-depth examination of context, and the importance it places on [[Participant observation|participant-observation]] or experiential immersion in the area of research. Cultural anthropology in particular has emphasized [[cultural relativism]], [[holism]], and the use of findings to frame cultural critiques.<ref name="Hylland Eriksen 2004 p. 79">Hylland Eriksen, Thomas. (2004) "What is Anthropology" Pluto. London. p. 79.</ref> This has been particularly prominent in the United States, from Boas' arguments against 19th-century racial [[ideology]], through [[Margaret Mead]]'s advocacy for [[gender equality]] and sexual liberation, to current criticisms of [[post-colonialism|post-colonial]] oppression and promotion of [[multiculturalism]]. [[Ethnography]] is one of its primary [[research design]]s as well as the text that is generated from anthropological fieldwork.<ref name="Ingold1994p331"/><ref name="Spiro1987">On varieties of cultural relativism in anthropology, see Spiro, Melford E. (1987) "Some Reflections on Cultural Determinism and Relativism with Special Reference to Emotion and Reason," in ''Culture and Human Nature: Theoretical Papers of Melford E. Spiro''. Edited by B. Kilborne and L. L. Langness, pp.&nbsp;32–58. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.</ref><ref name="Heyck1997">{{cite journal|last1=Heyck|first1=Thomas William|last2=Stocking|first2=George W.|last3=Goody|first3=Jack|title=After Tylor: British Social Anthropology 1888–1951.|journal=The American Historical Review|volume=102|issue=5|year=1997|pages=1486–1488|issn=0002-8762|doi=10.2307/2171126|jstor=2171126}}</ref> In Great Britain and the Commonwealth countries, the British tradition of [[social anthropology]] tends to dominate. In the United States, anthropology has traditionally been divided into the [[four field approach]] developed by [[Franz Boas]] in the early 20th century: [[Biological anthropology|''biological'' or ''physical'' anthropology]]; [[social anthropology|''social'']], [[cultural anthropology|''cultural'']], or [[sociocultural anthropology|''sociocultural'' anthropology]]; and [[archaeology]]; plus [[linguistic anthropology|anthropological linguistics]]. These fields frequently overlap, but tend to use different methodologies and techniques. European countries with overseas colonies tended to practice more [[ethnology]] (a term coined and defined by [[Adam František Kollár|Adam F. Kollár]] in 1783). In non-colonial European countries, [[social anthropology]] is now defined as the study of social organization in non-state societies. It is sometimes referred to as sociocultural anthropology in the parts of the world that were influenced by the European tradition.<ref>Layton, Robert (1998) ''An Introduction to Theory in Anthropology''. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.</ref> ==Fields== {{further|American anthropology}} Anthropology is a global discipline where humanities, social, and natural sciences are forced to confront one another. Anthropology builds upon knowledge from [[natural sciences]], including the discoveries about the origin and evolution of ''[[Human|Homo sapiens]]'', human physical traits, [[human behavior]], the variations among different groups of humans, how the evolutionary past of ''Homo sapiens'' has influenced its social organization and culture, and from [[social sciences]], including the organization of human social and cultural relations, institutions, social conflicts, etc.<ref>[http://www.aaanet.org/about/WhatisAnthropology.cfm What is Anthropology - American Anthropological Association]</ref><ref>[http://anthropologyreport.com/what-is-anthropology/ What is Anthropology - Anthropology Report]</ref> Early anthropology originated in Classical Greece and Persia and studied and tried to understand observable cultural diversity.<ref>Harris, Marvin. ''The Rise of Anthropological Theory''. Alta Mira Press. 2000 (revised from 1968); Harris, Marvin. ''Theories of Culture in Postmodern Times. Altamira. 1998''</ref><ref name=Ahmed>{{Cite journal | last1 = Ahmed | first1 = Akbar S. | year = 1984 | title = Al-Beruni: The First Anthropologist | url = | journal = RAIN | volume = 60 | issue = 60| pages = 9–10 | doi = 10.2307/3033407 | jstor = 3033407 }}</ref> As such, anthropology has been central in the development of several new (late 20th century) interdisciplinary fields such as [[cognitive science]],<ref>{{cite journal |title=Language, Anthropology and Cognitive Science |author=Bloch, Maurice |authorlink=Maurice Bloch |jstor=2803828 |year=1991 |publisher=London School of Economics and Political Science |pages=183–198 |volume=26 |issue=2 |journal=Man |doi=10.2307/2803828 |ref=harv }}</ref> [[global studies]], and various [[ethnic studies]]. According to [[Clifford Geertz]], {{quotation|"anthropology is perhaps the last of the great nineteenth-century conglomerate disciplines still for the most part organizationally intact. Long after natural history, moral philosophy, philology, and political economy have dissolved into their specialized successors, it has remained a diffuse assemblage of ethnology, human biology, comparative linguistics, and prehistory, held together mainly by the vested interests, sunk costs, and administrative habits of academia, and by a romantic image of comprehensive scholarship."<ref>{{cite book|title=Unwrapping the Sacred Bundle|year=2005|publisher=Duke University Press|location=Durham and London|pages=Back Cover|editor=Daniel A. Segal & Sylvia J. Yanagisako}}</ref>}} [[Sociocultural anthropology]] has been heavily influenced by [[structuralism|structuralist]] and postmodern theories, as well as a shift toward the analysis of modern societies. During the 1970s and 1990s, there was an [[epistemological]] shift away from the [[positivist]] traditions that had largely informed the discipline.<ref>Geertz, Behar, Clifford & James</ref>{{Page needed|date=October 2012}} During this shift, enduring questions about the nature and production of knowledge came to occupy a central place in cultural and social anthropology. In contrast, archaeology and biological anthropology remained largely positivist. Due to this difference in epistemology, the four sub-fields of anthropology have lacked cohesion over the last several decades. ===Sociocultural=== {{main|Cultural anthropology|Social anthropology|Sociocultural anthropology}} Sociocultural anthropology draws together the principle axes of [[cultural anthropology]] and [[social anthropology]]. Cultural anthropology is the comparative study of the manifold ways in which people ''make sense'' of the world around them, while social anthropology is the study of the ''relationships'' among persons and groups.<ref name="Ingold1994pxv">{{cite encyclopedia | title=GENERAL INTRODUCTION | encyclopedia=Companion Encyclopedia of Anthropology | author=[[Tim Ingold]] | editor=Tim Ingold | year=1994 | pages=xv | ref=harv}}</ref> Cultural anthropology is more related to [[philosophy]], literature and [[the arts]] (how one's culture affects experience for self and group, contributing to more complete understanding of the people's knowledge, customs, and institutions), while social anthropology is more related to [[sociology]] and history.<ref name="Ingold1994pxv"/> in that it helps develop understanding of social structures, typically of others and other populations (such as minorities, subgroups, dissidents, etc.).<ref>Jackson, Anthony. 1987. ''Anthropology at Home''. New York: Tavistock Publications.</ref><ref>Mughal, Muhammad Aurang Zeb. (2015). [http://www.drustvo-antropologov.si/AN/PDF/2015_1/Anthropological_Notebooks_XXI_7_Mughal.pdf Being and Becoming Native: A Methodological Enquiry into Doing Anthropology at Home]. ''Anthropological Notebooks'' 21(1): 121–132.</ref> There is no hard-and-fast distinction between them, and these categories overlap to a considerable degree. Inquiry in sociocultural anthropology is guided in part by [[cultural relativism]], the attempt to understand other societies in terms of their own cultural symbols and values.<ref name="Ingold1994p331">{{cite encyclopedia | title=Introduction to culture | encyclopedia=Companion Encyclopedia of Anthropology | author=[[Tim Ingold]] | editor=Tim Ingold | year=1994 | page=331 | ref=harv}}</ref> Accepting other cultures in their own terms moderates reductionism in cross-cultural comparison.<ref name="Ingold1996p18">{{cite book | title=Key Debates In Anthropology | author=[[Tim Ingold]] | year=1996| page=18|quote=the traditional anthropological project of cross-cultural or cross-societal comparison}}</ref> This project is often accommodated in the field of [[ethnography]]. Ethnography can refer to both a methodology and the product of ethnographic research, i.e. an ethnographic monograph. As methodology, ethnography is based upon long-term fieldwork within a community or other research site. [[Participant observation]] is one of the foundational methods of social and cultural anthropology.<ref>Bernard, H. Russell, ''Research Methods in Anthropology''. Altamira Press, 2002. p.322.</ref> [[Ethnology]] involves the systematic comparison of different cultures. The process of participant-observation can be especially helpful to understanding a culture from an [[emic]] (conceptual, vs. [[etic]], or technical) point of view. The study of [[kinship]] and [[social organization]] is a central focus of sociocultural anthropology, as kinship is a [[human universal]]. Sociocultural anthropology also covers [[Economic anthropology|economic]] and [[Political anthropology|political organization]], law and conflict resolution, patterns of consumption and exchange, material culture, technology, infrastructure, gender relations, ethnicity, childrearing and socialization, religion, myth, symbols, values, etiquette, worldview, sports, music, nutrition, recreation, games, food, festivals, and language (which is also the object of study in linguistic anthropology). Comparison across cultures is a key element of method in sociocultural anthropology, including the industrialized (and de-industrialized) West. Cultures in the [[Standard Cross-Cultural Sample]] (SCCS)<ref name="MurdockWhite1969">{{cite journal | title=Standard Cross-Cultural Sample | journal=Ethnology | author=[[George Peter Murdock]] | author2=Douglas R. White | year=1969 | volume=9 | pages=329–369 | ref=harv | url=http://repositories.cdlib.org/imbs/socdyn/wp/Standard_Cross-Cultural_Sample | authorlink2=Douglas R. White}}</ref> of world societies are: {| class="wikitable" ! Africa [[File:African sccs cultures.jpg|border|30px]] | {{hlist| [[Nama people|Nama (Hottentot)]] | [[!Kung people|Kung (San)]] | [[Shangaan people|Thonga]] | [[Lozi people|Lozi]] | [[Southern Mbundu people|Mbundu]] | [[Suku]] | [[Bemba people|Bemba]] | [[Nyakyusa people|Nyakyusa (Ngonde)]] | [[Hadza people|Hadza]] | [[Luguru people|Luguru]] | [[Kikuyu people|Kikuyu]] | [[Baganda|Ganda]] | [[Mbuti|Mbuti (Pygmies)]] | [[Mongo people|Nkundo (Mongo)]] | [[Banen]] | [[Tiv people|Tiv]] | [[Igbo people|Igbo]] | [[Fon people|Fon]] | [[Ashanti people|Ashanti (Twi)]] | [[Mende people|Mende]] | [[Bambara people|Bambara]] | [[Tallensi]] | [[Massa language|Massa]] | [[Azande]] | [[Otoro Nuba]] | [[Shilluk people|Shilluk]] | [[Mao languages|Mao]] | [[Maasai people|Maasai]] }} |- ! Circum-Mediterranean [[File:Circum-mediterannean sccs cultures.jpg|border|30px]] | {{hlist| [[Wolof people|Wolof]] | [[Songhai people|Songhai]] | [[Wodaabe|Wodaabe Fulani]] | [[Hausa people|Hausa]] | [[Fur people|Fur]] | [[Kingdom of Kaffa|Kaffa]] | [[Konso people|Konso]] | [[Somali people|Somali]] | [[Amhara people|Amhara]] | [[Bilen people|Bogo]] | [[Nubians|Kenuzi Nubian]] | [[Teda people|Teda]] | [[Tuareg people|Tuareg]] | [[Riffian people|Riffians]] | [[Fellah|Egyptians (Fellah)]] | [[Hebrews]] | [[Babylonia]]ns | [[Bedouin|Rwala Bedouin]] | [[Turkish people|Turks]] | [[Gheg Albanian|Gheg (Albanians)]] | [[Ancient Rome|Romans]] | [[Basque people|Basques]] | Irish | [[Sami people|Sami (Lapps)]] | [[Russians]] | [[Georgian people|Georgian (Iberian)]] |[[Abkhaz people|Abkhaz]] | [[Armenians]] | [[Kurdish people|Kurd]] }} |- ! East Eurasia [[File:East eurasian sccs cultures.jpg|border|30px]] | {{hlist| [[Nenets people|Yurak (Samoyed)]] | [[Basseri]] | [[Punjabi people|West Punjabi]] | [[Gondi people|Gond]] | [[Toda people|Toda]] | [[Santals|Santal]] | [[Uttar Pradesh]] | [[Burusho people|Burusho]] | [[Kazakhs|Kazak]] | [[Gujarati people|Gujarati]] | [[Bengali people|Bengali]] | [[Khalkha|Khalka Mongols]] | [[Yi people|Lolo]] | [[Lepcha people|Lepcha]] | [[Garo (tribe)|Garo]] | [[Mara people|Lakher]] | [[Bamar|Burmese]] | [[List of ethnic groups in Laos|Lamet]] | [[Vietnamese people|Vietnamese]] | [[List of ethnic groups in Vietnam|Rhade]] | [[Khmer people|Khmer]] | [[Thai people|Siamese]] | [[Semang]] | [[Nicobarese languages|Nicobarese]] | [[Andamanese]] | [[Vedda people|Vedda]] | [[Malagasy people|Tanala]] | [[Negeri Sembilan]] | [[Atayal people|Atayal]] | [[Han Chinese|Chinese]] | [[Manchu]] | [[Koreans]] | Japanese | [[Ainu people|Ainu]] | [[Nivkhs|Gilyak]] | [[Yukaghir]] }} |- ! Insular Pacific [[File:Insular pacific.jpg|border|30px]] | {{hlist| [[Javanese people|Javanese (Miao)]] | [[Balinese people|Balinese]] | [[Iban people|Iban]] | [[Badjau]] | [[Toraja]] | [[Tobelo language|Tobelorese]] | [[Alor Archipelago|Alorese]] | [[Tiwi people|Tiwi]] | [[Arrernte people|Aranda]] | [[Orokaiva people|Orokaiva]] | [[Kimam]] | [[Ekari language|Kapauku]] | [[Kwoma people|Kwoma]] | [[Manus Province|Manus]] | [[New Ireland Province|New Ireland]] | [[Trobriand Islands|Trobrianders]] | [[Bougainville Island|Siuai]] | [[Tikopia]] | [[Pentecost Island|Pentecost]] | [[Fijians|Mbau Fijians]] | [[Ajië language|Ajie]] | [[Māori people|Maori]] | [[Culture of the Marquesas Islands|Marquesans]] | [[Samoans|Western Samoans]] | [[Culture of Kiribati|Gilbertese]] | [[Marshall Islands|Marshallese]] | [[Chuuk State|Trukese]] | [[Yap]]ese | [[Palauan language|Palauans]] | [[Ifugao]] | [[Chukchi people|Chukchi]] }} |- ! North America [[File:North american sccs cultures.jpg|border|30px]] | {{hlist| [[Deg Hit'an|Ingalik]] | [[Aleut people|Aleut]] | [[Inuit|Copper Eskimo]] | [[Innu|Montagnais]] | [[Mi'kmaq people|Mi'kmaq]] | [[Saulteaux|Saulteaux (Ojibwa)]] | [[Slavey people|Slave]] | [[Kaska|Kaska (Nahane)]] | [[Eyak language|Eyak]] | [[Haida people|Haida]] | [[Nuxalk Nation|Bellacoola]] | [[Skokomish (tribe)|Twana]] | [[Yurok (tribe)|Yurok]] | [[Pomo people|Pomo]] | [[Yokut people|Yokut]]s | [[Paiute|Paiute (Northern)]] | [[Klamath people|Klamath]] | [[Ktunaxa|Kutenai]] | [[Gros Ventres]] | [[Hidatsa]] | [[Pawnee people|Pawnee]] | [[Omaha (tribe)|Omaha (Dhegiha)]] | [[Wyandot people|Huron]] | [[Muscogee (Creek)|Creek]] | [[Natchez people|Natchez]] | [[Comanche]] | [[Chiricahua]] | [[Zuni language|Zuni]] | [[Havasupai]] | [[Tohono O'odham people|Tohono O'odham]] | [[Huichol people|Huichol]] | [[Aztec]] | [[Popoluca]] }} |- ! South America [[File:South america SCCS cultures.jpg|border|30px]] | {{hlist| [[K'iche' people|Quiché]] | [[Miskito people|Miskito (Mosquito)]] | [[Bribri people|Bribri (Talamanca)]] | [[Guna people|Cuna]] | [[Wayuu|Goajiro]] | [[Culture of Haiti|Haitians]] | [[Calinago]] | [[Warao people|Warrau (Warao)]] | [[Ya̧nomamö|Yanomamo]] | [[Kalina people|Carib]] | [[Saramaka|Saramacca]] | [[Munduruku]] | [[Tucano language|Cubeo (Tucano)]] | [[Cha'palaachi language|Cayapa]] | [[Jivaroan peoples|Jivaro]] | [[Amahuaca]] | [[Inca society|Inca]] | [[Aymara ethnic group|Aymara]] | [[Sirionó language|Siriono]] | [[Nambikwara|Nambicuara]] | [[Trumai people|Trumai]] | [[Gê peoples|Timbira]] | [[Tupi people|Tupinamba]] | [[Botocudo]] | [[Xavante people|Shavante]] | [[Kaingang people|Aweikoma]] | [[Guarani people|Cayua (Guarani)]] | [[Lengua people|Lengua]] | [[Abipón people|Abipon]] | [[Mapuche]] | [[Tehuelche people|Tehuelche]] | [[Yaghan]] }} |} {{see also|List of indigenous peoples}} ===Biological=== {{main|Biological anthropology}} [[File:Human remains.jpg|thumb|left|Forensic anthropologists can help identify skeletonized human remains, such as these found lying in scrub in Western Australia, c. 1900–1910.]] Biological Anthropology and Physical Anthropology are synonymous terms to describe anthropological research focused on the study of humans and non-human primates in their biological, evolutionary, and demographic dimensions. It examines the biological and social factors that have affected the evolution of humans and other primates, and that generate, maintain or change contemporary genetic and physiological variation.<ref>University of Toronto. (n.d.). ''Research Subfields: Physical or Biological''. Retrieved 14 March 2012, from http://anthropology.utoronto.ca/about/research/physical-or-biological</ref> ===Archaeological=== {{main|Archaeology}} [[File:Iowa archaeology edgewater.JPG|thumb|Excavations at the 3800-year-old [[Edgewater Park Site]], [[Iowa]]]] [[Archaeology]] is the study of the human past through its material remains. Artifacts, faunal remains, and human altered landscapes are evidence of the cultural and material lives of past societies. Archaeologists examine these material remains in order to deduce patterns of past human behavior and cultural practices. Ethnoarchaeology is a type of archaeology that studies the practices and material remains of living human groups in order to gain a better understanding of the evidence left behind by past human groups, who are presumed to have lived in similar ways.<ref>Robbins, R. H. & Larkin, S. N. (2007). Cultural Anthropology: A problem based approach. Toronto, ON: Nelson Education Ltd.</ref> ===Linguistic=== {{main|Linguistic anthropology}} [[Linguistic anthropology]] (also called [[anthropological linguistics]]) seeks to understand the processes of human communications, verbal and non-verbal, variation in [[language]] across time and space, the social uses of language, and the relationship between language and culture. It is the branch of anthropology that brings linguistic methods to bear on anthropological problems, linking the analysis of linguistic forms and processes to the interpretation of sociocultural processes. Linguistic anthropologists often draw on related fields including [[sociolinguistics]], [[pragmatics]], [[cognitive linguistics]], [[semiotics]], [[discourse analysis]], and [[narrative]] analysis.<ref>Salzmann, Zdeněk. (1993) ''Language, culture, and society: an introduction to linguistic anthropology''. Boulder, CO: Westview Press.</ref> == Key topics by field: sociocultural== ===Art, media, music, dance and film=== {{Anthropology of art}} ==== Art ==== {{main|Anthropology of art}} One of the central problems in the anthropology of art concerns the universality of 'art' as a cultural phenomenon. Several anthropologists have noted that the Western categories of 'painting', 'sculpture', or 'literature', conceived as independent artistic activities, do not exist, or exist in a significantly different form, in most non-Western contexts.<ref>Robert Layton. (1981) ''The Anthropology of Art''.</ref> To surmount this difficulty, anthropologists of art have focused on formal features in objects which, without exclusively being 'artistic', have certain evident 'aesthetic' qualities. Boas' ''Primitive Art'', Claude Lévi-Strauss' ''The Way of the Masks'' (1982) or Geertz's 'Art as Cultural System' (1983) are some examples in this trend to transform the anthropology of 'art' into an anthropology of culturally specific 'aesthetics'. ==== Media ==== {{main|Media anthropology}} [[File:Punu mask Gabon.JPG|thumb|upright|left|A Punu tribe mask. Gabon Central Africa]] Media anthropology (also known as anthropology of media or mass media) emphasizes [[ethnography|ethnographic studies]] as a means of understanding producers, audiences, and other cultural and social aspects of mass media. The types of ethnographic contexts explored range from contexts of media production (e.g., ethnographies of newsrooms in newspapers, journalists in the field, film production) to contexts of media reception, following audiences in their everyday responses to media. Other types include [[cyber anthropology]], a relatively new area of [[internet research]], as well as ethnographies of other areas of research which happen to involve media, such as development work, [[social movement]]s, or health education. This is in addition to many classic ethnographic contexts, where media such as radio, [[newspaper|the press]], [[new media]] and television have started to make their presences felt since the early 1990s.<ref>Deborah Spitulnik. (1993) 'Anthropology and Mass Media', ''Annual Review of Anthropology'', 22: 293–315</ref><ref>Lila Abu-Lughod. (1997) 'The Interpretation of Cultures after Television', ''Representations'', 59: 109–133</ref> ==== Music ==== {{main|Ethnomusicology}} Ethnomusicology is an academic field encompassing various approaches to the study of music (broadly defined), that emphasize its cultural, social, material, cognitive, biological, and other dimensions or contexts instead of or in addition to its isolated sound component or any particular repertoire. ==== Visual ==== {{main|Visual anthropology}} Visual anthropology is concerned, in part, with the study and production of [[ethnography|ethnographic]] photography, film and, since the mid-1990s, [[new media]]. While the term is sometimes used interchangeably with [[ethnographic film]], visual anthropology also encompasses the anthropological study of visual representation, including areas such as performance, museums, art, and the production and [[reception theory|reception]] of [[anthropology of media|mass media]]. Visual representations from all cultures, such as sandpaintings, tattoos, sculptures and reliefs, cave paintings, scrimshaw, jewelry, hieroglyphics, paintings and photographs are included in the focus of visual anthropology. === Economic, political economic, applied and development === {{Economic anthropology}} ==== Economic ==== {{main|Economic anthropology}} Economic anthropology attempts to explain human economic behavior in its widest historic, geographic and cultural scope. It has a complex relationship with the discipline of economics, of which it is highly critical. Its origins as a sub-field of anthropology begin with the Polish-British founder of Anthropology, [[Bronislaw Malinowski]], and his French compatriot, [[Marcel Mauss]], on the nature of gift-giving exchange (or [[Reciprocity (cultural anthropology)|reciprocity]]) as an alternative to market exchange. Economic Anthropology remains, for the most part, focused upon exchange. The school of thought derived from Marx and known as Political Economy focuses on production, in contrast.<ref>{{cite book|last=Hann|first=Chris|title=Economic Anthropology|year=2011|publisher=Polity Press|location=Cambridge|pages=55–71|author2=Keith Hart}}</ref> Economic Anthropologists have abandoned the primitivist niche they were relegated to by economists, and have now turned to examine corporations, banks, and the [[global financial system]] from an anthropological perspective. ====Political economy==== {{main|Political economy in anthropology}} Political economy in anthropology is the application of the theories and methods of [[Historical Materialism]] to the traditional concerns of anthropology, including, but not limited to, non-capitalist societies. Political Economy introduced questions of history and colonialism to ahistorical anthropological theories of social structure and culture. Three main areas of interest rapidly developed. The first of these areas was concerned with the "pre-capitalist" societies that were subject to evolutionary "tribal" stereotypes. Sahlins work on Hunter-gatherers as the 'original affluent society' did much to dissipate that image. The second area was concerned with the vast majority of the world's population at the time, the peasantry, many of whom were involved in complex revolutionary wars such as in Vietnam. The third area was on colonialism, imperialism, and the creation of the capitalist world-system.<ref name="Roseberry 1988 161–85">{{cite journal|last=Roseberry|first=William|title=Political Economy|journal=Annual Review of Anthropology|year=1988|volume=17|pages=161–85|doi=10.1146/annurev.an.17.100188.001113}}</ref> More recently, these Political Economists have more directly addressed issues of industrial (and post-industrial) capitalism around the world. ==== Applied ==== {{main|Applied anthropology}} Applied Anthropology refers to the application of the method and theory of anthropology to the analysis and solution of practical problems. It is a, "complex of related, research-based, instrumental methods which produce change or stability in specific cultural systems through the provision of data, initiation of direct action, and/or the formulation of policy".<ref>{{cite book|last=Kedia, Satish|first=and Willigen J. Van|title=Applied Anthropology: Domains of Application|year=2005|publisher=Praeger|location=Westport, Conn|pages=16, 150}}</ref> More simply, applied anthropology is the practical side of anthropological research; it includes researcher involvement and activism within the participating community. It is closely related to [[Development anthropology]] (distinct from the more critical [[Anthropology of development]]). ====Development==== {{main|anthropology of development}} Anthropology of development tends to view development from a ''critical'' perspective. The kind of issues addressed and implications for the approach simply involve pondering why, if a key development goal is to alleviate poverty, is poverty increasing? Why is there such a gap between plans and outcomes? Why are those working in development so willing to disregard history and the lessons it might offer? Why is development so externally driven rather than having an internal basis? In short why does so much planned development fail? ===Kinship, feminism, gender and sexuality=== {{Anthropology of kinship}} ==== Kinship ==== {{main|Kinship}} ''Kinship'' can refer both to ''the study of'' the patterns of social relationships in one or more human cultures, or it can refer to ''the patterns of social relationships'' themselves. Over its history, anthropology has developed a number of related concepts and terms, such as "[[kinship|descent]]", "[[descent group]]s", "[[lineage (anthropology)|lineage]]s", "[[affinity (law)|affine]]s", "[[cognatic kinship|cognates]]", and even "[[fictive kinship]]". Broadly, kinship patterns may be considered to include people related both by descent (one's social relations during development), and also relatives by marriage. ==== Feminist ==== {{main|Feminist anthropology}} Feminist anthropology is a four field approach to anthropology ([[archaeology|archeological]], [[biological anthropology|biological]], [[cultural anthropology|cultural]], [[linguistic anthropology|linguistic]]) that seeks to reduce male bias in research findings, anthropological hiring practices, and the scholarly production of knowledge. Anthropology engages often with feminists from non-Western traditions, whose perspectives and experiences can differ from those of white European and American feminists. Historically, such 'peripheral' perspectives have sometimes been marginalized and regarded as less valid or important than knowledge from the [[western world]]. Feminist anthropologists have claimed that their research helps to correct this systematic bias in mainstream [[feminist theory]]. Feminist anthropologists are centrally concerned with the construction of gender across societies. Feminist anthropology is inclusive of [http://www.springerreference.com/docs/html/chapterdbid/2940.html birth anthropology] as a specialization. ===Medical, nutritional, psychological, cognitive and transpersonal=== {{Medical anthropology}} ==== Medical ==== {{main|Medical anthropology}} Medical anthropology is an interdisciplinary field which studies "human health and disease, health care systems, and biocultural adaptation".<ref name=McElroy1996>{{Cite book |year=1996 |author=McElroy, A |chapter=Medical Anthropology |editor=D. Levinson & M. Ember |title=Encyclopedia of Cultural Anthropology |url=http://www.univie.ac.at/ethnomedicine/PDF/Medical%20Anthropologie.pdf |isbn= |ref=harv |postscript=<!-- Bot inserted parameter. Either remove it; or change its value to "." for the cite to end in a ".", as necessary. -->{{inconsistent citations}}}}</ref> Currently, research in medical anthropology is one of the main growth areas in the field of anthropology as a whole. It focuses on the following six basic fields:{{citation needed|date=November 2013}} <blockquote> * the development of systems of medical knowledge and medical care * the patient-physician relationship * the integration of alternative medical systems in culturally diverse environments * the interaction of social, environmental and biological factors which influence health and illness both in the individual and the community as a whole *the critical analysis of interaction between psychiatric services and migrant populations ("critical ethnopsychiatry": Beneduce 2004, 2007) * the impact of biomedicine and biomedical technologies in non-Western settings </blockquote> Other subjects that have become central to medical anthropology worldwide are violence and social suffering (Farmer, 1999, 2003; Beneduce, 2010) as well as other issues that involve physical and psychological harm and suffering that are not a result of illness. On the other hand, there are fields that intersect with medical anthropology in terms of research methodology and theoretical production, such as ''cultural psychiatry'' and ''transcultural psychiatry'' or ''ethnopsychiatry''. ==== Nutritional ==== {{main|Nutritional anthropology}} Nutritional anthropology is a synthetic concept that deals with the interplay between [[economic systems]], [[nutrition|nutritional status]] and [[food security]], and how changes in the former affect the latter. If economic and environmental changes in a community affect access to food, food security, and dietary health, then this interplay between culture and biology is in turn connected to broader historical and economic trends associated with globalization. Nutritional status affects overall health status, work performance potential, and the overall potential for economic development (either in terms of human development or traditional western models) for any given group of people. ==== Psychological ==== {{main|Psychological anthropology}} Psychological anthropology is an interdisciplinary subfield of anthropology that studies the interaction of [[cultural anthropology|cultural]] and [[psychology|mental processes]]. This subfield tends to focus on ways in which humans' development and [[enculturation]] within a particular cultural group—with its own history, language, practices, and conceptual categories—shape processes of human [[cognition]], [[emotion]], [[perception]], [[motivation]], and [[mental health]]. It also examines how the understanding of cognition, emotion, motivation, and similar psychological processes inform or constrain our models of cultural and social processes.<ref>D'Andrade, R. G. (1995). The development of cognitive anthropology. New York, Cambridge University Press.</ref><ref>Schwartz, T., G. M. White, et al., Eds. (1992). New Directions in Psychological Anthropology. Cambridge, UK, Cambridge University Press.</ref> ==== Cognitive ==== {{main|Cognitive anthropology}} Cognitive anthropology seeks to explain patterns of shared knowledge, cultural [[innovation]], and transmission over time and space using the methods and [[theories]] of the [[cognitive sciences]] (especially [[experimental psychology]] and [[evolutionary biology]]) often through close collaboration with historians, ethnographers, archaeologists, linguists, musicologists and other specialists engaged in the description and [[interpretation (logic)|interpretation]] of cultural forms. Cognitive anthropology is concerned with what people from different groups know and how that implicit knowledge changes the way people perceive and relate to the world around them.<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|D'Andrade|1995}}</ref> ==== Transpersonal ==== {{main|Transpersonal anthropology}} Transpersonal anthropology studies the relationship between [[altered states of consciousness]] and culture. As with [[transpersonal psychology]], the field is much concerned with altered states of consciousness (ASC) and [[transpersonal experience]]. However, the field differs from mainstream transpersonal psychology in taking more cognizance of cross-cultural issues—for instance, the roles of [[Mythology|myth]], [[ritual]], [[diet (nutrition)|diet]], and [[Literature|texts]] in evoking and interpreting extraordinary experiences (Young and Goulet 1994). ===Political and legal=== {{Political anthropology}} ==== Political ==== {{main|Political anthropology}} Political anthropology concerns the structure of [[Form of government|political systems]], looked at from the basis of the structure of societies. Political anthropology developed as a discipline concerned primarily with politics in stateless societies, a new development started from the 1960s, and is still unfolding: anthropologists started increasingly to study more "complex" social settings in which the presence of states, bureaucracies and markets entered both ethnographic accounts and analysis of local phenomena. The turn towards complex societies meant that political themes were taken up at two main levels. First of all, anthropologists continued to study [[political organization]] and political phenomena that lay outside the state-regulated sphere (as in patron-client relations or tribal political organization). Second of all, anthropologists slowly started to develop a disciplinary concern with states and their institutions (and of course on the relationship between formal and informal political institutions). An anthropology of the state developed, and it is a most thriving field today. Geertz' comparative work on "Negara", the Balinese state is an early, famous example. ====Legal==== {{main|Legal anthropology}} Legal anthropology or anthropology of law specializes in "the cross-cultural study of social ordering".<ref>{{cite book | author = Greenhouse, Carol J. | title = Praying for Justice: Faith, Order, and Community in an American Town | location = Ithaca | publisher = Cornell UP | year = 1986 | page = 28}}</ref> Earlier legal anthropological research often focused more narrowly on conflict management, crime, sanctions, or formal regulation. More recent applications include issues such as [[human rights]], [[legal pluralism]],<ref>{{cite book|title=Political theologies: public religions in a post-secular world|year=2006|publisher=Fordham University Press|location=New York|editor=Hent de Vries and Lawrence E. Sullivan}}</ref> and political uprisings. ====Public==== {{main|Public anthropology}} Public Anthropology was created by Robert Borofsky, a professor at Hawaii Pacific University, to "demonstrate the ability of anthropology and anthropologists to effectively address problems beyond the discipline - illuminating larger social issues of our times as well as encouraging broad, public conversations about them with the explicit goal of fostering social change" ([http://www.publicanthropology.org Borofsky 2004]). === Nature, science and technology=== {{Cyber anthropology}} ====Cyborg==== {{main|Cyborg anthropology}} Cyborg anthropology originated as a sub-focus group within the [[American Anthropological Association]]'s annual meeting in 1993. The sub-group was very closely related to [[science and technology studies|STS]] and the [[Society for the Social Studies of Science]].<ref>Dumit, Joseph. Davis-Floyd, Robbie. Cyborg Anthropology. Routledge International Encyclopedia of Women, 2001</ref> [[Donna Haraway]]'s 1985 ''[[Cyborg Manifesto]]'' could be considered the founding document of cyborg anthropology by first exploring the philosophical and sociological ramifications of the term. Cyborg anthropology studies humankind and its relations with the technological systems it has built, specifically modern technological systems that have reflexively shaped notions of what it means to be human beings. ==== Digital ==== {{main|Digital anthropology}} Digital anthropology is the study of the relationship between humans and digital-era technology, and extends to various areas where anthropology and [[technology]] intersect. It is sometimes grouped with [[cultural anthropology|sociocultural anthropology]], and sometimes considered part of [[material culture]]. The field is new, and thus has a variety of names with a variety of emphases. These include techno-anthropology,<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.studyguide.aau.dk/programmes/postgraduate/53203/ | title=Techno-Anthropology course guide | publisher=Aalborg University | accessdate=14 March 2013}}</ref> digital ethnography, cyberanthropology,<ref>{{cite book | url=http://xirdalium.net/category/anthropology/cyberanthropology/ | title=Cyberanthropology | publisher=Peter Hammer Verlag Gmbh | date=August 2011 | accessdate=14 March 2013 | author=Knorr, Alexander | isbn=978-3-7795-0359-0}}</ref> and virtual anthropology.<ref>{{cite book | title=Virtual Anthropology: A guide to a new interdisciplinary field | publisher=Springer | author=Weber, Gerhard & Bookstein, Fred | year=2011 | isbn=978-3-211-48647-4}}</ref> ==== Ecological ==== {{main|Ecological anthropology}} Ecological anthropology is defined as the "study of [[cultural adaptation]]s to environments".<ref name="Kottak">{{cite book|last=Kottak|first=Conrad Phillip|title=Anthropology : appreciating human diversity|year=2010|publisher=McGraw-Hill|location=New York|isbn=978-0-07-811699-5|pages=579–584|edition=14th}}</ref> The sub-field is also defined as, "the study of relationships between a population of humans and their [[biophysical environment]]".<ref name="Townsend">{{cite book|last=Townsend|first=Patricia K.|title=Environmental anthropology : from pigs to policies|year=2009|publisher=Waveland Press|location=Prospect Heights, Ill.|isbn=978-1-57766-581-6|page=104|edition=2nd}}</ref> The focus of its research concerns "how cultural [[beliefs]] and practices helped human populations adapt to their environments, and how people used elements of their culture to maintain their [[ecosystems]]."<ref name="Kottak"/> ====Environmental==== {{main|Environmental anthropology}} Environmental anthropology is a sub-specialty within the field of anthropology that takes an active role in examining the relationships between humans and their environment across space and time.<ref name="Kottak CP 1999">{{cite journal|last1=Kottak|first1=Conrad P.|jstor=683339|title=The New Ecological Anthropology|journal=American Anthropologist|volume=101|page=23|year=1999|doi=10.1525/aa.1999.101.1.23}}</ref> The contemporary perspective of environmental anthropology, and arguably at least the backdrop, if not the focus of most of the ethnographies and cultural fieldworks of today, is [[political ecology]]. Many characterize this new perspective as more informed with culture, politics and power, globalization, localized issues, and more.<ref name="Pyke G 1984">{{cite journal|last1=Pyke|first1=G H|title=Optimal Foraging Theory: A Critical Review|journal=Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics|volume=15|page=523|year=1984|doi=10.1146/annurev.es.15.110184.002515}}</ref> The focus and data interpretation is often used for arguments for/against or creation of policy, and to prevent corporate exploitation and damage of land. Often, the observer has become an active part of the struggle either directly (organizing, participation) or indirectly (articles, documentaries, books, ethnographies). Such is the case with environmental justice advocate Melissa Checker and her relationship with the people of Hyde Park.<ref name="Checker M 2005">{{cite book|author=Melissa Checker|title=Polluted promises: environmental racism and the search for justice in a southern town|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9GCcgMi40WkC|accessdate=3 April 2011|date=August 2005|publisher=NYU Press|isbn=978-0-8147-1657-1}}</ref> ===Historical=== {{main|Ethnohistory}} {{see also|Historical anthropology}} Ethnohistory is the study of [[Ethnography|ethnographic]] cultures and [[Indigenous peoples|indigenous]] customs by examining [[History|historical records]]. It is also the study of the history of various [[ethnic group]]s that may or may not exist today. Ethnohistory uses both historical and ethnographic data as its foundation. Its historical methods and materials go beyond the standard use of documents and manuscripts. Practitioners recognize the utility of such source material as maps, music, paintings, photography, folklore, oral tradition, site exploration, archaeological materials, museum collections, enduring customs, language, and place names.<ref name="Axtell1979">{{cite journal | last1 = Axtell | first1 = J. | year = 1979 | title = Ethnohistory: An Historian's Viewpoint | url = | journal = Ethnohistory | volume = 26 | issue = 1| pages = 3–4 | doi = 10.2307/481465 }}</ref> === Religion === {{Anthropology of religion}} {{main|Anthropology of religion}} The anthropology of religion involves the study of religious institutions in relation to other social institutions, and the comparison of religious beliefs and practices across cultures. Modern anthropology assumes that there is complete continuity between [[magical thinking]] and religion,<ref name="Cassirer1944">[[Ernst Cassirer|Cassirer, Ernst]] (1944) [https://books.google.com/books?id=pe9fWSv-iLsC&pg=PA102 ''An Essay On Man''], pt.II, ch.7 ''Myth and Religion'', pp.&nbsp;122–3.</ref>{{refn|group=n|"It seems to be one of the postulates of modern anthropology that there is complete continuity between magic and religion. [note 35: See, for instance, RR Marett, Faith, Hope, and Charity in Primitive Religion, the Gifford Lectures (Macmillan, 1932), Lecture II, pp. 21 ff.]&nbsp;... We have no empirical evidence at all that there ever was an age of magic that has been followed and superseded by an age of religion."<ref name="Cassirer1944"/>}} and that every religion is a cultural product, created by the human [[community]] that worships it.<ref name="Guthrie2000p225">Guthrie (2000) [https://books.google.com/books?id=wlNJQoZlGC4C&pg=PA225 pp.&nbsp;225–6]</ref> === Urban === {{main|Urban anthropology}} Urban anthropology is concerned with issues of [[urbanization]], poverty, and [[neoliberalism]]. [[Ulf Hannerz]] quotes a 1960s remark that traditional anthropologists were "a notoriously [[agoraphobic]] lot, anti-urban by definition". Various social processes in the [[Western World]] as well as in the "[[Third World]]" (the latter being the habitual focus of attention of anthropologists) brought the attention of "[[Anthropology#Focus on the "other cultures"|specialists in 'other cultures']]" closer to their homes.<ref>Hannerz, Ulf (1980). ''Exploring the City: Inquiries Toward an Urban Anthropology'', p.1</ref> There are two principle approaches in urban anthropology: by examining the types of cities or examining the social issues within the cities. These two methods are overlapping and dependent of each other. By defining different types of cities, one would use social factors as well as economic and political factors to categorize the cities. By directly looking at the different social issues, one would also be studying how they affect the dynamic of the city.<ref>Griffiths, Michael. B., Flemming Christiansen, and Malcolm Chapman. (2010) 'Chinese Consumers: The Romantic Reappraisal'. Ethnography, Sept 2010, 11, 331–357.</ref> == Key topics by field: archaeological and biological== {{main|Archaeological|Biological anthropology}} === Anthrozoology === {{main|Anthrozoology}} [[Anthrozoology]] (also known as "human–animal studies") is the study of interaction between living things. It is a burgeoning [[interdisciplinary]] field that overlaps with a number of other disciplines, including anthropology, [[ethology]], medicine, [[psychology]], [[veterinary medicine]] and [[zoology]]. A major focus of anthrozoologic research is the quantifying of the positive effects of human-animal relationships on either party and the study of their interactions.<ref>Mills, Daniel S. [https://books.google.com/books?id=vrueZDfPUzoC&pg=PA28 "Anthrozoology"], ''The Encyclopedia of Applied Animal Behaviour and Welfare''. CABI 2010, pp. 28–30.</ref> It includes scholars from a diverse range of fields, including anthropology, sociology, biology, and philosophy.<ref>DeMello, Margo. ''Teaching the Animal: Human–Animal Studies Across the Disciplines''. Lantern Books, 2010, p. xi.</ref><ref>[http://www.animalsandsociety.org/content/index.php?pid=41 Animals & Society Institute], accessed 23 February 2011.</ref>{{refn|group=n|Note that anthrozoology should not be confused with "[[animal studies]]", which often refers to [[animal testing]].}} === Biocultural === {{main|Biocultural anthropology}} Biocultural anthropology is the [[scientific]] exploration of the relationships between [[human biology]] and culture. [[Biological anthropology|Physical anthropologists]] throughout the first half of the 20th century viewed this relationship from a [[Race (classification of human beings)|racial]] perspective; that is, from the assumption that [[Typology (anthropology)|typological]] human biological differences lead to cultural differences.<ref name=Biocult_syn>{{cite book |last= Goodman |first=Alan H. |author2= Thomas L. Leatherman (eds.) |title=Building A New Biocultural Synthesis |publisher=University of Michigan Press |year= 1998 |url=https://books.google.com/?id=T8ZhpG_B_6MC |isbn= 978-0-472-06606-3}}</ref> After World War II the emphasis began to shift toward an effort to explore the role culture plays in shaping human biology. === Evolutionary === {{main|Evolutionary anthropology}} Evolutionary anthropology is the interdisciplinary study of the [[human evolution|evolution]] of [[human physiology]] and [[human behaviour]] and the relation between [[hominins]] and non-hominin [[primate]]s. Evolutionary anthropology is based in [[natural science]] and [[social science]], combining the [[Human development (biology)|human development]] with socioeconomic factors. Evolutionary anthropology is concerned with both biological and cultural evolution of humans, past and present. It is based on a [[scientific]] approach, and brings together fields such as [[archaeology]], [[behavioral ecology]], [[psychology]], [[primatology]], and [[genetics]]. It is a dynamic and [[interdisciplinary]] field, drawing on many lines of evidence to understand the human experience, past and present. === Forensic === {{main|Forensic anthropology}} Forensic anthropology is the application of the science of [[physical anthropology]] and human [[osteology]] in a legal setting, most often in criminal cases where the victim's remains are in the advanced stages of [[decomposition]]. A forensic anthropologist can assist in the identification of deceased individuals whose remains are decomposed, burned, mutilated or otherwise unrecognizable. The adjective "forensic" refers to the application of this subfield of science to a court of law. === Palaeoanthropology === {{main|Palaeoanthropology}} Paleoanthropology combines the disciplines of [[paleontology]] and [[physical anthropology]]. It is the study of ancient humans, as found in [[fossil]] [[Hominidae|hominid]] evidence such as [[Petrifaction|petrifacted]] bones and footprints. == Organizations == Contemporary anthropology is an established science with academic departments at most universities and colleges. The single largest organization of Anthropologists is the [[American Anthropological Association]] (AAA), which was founded in 1903.<ref>[http://www.aaanet.org/about/ AAAnet.org]</ref> Membership is made up of anthropologists from around the globe.<ref>[http://www.aaanet.org/membership/upload/MAY-08-AAA.pdf AAAnet.org]</ref> In 1989, a group of European and American scholars in the field of anthropology established the [[European Association of Social Anthropologists]] (EASA) which serves as a major professional organization for anthropologists working in Europe. The EASA seeks to advance the status of anthropology in Europe and to increase visibility of marginalized anthropological traditions and thereby contribute to the project of a global anthropology or world anthropology. Hundreds of other organizations exist in the various sub-fields of anthropology, sometimes divided up by nation or region, and many anthropologists work with collaborators in other disciplines, such as [[geology]], [[physics]], [[zoology]], [[paleontology]], [[anatomy]], [[music theory]], [[art history]], [[sociology]] and so on, belonging to professional societies in those disciplines as well.<ref>Johanson, Donald and Kate Wong. ''Lucy's Legacy''. Kindle Books. 2007; Netti, Bruno. ''The Study of Ethnomusicology.'' University of Illinois Press, 2005. Chapter One</ref> ===List of major organizations=== {{Main category|Anthropology organizations}} {{Colbegin||30em}} * [[American Anthropological Association]] * [[American Ethnological Society]] * [[AIBR. Asociación de Antropólogos Iberoamericanos en Red|Asociación de Antropólogos Iberoamericanos en Red, AIBR]] * [[Moving Anthropology Student Network]] * [[Anthropological Society of London]] * [[Center for World Indigenous Studies]] * [[Ethnological Society of London]] * [[Institute of Anthropology and Ethnography]] * [[Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology]] * [[Network of Concerned Anthropologists]] * [[N. N. Miklukho-Maklai Institute of Ethnology and Anthropology]] * [http://www.radicalanthropologygroup.org/ Radical Anthropology Group] * [[Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland]] * [[Society for anthropological sciences]] * [[Society for Applied Anthropology]] * [[USC Center for Visual Anthropology]] {{Colend}} ==Controversial ethical stances== Anthropologists, like other researchers (especially historians and scientists engaged in field research), have over time assisted state policies and projects, especially colonialism.<ref name = "pbuteh">Asad, Talal, ed. (1973) ''Anthropology & the Colonial Encounter.'' Atlantic Highlands, NJ: Humanities Press.</ref><ref>van Breman, Jan, and Akitoshi Shimizu (1999) ''Anthropology and Colonialism in Asia and Oceania''. Richmond, Surrey: Curzon Press.</ref> Some commentators have contended: *That the discipline grew out of colonialism, perhaps was in league with it, and derived some of its key notions from it, consciously or not. (See, for example, Gough, Pels and Salemink, but cf. Lewis 2004).<ref name=Gellner>Gellner, Ernest (1992) ''Postmodernism, Reason, and Religion''. London/New York: Routledge. Pp: 26–29.</ref> *That ethnographic work was often [[Ahistoricism|ahistorical]], writing about people as if they were "out of time" in an "ethnographic present" (Johannes Fabian, ''Time and Its Other''). === Ethics of cultural relativism === As part of their quest for [[scientific objectivity]], present-day anthropologists typically urge [[cultural relativism]], which has an influence on all the sub-fields of anthropology.<ref name="Ingold1994p331"/> This is the notion that cultures should not be judged by another's values or viewpoints, but be examined dispassionately on their own terms. There should be no notions, in good anthropology, of one culture being better or worse than another culture.<ref>Levi-Strauss, Claude. ''The Savage Mind''. 1962; Womack, Mari. ''Being Human.'' 2001.{{Page needed|date=October 2012}}</ref> Ethical commitments in anthropology include noticing and documenting [[genocide]], [[infanticide]], [[racism]], [[mutilation]] (including [[circumcision]] and [[subincision]]), and [[torture]]. Topics like racism, slavery, and human sacrifice attract anthropological attention and theories ranging from nutritional deficiencies<ref>Harris, Marvin. ''Cows, Pigs, Wars, and Witches''.</ref> to genes<ref>[http://www.timeshighereducation.co.uk/story.asp?storyCode=209831&sectioncode=26 Timeshighereducation.co.uk]</ref> to [[acculturation]] have been proposed, not to mention theories of [[colonialism]] and many others as root causes of [[Man's inhumanity to man]]. To illustrate the depth of an anthropological approach, one can take just one of these topics, such as "racism" and find thousands of anthropological references, stretching across all the major and minor sub-fields.<ref>{{cite web|title=Statement on "Race"|url=http://www.aaanet.org/stmts/racepp.htm|publisher=American Anthropological Association|date=May 1998}}</ref><ref>[http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/summary/282/5389/654?maxtoshow=&HITS=10&hits=10&RESULTFORMAT=&titleabstract=DNA+challenges+race&searchid=QID_NOT_SET&FIRSTINDEX=; Sciencemag.org], Shanklin, Eugenia. 1994. Anthropology & Race; Faye V. Harrison. 1995. "The Persistent Power of 'Race' in the Cultural and Political Economy of Racism." Annual Review of Anthropology. 24:47–74. Allan Goodman. 1995. "The Problematics of "Race" in Contemporary Biological Anthropology." In Biological Anthropology: The State of the Science.; Yearbook of Physical Anthropology, 1945–. "Melanin, Afrocentricity&nbsp;... ," 36(1993):33–58.; see Stanford's recent collection of overarching bibliographies on race and racism, [http://library.stanford.edu/depts/ssrg/misc/race.html Library.stanford.edu]</ref> ===Ethical stance to military involvement=== Anthropologists' involvement with the U.S. government, in particular, has caused bitter controversy within the discipline. Franz Boas publicly objected to US participation in World War I, and after the war he published a brief expose and condemnation of the participation of several American archaeologists in espionage in Mexico under their cover as scientists. But by the 1940s, many of Boas' anthropologist contemporaries were active in the allied war effort against the "Axis" (Nazi Germany, Fascist Italy, and Imperial Japan). Many served in the armed forces, while others worked in intelligence (for example, [[Office of Strategic Services]] and the [[Office of War Information]]). At the same time, [[David H. Price]]'s work on American anthropology during the Cold War provides detailed accounts of the pursuit and dismissal of several anthropologists from their jobs for communist sympathies. Attempts to accuse anthropologists of complicity with the CIA and government intelligence activities during the Vietnam War years have turned up surprisingly little (although anthropologist [[Hugo Nutini]] was active in the stillborn [[Project Camelot]]).<ref>Horowitz, Lewis ed.(1967) The Rise and Fall of Project Camelot.</ref> Many anthropologists (students and teachers) were active in the antiwar movement. Numerous resolutions condemning the war in all its aspects were passed overwhelmingly at the annual meetings of the [[American Anthropological Association]] (AAA). Professional anthropological bodies often object to the use of anthropology for the benefit of the [[State (polity)|state]]. Their codes of ethics or statements may proscribe anthropologists from giving secret briefings. The [[Association of Social Anthropologists of the UK and Commonwealth]] (ASA) has called certain scholarship ethically dangerous. The AAA's current 'Statement of Professional Responsibility' clearly states that "in relation with their own government and with host governments&nbsp;... no secret research, no secret reports or debriefings of any kind should be agreed to or given." Anthropologists, along with other social scientists, are working with the US military as part of the US Army's strategy in Afghanistan.<ref>[http://www.csmonitor.com/2007/0907/p01s08-wosc.htm Christian Science Monitor]</ref> The ''[[Christian Science Monitor]]'' reports that "Counterinsurgency efforts focus on better grasping and meeting local needs" [[War in Afghanistan (2001–present)|in Afghanistan]], under the ''[[Human Terrain System]]'' (HTS) program; in addition, HTS teams are working with the [[US military in Iraq]].<ref>{{cite web|title=The Human Terrain System: A CORDS for the 21st Century|url=http://www.army.mil/professionalWriting/volumes/volume4/december_2006/12_06_2.html|archiveurl=//web.archive.org/web/20140121225645/http://www.army.mil/professionalWriting/volumes/volume4/december_2006/12_06_2.html|archivedate=21 January 2014}}</ref> In 2009, the American Anthropological Association's Commission on the Engagement of Anthropology with the US Security and Intelligence Communities released its final report concluding, in part, that, "When ethnographic investigation is determined by military missions, not subject to external review, where data collection occurs in the context of war, integrated into the goals of counterinsurgency, and in a potentially coercive environment – all characteristic factors of the HTS concept and its application – it can no longer be considered a legitimate professional exercise of anthropology. In summary, while we stress that constructive engagement between anthropology and the military is possible, CEAUSSIC suggests that the AAA emphasize the incompatibility of HTS with disciplinary ethics and practice for job seekers and that it further recognize the problem of allowing HTS to define the meaning of "anthropology" within DoD."<ref>[http://blog.aaanet.org/2009/12/08/aaa-commission-releases-final-report-on-army-human-terrain-system/ "AAA Commission Releases Final Report on Army Human Terrain System" American Anthropological Association<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> ==Post–World War II developments== Before WWII British 'social anthropology' and American 'cultural anthropology' were still distinct traditions. After the war, enough British and American anthropologists borrowed ideas and methodological approaches from one another that some began to speak of them collectively as 'sociocultural' anthropology. ===Basic trends=== There are several characteristics that tend to unite anthropological work. One of the central characteristics is that anthropology tends to provide a comparatively more [[Holism|holistic]] account of phenomena and tends to be highly empirical.<ref name="Hylland Eriksen 2004 p. 79"/> The quest for holism leads most anthropologists to study a particular place, problem or phenomenon in detail, using a variety of methods, over a more extensive period than normal in many parts of academia. In the 1990s and 2000s (decade), calls for clarification of what constitutes a culture, of how an observer knows where his or her own culture ends and another begins, and other crucial topics in writing anthropology were heard. These dynamic relationships, between what can be observed on the ground, as opposed to what can be observed by compiling many local observations remain fundamental in any kind of anthropology, whether cultural, biological, linguistic or archaeological.<ref>Rosaldo, Renato. ''Culture and Truth: The remaking of social analysis''. Beacon Press. 1993; Inda, John Xavier and Renato Rosaldo. ''The Anthropology of Globalization. Wiley-Blackwell. 2007''</ref> Biological anthropologists are interested in both human variation<ref>Robert Jurmain, Lynn Kilgore, Wenda Trevathan, and Russell L. Ciochon. ''Introduction to Physical Anthropology. 11th Edition. Wadsworth. 2007, chapters I, III and IV.''; Wompack, Mari. ''Being Human''. Prentice Hall. 2001, pp.&nbsp;11–20.</ref> and in the possibility of human universals (behaviors, ideas or concepts shared by virtually all human cultures).<ref>Brown, Donald. ''Human Universals''. McGraw Hill. 1991; Roughley, Neil. ''Being Humans: Anthropological Universality and Particularity in Transciplinary Perspectives''. Walter de Gruyter Publishing. 2000</ref> They use many different methods of study, but modern population [[genetics]], [[participant observation]] and other techniques often take anthropologists "into the field," which means traveling to a community in its own setting, to do something called "fieldwork." On the biological or physical side, human measurements, genetic samples, nutritional data may be gathered and published as articles or monographs. Along with dividing up their project by theoretical emphasis, anthropologists typically divide the world up into relevant time periods and geographic regions. Human time on Earth is divided up into relevant cultural traditions based on material, such as the [[Paleolithic]] and the [[Neolithic]], of particular use in archaeology.{{Citation needed|date=November 2012}} Further cultural subdivisions according to tool types, such as [[Olduwan]] or [[Mousterian]] or [[Levallois technique|Levalloisian]] help archaeologists and other anthropologists in understanding major trends in the human past.{{Citation needed|date=November 2012}} Anthropologists and geographers share approaches to [[Culture regions]] as well, since mapping cultures is central to both sciences. By making comparisons across cultural traditions (time-based) and cultural regions (space-based), anthropologists have developed various kinds of [[comparative method]], a central part of their science. ===Commonalities between fields=== Because anthropology developed from so many different enterprises (see [[History of Anthropology]]), including but not limited to [[Fossil collecting|fossil-hunting]], [[Exploration|exploring]], documentary film-making, [[paleontology]], [[primatology]], antiquity dealings and curatorship, [[philology]], [[etymology]], [[genetics]], regional analysis, [[ethnology]], history, [[philosophy]], and [[religious studies]],<ref>Erickson, Paul A. and Liam D. Murphy. ''A History of Anthropological Theory''. Broadview Press. 2003. p.&nbsp;11–12</ref><ref>George Stocking, "Paradigmatic Traditions in the History of Anthropology." In George Stocking, The Ethnographer's Magic and Other Essays in the History of Anthropology (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1992):342–361.</ref> it is difficult to characterize the entire field in a brief article, although attempts to write histories of the entire field have been made.<ref>Leaf, Murray. ''Man, Mind and Science: A History of Anthropology.'' Columbia University Press. 1979</ref> Some authors argue that anthropology originated and developed as the study of "other cultures", both in terms of time (past societies) and space (non-European/non-Western societies).<ref>See the many essays relating to this in Prem Poddar and David Johnson, Historical Companion to Postcolonial Thought in English, Edinburgh University Press, 2004. See also Prem Poddar et al., Historical Companion to Postcolonial Literatures—Continental Europe and its Empires, Edinburgh University Press, 2008</ref> For example, the classic of [[urban anthropology]], [[Ulf Hannerz]] in the introduction to his seminal ''Exploring the City: Inquiries Toward an Urban Anthropology'' mentions that the "[[Third World]]" had habitually received most of attention; anthropologists who traditionally specialized in "other cultures" looked for them far away and started to look "across the tracks" only in late 1960s.<ref>[[Ulf Hannerz]] (1980) "Exploring the City: Inquiries Toward an Urban Anthropology", ISBN 0-231-08376-9, p. 1</ref> Now there exist many works focusing on peoples and topics very close to the author's "home".<ref name="Lewis">Lewis, Herbert S. (1998) ''[http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0002-7294(199809)2%3A100%3A3%3C716%3ATMOAAI%3E2.0.CO%3B2-3 The Misrepresentation of Anthropology and its Consequences]'' ''[[American Anthropologist]]'' "100:" 716–731</ref> It is also argued that other fields of study, like History and [[Sociology]], on the contrary focus disproportionately on the West.<ref>[[Jack Goody]] (2007) ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=jo1UVi48KywC The Theft of History]'' Cambridge University Press ISBN 0-521-87069-0</ref> In France, the study of Western societies has been traditionally left to [[sociologist]]s, but this is increasingly changing,<ref>*{{Cite journal | last1 = Abélès | first1 = Marc | year = | title = How the Anthropology of France Has Changed Anthropology in France: Assessing New Directions in the Field |journal = [[Cultural Anthropology (journal)|Cultural Anthropology]] | volume = 1999 | issue = | page = 407 | jstor = 08867356 | ref = harv }}</ref> starting in the 1970s from scholars like Isac Chiva and journals like ''[[Terrain (journal)|Terrain]]'' ("fieldwork"), and developing with the center founded by [[Marc Augé]] (''[[École des hautes études en sciences sociales|Le Centre d'anthropologie des mondes contemporains]]'', the Anthropological Research Center of Contemporary Societies). Since the 1980s it has become common for social and cultural anthropologists to set ethnographic research in the North Atlantic region, frequently examining the connections between locations rather than limiting research to a single locale. There has also been a related shift toward broadening the focus beyond the daily life of ordinary people; increasingly, research is set in settings such as scientific laboratories, social movements, governmental and nongovernmental organizations and businesses.<ref>Fischer, Michael M. J. ''Emergent Forms of Life and the Anthropological Voice''. Duke University Press, 2003. Don Morrell JR.</ref> ==See also== {{Wikipedia books}} {{Main|Outline of anthropology}} {{refbegin|20em}} *[[Anthropological Index Online]] (AIO) *[[Anthropological science fiction]] *[[Engaged theory]] *[[Ethnology]] *[[Ethnobiology]] *[[Ethology]] *[[Folklore]] *[[Human ethology]] *[[Human evolution]] *[[Human Relations Area Files]] *[[Intangible Cultural Heritage]] *[[List of anthropologists]] *[[Memetics]] *[[Origins of society]] *[[Prehistoric medicine]] *[[Qualitative research]] *[[Sociology]] *[[Theological anthropology]], a sub-field of theology *[[Philosophical anthropology]], a sub-field of philosophy *Anthropology in [[Tinbergen's four questions]] {{refend}} ==Notes== {{reflist|group=n}} ==References== {{reflist|20em}} ==Further reading== {{main|Bibliography of anthropology}} ===Dictionaries and encyclopedias=== {{refbegin|20em}} * {{cite encyclopedia | editor1-last=Barnard | editor1-first=Alan | editor2-last=Spencer | editor2-first=Jonathan | year=2010 | encyclopedia=The Routledge Encyclopedia of Social and Cultural Anthropology | location=London | publisher=Routledge}} * {{cite encyclopedia | last=Barfield | first=Thomas | year=1997 | encyclopedia=The dictionary of anthropology | location=Hoboken | publisher=Wiley-Blackwell Publishing}}. * {{cite encyclopedia | last=Jackson | first=John L.| year=2013 | encyclopedia=Oxford Bibliographies: Anthropology | location=Oxford | publisher=Oxford University Press}} * {{cite encyclopedia | editor1-last=Levinson | editor1-first=David | editor2-first=Melvin | editor2-last=Ember |year=1996 | encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of Cultural Anthropology | volume=Volumes 1–4 | location=New York | publisher=Henry Holt}} * {{cite book | last1=Rapport | first1=Nigel | last2=Overing | first2=Joanna | year=2007 | title=Social and Cultural Anthropology: The Key Concepts| location=New York | publisher=Routledge}} {{refend}} ===Fieldnotes and memoirs=== {{refbegin|20em}} * {{cite book | last=Barley | first=Nigel | year=1983 | title=The innocent anthropologist: notes from a mud hut | location=London | publisher=British Museum Publications}} * {{cite book | last=Geertz | first=Clifford | year=1995 | title=After the fact: two countries, four decades, one anthropologist | location=Cambridge, MA | publisher=Harvard University Press}} * {{cite book| last=Lévi-Strauss | first=Claude | year=1967 | title=Tristes tropiques | others=Translated from the French by John Russell | location=New York | publisher=Atheneum}} * {{cite book | last=Malinowski | first=Bronisław | year=1967 | title=A diary in the strict sense of the term | others=Translated by Norbert Guterman | location=New York | publisher=Harcourt, Brace & World}} * {{cite book | last=Mead | first=Margaret | year=1972 | title=Blackberry winter: my earlier years | location=New York | publisher=William Marrow}} * {{cite book | authormask=2 | last=Mead | first=Margaret | year=1977 | title=Letters from the field, 1925–1975 | location=New York | publisher=Harper & Row}} * {{cite book | last=Rabinow | first=Paul | year=1977 | title=Reflections on fieldwork in Morocco | location=Berkeley | publisher=University of California Press | series=Quantum Books}} {{refend}} ===Histories=== {{refbegin|20em}} * {{cite book | editor-last=Asad | editor-first=Talal | year=1973 | title=Anthropology & the Colonial Encounter | location=Atlantic Highlands, NJ | publisher=Humanities Press}} * {{cite book | last1=Barth | first1=Fredrik | first2=Andre | last2=Gingrich | first3=Robert | last3=Parkin | title=One Discipline, Four Ways: British, German, French, and American anthropology | year=2005 | location=Chicago | publisher=University of Chicago Press}} * {{cite book | last=D'Andrade | first=R. | chapter=The Sad Story of Anthropology: 1950–1999 | editor-first=E. L. | editor-last=Cerroni-Long | title=Anthropological Theory in North America | location=Westport | publisher=Berin & Garvey | year=1999}} * {{cite book | last=Darnell | first=Regna.| year=2001 | title=Invisible Genealogies: A History of Americanist Anthropology | location=Lincoln, NE | publisher=University of Nebraska Press}} * {{cite book | last=Gisi | first=Lucas Marco | year=2007 | title=Einbildungskraft und Mythologie. Die Verschränkung von Anthropologie und Geschichte im 18. Jahrhundert | location=Berlin; New York | publisher=de Gruyter}} * {{cite book | last=Harris | first=Marvin.| year=2001 | origyear=1968 | title=The rise of anthropological theory: a history of theories of culture | publisher=AltaMira Press | location=Walnut Creek, CA}} * {{cite journal | ref=harv | first=James | last=Hunt | title=Introductory Address on the Study of Anthropology | journal=The Anthropological Review | volume= I | year=1863 | location=London | publisher=Trübner & Co. | url={{Google books|pzYpAQAAIAAJ|plainurl=yes}}}} * {{cite book | last=Kehoe | first=Alice B. | year=1998 | title=The Land of Prehistory: A Critical History of American Archaeology | location=New York; London | publisher=Routledge}} *{{Cite journal | last1 = Lewis | first1 = H. S. | title = The Misrepresentation of Anthropology and Its Consequences | doi = 10.1525/aa.1998.100.3.716 | journal = American Anthropologist | volume = 100 | issue = 3 | pages = 716–731 | year = 1998 | pmid = | pmc = }} * {{cite journal | last=Lewis | first=H. S | authormask=2 | year=2004 | title=Imagining Anthropology's History | journal=Reviews in Anthropology | volume=v. 33}} * {{cite book | last=Lewis | first=H. S. | authormask=2 | year=2005 | chapter=Anthropology, the Cold War, and Intellectual History | editor1-first=R. | editor1-last=Darnell | editor2-first=F.W. | editor2-last=Gleach | title=Histories of Anthropology Annual, Vol. I}} * {{cite book | editor1-last=Pels | editor1-first=Peter | editor2-first=Oscar | editor2-last=Salemink | year=2000 | title=Colonial Subjects: Essays on the Practical History of Anthropology | location=Ann Arbor | publisher=University of Michigan Press}} * {{cite book | last=Price | first=David | year=2004 | title=Threatening Anthropology: McCarthyism and the FBI's Surveillance of Activist Anthropologists | location=Durham | publisher=Duke University Press}}. * {{cite book | last=Sera-Shriar | first=Efram | year=2013 | title=The Making of British Anthropology, 1813–1871 | series=Science and Culture in the Nineteenth Century, 18 | location=London; Vermont | publisher=Pickering and Chatto}} * {{cite book | ref=harv | title=Paul Broca, Founder of French Anthropology, Explorer of the Brain | first=Francis | last=Schiller | location=Berkeley | publisher=University of California Press | year=1979 | url={{Google books|C5dtJxYrkDYC|plainurl=yes}}}} * {{cite book | last=Stocking | first=George, Jr. | year=1968 | title=Race, Culture and Evolution | location=New York | publisher=Free Press}} * {{cite book | last=Trencher | first=Susan | year=2000 | title=Mirrored Images: American Anthropology and American Culture, 1960–1980 | location=Westport, Conn. | publisher=Bergin & Garvey}} * {{cite book | last=Wolf | first=Eric | year=1982 | title=Europe and the People Without History | location=Berkeley; Los Angeles | publisher=California University Press}} {{refend}} ===Textbooks and key theoretical works=== {{refbegin|20em}} * [[Carneiro's circumscription theory]] * {{cite book | last1=Clifford | first1=James | first2=George E. | last2=Marcus | year=1986 | title=Writing culture: the poetics and politics of ethnography | location=Berkeley | publisher=University of California Press}} * {{cite book | last=Geertz | first=Clifford | year=1973 | title=The Interpretation of Cultures | location=New York | publisher=Basic Books}} * {{cite book | last=Harris | first=Marvin | year=1997 | title=Culture, People, Nature: An Introduction to General Anthropology | edition=7th | location=Boston | publisher=Allyn & Bacon}} * {{cite book | last=Salzmann | first=Zdeněk | year=1993 | title=Language, culture, and society: an introduction to linguistic anthropology | location=Boulder, CO | publisher=Westview Press}} * {{cite book | editor1-last=Shweder | editor1-first=Richard A. | editor2-first=Robert A. | editor2-last=LeVine | year=1984 | title=Culture Theory: essays on mind, self, and emotion | location=Cambridge, UK | publisher=Cambridge University Press}} * {{cite book | ref=harv | first=Theodor | last=Waitz | title=Introduction to Anthropology | others=Translated by J. Frederick Collingwood for the Anthropological Society of London | location=London | publisher=Longman, Green, Longman, and Roberts | year=1863 | url={{Google books|G4FQAAAAcAAJ|plainurl=yes}}}} {{refend}} ==External links== {{sister project links}} {{Library resources box}} * {{cite web | first=Dieter | last=Haller | title=Interviews with German Anthropologists: Video Portal for the History of German Anthropology post 1945 | publisher=Ruhr-Universität Bochum | url=http://www.germananthropology.com/ | accessdate=22 March 2015}} * {{cite web | url=http://www.aaanet.org/ | title=AAANet Home | publisher=American Anthropological Association | year=2010}} * {{cite web | url=http://www.easaonline.org/ | title=Home | year=2015 | publisher=European Association of Social Anthropologists}} * {{cite web | first=Ed | last=Hagen | year=2015 | title=AAPA | url=http://www.physanth.org/ | publisher=American Association of Physical Anthropologists}} * {{cite web | url=http://www.aas.asn.au/ | publisher=Australian Anthropological Society | title=Home | accessdate=23 March 2015}} * {{cite web | url=http://www.aibr.org/ | title=AIBR, Revista de Antropología Iberoamericana | publisher=Antropólogos Iberoamericanos en Red | language=Spanish | accessdate=24 March 2015}} * {{cite web | url=http://hraf.yale.edu | title=Home | publisher=Human Relations Area Files | accessdate=24 March 2015}} * {{cite web | url=http://www.practicinganthropology.org/ | title=Home | publisher=National Association for the Practice of Anthropology | accessdate=24 March 2015}} * {{cite web | url=http://radicalanthropologygroup.org/about | title=About | publisher=Radical Anthropology Group | accessdate=24 March 2015}} * {{cite web | url=http://www.therai.org.uk/ | title=Home | publisher=Royal Anthropological Institute | accessdate=24 March 2015}} * {{cite web | url=http://www.sfaa.net/ | title=Home | publisher=The Society for Applied Anthropology | accessdate=24 March 2015}} * {{cite web | url=http://anthro.amnh.org/ | title=Anthropology |publisher=American Museum of Natural History | accessdate=25 March 2015}} * {{cite web | title=Department of Anthropology | url=http://anthropology.si.edu/ | publisher=Smithsonian National Museum of Natural History | accessdate=25 March 2015}} * {{cite web | url=https://aio.therai.org.uk/aio.php | title=AIO Home | work=Anthropological Index Online | publisher=Royal Anthropological Institute | accessdate=25 March 2015}} {{Humanities}} {{Social sciences}} {{Ethnicity}} {{Zoology}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Anthropology| ]] [[Category:Humanities]] [[Category:Social sciences]] lgqfll6iooty5xwudzyg8ip7v39bxre 0 572 716530301 706024322 2016-04-22T06:36:51Z 2601:0:502:440:1119:806:F740:B3C9 /* Fields or related disciplines */ wikitext text/x-wiki {{Use dmy dates|date=June 2013}} {{Agriculture}} <onlyinclude> '''Agricultural science''' is a broad multidisciplinary field of [[biology]] that encompasses the parts of exact, natural, economic and [[social sciences]] that are used in the practice and understanding of [[agriculture]]. ([[veterinary medicine|Veterinary science]], but not [[animal science]], is often excluded from the definition.) </onlyinclude> ==Agriculture, agricultural science, and agronomy== The three terms are often confused. However, they cover different concepts: *Agriculture is the set of activities that transform the environment for the production of animals and plants for human use. Agriculture concerns techniques, including the application of agronomic research. *[[Agronomy]] is [[research and development]] related to studying and improving plant-based crops. Agricultural sciences include research and development on: * Production techniques (e.g., [[irrigation]] management, recommended [[nitrogen]] inputs) * Improving [[agricultural productivity]] in terms of quantity and quality (e.g., selection of [[drought]]-resistant crops and animals, development of new [[pesticide]]s, yield-sensing technologies, simulation models of crop growth, in-vitro [[cell culture]] techniques) * Minimizing the effects of pests ([[weed]]s, [[insect]]s, [[pathogen]]s, [[nematode]]s) on crop or animal production systems. * Transformation of primary products into end-consumer products (e.g., production, preservation, and packaging of [[dairy product]]s) * Prevention and correction of adverse environmental effects (e.g., [[soils retrogression and degradation|soil degradation]], [[waste management]], [[bioremediation]]) * [[Theoretical production ecology]], relating to crop production modeling * Traditional agricultural systems, sometimes termed [[subsistence agriculture]], which feed most of the poorest people in the world. These systems are of interest as they sometimes retain a level of integration with natural ecological systems greater than that of [[industrial agriculture]], which may be more sustainable than some modern agricultural systems. * Food production and demand on a global basis, with special attention paid to the major producers, such as China, India, Brazil, the USA and the EU. * Various sciences relating to agricultural resources and the environment (e.g. soil science, agroclimatology); biology of agricultural crops and animals (e.g. crop science, animal science and their included sciences, e.g. ruminant nutrition, farm animal welfare); such fields as agricultural economics and rural sociology; various disciplines encompassed in agricultural engineering. ===Agricultural biotechnology=== [[Agricultural biotechnology]] is a specific area of agricultural science involving the use of scientific tools and techniques, including [[genetic engineering]], [[molecular markers]], [[molecular diagnostics]], [[vaccines]], and [[tissue culture]], to modify living organisms: plants, animals, and [[microorganisms]].<ref>{{cite web | url=http://absp2.cornell.edu/resources/briefs/documents/warp_briefs_eng_scr.pdf | title=What is Agricultural Biotechnology? | publisher=Cornell University | accessdate=3 February 2015}}</ref> == Fertilizer == One of the most common yield reducers is because of fertilizer not being applied in slightly higher quantities during transition period, the time it takes the soil to rebuild its aggregates and organic matter. Yields will decrease temporarily because of nitrogen being immobilized in the crop residue, which can take a few months to several years to decompose, depending on the crop's C to N ratio and the local environment ==A local science== {{unreferenced section|date=July 2015}} With the exception of [[theoretical production ecology|theoretical agronomy]], research in agronomy, more than in any other field, is strongly related to local areas. It can be considered a science of [[ecoregions]], because it is closely linked to soil properties and [[climate]], which are never exactly the same from one place to another. Many people think an agricultural production system relying on local weather, [[soil]] characteristics, and specific crops has to be studied locally. Others feel a need to know and understand production systems in as many areas as possible, and the human dimension of interaction with nature. ==History of agricultural science== {{Main|History of agricultural science}} Agricultural science began with [[Gregor Mendel]]'s genetic work, but in modern terms might be better dated from the [[chemical fertilizer]] outputs of [[plant physiology|plant physiological]] understanding in 18th-century Germany.{{Citation needed|date=December 2007}} In the United States, a scientific revolution in agriculture began with the [[Hatch Act of 1887]], which used the term "agricultural science". The Hatch Act was driven by farmers' interest in knowing the constituents of early artificial fertilizer. The [[Smith-Hughes Act]] of 1917 shifted agricultural education back to its vocational roots, but the scientific foundation had been built.<ref>Hillison J. (1996). [http://pubs.aged.tamu.edu/jae/pdf/vol37/37-04-08.pdf The Origins of Agriscience: Or Where Did All That Scientific Agriculture Come From?]. ''Journal of Agricultural Education''.</ref> After 1906, public expenditures on agricultural research in the US exceeded private expenditures for the next 44 years.<ref name=ScienceForAg>Huffman WE, Evenson RE. (2006). ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=ZWcolrGftT0C Science for Agriculture]''. [[Blackwell Publishing]].</ref>{{rp|xxi}} Intensification of agriculture since the 1960s in developed and [[developing countries]], often referred to as the [[Green Revolution]], was closely tied to progress made in selecting and improving crops and animals for high productivity, as well as to developing additional inputs such as artificial [[fertilizer]]s and [[pesticide|phytosanitary product]]s. As the oldest and largest human intervention in nature, the environmental impact of agriculture in general and more recently [[intensive agriculture]], industrial development, and population growth have raised many questions among agricultural scientists and have led to the development and emergence of new fields. These include technological fields that assume the solution to technological problems lies in better technology, such as [[integrated pest management]], [[waste management|waste treatment]] technologies, [[landscape architecture]], [[genomics]], and [[agricultural philosophy]] fields that include references to [[food industry|food production]] as something essentially different from non-essential economic 'goods'. In fact, the interaction between these two approaches provide a fertile field for deeper understanding in agricultural science. New technologies, such as [[biotechnology]] and [[computer science]] (for data processing and storage), and technological advances have made it possible to develop new research fields, including [[genetic engineering]], [[agrophysics]], improved [[statistics|statistical analysis]], and [[precision farming]]. Balancing these, as above, are the natural and human sciences of agricultural science that seek to understand the human-nature interactions of [[history of agriculture|traditional agriculture]], including interaction of [[Religion and Agriculture|religion and agriculture]], and the non-material components of agricultural production systems. ==Prominent agricultural scientists== [[File:Norman Borlaug.jpg|thumb|200px|Norman Borlaug, father of the [[Green Revolution]].]] * [[Robert Bakewell (farmer)|Robert Bakewell]] * [[Norman Borlaug]] * [[Luther Burbank]] * [[George Washington Carver]] * [[René Dumont]] * [[Sir Albert Howard]] * [[Kailas Nath Kaul]] * [[Justus von Liebig]] * [[Jay Lush]] * [[Gregor Mendel]] * [[Louis Pasteur]] * [[M. S. Swaminathan]] * [[Jethro Tull (agriculturist)|Jethro Tull]] * [[Artturi Ilmari Virtanen]] * [[Eli Whitney, Jr.|Eli Whitney]] * [[Sewall Wright]] ==Agricultural science and agriculture crisis== Agriculture sciences seek to feed the world's population while preventing [[biosafety]] problems that may affect human health and the [[environment (biophysical)|environment]]. This requires promoting good management of [[natural resources]] and respect for the environment, and increasingly concern for the psychological wellbeing of all concerned in the food production and consumption system. Economic, environmental, and social aspects of agriculture sciences are subjects of ongoing debate. Recent crises (such as avian influenza, [[Bovine Spongiform Encephalopathy|mad cow disease]] and issues such as the use of [[genetically modified organism]]s) illustrate the complexity and importance of this debate. ==Fields or related disciplines== {{Col-begin}} {{Col-break}} * [[Agricultural biotechnology]] * [[Agricultural chemistry]] * [[Agricultural diversification]] * [[Agricultural education]] * [[Agricultural economics]] * [[Agricultural engineering]] * [[Agricultural geography]] * [[Agricultural philosophy]] * [[Agricultural marketing]] * [[Agricultural soil science]] * [[Agrophysics]] * [[Animal science]] ** [[Animal breeding]] ** [[Animal husbandry]] ** [[Animal nutrition]] * [[Agronomy]] ** [[Botany]] ** [[Theoretical production ecology]] ** [[Horticulture]] ** [[Plant breeding]] ** [[fertilizer|Plant fertilization]] {{Col-break}} * [[Aquaculture]] * [[Biological engineering]] ** [[Genetic engineering]] * [[Nematology]] * [[Microbiology]] ** [[Plant pathology]] **[[Range Management]] * [[Environmental science]] * [[Entomology]] * [[Food science]] ** [[Human nutrition]] * [[Irrigation]] and [[water management]] * [[Soil science]] ** [[Agrology]] * [[Waste management]] * [[Weed]] science {{Col-end}} ==See also== * [[Agriculture ministry]] *[[Agricultural sciences basic topics]] *[[Agroecology]] *[[American Society of Agronomy]] *[[Genomics of domestication]] *[[List of agriculture topics]] *[[History of agricultural science]] *[[Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences]] *[[International Assessment of Agricultural Science and Technology for Development]] *[[International Food Policy Research Institute]], [[IFPRI]] *[[Research Institute of Crop Production]] (RICP) (in the Czech Republic) *[[University of Agricultural Sciences]] *[[National FFA Organization]] *[[Agricultural Research Council]] ==Further reading== *[http://www.press.jhu.edu/books/title_pages/9358.html Agricultural Research, Livelihoods, and Poverty: Studies of Economic and Social Impacts in Six Countries] Edited by Michelle Adato and Ruth Meinzen-Dick (2007), Johns Hopkins University Press Food Policy Report<ref name="Brief">[http://www.ifpri.org/publication/agricultural-research-livelihoods-and-poverty Agricultural research, livelihoods, and poverty | International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI)<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> *Claude Bourguignon, ''Regenerating the Soil: From Agronomy to Agrology'', Other India Press, 2005 *Pimentel David, Pimentel Marcia, ''Computer les kilocalories'', Cérès, n. 59, sept-oct. 1977 *Russell E. Walter, ''Soil conditions and plant growth'', Longman group, London, New York 1973 *Salamini Francesco, Oezkan Hakan, Brandolini Andrea, Schaefer-Pregl Ralf, Martin William, ''Genetics and geography of wild cereal domestication in the Near East'', in Nature, vol. 3, ju. 2002 *Saltini Antonio, ''Storia delle scienze agrarie'', 4 vols, Bologna 1984-89, ISBN 88-206-2412-5, ISBN 88-206-2413-3, ISBN 88-206-2414-1, ISBN 88-206-2415-X *Vavilov Nicolai I. (Starr Chester K. editor), ''The Origin, Variation, Immunity and Breeding of Cultivated Plants. Selected Writings'', in Chronica botanica, 13: 1-6, Waltham, Mass., 1949–50 *Vavilov Nicolai I., ''World Resources of Cereals, Leguminous Seed Crops and Flax,'' Academy of Sciences of Urss, National Science Foundation, Washington, Israel Program for Scientific Translations, Jerusalem 1960 *Winogradsky Serge, ''Microbiologie du sol. Problèmes et methodes. Cinquante ans de recherches,'' Masson & c.ie, Paris 1949 ==References== {{reflist|2}} ==External links== * [http://www.cgiar.org Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research (CGIAR)] * [http://www.ars.usda.gov/main/main.htm Agricultural Research Service] * [http://www.icar.org.in Indian Council of Agricultural Research] * [http://www.iita.org International Institute of Tropical Agriculture] * [http://www.ilri.org International Livestock Research Institute] * [http://nal.usda.gov/ The National Agricultural Library (NAL)] - The most comprehensive agricultural library in the world. * [https://www.crops.org/ Crop Science Society of America] * [https://www.agronomy.org/ American Society of Agronomy] * [https://www.soils.org/ Soil Science Society of America] * [https://www.researchgate.net/science/748_Agricultural_science Agricultural Science Researchers, Jobs and Discussions] *[http://www.fisaonline.de/index.php?act=home&lang=en Information System for Agriculture and Food Research] *[http://www.sdaglabs.com/ South Dakota Agricultural Laboratories] *[http://eppws.nmsu.edu/ NMSU Department of Entomology Plant Pathology and Weed Science] {{Interwiki conflict}} {{Authority control}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Agricultural Science}} [[Category:Agronomy]] [[Category:Agriculture|Science]] [[be-x-old:Аграномія]] [[bg:Аграрни науки]] [[da:Agronomi]] [[es:Agronomía]] [[fr:Agronomie]] [[it:Agronomia]] [[he:אגרונומיה]] [[nl:Landbouwkunde]] [[ja:農学]] [[pl:Agronomia]] [[fi:Maataloustiede]] [[sv:Lantbruksvetenskap]] [[th:เกษตรศาสตร์]] kbr09681n26pujhnvlybnx0pg4icmft 0 573 716367001 716311395 2016-04-21T09:21:24Z PressAllocation 25556619 Added link that translates hebrew text to english that showcases a bit more historical data on alchemy myths. wikitext text/x-wiki {{Redirect|Alchemist|other uses|Alchemist (disambiguation)|and|Alchemy (disambiguation)}} {{Use dmy dates|date=June 2013}} [[File:Alchemy of Happiness.png|thumb|250px|[[Kimiya-yi sa'ādat]] (''The Alchemy of Happiness'') – a text on Islamic philosophy and spiritual alchemy by [[Al-Ghazali|Al-Ghazālī]] (1058–1111).]] '''Alchemy''' is a [[philosophical]] and [[protoscience|protoscientific]] tradition practiced throughout [[Europe]], [[Egypt]] and [[Asia]]. It aimed to purify, mature, and perfect certain objects.<ref>{{citation |last=Malouin |first=Paul-Jacques |contribution=Alchimie [Alchemy] |contribution-url=http://hdl.handle.net/2027/spo.did2222.0000.057 |title=[[Encyclopédie]] ou Dictionnaire Raisonné des Sciences, des Arts, et des Métiers, ''Vol.&nbsp;I'' |location=Paris |date=1751 |editor-last=Diderot |editor-link=Diderot |editor2-last=d'Alembert |editor2-link=D'Alembert |display-editors=0 |publisher=translated by Lauren Yoder in 2003 for Michigan Publishing's ''The Encyclopedia of Diderot & d'Alembert Collaborative Translation Project''}}.</ref><ref name=lindy>{{harvp|Linden|1996|pp=7 & 11}}.</ref>{{refn|group=n|For a detailed look into the problems of defining alchemy, see {{Harvnb|Linden|1996|pp=6–36}}}} Common aims were [[chrysopoeia]], the [[transmutation of elements|transmutation]] of "[[base metal]]s" (e.g., [[lead]]) into "[[noble metal|noble]]" ones (particularly [[gold]]); the creation of an [[elixir of immortality]]; the creation of [[panacea (medicine)|panaceas]] able to cure any disease; and the development of an [[alkahest]], a universal [[solvent]].<ref>{{citation |contribution=Alchemy |contribution-url=http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/alchemy |title=Dictionary.com }}.</ref> The perfection of the [[human]] [[human body|body]] and [[soul]] was thought to permit or result from the [[Magnum opus (alchemy)|alchemical magnum opus]] and, in the [[Hellenistic period|Hellenistic]] and western tradition, the achievement of [[gnosis]].<ref name=lindy /> In Europe, the creation of a [[philosopher's stone]] was variously connected with all of these projects. In English, the term is often limited to descriptions of European alchemy, but similar practices existed in the [[Chinese alchemy|Far East]], the [[Rasayana|Indian subcontinent]], and the [[Alchemy and chemistry in medieval Islam|Muslim world]]. In Europe, following the [[12th-century Renaissance]] produced by the translation of [[Islamic science|Arabic works on science]] and the [[Recovery of Aristotle]], [[list of alchemists|alchemists]] played a significant role in [[early modern era|early modern]] [[science]]<ref>{{citation |editor-last=Eddy |editor-first=Matthew Daniel |editor2-last=Mauskopf |editor2-first=Seymour |editor3-last=Newman |editor3-first=William R. |display-editors=0 |ref={{harvid|''CKEMW''|2014}} |title=Chemical Knowledge in the Early Modern World |date=2014 |publisher=University of Chicago Press |location=Chicago |url=https://www.academia.edu/6629576/_with_Seymour_H._Mauskopf_and_William_R._Newman_An_Introduction_to_Chemical_Knowledge_in_the_Early_Modern_World_Osiris_26_2014_1-15 }}.</ref> (particularly [[history of chemistry|chemistry]] and [[history of medicine|medicine]]). Islamic and European alchemists developed a structure of basic [[laboratory techniques]], theory, terminology, and [[experimental method]], some of which are still in use today. However, they continued [[classical antiquity|antiquity]]'s belief in [[four elements]] and guarded their work in secrecy including [[history of cryptography|cyphers]] and cryptic symbolism. Their work was guided by [[Hermeticism|Hermetic principles]] related to [[Magic (paranormal)|magic]], [[mythology]], and [[religion]]. Modern discussions of alchemy are generally split into an examination of its [[exoteric]] practical applications and its [[esoteric]] spiritual aspects, despite the arguments of scholars like [[Eric John Holmyard|Homyard]]<ref>{{Harvnb|Holmyard|1957|p=16}}</ref> and [[Marie-Louise von Franz|von Franz]]<ref name="FRAALC97">{{harvp|von Franz|1997}}.</ref> that they should be understood as complementary. The former is pursued by [[history of the physical sciences|historians of the physical sciences]] who examine the subject in terms of [[history of chemistry|protochemistry]], [[history of medicine|medicine]], and [[charlatanism]]. The latter interests historians of [[esotericism]], [[history of psychology|psychologists]], and some philosophers and [[spirituality|spiritualists]]. The subject has also made an ongoing impact on literature and the arts. Despite this split, which von Franz believes has existed since the Western traditions' origin in a mix of [[Greek philosophy]] was mixed with [[Ancient Egyptian technology|Egyptian]] and [[Mesopotamian science|Mesopotamian technology]],<ref name="FRAALC97" /> numerous sources have stressed an integration of esoteric and exoteric approaches to alchemy as far back as [[Bolus of Mendes]]'s 3rd-century&nbsp;{{sc|bc}} ''On Physical and Mystical Matters'' ({{lang-grc-gre|''Physika kai Mystika''}}).<ref name="Antoine Faivre 1995. p.96">Antoine Faivre, Wouter J. Hanegraaff. ''Western esotericism and the science of religion.'' 1995. p.96</ref> {{anchor|Etymology}} == Name == {{See also|Chemistry (etymology)}} The word alchemy was borrowed from [[Old French]] ''alquemie'', ''alkimie'', taken from [[Medieval Latin]] ''alchymia'', and which is in turn borrowed from [[Arabic]] ''al-kīmiyā’'' ({{rtl-lang|ar|الكيمياء}}) ‘philosopher's stone’. The Arabic word is borrowed from [[Late Greek]] ''chēmeía'' (χημεία), ''chēmía'' (χημία)<ref>[http://oxforddictionaries.com/view/entry/m_en_gb0017630#DWS-M_EN_GB-037342 alchemy], Oxford Dictionaries</ref> ‘black magic’ with the [[agglutination]] of the Arabic [[definite article]] ''[[al-]]'' ({{rtl-lang|ar|الـ}}).<ref name=OED>{{OED|alchemy}} Or see {{OEtymD|alchemy|accessdate=April 7, 2010}}.</ref> This ancient Greek word was derived from<ref>See, for example, the etymology for χημεία in {{Cite book| edition = Eighth edition, revised throughout| publisher = Clarendon Press| last = Liddell| first = Henry George|author2=Robert Scott| title = A Greek-English Lexicon| location = Oxford| year = 1901| isbn = 0-19-910205-8}}</ref> the early Greek name for Egypt, ''Chēmia'' (Χημία), based on the [[Egyptian language|Egyptian]] name for Egypt, ''kēme'' (hieroglyphic ''khmi'', lit. ‘black earth’, as opposed to red desert sand).<ref name=OED /> The Medieval Latin form was influenced by Greek ''chymeia'' (χυμεία) meaning ‘mixture’ and referring to [[pharmaceutical chemistry]].<ref>See, for example, both the etymology given in the Oxford English Dictionary and also that for χυμεία in {{Cite book| edition = A new edition, revised and augmented throughout| publisher = Clarendon Press| last = Liddell| first = Henry George|author2=Robert Scott|author3=Henry Stuart Jones| title = A Greek-English Lexicon| location = Oxford| year = 1940|url = http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/morph?l=xumeia&la=greek#lexicon| isbn = 0-19-910205-8}}</ref> == History == Alchemy covers several philosophical traditions spanning some four millennia and three continents. These traditions' general penchant for cryptic and symbolic language makes it hard to trace their mutual influences and "genetic" relationships. One can distinguish at least three major strands, which appear to be largely independent, at least in their earlier stages: [[Chinese alchemy]], centered in China and its zone of cultural influence; [[Rasayana|Indian alchemy]], centered on the [[Indian subcontinent]]; and Western alchemy, which occurred around the [[Mediterranean Basin|Mediterranean]] and whose center has shifted over the millennia from [[Egypt (Roman province)|Greco-Roman Egypt]], to the [[Muslim world|Islamic world]], and finally [[Middle Ages|medieval Europe]]. Chinese alchemy was closely connected to [[Taoism]] and Indian alchemy with the [[Indian religions|Dharmic faiths]], whereas Western alchemy developed its own philosophical system that was largely independent of, but influenced by, various [[Western religion]]s. It is still an open question whether these three strands share a common origin, or to what extent they influenced each other. === Hellenistic Egypt === [[File:Zosimosapparat.jpg|thumb|left|300px| Ambix, cucurbit and retort of [[Zosimos of Panopolis|Zosimos]], from [[Marcelin Berthelot]], ''Collection des anciens alchimistes grecs'' (3 vol., Paris, 1887–1888).]] The start of Western alchemy may generally be traced to [[Egypt (Roman province)|Hellenistic Egypt]], where the city of [[Alexandria]] was a center of alchemical knowledge, and retained its pre-eminence through most of the Greek and Roman periods.<ref>''New Scientist'', 24–31 December 1987</ref> Here, elements of technology, religion, mythology, and [[Hellenistic philosophy]], each with their own much longer histories, combined to form the earliest known records of alchemy in the West. [[Zosimos of Panopolis]] wrote the oldest known books on alchemy,{{citation needed|date=February 2013}} while [[Mary the Jewess]] is credited as being the first non-fictitious Western alchemist. They wrote in [[Greek language|Greek]] and lived in [[Egypt]] under [[Roman Empire|Roman]] rule. '''Mythology''' – Zosimos of Panopolis asserted that alchemy dated back to [[Ancient Egypt|Pharaonic Egypt]] where it was the domain of the priestly class, though there is little to no evidence for his assertion.<ref>{{cite book|last=Garfinkel|first=Harold|title=Ethnomethodological Studies of Work|publisher=Routledge &Kegan Paul|year=1986|pages=127|isbn=0-415-11965-0}}</ref> Alchemical writers used Classical figures from Greek, Roman, and Egyptian mythology to illuminate their works and allegorize alchemical transmutation.<ref>Yves Bonnefoy. 'Roman and European Mythologies'. University of Chicago Press, 1992. pp. 211–213</ref> These included the pantheon of gods related to the Classical planets, [[Isis]], [[Osiris]], [[Jason]], and many others. The central figure in the mythology of alchemy is [[Hermes Trismegistus]] (or Thrice-Great Hermes). His name is derived from the [[deity|god]] [[Thoth]] and his Greek counterpart [[Hermes]]. Hermes and his [[caduceus]] or serpent-staff, were among alchemy's principal symbols. According to [[Clement of Alexandria]], he wrote what were called the "forty-two books of Hermes", covering all fields of knowledge.<ref>[[s:Ante-Nicene Fathers/Volume II/CLEMENT OF ALEXANDRIA/The Stromata, or Miscellanies/Book VI/Chapter IV.|Clement, ''Stromata'', vi. 4.]]</ref> The ''[[Hermetica]]'' of Thrice-Great Hermes is generally understood to form the basis for Western alchemical philosophy and practice, called the [[hermeticism|hermetic philosophy]] by its early practitioners. These writings were collected in the first centuries of the common era. '''Technology''' – The dawn of Western alchemy is sometimes associated with that of [[metallurgy]], extending back to 3500&nbsp;{{sc|bc}}.<ref>{{Harvnb|Linden|1996|p=12}}</ref> Many writings were lost when the [[Roman Emperor|emperor]] [[Diocletian]] ordered the burning of alchemical books<ref>{{cite book|last=Partington|first=James Riddick|title=A Short History of Chemistry|year=1989|pages=20|isbn=0-486-65977-1|publisher=Dover Publications|location=New York}}</ref> after suppressing a revolt in Alexandria ({{sc|ad}}&nbsp;292). Few original Egyptian documents on alchemy have survived, most notable among them the [[Stockholm papyrus]] and the [[Leyden papyrus X]]. Dating from {{sc|ad}}&nbsp;300–500, they contained recipes for dyeing and making artificial gemstones, cleaning and fabricating pearls, and manufacturing of imitation gold and silver.<ref>{{Harvnb|Linden|2003|p=46}}</ref> These writings lack the mystical, philosophical elements of alchemy, but do contain the works of [[Bolus of Mendes]] (or [[Pseudo-Democritus]]), which aligned these recipes with theoretical knowledge of astrology and the [[classical elements]].<ref name="Chemistry, Bensaude-Vincent 1996, p13">''A History of Chemistry'', Bensaude-Vincent, Isabelle Stengers, ''Harvard University Press'', 1996, '''p13'''</ref> Between the time of Bolus and Zosimos, the change took place that transformed this metallurgy into a Hermetic art.<ref>{{Harvnb|Linden|1996|p=14}}</ref> '''Philosophy''' – Alexandria acted as a melting pot for philosophies of [[Pythagoreanism]], [[Platonism]], [[Stoicism]] and [[Gnosticism]] which formed the origin of alchemy's character.<ref name="Chemistry, Bensaude-Vincent 1996, p13" /> An important example of alchemy's roots in Greek philosophy, originated by [[Empedocles]] and developed by Aristotle, was that all things in the universe were formed from only four elements: [[Earth (classical element)|earth]], [[Air (classical element)|air]], [[Water (classical element)|water]], and [[Fire (classical element)|fire]]. According to Aristotle, each element had a sphere to which it belonged and to which it would return if left undisturbed.<ref>{{cite book | author=Lindsay, Jack | title=The Origins of Alchemy in Graeco-Roman Egypt | location=London | publisher=Muller | year=1970 | isbn= 0-389-01006-5 | page=16 }}</ref> The four elements of the Greek were mostly qualitative aspects of matter, not quantitative, as our modern elements are; "...True alchemy never regarded earth, air, water, and fire as corporeal or chemical substances in the present-day sense of the word. The four elements are simply the primary, and most general, qualities by means of which the amorphous and purely quantitative substance of all bodies first reveals itself in differentiated form."<ref>{{cite book | first=Titus | last=Burckhardt | authorlink=Titus Burckhardt | title=Alchemy: Science of the Cosmos, Science of the Soul | location=Baltimore | publisher=Penguin | year=1967 | page=66 | others=Trans. William Stoddart | isbn=0-906540-96-8}}</ref> Later alchemists extensively developed the mystical aspects of this concept. Alchemy coexisted alongside emerging [[Christianity]]. [[Lactantius]] believed Hermes Trismegistus had prophesied its birth. [[Augustine of Hippo|St&nbsp;Augustine]] later affirmed this in the 4th & 5th centuries, but also condemned Trismegistus for idolatry.<ref>Fanning, Philip Ashley. ''Isaac Newton and the Transmutation of Alchemy: An Alternative View of the Scientific Revolution.'' 2009. p.6</ref> Examples of Pagan, Christian, and Jewish alchemists can be found during this period. Most of the Greco-Roman alchemists preceding Zosimos are known only by pseudonyms, such as [[Moses of Alexandria|Moses]], Isis, [[Cleopatra the Alchemist|Cleopatra]], [[Pseudo-Democritus|Democritus]], and [[Ostanes]]. Others authors such as Komarios, and [[Chymes]], we only know through fragments of text. After {{sc|ad}}&nbsp;400, Greek alchemical writers occupied themselves solely in commenting on the works of these predecessors.<ref>F. Sherwood Taylor. ''Alchemists, Founders of Modern Chemistry.'' p.26.</ref> By the middle of the 7th century alchemy was almost an entirely mystical discipline.<ref>Allen G. Debus. ''Alchemy and early modern chemistry: papers from Ambix.'' p. 36</ref> It was at that time that [[Khalid Ibn Yazid]] sparked its migration from Alexandria to the Islamic world, facilitating the translation and preservation of Greek alchemical texts in the 8th and 9th centuries.<ref>Glen Warren Bowersock, Peter Robert Lamont Brown, Oleg Grabar. ''Late antiquity: a guide to the postclassical world.'' p. 284–285</ref> === India === {{Main|Rasayana}} {{See also|History of metallurgy in the Indian subcontinent}} The [[Vedas]] describe a connection between eternal life and gold.<ref name=eb /> The use of [[Mercury (element)|Mercury]] for alchemy is first documented in the 3rd– or 4th–century ''[[Arthashastra]]''. [[Buddhism|Buddhist]] texts from the 2nd to 5th centuries mention the transmutation of base metals to gold. Greek alchemy may have been introduced to Ancient India through the invasions of [[Alexander the Great]] in 325&nbsp;{{sc|bc}}, and kingdoms that were culturally influenced by the Greeks like [[Gandhāra]], although hard evidence for this is lacking.<ref name=eb>Multhauf, Robert P. & Gilbert, Robert Andrew (2008). ''Alchemy''. Encyclopædia Britannica (2008).</ref> The 11th-century [[Alchemy and chemistry in medieval Islam|Persian chemist]] and [[Medicine in medieval Islam|physician]] [[Abū Rayhān Bīrūnī]], who visited Gujarat as part of the court of [[Mahmud of Ghazni]], reported that they {{bquote|have a science similar to alchemy which is quite peculiar to them, which in [[Sanskrit]] is called [[Rasayāna]] and in Persian [[Rasavātam]]. It means the art of obtaining/manipulating ''Rasa'': nectar, mercury, and juice. This art was restricted to certain operations, metals, drugs, compounds, and medicines, many of which have mercury as their core element. Its principles restored the health of those who were ill beyond hope and gave back youth to fading old age.}} The goals of alchemy in India included the creation of a divine body (Sanskrit ''divya-deham'') and immortality while still embodied (Sanskrit ''jīvan-mukti''). Sanskrit alchemical texts include much material on the manipulation of mercury and sulphur, that are homologized with the semen of the god Śiva and the menstrual blood of the goddess Devī. Some early alchemical writings seem to have their origins in the [[Kaula]] tantric schools associated to the teachings of the personality of [[Matsyendranath]]. Other early writings are found in the Jaina medical treatise ''Kalyāṇakārakam'' of Ugrāditya, written in South India in the early 9th century.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Meulenbeld|first1=G. Jan|title=History of Indian Medical Literature|date=1999–2002|publisher=Egbert Forsten|location=Groningen|pages=IIA, 151–155|ref=HIML}}</ref> Two famous early Indian alchemical authors were [[Nagarjuna (metallurgist)|Nāgārjuna Siddha]] and Nityanātha Siddha. Nāgārjuna Siddha was a Buddhist monk. His book, ''Rasendramangalam'', is an example of Indian alchemy and medicine. Nityanātha Siddha wrote ''Rasaratnākara'', also a highly influential work. In Sanskrit, ''rasa'' translates to "mercury", and Nāgārjuna Siddha was said to have developed a method of converting mercury into gold.<ref>See Dominik Wujastyk, "An Alchemical Ghost: The Rasaratnākara of Nāgarjuna" in ''Ambix'' 31.2 (1984): 70-83. Online at http://univie.academia.edu/DominikWujastyk/Papers/152766/</ref> Reliable scholarship on Indian alchemy has been advanced in a major way by the publication of ''The Alchemical Body'' by David Gordon White.<ref>See bibliographical details and links at https://openlibrary.org/works/OL3266066W/The_Alchemical_Body</ref> Trustworthy scholarship on Indian alchemy must now take the findings of this work into account. An important modern bibliography on Indian alchemical studies has also been provided by David Gordon White at [http://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/view/document/obo-9780195399318/obo-9780195399318-0046.xml?rskey=skoSqW&result=1&q=rasayana#firstMatch Oxford Bibliographies Online].<ref>DOI: 10.1093/OBO/9780195399318-0046</ref> The contents of 39 Sanskrit alchemical treatises have been analysed in detail in G. Jan Meulenbeld's ''History of Indian Medical Literature''.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Meulenbeld|first1=G. Jan|title=History of Indian Medical Literature|date=1999–2002|publisher=Egbert Forsten|location=Groningen|pages=IIA, 581–738}}</ref>{{refn|group=n|To wit, the ''Ānandakanda, Āyurvedaprakāśa, Gorakṣasaṃhitā, Kākacaṇḍeśvarīmatatantra, Kākacaṇḍīśvarakalpatantra, Kūpīpakvarasanirmāṇavijñāna, Pāradasaṃhitā, Rasabhaiṣajyakalpanāvijñāna, Rasādhyāya, Rasahṛdayatantra, Rasajalanidhi, Rasakāmadhenu, Rasakaumudī, Rasamañjarī, Rasamitra, Rasāmṛta, Rasapaddhati, Rasapradīpa, Rasaprakāśasudhākara, Rasarājalakṣmī, Rasaratnadīpikā, Rasaratnākara, Rasaratnasamuccaya, Rasārṇava, Rasārṇavakalpa, Rasasaṃketakalikā, Rasasāra, Rasataraṅgiṇī, Rasāyanasāra, Rasayogasāgara, Rasayogaśataka, Rasendracintāmaṇi, Rasendracūḍāmaṇi, Rasendramaṅgala, Rasendrapurāṇa, Rasendrasambhava, Rasendrasārasaṅgraha, Rasoddhāratantra'' or ''Rasasaṃhitā'', and '' Rasopaniṣad''. }} The discussion of these works in HIML gives a summary of the contents of each work, their special features, and where possible the evidence concerning their dating. Chapter 13 of HIML, ''Various works on rasaśāstra and ratnaśāstra'' (or ''Various works on alchemy and gems'') gives brief details of a further 655 (six hundred and fifty-five) treatises. In some cases Meulenbeld gives notes on the contents and authorship of these works; in other cases references are made only to the unpublished manuscripts of these titles. A great deal remains to be discovered about Indian alchemical literature. The content of the Sanskrit alchemical corpus has not yet (2014) been adequately integrated into the wider general history of alchemy. {{anchor|Islamic alchemy|Islamic world}} === Muslim world === {{Main|Alchemy and chemistry in medieval Islam}} [[File:Jabir ibn Hayyan.jpg|thumb|right|[[Jābir ibn Hayyān|Jabir ibn Hayyan]] (Geber), considered the "father of [[chemistry]]", introduced a [[Scientific method|scientific]] and [[experiment]]al approach to alchemy.]] After [[The fall of the roman empire|the fall of the Roman Empire]], the focus of alchemical development moved to the Islamic World. Much more is known about [[Islam]]ic alchemy because it was better documented: indeed, most of the earlier writings that have come down through the years were preserved as Arabic translations.<ref>{{cite book | first=Titus | last=Burckhardt | authorlink=Titus Burckhardt | title=Alchemy: Science of the Cosmos, Science of the Soul | location=Baltimore | publisher=Penguin | year=1967 | page=46 | others=Trans. William Stoddart | isbn=0-906540-96-8}}</ref> The word ''alchemy'' itself was derived from the Arabic word ''al-kīmiyā’'' (الكيمياء). The early Islamic world was a melting pot for alchemy. [[Plato]]nic and [[Aristotle|Aristotelian]] thought, which had already been somewhat appropriated into hermetical science, continued to be assimilated during the late 7th and early 8th centuries through [[Syriac language|Syriac]] translations and scholarship. In the late 8th century, [[Jābir ibn Hayyān]] (Latinized as "Geber" or "Geberus") introduced a new approach to alchemy, based on [[scientific method]]ology and controlled [[experiment]]ation in the [[laboratory]], in contrast to the ancient Greek and Egyptian alchemists whose works were often allegorical and unintelligible, with very little concern for laboratory work.<ref name=Kraus /> Jabir is thus "considered by many to be the father of [[chemistry]]",<ref>{{Cite journal|first=Zygmunt S.|last=Derewenda|year=2007|title=On wine, chirality and crystallography|journal=Acta Crystallographica Section A: Foundations of Crystallography|volume=64|pages=246–258 [247]|doi=10.1107/S0108767307054293|pmid=18156689|bibcode = 2008AcCrA..64..246D }}</ref> albeit others reserve that title for [[Robert Boyle]] or [[Antoine Lavoisier]]. The science historian, Paul Kraus, wrote: {{quote|To form an idea of the historical place of Jabir's alchemy and to tackle the problem of its sources, it is advisable to compare it with what remains to us of the alchemical literature in the [[Greek language]]. One knows in which miserable state this literature reached us. Collected by [[Byzantine science|Byzantine scientists]] from the tenth century, the corpus of the Greek alchemists is a cluster of incoherent fragments, going back to all the times since the third century until the end of the Middle Ages. The efforts of Berthelot and Ruelle to put a little order in this mass of literature led only to poor results, and the later researchers, among them in particular Mrs. Hammer-Jensen, Tannery, Lagercrantz, von Lippmann, Reitzenstein, Ruska, Bidez, Festugiere and others, could make clear only few points of detail .... The study of the Greek alchemists is not very encouraging. An even surface examination of the Greek texts shows that a very small part only was organized according to true experiments of laboratory: even the supposedly technical writings, in the state where we find them today, are unintelligible nonsense which refuses any interpretation. It is different with Jabir's alchemy. The relatively clear description of the processes and the alchemical apparati, the methodical classification of the substances, mark an experimental spirit which is extremely far away from the weird and odd esotericism of the Greek texts. The theory on which Jabir supports his operations is one of clearness and of an impressive unity. More than with the other Arab authors, one notes with him a balance between theoretical teaching and practical teaching, between the ''[[Ilm (Arabic)|`ilm]]'' and the ''`amal''. In vain one would seek in the Greek texts a work as systematic as that which is presented, for example, in the ''Book of Seventy''.<ref name=Kraus>Kraus, Paul, Jâbir ibn Hayyân, ''Contribution à l'histoire des idées scientifiques dans l'Islam. I. Le corpus des écrits jâbiriens. II. Jâbir et la science grecque,''. Cairo (1942–1943). Repr. By Fuat Sezgin, (Natural Sciences in Islam. 67–68), Frankfurt. 2002: (cf. {{cite web|author=[[Ahmad Y Hassan]]|title=A Critical Reassessment of the Geber Problem: Part Three|url=http://www.history-science-technology.com/geber/geber%2003.html|accessdate=16 September 2014}})</ref>}} Jabir himself clearly recognized and proclaimed the importance of experimentation: {{bquote|The first essential in chemistry is that thou shouldest perform practical work and conduct experiments,<br /> for he who performs not practical work nor makes experiments will never attain to the least degree of mastery.<ref>{{Harvnb|Holmyard|1931|p=60}}</ref>}} Early Islamic chemists such as [[Jābir ibn Hayyān|Jabir Ibn Hayyan]], [[Al-Kindi]] ("Alkindus") and [[Muhammad ibn Zakarīya Rāzi]] ("Rasis" or "Rhazes") contributed a number of key chemical discoveries, such as the muriatic ([[hydrochloric acid]]), [[sulfuric acid|sulfuric]] and [[nitric acid]]s, and more. The discovery that [[aqua regia]], a mixture of nitric and hydrochloric acids, could dissolve the noblest metal, gold, was to fuel the imagination of alchemists for the next millennium. Islamic philosophers also made great contributions to alchemical hermeticism. The most influential author in this regard was arguably Jabir. Jabir's ultimate goal was ''[[Takwin]]'', the artificial creation of life in the alchemical laboratory, up to, and including, human life. He analyzed each Aristotelian element in terms of four basic qualities of ''hotness'', ''coldness'', ''dryness'', and ''moistness''.<ref name=burckhardt29 /> According to Jabir, in each metal two of these qualities were interior and two were exterior. For example, lead was externally cold and dry, while gold was hot and moist. Thus, Jabir theorized, by rearranging the qualities of one metal, a different metal would result.<ref name=burckhardt29>{{cite book | first=Titus | last=Burckhardt | authorlink=Titus Burckhardt | title=Alchemy: Science of the Cosmos, Science of the Soul | location=Baltimore | publisher=Penguin | year=1967 | page=29 | others=Trans. William Stoddart | isbn=0-906540-96-8}}</ref> By this reasoning, the search for the [[philosopher's stone]] was introduced to Western alchemy. Jabir developed an elaborate [[numerology]] whereby the root letters of a substance's name in Arabic, when treated with various transformations, held correspondences to the element's physical properties. The elemental system used in medieval alchemy also originated with Jabir. His original system consisted of seven elements, which included the five [[classical element]]s ([[aether (classical element)|aether]], [[Air (classical element)|air]], [[Earth (classical element)|earth]], [[Fire (classical element)|fire]], and [[Water (classical element)|water]]) in addition to two [[chemical element]]s representing the metals: [[Sulfur|sulphur]], "the stone which burns", which characterized the principle of combustibility, and [[Mercury (element)|mercury]], which contained the idealized principle of metallic properties. Shortly thereafter, this evolved into eight elements, with the Arabic concept of the three metallic principles: sulphur giving flammability or combustion, mercury giving volatility and stability, and [[Salt (chemistry)|salt]] giving solidity.<ref name="r8">Strathern, Paul. (2000), ''Mendeleyev's Dream – the Quest for the Elements'', New York: Berkley Books</ref> The [[atomic theory]] of [[corpuscularianism]], where all physical bodies possess an inner and outer layer of minute particles or corpuscles, also has its origins in the work of Jabir.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Distilling knowledge: alchemy, chemistry, and the scientific revolution|first=Bruce T.|last=Moran|publisher=[[Harvard University Press]]|year=2005|isbn=0-674-01495-2|page=146|quote=a corpuscularian tradition in alchemy stemming from the speculations of the medieval author Geber (Jabir ibn Hayyan)}}</ref> From the 9th to 14th centuries, alchemical theories faced criticism from a variety of practical Muslim chemists, including [[Al-Kindi|Alkindus]],<ref>Felix Klein-Frank (2001), "Al-Kindi", in [[Oliver Leaman]] & [[Hossein Nasr]], ''History of Islamic Philosophy'', p. 174. London: [[Routledge]].</ref> [[Abū al-Rayhān al-Bīrūnī]],<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Marmura | first1 = Michael E. |name-list-format=vanc| year = 1965 | title = ''An Introduction to Islamic Cosmological Doctrines: Conceptions of Nature and Methods Used for Its Study by the Ikhwan Al-Safa'an, Al-Biruni, and Ibn Sina'' by Seyyed [[Hossein Nasr]] | url = | journal = Speculum | volume = 40 | issue = 4| pages = 744–6 | doi=10.2307/2851429}}</ref> [[Avicenna]]<ref>[[Robert Briffault]] (1938). ''The Making of Humanity'', p. 196–197.</ref> and [[Ibn Khaldun]]. In particular, they wrote refutations against the idea of the [[Philosopher's stone|transmutation of metals]]. === East Asia === {{Main|Chinese alchemy}} [[File:Esoteric Taijitu.svg|thumb| upright=0.5|Taoist Alchemists often use this alternate version of the [[Taijitu]].]] Whereas European alchemy eventually centered on the transmutation of base metals into noble metals, Chinese alchemy had a more obvious connection to medicine. The [[philosopher's stone]] of European alchemists can be compared to the [[Elixir of life|Grand Elixir of Immortality]] sought by Chinese alchemists. However, in the hermetic view, these two goals were not unconnected, and the philosopher's stone was often equated with the [[universal panacea]]; therefore, the two traditions may have had more in common than initially appears. [[Black powder]] may have been an important invention of Chinese alchemists. As previously stated above, [[China|Chinese]] alchemy was more related to medicine. It is said that the Chinese invented gunpowder while trying to find a [[potion]] for eternal life. Described in 9th-century texts{{Citation needed|date=September 2015}} and used in [[fireworks]] in China by the 10th century{{Citation needed|date=September 2015}}, it was used in [[cannon]]s by 1290{{Citation needed|date=September 2015}}. From China, the use of [[gunpowder]] spread to Japan, the [[Mongol]]s, the Muslim world, and Europe. Gunpowder was used by the Mongols against the Hungarians in 1241, and in Europe by the 14th century. Chinese alchemy was closely connected to [[Taoist]] forms of [[traditional Chinese medicine]], such as [[Acupuncture]] and [[Moxibustion]], and to martial arts such as [[T'ai chi ch'uan|Tai Chi Chuan]]{{Citation needed|date=September 2015}} and [[Kung Fu]] (although some Tai Chi schools believe that their art derives from the philosophical or hygienic branches of Taoism, not Alchemical). In fact, in the early [[Song dynasty]], followers of this Taoist idea (chiefly the elite and upper class) would ingest [[cinnabar|mercuric sulfide]], which, though tolerable in low levels, led many to suicide{{Citation needed|date=September 2015}}. Thinking that this consequential death would lead to freedom and access to the Taoist heavens, the ensuing deaths encouraged people to eschew this method of alchemy in favor of external sources{{Citation needed|date=September 2015}} (the aforementioned Tai Chi Chuan{{Citation needed|date=September 2015}}, mastering of the [[qi]]{{Citation needed|date=September 2015}}, etc.). === Medieval Europe === <!-- [[Aludel]] links to this section--> [[File:Joseph Wright of Derby The Alchemist.jpg|thumb|right||''[[The Alchemist in Search of the Philosopher's Stone]]'', by Joseph Wright, 1771]] The introduction of alchemy to Latin Europe may be dated to 11 February 1144, with the completion of [[Robert of Chester]]'s translation of the Arabic ''Book of the Composition of Alchemy''. Although European craftsmen and technicians preexisted, Robert notes in his preface that alchemy was unknown in Latin Europe at the time of his writing. The translation of Arabic texts concerning numerous disciplines including alchemy flourished in 12th-century [[Toledo, Spain]], through contributors like [[Gerard of Cremona]] and [[Adelard of Bath]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Holmyard|1957|pp=105–108}}</ref> Translations of the time included the [[Turba Philosophorum]], and the works of [[Avicenna]] and [[al-Razi]]. These brought with them many new words to the European vocabulary for which there was no previous Latin equivalent. Alcohol, carboy, elixir, and athanor are examples.<ref>{{Harvnb|Holmyard|1957|p=110}}</ref> Meanwhile, theologian contemporaries of the translators made strides towards the reconciliation of faith and experimental rationalism, thereby priming Europe for the influx of alchemical thought. The 11th-century [[Anselm of Canterbury|St&nbsp;Anselm]] put forth the opinion that faith and rationalism were compatible and encouraged rationalism in a Christian context. In the early 12th century, [[Peter Abelard]] followed Anselm's work, laying down the foundation for acceptance of Aristotelian thought before the first works of Aristotle had reached the West. In the early 13th century, [[Robert Grosseteste]] used Abelard's methods of analysis and added the use of observation, experimentation, and conclusions when conducting scientific investigations. Grosseteste also did much work to reconcile Platonic and Aristotelian thinking.<ref name=hollister294f>{{cite book | author=Hollister, C. Warren | title=Medieval Europe: A Short History | location=Blacklick, Ohio | publisher=McGraw–Hill College | year=1990 | isbn=0-07-557141-2 | edition=6th |pages=294f}}</ref> Through much of the 12th and 13th centuries, alchemical knowledge in Europe remained centered on translations, and new Latin contributions were not made. The efforts of the translators were succeeded by that of the encyclopaedists. In the 13th century, [[Albertus Magnus]] and [[Roger Bacon]] were the most notable of these, their work summarizing and explaining the newly imported alchemical knowledge in Aristotelian terms.<ref>John Read. ''From Alchemy to Chemistry.'' 1995 p.90</ref> Albertus Magnus, a [[Dominican Order|Dominican monk]], is known to have written works such as the ''Book of Minerals'' where he observed and commented on the operations and theories of alchemical authorities like Hermes and Democritus and unnamed alchemists of his time. Albertus critically compared these to the writings of Aristotle and Avicenna, where they concerned the transmutation of metals. From the time shortly after his death through to the 15th century, more than 28 alchemical tracts were misattributed to him, a common practice giving rise to his reputation as an accomplished alchemist.<ref>James A. Weisheipl. ''Albertus Magnus and the Sciences: Commemorative Essays.'' PIMS. 1980. p.187-202</ref> Likewise, alchemical texts have been attributed to Albert's student [[Thomas Aquinas]]. Roger Bacon, a [[Franciscan Order|Franciscan monk]] who wrote on a wide variety of topics including [[optics]], [[comparative linguistics]], and medicine, composed his ''[[Opus Majus|Great Work]]'' ({{lang-la|Opus Majus}}) for {{nowrap|[[Pope Clement IV]]}} as part of a project towards rebuilding the [[medieval university]] curriculum to include the new learning of his time. While alchemy was not more important to him than other sciences and he did not produce allegorical works on the topic, he did consider it and astrology to be important parts of both natural philosophy and theology and his contributions advanced alchemy's connections to [[soteriology]] and Christian theology. Bacon's writings integrated morality, salvation, alchemy, and the prolongation of life. His correspondence with Clement highlighted this, noting the importance of alchemy to the papacy.<ref>Edmund Brehm. "Roger Bacon's Place in the History of Alchemy." ''Ambix.'' Vol. 23, Part I, March 1976.</ref> Like the Greeks before him, Bacon acknowledged the division of alchemy into practical and theoretical spheres. He noted that the theoretical lay outside the scope of Aristotle, the natural philosophers, and all Latin writers of his time. The practical, however, confirmed the theoretical thought experiment, and Bacon advocated its uses in natural science and medicine.<ref>{{Harvnb|Holmyard|1957|pp=120–121}}</ref> In later European legend, however, Bacon became an archmage. In particular, along with Albertus Magnus, he was credited with the forging of a [[brazen head]] capable of answering its owner's questions. Soon after Bacon, the influential work of [[Pseudo-Geber]] (sometimes identified as [[Paul of Taranto]]) appeared. His ''Summa Perfectionis'' remained a staple summary of alchemical practice and theory through the medieval and renaissance periods. It was notable for its inclusion of practical chemical operations alongside sulphur-mercury theory, and the unusual clarity with which they were described.<ref>{{Harvnb|Holmyard|1957|pp=134–141}}.</ref> By the end of the 13th century, alchemy had developed into a fairly structured system of belief. Adepts believed in the macrocosm-microcosm theories of Hermes, that is to say, they believed that processes that affect minerals and other substances could have an effect on the human body (for example, if one could learn the secret of purifying gold, one could use the technique to purify the [[soul|human soul]]). They believed in the four elements and the four qualities as described above, and they had a strong tradition of cloaking their written ideas in a labyrinth of coded [[jargon]] set with traps to mislead the uninitiated. Finally, the alchemists practiced their art: they actively experimented with chemicals and made [[observation]]s and [[theory|theories]] about how the universe operated. Their entire philosophy revolved around their belief that man's soul was divided within himself after the fall of Adam. By purifying the two parts of man's soul, man could be reunited with God.<ref>{{cite book | first=Titus | last=Burckhardt | authorlink=Titus Burckhardt | title=Alchemy: Science of the Cosmos, Science of the Soul | location=Baltimore | publisher=Penguin | year=1967 | page=149 | others=Trans. William Stoddart | isbn=0-906540-96-8}}</ref> In the 14th century, alchemy became more accessible to Europeans outside the confines of Latin speaking churchmen and scholars. Alchemical discourse shifted from scholarly philosophical debate to an exposed social commentary on the alchemists themselves.<ref>Tara E. Nummedal. ''Alchemy and Authority in the Holy Roman Empire.'' University of Chicago Press, 2007. p. 49</ref> [[Dante]], [[Piers Plowman]], and [[Chaucer]] all painted unflattering pictures of alchemists as thieves and liars. [[Pope John XXII]]'s 1317 edict, ''[[Spondent quas non exhibent]]'' forbade the false promises of transmutation made by pseudo-alchemists.<ref>John Hines, II, R. F. Yeager. ''John Gower, Trilingual Poet: Language, Translation, and Tradition.'' Boydell & Brewer. 2010. p.170</ref> In 1403, Henry IV of England banned the practice of multiplying metals (although it was possible to buy a licence to attempt to make gold alchemically, and a number were granted by Henry VI and Edward IV<ref>D. Geoghegan, "A licence of Henry VI to practise Alchemy" Ambix, volume 6, 1957, pages 10-17</ref>). These critiques and regulations centered more around pseudo-alchemical charlatanism than the actual study of alchemy, which continued with an increasingly Christian tone. The 14th century saw the Christian imagery of death and resurrection employed in the alchemical texts of [[Petrus Bonus]], [[John of Rupescissa]], and in works written in the name of Raymond Lull and Arnold of Villanova.<ref>Leah DeVun. ''From Prophecy, Alchemy, and the End of Time: John of Rupescissa in the late Middle Ages.'' Columbia University Press, 2009. p. 104</ref> [[Nicolas Flamel]] is a well-known alchemist, but a good example of [[pseudepigraphy]], the practice of giving your works the name of someone else, usually more famous. Though the historical Flamel existed, the writings and legends assigned to him only appeared in 1612.<ref>{{Harvnb|Linden|2003|p=123}}</ref><ref>"Nicolas Flamel. Des Livres et de l'or" by Nigel Wilkins</ref> Flamel was not a religious scholar as were many of his predecessors, and his entire interest in the subject revolved around the pursuit of the [[philosopher's stone]]. His work spends a great deal of time describing the processes and reactions, but never actually gives the formula for carrying out the transmutations. Most of 'his' work was aimed at gathering alchemical knowledge that had existed before him, especially as regarded the philosopher's stone.<ref>{{cite book | first=Titus | last=Burckhardt | authorlink=Titus Burckhardt | title=Alchemy: Science of the Cosmos, Science of the Soul | location=Baltimore | publisher=Penguin | year=1967 | pages=170–181 | others=Trans. William Stoddart | isbn=0-906540-96-8}}</ref> Through the [[late Middle Ages|14th and 15th centuries]], alchemists were much like Flamel: they concentrated on looking for the philosophers' stone. [[Bernard Trevisan]] and [[George Ripley (alchemist)|George Ripley]] made similar contributions. Their cryptic allusions and [[symbol]]ism led to wide variations in interpretation of the art. === Renaissance and early modern Europe === {{Further|Renaissance magic|natural magic}} [[File:Raimundus Lullus alchemic page.jpg|thumb|right|Page from alchemic treatise of [[Ramon Llull]], 16th century.]] During the [[Renaissance]], Hermetic and Platonic foundations were restored to European alchemy. The dawn of medical, pharmaceutical, occult, and entrepreneurial branches of alchemy followed. In the late 15th century, [[Marsilo Ficino]] translated the [[Corpus Hermeticum]] and the works of Plato into Latin. These were previously unavailable to Europeans who for the first time had a full picture of the alchemical theory that Bacon had declared absent. [[Renaissance Humanism]] and [[Renaissance Neoplatonism]] guided alchemists away from physics to refocus on mankind as the alchemical vessel. Esoteric systems developed that blended alchemy into a broader occult Hermeticism, fusing it with magic, astrology, and Christian cabala.<ref>Peter J. Forshaw. '"Chemistry, That Starry Science" - Early Modern Conjunctions of Astrology and Alchemy' (2013)</ref><ref>Peter J. Forshaw, 'Cabala Chymica or Chemia Cabalistica – Early Modern Alchemists and Cabala' (2013)</ref> A key figure in this development was German [[Heinrich Cornelius Agrippa]] (1486–1535), who received his Hermetic education in Italy in the schools of the humanists. In his ''De Occulta Philosophia'', he attempted to merge [[Kabbalah]], Hermetism, and alchemy. He was instrumental in spreading this new blend of Hermeticism outside the borders of Italy.<ref>Glenn Alexander Magee. ''Hegel and the Hermetic Tradition.'' Cornell University Press. 2008. p.30</ref><ref>Nicholas Goodrick-Clarke. ''The Western Esoteric Traditions: A Historical Introduction.'' Oxford University Press. 2008 p.60</ref> Philippus Aureolus [[Paracelsus]], (Theophrastus Bombastus von Hohenheim, 1493–1541) cast alchemy into a new form, rejecting some of Agrippa's occultism and moving away from [[chrysopoeia]]. Paracelsus pioneered the use of chemicals and minerals in medicine and wrote, "Many have said of Alchemy, that it is for the making of gold and silver. For me such is not the aim, but to consider only what virtue and power may lie in medicines."<ref>{{cite book | author=Edwardes, Michael | title=The Dark Side of History | location=New York | publisher=Stein and Day | year=1977 | page=47 | isbn=0-552-11463-4 }}</ref> His hermetical views were that sickness and health in the body relied on the harmony of man the microcosm and Nature the macrocosm. He took an approach different from those before him, using this analogy not in the manner of soul-purification but in the manner that humans must have certain balances of minerals in their bodies, and that certain illnesses of the body had chemical remedies that could cure them.<ref>{{cite book | author=[[Debus, Allen G.]] and Multhauf, Robert P. | title=Alchemy and Chemistry in the Seventeenth Century | location=Los Angeles | publisher=William Andrews Clark Memorial Library, University of California. | year=1966 | pages=6–12 }}</ref> Paracelsian practical alchemy, especially herbal medicine and plant remedies has since been named [[spagyrics]] (a synonym for alchemy from the Greek words meaning ''to separate'' and ''to join together'', based on the Latin alchemic maxim: ''solve et coagula'').<ref>Joseph Needham. ''Science and Civilisation in China: Volume 5, Chemistry and Chemical Technology, Part 5, Spagyrical Discovery and Invention: Physiological Alchemy.'' Cambridge University Press. P.9</ref> [[Iatrochemistry]] also refers to the pharmaceutical applications of alchemy championed by Paracelsus. [[John Dee]] (13 July 1527 – December, 1608) followed Agrippa's occult tradition. Though better known for angel summoning, divination, and his role as [[astrologer]], cryptographer, and consultant to [[Elizabeth I of England|Queen Elizabeth I]], Dee's alchemical ''Monas Hieroglyphica'', written in 1564 was his most popular and influential work. His writing portrayed alchemy as a sort of terrestrial astronomy in line with the Hermetic axiom ''As above so below''.<ref>William Royall Newman, Anthony Grafton. ''Secrets of Nature: Astrology and Alchemy in Early Modern Europe''. MIT Press, 2001. P.173.</ref> During the 17th century, a short-lived "supernatural" interpretation of alchemy became popular, including support by fellows of the [[Royal Society]]: [[Robert Boyle]] and [[Elias Ashmole]]. Proponents of the supernatural interpretation of alchemy believed that the [[philosopher's stone]] might be used to summon and communicate with angels.<ref>* ''Journal of the History of Ideas, 41'', 1980, '''p. 293-318''' *{{Harvnb|Principe|Newman|2001|pp=399}} * ''The Aspiring Adept: Robert Boyle and His Alchemical Quest'', by Lawrence M. Principe, 'Princeton University Press', 1998, '''pp. 188 90'''</ref> [[File:Alchemik Sedziwoj Matejko.JPG|thumb|left|250px|"Alchemist [[Sendivogius]]" (1566–1636) by [[Jan Matejko]], 1867.]] Entrepreneurial opportunities were not uncommon for the alchemists of Renaissance Europe. Alchemists were contracted by the elite for practical purposes related to mining, medical services, and the production of chemicals, medicines, metals, and gemstones.<ref>Tara E. Nummedal. ''Alchemy and authority in the Holy Roman Empire.'' p.4</ref> [[Rudolf II, Holy Roman Emperor]], in the late 16th century, famously received and sponsored various alchemists at his court in Prague, including Dee and his associate [[Edward Kelley]]. [[James IV of Scotland|King James IV of Scotland]],<ref>''Accounts of the Lord High Treasurer of Scotland'', vol. iii, (1901), 99, 202, 206, 209, 330, 340, 341, 353, 355, 365, 379, 382, 389, 409.</ref> [[Julius, Duke of Brunswick-Lüneburg]], [[Henry V, Duke of Brunswick-Lüneburg]], [[Augustus, Elector of Saxony]], [[Julius Echter von Mespelbrunn]], and [[Maurice, Landgrave of Hesse-Kassel]] all contracted alchemists.<ref>Tara E. Nummedal. ''Alchemy and authority in the Holy Roman Empire.'' p.85-98</ref> John's son [[Arthur Dee]] worked as a court physician to [[Michael I of Russia]] and [[Charles I of England]] but also compiled the alchemical book ''[[Fasciculus Chemicus]]''. Though most of these appointments were legitimate, the trend of pseudo-alchemical fraud continued through the Renaissance. ''Betrüger'' would use sleight of hand, or claims of secret knowledge to make money or secure patronage. Legitimate mystical and medical alchemists such as [[Michael Maier]] and [[Heinrich Khunrath]] wrote about fraudulent transmutations, distinguishing themselves from the [[con artist]]s.<ref>Tara E. Nummedal. ''Alchemy and authority in the Holy Roman Empire.'' p.171</ref> False alchemists were sometimes prosecuted for fraud. The terms "chemia" and "alchemia" were used as synonyms in the early modern period, and the differences between alchemy, chemistry and small-scale assaying and metallurgy were not as neat as in the present day. There were important overlaps between practitioners, and trying to classify them into alchemists, chemists and craftsmen is anachronistic. For example, [[Tycho Brahe]] (1546–1601), an alchemist better known for his [[astronomical]] and [[astrological]] investigations, had a laboratory built at his [[Uraniborg]] observatory/research institute. [[Michał Sędziwój|Michael Sendivogius]] (''Michał Sędziwój'', 1566–1636), a [[Poland|Polish]] alchemist, philosopher, medical doctor and pioneer of chemistry wrote mystical works but is also credited with distilling [[oxygen]] in a lab sometime around 1600. Sendivogious taught his technique to [[Cornelius Drebbel]] who, in 1621, applied this in a submarine. [[Isaac Newton]] devoted considerably more of his writing to the study of alchemy (see [[Isaac Newton's occult studies]]) than he did to either optics or physics. Other early modern alchemists who were eminent in their other studies include [[Robert Boyle]], and [[Jan Baptist van Helmont]]. Their Hermetism complemented rather than precluded their practical achievements in medicine and science. === Late modern period === [[File:The Shannon Portrait of the Hon Robert Boyle.jpg|thumb|right|Robert Boyle]] The decline of European alchemy was brought about by the rise of modern science with its emphasis on rigorous quantitative experimentation and its disdain for "ancient wisdom". Although the seeds of these events were planted as early as the 17th century, alchemy still flourished for some two hundred years, and in fact may have reached its [[apogee]] in the 18th century. As late as 1781 [[James Price (chemist)|James Price]] claimed to have produced a powder that could transmute mercury into silver or gold. Early modern European alchemy continued to exhibit a diversity of theories, practices, and purposes: "Scholastic and anti-Aristotelian, Paracelsian and anti-Paracelsian, Hermetic, Neoplatonic, mechanistic, vitalistic, and more—plus virtually every combination and compromise thereof."<ref name="Alchemy Restored">Principe, Lawrence M. "Alchemy Restored." Isis 102.2 (2011): 305-12. Web.</ref> [[Robert Boyle]] (1627–1691) pioneered the scientific method in chemical investigations. He assumed nothing in his experiments and compiled every piece of relevant data. Boyle would note the place in which the experiment was carried out, the wind characteristics, the position of the Sun and Moon, and the barometer reading, all just in case they proved to be relevant.<ref>{{cite book | author=Pilkington, Roger | title=Robert Boyle: Father of Chemistry | location=London | publisher=John Murray | year=1959 | page=11 }}</ref> This approach eventually led to the founding of modern chemistry in the 18th and 19th centuries, based on revolutionary discoveries of [[Antoine Lavoisier|Lavoisier]] and [[John Dalton]]. Beginning around 1720, a rigid distinction was drawn between "alchemy" and "chemistry" for the first time.<ref name="NewmanPrincipe2002p37">{{Harvnb|Newman|Principe|2002|p=37}}</ref><ref name="PrincipeNewmanp386">{{Harvnb|Principe|Newman|2001|p=386}}</ref> By the 1740s, "alchemy" was now restricted to the realm of gold making, leading to the popular belief that alchemists were charlatans, and the tradition itself nothing more than a fraud.<ref name="Alchemy Restored" /><ref name="PrincipeNewmanp386" /> In order to protect the developing science of modern chemistry from the negative censure of which alchemy was being subjected, academic writers during the scientific Enlightenment attempted, for the sake of survival, to separate and divorce the "new" chemistry from the "old" practices of alchemy. This move was mostly successful, and the consequences of this continued into the 19th and 20th centuries, and even to the present day.<ref name="PrincipeNewmanpp386–7">{{Harvnb|Principe|Newman|2001|pp=386–7}}</ref> During the occult revival of the early 19th century, alchemy received new attention as an occult science.<ref name="PrincipeNewmanp387">{{Harvnb|Principe|Newman|2001|p=387}}</ref><ref name="KripalShuck2005p27">{{Harvnb|Kripal|Shuck|2005|p=27}}</ref> The esoteric or occultist school, which arose during the 19th century, held (and continues to hold) the view that the substances and operations mentioned in alchemical literature are to be interpreted in a spiritual sense, and it downplays the role of the alchemy as a practical tradition or protoscience.<ref name="NewmanPrincipe2002p37" /><ref>{{Harvnb|Eliade|1994|p=49}}</ref><ref name="PrincipeNewmanp388">{{Harvnb|Principe|Newman|2001|p=388}}</ref> This interpretation further forwarded the view that alchemy is an art primarily concerned with spiritual enlightenment or illumination, as opposed to the physical manipulation of apparatus and chemicals, and claims that the obscure language of the alchemical texts were an allegorical guise for spiritual, moral or mystical processes.<ref name="PrincipeNewmanp388" /> In the 19th-century revival of alchemy, the two most seminal figures were [[Mary Anne Atwood]] and [[Ethan A. Hitchcock (general)|Ethan Allen Hitchcock]], who independently published similar works regarding spiritual alchemy. Both forwarded a completely esoteric view of alchemy, as Atwood claimed: "No modern art or chemistry, notwithstanding all its surreptitious claims, has any thing in common with Alchemy."<ref name="PrincipeNewmanp391">{{Harvnb|Principe|Newman|2001|p=391}}</ref><ref name="Rutkin2001p143">{{Harvnb|Rutkin|2001|p=143}}</ref> Atwood's work influenced subsequent authors of the occult revival including [[Eliphas Levi]], [[Arthur Edward Waite]], and [[Rudolf Steiner]]. Hitchcock, in his ''Remarks Upon Alchymists'' (1855) attempted to make a case for his spiritual interpretation with his claim that the alchemists wrote about a spiritual discipline under a materialistic guise in order to avoid accusations of blasphemy from the church and state. In 1845, Baron [[Carl Reichenbach]], published his studies on [[Odic force]], a concept with some similarities to alchemy, but his research did not enter the mainstream of scientific discussion.<ref>Daniel Merkur. ''Gnosis: An Esoteric Tradition of Mystical Visions and Unions.'' SUNY Press. 1993 p.55</ref> === Women in alchemy === Several women figure in the earliest history of alchemy. [[Michael Maier]] names [[Mary the Jewess]], [[Cleopatra the Alchemist]], [[Medera]], and [[Taphnutia]] as the four women who knew how to make the philosopher's stone.<ref>Raphael Patai. ''The Jewish Alchemists: A History and Source Book.'' p. 78.</ref> Zosimos' sister Theosebia (later known as Euthica the Arab) and [[Isis the Prophetess]] also play a role in the early alchemical texts. The first alchemist is recognized as being [[Mary the Jewess]] (c. 200 A.D.).<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|title=Women in Chemistry: Their Changing Roles from Alchemical Times to the Mid-Twentieth Century|last=Rayner-Canham, M and Rayner-Canham, G|first=|publisher=Chemical Heritage Foundation|year=2005|isbn=9780941901277|location=|pages=2–4}}</ref> Mary is known for a number of improvements on alchemy equipment and tools as well as novel techniques in chemistry.<ref name=":0" /> Her most well-known advancements are heating and distillation processes. The water-bath, also known as Bain-Marie is said to have been invented by or at least improved by her.<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Jewish Alchemists: A History and Source Book|last=Patai|first=R|publisher=Princeton University Press|year=1995|isbn=9780691006420|location=|pages=60–80}}</ref> This double-boiler was often used in chemistry for processes that might require gentle heating. The tribikos (a basic still) and the kerotakis (a more intricate distilling apparatus) are two other advancements in the process of distillation that are credited to her.<ref>{{Cite book|title=The origins of alchemy in Graeco-Roman Egypt|last=Lindsay|first=J|publisher=Barnes & Noble|year=1970|isbn=9780389010067|location=New York|pages=240–250}}</ref> While these were great achievements, Mary the Jewess' most critical contribution is considered to be the identification of hydrochloric acid, a frequently used chemical today.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/1094-alchemy#anchor2|title=Alchemy|last=Gaster|first=Moses|date=2011|website=Jewish Encyclopedia|publisher=Funk & Wagnalls Company|access-date=April 6, 2016}}</ref> Though we have no writing from Maria herself, she is known from the fourth century writings of [[Zosimos of Panopolis]].<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Jewish Alchemists: A History and Source Book|last=Patai|first=R|publisher=Princeton University Press|year=|isbn=9780691006420|location=|pages=81–93}}</ref> Due to the proliferation of [[pseudepigrapha]] and anonymous works, it is difficult to know which of the alchemists were actually women. After the Greco-Roman period, women's names appear less frequently the alchemical literature. Women vacate the history of alchemy during the medieval and renaissance periods, aside from the fictitious account of [[Perenelle Flamel]]. [[Mary Anne Atwood]]'s ''A Suggestive Inquiry into the Hermetic Mystery'' (1850) marks their return during the nineteenth century occult revival. === Modern historical research === The history of alchemy has become a significant and recognized subject of academic study.<ref name="Antoine Faivre 1995. p.viii–xv">Antoine Faivre, Wouter J. Hanegraaff. ''Western esotericism and the science of religion.'' 1995. p.viii–xvi</ref> As the language of the alchemists is analyzed, historians are becoming more aware of the intellectual connections between that discipline and other facets of Western cultural history, such as the evolution of science and [[philosophy]], the sociology and psychology of the intellectual communities, [[Kabbalah|kabbalism]], [[spiritualism]], [[Rosicrucianism]], and other mystic movements.<ref>[http://centres.exeter.ac.uk/exeseso/ See Exeter Centre for the Study of Esotericism website]</ref> Institutions involved in this research include The Chymistry of Isaac Newton project at [[Indiana University]], the [[University of Exeter]] Centre for the Study of Esotericism (EXESESO), the [[European Society for the Study of Western Esotericism]] (ESSWE), and the [[University of Amsterdam]]'s Sub-department for the History of Hermetic Philosophy and Related Currents. A large collection of books on alchemy is kept in the [[Bibliotheca Philosophica Hermetica]] in Amsterdam. A recipe found in a mid 19th century kabbalah based book features step by step instructions on turning copper into gold. The author attributed this recipe to an ancient manuscript he located.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://jewishnews.com/2015/09/27/old-jewish-book-outlines-how-to-turn-copper-into-gold|title=Old Jewish Book Outlines how to Turn Copper into Gold|access-date=2016-04-21}}</ref> Journals which publish regularly on the topic of Alchemy include '[[Ambix]]', published by the Society for the History of alchemy and Chemistry, and '[[Isis (journal)|Isis]]', published by The History of Science Society. == Core concepts == [[File:Fotothek df tg 0006104 Theosophie ^ Alchemie ^ Judentum ^ Kabbala.jpg|thumb|Mandala illustrating common alchemical concepts, symbols, and processes. From ''Spiegel der Kunst und Natur''.]] Western alchemical theory corresponds to the worldview of late antiquity in which it was born. Concepts were imported from [[Neoplatonism]] and earlier Greek [[cosmology]]. As such, the [[Classical elements]] appear in alchemical writings, as do the seven [[Classical planets]] and the corresponding seven [[metals of antiquity]]. Similarly, the gods of the Roman pantheon who are associated with these luminaries are discussed in alchemical literature. The concepts of [[prima materia]] and [[anima mundi]] are central to the theory of the [[philosopher's stone]]. === Hermetism === In the eyes of a variety of esoteric and [[Hermeticism|Hermetic]] practitioners, alchemy is fundamentally spiritual. Transmutation of lead into gold is presented as an analogy for personal transmutation, purification, and perfection.<ref name="Antoine Faivre 1995. p.96" /> The writings attributed to [[Hermes Trismegistus]] are a primary source of alchemical theory. He is named "alchemy's founder and chief patron, authority, inspiration and guide".<ref>{{Harvnb|Linden|2003|pp=9}}</ref> Early alchemists, such as [[Zosimos of Panopolis]] (c. AD 300), highlight the spiritual nature of the alchemical quest, symbolic of a religious regeneration of the human soul.<ref>Allen G. Debus. ''Alchemy and early modern chemistry.'' The Society for the History of Alchemy and Chemistry. p.34.</ref> This approach continued in the Middle Ages, as metaphysical aspects, substances, physical states, and material processes were used as metaphors for [[spirit]]ual entities, spiritual states, and, ultimately, transformation. In this sense, the literal meanings of 'Alchemical Formulas' were a blind, hiding their true [[spiritual philosophy]]. Practitioners and patrons such as [[Melchior Cibinensis]] and [[Pope Innocent VIII]] existed within the ranks of the church, while [[Martin Luther]] applauded alchemy for its consistency with Christian teachings.<ref>Raphael Patai. ''The Jewish Alchemists: A History and Source Book.'' Princeton University Press. p.4</ref> Both the transmutation of common metals into gold and the universal panacea symbolized evolution from an imperfect, diseased, corruptible, and ephemeral state toward a perfect, healthy, incorruptible, and everlasting state, so the philosopher's stone then represented a mystic key that would make this evolution possible. Applied to the alchemist himself, the twin goal symbolized his evolution from ignorance to enlightenment, and the stone represented a hidden spiritual truth or power that would lead to that goal. In texts that are written according to this view, the cryptic [[alchemical symbol]]s, diagrams, and textual imagery of late alchemical works typically contain multiple layers of meanings, allegories, and references to other equally cryptic works; and must be laboriously decoded to discover their true meaning. In his 1766 ''Alchemical Catechism'', Théodore Henri de Tschudi denotes that the usage of the metals was a symbol: {{quote|<poem>Q. When the Philosophers speak of gold and silver, from which they extract their matter, are we to suppose that they refer to the vulgar gold and silver? A. By no means; vulgar silver and gold are dead, while those of the Philosophers are full of life.<ref>Théodore Henri de Tschudi. Hermetic Catechism in his ''L'Etoile Flamboyant ou la Société des Franc-Maçons considerée sous tous les aspects.'' 1766. (A.E. Waite translation as found in ''The Hermetic and Alchemical Writings of Paracelsus.'')</ref></poem>}} === Magnum opus === {{Main|Magnum opus (alchemy)}} The Great Work of Alchemy is often described as a series of four stages represented by colors. *''[[nigredo]]'', a blackening or melanosis *''[[Albedo (alchemy)|albedo]]'', a whitening or leucosis *''[[citrinitas]]'', a yellowing or xanthosis *''[[rubedo]]'', a reddening, purpling, or iosis<ref>Joseph Needham. ''Science & Civilisation in China: Chemistry and chemical technology. Spagyrical discovery and invention: magisteries of gold and immortality.'' Cambridge. 1974. p.23</ref> == Modern alchemy == Due to the complexity and obscurity of alchemical literature, and the 18th-century disappearance of remaining alchemical practitioners into the area of chemistry; the general understanding of alchemy has been strongly influenced by several distinct and radically different interpretations.<ref>{{Harvnb|Principe|Newman|2001|p=385}}</ref> Those focusing on the exoteric, such as historians of science [[Lawrence M. Principe]] and [[William R. Newman]], have interpreted the 'decknamen' (or code words) of alchemy as physical substances. These practitioners have reconstructed physicochemical experiments that they say are described in medieval and early modern texts.<ref>Richard Conniff. "Alchemy May Not Have Been the Pseudoscience We All Thought It Was." [http://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/alchemy-may-not-been-pseudoscience-we-thought-it-was-180949430/#ixzz2sYcrpZl7 Smithsonian Magazine.] February 2014.</ref> At the opposite end of the spectrum, esoteric alchemists interpret these same decknamen as spiritual, religious, or psychological concepts. Today new interpretations of alchemy are still perpetuated, sometimes merging in concepts from [[New Age]] or radical environmentalism movements.<ref>{{Harvnb|Principe|Newman|2001|p=396}}</ref> Groups like the rosicrucians and freemasons have a continued interest in alchemy and its symbolism. Since the Victorian revival of alchemy, "occultists reinterpreted alchemy as a spiritual practice, involving the self-transformation of the practitioner and only incidentally or not at all the transformation of laboratory substances.",<ref name="Alchemy Restored" /> which has contributed to a merger of [[magic (paranormal)|magic]] and alchemy in popular thought. === Traditional medicine === {{Main|Ayurveda|Traditional Chinese medicine}} Traditional medicine sometimes involves the transmutation of natural substances, using pharmacological or a combination of pharmacological and spiritual techniques. In [[Ayurveda]], the [[Samskara (Ayurvedic)|samskaras]] are claimed to transform [[heavy metals]] and toxic herbs in a way that removes their toxicity. These processes are actively used to the present day.<ref>Junius, Manfred M; ''The Practical Handbook of Plant Alchemy: An Herbalist's Guide to Preparing Medicinal Essences, Tinctures, and Elixirs''; Healing Arts Press 1985</ref> Spagyrists of the 20th century, [[Frater Albertus|Albert Richard Riedel]] and Jean Dubuis, merged Paracelsian alchemy with occultism, teaching laboratory pharmaceutical methods. The schools they founded, ''Les Philosophes de la Nature'' and ''The Paracelsus Research Society'', popularized modern spagyrics including the manufacture of herbal tinctures and products.<ref>Joscelyn Godwin. ''The Golden Thread: The Ageless Wisdom of the Western Mystery Traditions.'' Quest Books, 2007. p.120</ref> The courses, books, organizations, and conferences generated by their students continue to influence popular applications of alchemy as a new age medicinal practice. === Psychology === Alchemical symbolism has been important in depth and analytical psychology and was revived and popularized from near extinction by the Swiss psychologist [[Carl Jung|Carl Gustav Jung]]. Initially confounded and at odds with alchemy and its images, after being given a copy of the translation of ''The Secret of the Golden Flower'', a Chinese alchemical text, by his friend Richard Wilhelm, Jung discovered a direct correlation between the symbolic images in the alchemical drawings and the internal or psychic processes of transformation occurring in his patients. He called the creation of the gold or lapis within the process of "[[individuation]]."<ref name="Jung, C. G. 1944">Jung, C. G. (1944). Psychology and Alchemy (2nd ed. 1968 Collected Works Vol. 12 ISBN 0-691-01831-6). London: Routledge.</ref><ref name="Polly Young-Eisendrath, Terence Dawson. ''The Cambridge companion to Jung.'' Cambridge University Press. 1997. p.33" /> Together with his alchemical ''mystica soror,'' Jungian Swiss analyst, Marie-Louise von Franz, Jung began collecting all the old alchemical texts available and pored over them. The volumes of work he wrote brought new light into understanding the art of transubstantiation and renewed alchemy's popularity as a symbolic process of coming into wholeness as a human being where opposites brought into contact and inner and outer, spirit and matter are reunited in the ''[[hieros gamos]]'' or divine marriage. His writings are influential in psychology and for persons who have an interest in understanding of the importance of dreams, symbols and the unconscious archetypal forces ([[Jungian archetypes|archetypes]])<ref name="Polly Young-Eisendrath, Terence Dawson. ''The Cambridge companion to Jung.'' Cambridge University Press. 1997. p.33">Polly Young-Eisendrath, Terence Dawson. ''The Cambridge companion to Jung.'' Cambridge University Press. 1997. p.33</ref><ref>C.-G. Jung Preface to [[Richard Wilhelm (sinologist)|Richard Wilhelm]]'s translation of the [[I Ching]].</ref><ref>C.-G. Jung Preface to the translation of [[Secret of the Golden Flower|The Secret of The Golden Flower]].</ref> that influence all of life. Both von Franz and Jung have contributed greatly to the subject and work of alchemy and its continued presence in psychology as well as contemporary culture. Jung wrote volumes on alchemy and his magnum opus is Volume 14 of his Collected Works, ''Mysterium Conuinctionis.'' === Literature === {{Main|Alchemy in art and entertainment}} Alchemy has had a long-standing relationship with art, seen both in alchemical texts and in mainstream entertainment. ''Literary alchemy'' appears throughout the history of English literature from Shakespeare to J. K. Rowling. Here, characters or plot structure follow an alchemical magnum opus. In the 14th century, Chaucer began a trend of alchemical satire that can still be seen in recent fantasy works like those of Terry Pratchett. Visual artists had a similar relationship with alchemy. While some of them used alchemy as a source of satire, others worked with the alchemists themselves or integrated alchemical thought or symbols in their work. Music was also present in the works of alchemists and continues to influence popular performers. In the last hundred years, alchemists have been portrayed in a magical and spagyric role in fantasy fiction, film, television, novels, comics and video games. == See also == {{Columns-list|3| *[[Alchemy in art and entertainment]] *[[Biological transmutation]] *[[Chemistry]] *[[Chinese alchemy]] *[[Cupellation]] *[[Hermes Trismegistus]] *[[Historicism]] *[[History of chemistry]] *[[List of alchemists]] *[[List of topics characterized as pseudoscience]] *[[Magnum opus (alchemy)]] *[[Mary the Jewess]] *[[Nuclear transmutation]] *[[Outline of alchemy]] *[[Philosopher's Stone]] *[[Physics]] *[[Porta Alchemica]] *[[Scientific method]] *[[Superseded scientific theories]] *[[Synthesis of precious metals]] }} == Notes == {{reflist|group=n}} == References == === Citations === {{Reflist|2}} === Bibliography === {{refbegin}} *{{cite book|last= Calian |first= George |authorlink= |title= Alkimia Operativa and Alkimia Speculativa. Some Modern Controversies on the Historiography of Alchemy |publisher= Annual of Medieval Studies at CEU |year= 2010 |isbn= |oclc= |doi= |bibcode= |arxiv= |asin= |jfm= |jstor= |lccn= |mr= |ol= |osti= |rfc= |ssrn= |zbl= |url= https://archive.org/stream/AlkimiaOperativaAndAlkimiaSpeculativa.SomeModernControversiesOnThe/FlorinGeorgeCalian-AlkimiaOperativaAndAlkimiaSpeculativa.SomeModernControversiesOnTheHistoriographyOfAlchemy#page/n0/mode/2up |accessdate= |ref= harv }} *{{cite book|last= Eliade |first= Mircea |authorlink= Mircea Eliade |title= The Forge and the Crucible |publisher= [[State University of New York Press]] |year= 1994 |url= |ref= harv }} *{{cite book|last= Forshaw |first= Peter J |authorlink= |chapter = Chemistry, That Starry Science – Early Modern Conjunctions of Astrology and Alchemy |title= Sky and Symbol |url= https://www.academia.edu/5317837/Chemistry_That_Starry_Science_-_Early_Modern_Conjunctions_of_Astrology_and_Alchemy (2013)}} *{{cite book|last= Forshaw |first= Peter J |authorlink= |article = Cabala Chymica or Chemica Cabalistica – Early Modern Alchemists and Cabala |title= Ambix, Vol. 60:4 |url= https://www.academia.edu/5237828/Cabala_Chymica_or_Chemia_Cabalistica_-_Early_Modern_Alchemists_and_Cabala (2013)}} *{{cite book|last1= Holmyard |first1= Eric John |authorlink1= Eric John Holmyard |title= Makers of Chemistry |publisher= [[Clarendon Press]] |location = Oxford |year= 1931 |isbn= |oclc= |doi= |bibcode= |arxiv= |asin= |jfm= |jstor= |lccn= |mr= |ol= |osti= |rfc= |ssrn= |zbl= |url= https://archive.org/details/makersofchemistr029725mbp |ref= harv }} *{{cite book|last1= Holmyard |first1= Eric John |authorlink1= Eric John Holmyard |title= Alchemy |publisher= [[Courier Dover Publications]] |year= 1957 |isbn= |oclc= |doi= |bibcode= |arxiv= |asin= |jfm= |jstor= |lccn= |mr= |ol= |osti= |rfc= |ssrn= |zbl= |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=7Bt-kwKRUzUC&lpg=PP1&dq=alchemy&pg=PP1&hl=en#v=onepage&q&f=false |ref= harv }} *{{cite book|last1= Linden |first1= Stanton J. |authorlink= |title= Darke Hierogliphicks: Alchemy in English literature from Chaucer to the Restoration |publisher= [[University Press of Kentucky]] |year= 1996 |isbn= |oclc= |doi= |bibcode= |arxiv= |asin= |jfm= |jstor= |lccn= |mr= |ol= |osti= |rfc= |ssrn= |zbl= |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=3JUfBgAAQBAJ&lpg=PP1&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false |ref= harv }} *{{cite book|last1= Linden |first1= Stanton J. |authorlink1= |title= The Alchemy Reader: from Hermes Trismegistus to Isaac Newton |publisher= [[Cambridge University Press]] |year= 2003 |isbn= |oclc= |doi= |bibcode= |arxiv= |asin= |jfm= |jstor= |lccn= |mr= |ol= |osti= |rfc= |ssrn= |zbl= |url= |ref= harv }} *{{cite book|last1= Newman |first1= William R. |last2= Principe |first2= Lawrence M. |authorlink2= Lawrence M. Principe |title= Alchemy Tried in the Fire |publisher= [[University of Chicago Press]] |year= 2002 |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=eQERmMdykZEC&lpg=PP1&dq=alchemy&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false |ref= harv }} *{{cite book|last1= von Franz |first1= Marie Louise |authorlink= Marie-Louise von Franz |title= Alchemical Active Imagination |publisher= [[Shambhala Publications]] |location= Boston |year= 1997 |isbn= 0-87773-589-1 |oclc= |doi= |bibcode= |arxiv= |asin= |jfm= |jstor= |lccn= |mr= |ol= |osti= |rfc= |ssrn= |zbl= |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=wOVUUMirSnEC&lpg=PP1&dq=alchemy&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false |ref= harv }} *{{cite book|last1= Kripal |first1= Jeffrey John |authorlink1= Jeffrey John Kripal |last2= Shuck |first2= Glenn W. |authorlink2= Glenn Shuck |title= On the Edge of the Future |publisher= [[Indiana University Press]] |date=July 2005 |isbn= 978-0-253-34556-1 |oclc= |doi= |bibcode= |arxiv= |asin= |jfm= |jstor= |lccn= |mr= |ol= |osti= |rfc= |ssrn= |zbl= |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=mffc2m9D3REC |accessdate= 17 December 2011 |ref= harv }} *{{cite book| last=Principe| first=Lawrence M.|title=The secrets of alchemy|location=Chicago &London|publisher=University of Chicago Press|year=2013|isbn=978-0-226-68295-2}} *{{cite book|last1= Principe |first1= Lawrence M. |authorlink1= Lawrence M. Principe |last2= Newman |first2= William R. |authorlink2= |editor1-last= Newman |editor1-first= William R. |editor1-link= |editor2-last= Grafton |editor2-first= Anthony |editor2-link= Anthony Grafton |title= Secrets of Nature, Astrology and Alchemy in Modern Europe |publisher= [[MIT Press]] |year= 2001 |isbn= 978-0-262-14075-1 |oclc= |doi= |bibcode= |arxiv= |asin= |jfm= |jstor= |lccn= |mr= |ol= |osti= |rfc= |ssrn= |zbl= |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=CMuJGpztRFMC |accessdate= 17 December 2011 |chapter= Some Problems with the Historiography of Alchemy |chapterurl= |pages= 385–432 |ref= harv }} *{{cite book|last1= Rutkin |first1= H. Darrel |authorlink1= |editor1-last= Newman |editor1-first= William R. |editor1-link= |editor2-last= Grafton |editor2-first= Anthony |editor2-link= Anthony Grafton |title= Secrets of Nature, Astrology and Alchemy in Modern Europe |publisher= [[MIT Press]] |year= 2001 |isbn= 978-0-262-14075-1 |oclc= |doi= |bibcode= |arxiv= |asin= |jfm= |jstor= |lccn= |mr= |ol= |osti= |rfc= |ssrn= |zbl= |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=CMuJGpztRFMC |accessdate= 17 December 2011 |chapter= Celestial Offerings: Astrological Motifs in the Dedicatory Letters of Kepler's ''Astronomia Nova'' and Galileo's ''Sidereus Nuncius'' |chapterurl= |pages= 133–172 |ref= harv }} * Gallina, Furio (2015). ''Miti e storie di alchimisti tra il medioevo e l'età contemporanea''. Resana: mp/edizioni. == External links == {{Wiktionary|alchemy}} {{Wikiquote}} {{Commons category|Alchemy}} {{Wikisource|Portal:Alchemy|Alchemy}} {{Wikibooks}} <!--===========================({{NoMoreLinks}})===============================--> <!--| DO NOT ADD MORE LINKS TO THIS ARTICLE. WIKIPEDIA IS NOT A COLLECTION OF |--> <!--| LINKS. If you think that your link might be useful, do not add it here, |--> <!--| but put it on this article's discussion page first or submit your link |--> <!--| to the appropriate category at the Open Directory Project (www.dmoz.org)|--> <!--| and link back to that category using the {{dmoz}} template. |--> <!--| |--> <!--| Links that have not been verified WILL BE DELETED. |--> <!--| See [[Wikipedia:External links]] and [[Wikipedia:Spam]] for details |--> <!--===========================({{NoMoreLinks}})===============================--> * [http://www.ambix.org/ SHAC: Society for the History of Alchemy and Chemistry] * [http://www.esswe.org/ ESSWE: European Society for the Study of Western Esotericism] * [http://www.aseweb.org/ Association for the Study of Esotericism] * [http://www.alchemywebsite.com/ The Alchemy Website.] – [[Adam McLean]]'s online collections and academic discussion. * [http://www.innergarden.org/ Inner Garden Alchemy Research Group: a non-profit foundation that aims to transmit the alchemical tradition.] * {{In Our Time|Alchemy|p003k9bn|Alchemy (Peter Forshaw, Lauren Kassell and Stephen Pumfrey)}} * [http://xtf.lib.virginia.edu/xtf/view?docId=DicHist/uvaBook/tei/DicHist1.xml;chunk.id=dv1-04 ''Dictionary of the History of Ideas'':] Alchemy * [http://beinecke.library.yale.edu/digitallibrary/alchemy.html Book of Secrets: Alchemy and the European Imagination, 1500–2000] – A digital exhibition from the [http://www.library.yale.edu/beinecke/ Beinecke Rare Book and Manuscript Library at Yale University] {{Alchemy}} {{Metaphysics}} {{Philosophy of science}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Alchemy| ]] [[Category:Hermeticism]] [[Category:Esotericism]] [[Category:Alchemists| ]] igome9in57mi9tfsiqh5uf1p6rb8jps 0 575 505947398 505678245 2012-08-05T19:25:10Z Gene93k 5014595 Reverted 1 edit by [[Special:Contributions/220.93.76.246|220.93.76.246]] ([[User talk:220.93.76.246|talk]]): Restored redirect. ([[WP:TW|TW]]) wikitext text/x-wiki #REDIRECT [[Aviation]] 03dmefclubnnc3l1b6llw8gunjj4it8 0 579 717621960 717612094 2016-04-28T19:40:46Z Bkonrad 44062 Reverted edits by [[Special:Contribs/107.2.171.116|107.2.171.116]] ([[User talk:107.2.171.116|talk]]) to last version by Feinoha wikitext text/x-wiki {{Use dmy dates|date=June 2013}} {{Wiktionary|alien|aliens}} '''Alien''' or '''Aliens''' may refer to: * [[Extraterrestrial life]], life which does not originate from Earth * [[Alien (law)]], a person in a country who is not a national of that country {{TOC right}} ==Science and technology== <!--keep at top--> * [[Introduced species]], a species not native to its environment * [[Alien (software)]], a Linux program * [[AliEn (ALICE Environment)]], a grid framework * [[Alien Technology]], a manufacturer of RFID technology * ''Aliens'', a newsletter of the IUCN [[Invasive Species Specialist Group]] ==Entertainment== ===Film=== * [[Alien (film)|''Alien'' (film)]], a 1979 film by Ridley Scott ** [[Aliens (film)|''Aliens'' (film)]], the 1986 sequel by James Cameron ** [[Alien (franchise)|''Alien'' (franchise)]], the film franchise, including other sequels ** [[Alien (creature in Alien franchise)|Alien (creature in ''Alien'' franchise)]] ** [[Alien (soundtrack)|''Alien'' (soundtrack)]] ** [[Aliens (soundtrack)|''Aliens'' (soundtrack)]] ** [[Aliens (novel series)|''Aliens'' (novel series)]] ** [[Aliens (comic book)|''Aliens'' (comic book)]] * [[The Alien (film)|''The Alien'' (film)]], an incomplete 1960s Indian-American film ===Music=== * [[Alien (band)]], a 1980s Swedish rock group * [[The Aliens (Australian band)]], a 1970s new wave group * [[The Aliens (Scottish band)]], a 2005–present rock group * [[Alien (Strapping Young Lad album)|''Alien'' (Strapping Young Lad album)]] * [[Alien (Britney Spears song)|"Alien" (Britney Spears song)]] * [[Alien (Pennywise song)|"Alien" (Pennywise song)]] * [[Alien (Third Day song)|"Alien" (Third Day song)]] * "Alien", a song by Bush on the album ''[[Sixteen Stone]]'' * "Alien", a song by Erasure on the album ''[[Loveboat (album)|Loveboat]]'' * "Alien", a song by Japan on the album ''[[Quiet Life]]'' * "Alien", a song by Lamb on the album ''[[Fear of Fours]]'' * "Alien", a song by Nerina Pallot on the album ''[[Dear Frustrated Superstar]]'' * "Alien", a song by P-Model on the album ''[[Landsale (P-Model album)|Landsale]]'' * "Alien", a song by Thriving Ivory on [[Thriving Ivory (album)|their self-titled album]] * "Alien", a song by Tokio Hotel on the album ''[[Humanoid (album)|Humanoid]]''. Also, fans of the band call themselves Aliens. * "The Aliens", a song by [[Warlord (band)|Warlord]] ===Other=== *[[Alien (1984 video game)|''Alien'' (1984 video game)]] * [[Aliens (Tappan Wright novel)|''Aliens'' (Tappan Wright novel)]], a 1902 novel by Mary Tappan Wright * [[The Alien (Animorphs)|''The Alien'' (Animorphs)]], the eighth book in the ''Animorphs'' series * [[Aliens (Kaypro video game)|''Aliens'' (Kaypro video game)]], a text-only clone of ''Space Invaders'' written for the CP/M operating system *[[Aliens (novel series)]], an extension of the ''Alien'' franchise *[[The Aliens (TV series)|''The Aliens'' (TV series)]], 2016 British sci-fi television series ==Other uses== * [[Alien (shipping company)]], a Russian company * [[Alien (literary concept)]] * [[Alien Sun]] (born 1974), Singaporean actress * ''Alien'', a perfume by [[Thierry Mugler#Fragrances|Thierry Mugler]] == See also == * [[Astrobiology]] * [[List of Alien and Predator games|List of ''Alien'' and ''Predator'' games]] * "My Alien", a song by Simple Plan on the album ''[[No Pads, No Helmets... Just Balls]]'' * [[Alians]], an Islamic order * ''[[ATLiens]]'', a 1996 album by OutKast * {{Lookfrom|Alien}} * {{Intitle|Alien}} {{disambiguation}} 18wncyxi8fx7q3rzh9o1jjaw0x6ng1u 0 580 717765823 717568641 2016-04-29T15:56:25Z 24.37.112.38 /* Academic */ wikitext text/x-wiki {{Use dmy dates|date=July 2012}} [[File:JohannesVermeer-TheAstronomer(1668).jpg|thumb|upright=1.1|''[[The Astronomer (Vermeer)|The Astronomer]]'' by [[Johannes Vermeer]]]] An '''astronomer''' is a scientist in the field of [[astronomy]] who concentrates their studies on a specific question or field outside of the scope of [[Earth]]. They look at [[star]]s, [[planet]]s, [[moon]]s, [[comets]] and [[galaxies]], as well as many other [[celestial object]]s — either in [[Observational astronomy]], in analyzing the data or in [[theoretical astronomy]]. Examples of topics or fields astronomers work on include: planetary science, solar astronomy, the origin or evolution of stars, or the formation of galaxies. There are also related but distinct subjects like [[cosmology]] which studies the [[Universe]] as a whole. == Academic == {{For|subdisciplines|Outline of astronomy}} [[Image:Galileo.arp.300pix.jpg|left|thumb|upright|[[Galileo]] is often referred to as the Father of [[modern astronomy]]]] [[Image:Br Guy in Lab.jpg|left|thumb|160px|[[Guy Consolmagno]] [[Vatican Observatory]], analyzing a meteorite, 2014]] [[Image:Emily_Lakdawalla_at_FameLab_at_LPSC_2013.jpg|left|thumb|160px|[[Emily Lakdawalla]] at the Planetary Conference 2013]] [[History of astronomy|Historically]], astronomy was more concerned with the classification and description of [[phenomena]] in the sky, while [[astrophysics]] attempted to explain these phenomena and the differences between them using physical laws. Today, that distinction has mostly disappeared and the terms "astronomer" and "astrophysicist" are interchangeable. Professional astronomers are highly educated individuals who typically have a [[Doctor of Philosophy|PhD]] in [[physics]] or astronomy and are employed by research institutions or universities.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.noao.edu/education/astfaq.html |title=Frequently Asked Questions About Becoming an Astronomer |accessdate=29 March 2009 |work= |publisher=NOAO | archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20090403101540/http://www.noao.edu/education/astfaq.html| archivedate= 3 April 2009 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}</ref> They spend the majority of their time working on research, although they quite often have other duties such as teaching, building instruments, or aiding in the operation of an observatory. The number of professional astronomers in the United States is actually quite small. The [[American Astronomical Society]], which is the major organization of professional astronomers in North America, has approximately 7,000 members. This number includes scientists from other fields such as physics, [[geology]], and [[engineering]], whose research interests are closely related to astronomy.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://aas.org/ |title=American Astronomical Society Home |accessdate=14 August 2009 |work= |publisher=AAS| archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20090802044012/http://aas.org/|archive-date= 2 August 2009 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}</ref> The [[International Astronomical Union]] comprises almost 10,145 members from 70 different countries who are involved in astronomical research at the PhD level and beyond.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.iau.org/about/ |title=About IAU |accessdate=14 August 2009 |work= |publisher=IAU}}</ref> Contrary to the classical image of an old astronomer peering through a [[telescope]] through the dark hours of the night, it is far more common to use a [[charge-coupled device]] (CCD) camera to record a long, deep exposure, allowing a more sensitive image to be created because the [[light]] is added over time. Before CCDs, [[photographic plates]] were a common method of observation. Modern astronomers spend relatively little time at telescopes usually just a few weeks per year. Analysis of observed phenomena, along with making predictions as to the causes of what they observe, takes the majority of observational astronomers' time. Astronomers who serve as faculty spend much of their time teaching undergraduate and graduate classes. Most universities also have outreach programs including public telescope time and sometimes [[planetarium]]s as a public service to encourage interest in the field. Those who become astronomers usually have a broad background in maths, sciences and computing in high school. Taking courses that teach how to research, write and present papers are also invaluable. In college/university most astronomers get a Ph.D in astronomy or physics. Keeping in mind how few astronomers there are it is understood that graduate schools in this field are very competitive, so grades are very important. Students must take a Graduate Record Exam in the United States if they wish to be accepted into a U.S graduate school. == Amateur astronomers == While there is a relatively low number of professional astronomers, the field is popular among [[amateurs]]. Most cities have [[amateur astronomy]] clubs that meet on a regular basis and often host [[star party|star parties]]. The [[Astronomical Society of the Pacific]] is the largest general astronomical society in the world, comprising both professional and amateur astronomers as well as educators from 70 different nations.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.astrosociety.org/about.html |title=About Us |accessdate=29 March 2009 |work= |publisher=Astronomical Society of the Pacific| archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20090225074145/http://astrosociety.org/about.html| archivedate= 25 February 2009 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}</ref> Like any [[hobby]], most people who think of themselves as amateur astronomers may devote a few hours a month to [[stargazing]] and reading the latest developments in research. However, amateurs span the range from so-called "armchair astronomers" to the very ambitious, who own science-grade telescopes and instruments with which they are able to make their own discoveries and assist professional astronomers in research. == See also == * [[List of astronomers]] * [[List of Muslim astronomers]] * [[List of Russian astronomers and astrophysicists]] == References == === Specific === {{Reflist}} === General === * {{Cite book|last=Dallal |first=Ahmad |contribution=Science, Medicine and Technology |editor-last=Esposito |editor-first=John |title=The Oxford History of Islam |date=1999 |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]], New York|ref=harv|postscript=<!--None-->|isbn=0-300-15911-0 }} * {{Cite journal|last=Kennedy|first=E.S.|title=A Survey of Islamic Astronomical Tables; Transactions of the American Philosophical Society| date=1956|location=[[Philadelphia]]| publisher=[[American Philosophical Society]]|volume=46|issue=2|ref=harv|postscript=<!--None-->}} * {{Cite encyclopedia | last = Toomer | first = Gerald | title = Al-Khwārizmī, Abu Jaʿfar Muḥammad ibn Mūsā | encyclopedia = [[Dictionary of Scientific Biography]] | volume = 7 | editor = Gillispie, Charles Coulston | publisher = Charles Scribner's Sons | location = New York | date = 1990 | isbn = 0-684-16962-2 | ref=harv }} == External links == * [http://www.aas.org American Astronomical Society] * [http://eas.unige.ch European Astronomical Society] * [http://www.iau.org International Astronomical Union] * [http://www.astrosociety.org Astronomical Society of the Pacific] {{Portal bar|Astronomy}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Astronomy| ]] [[Category:Astronomers| ]] [[Category:Science occupations]] sd54naet0uepqa2g1lihxqlra6suzm2 0 583 627604814 625443490 2014-09-29T22:26:05Z Invadibot 15934865 Bot: Fixing double redirect to [[Amoeba]] wikitext text/x-wiki #REDIRECT [[Amoeba]] 31ad9nr0bdq92bic2plgomlo1q8sy0n 0 586 717091753 717091742 2016-04-25T17:52:56Z ClueBot NG 13286072 Reverting possible vandalism by [[Special:Contribs/86.12.176.78|86.12.176.78]] to older version. [[WP:CBFP|Report False Positive?]] Thanks, [[WP:CBNG|ClueBot NG]]. (2634574) (Bot) wikitext text/x-wiki {{distinguish2 | MS [[Windows-1252]] or other types of [[Extended ASCII]]}} {{about|the character encoding}} {{Use mdy dates|date=June 2013}} [[File:US-ASCII code chart.png|thumb|361px|ASCII chart from a 1972 printer manual (b1 is the least significant bit).]] '''ASCII''' ({{IPAc-en|audio=En-us-ASCII.ogg|ˈ|æ|s|k|i}} {{respell|ASS|kee}}), abbreviated from '''American Standard Code for Information Interchange''',<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.m-w.com/cgi-bin/audio.pl?ascii001.wav=ASCII |type=audio |title=Pronunciation for ASCII |website=Merriam Webster |accessdate=2008-04-14}}</ref> is a [[character encoding|character-encoding scheme]] (the [[Internet Assigned Numbers Authority|IANA]] prefers the name '''US-ASCII'''<ref name="IANA" />). ASCII codes represent text in computers, [[communications equipment]], and other devices that use text. Most modern character-encoding schemes are based on ASCII, though they support many additional characters. ASCII was the most common character encoding on the World Wide Web until December 2007, when it was surpassed by [[UTF-8]], which is fully backward compatible to ASCII.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.w3.org/QA/2008/05/utf8-web-growth.html |title=UTF-8 Growth On The Web |last=Dubost |first=Karl |date=May 6, 2008 |work=W3C Blog |publisher=[[World Wide Web Consortium]] |accessdate=2010-08-15}}</ref><ref name="utf-8-2008">{{cite web |url=http://googleblog.blogspot.com/2008/05/moving-to-unicode-51.html |title=Moving to Unicode 5.1 |last=Davis |first=Mark |date=May 5, 2008 |work=Official Google Blog |publisher=[[Google]] |accessdate=2010-08-15}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://googleblog.blogspot.com/2010/01/unicode-nearing-50-of-web.html |title=Unicode nearing 50% of the web |last=Davis |first=Mark |date=Jan 28, 2010 |work=Official Google Blog |publisher=[[Google]] |accessdate=2010-08-15}}</ref> ASCII developed from [[Telegraph code|telegraphic codes]]. Its first commercial use was as a seven-[[bit]] [[teleprinter]] code promoted by Bell data services. Work on the ASCII standard began on October 6, 1960, with the first meeting of the [[American Standards Association]]'s (ASA) X3.2 subcommittee. The first edition of the standard was published during 1963,<ref name="Brandel">{{cite news |first=Mary |last=Brandel |date=July 6, 1999 |url=http://edition.cnn.com/TECH/computing/9907/06/1963.idg/ |title=1963: The Debut of ASCII |publisher=CNN |accessdate=2008-04-14}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=American Standard Code for Information Interchange, ASA X3.4-1963 |publisher=American Standards Association |date=June 17, 1963 |url=http://worldpowersystems.com/J/codes/X3.4-1963/ |accessdate=2014-05-23}}</ref> underwent a major revision during 1967,<ref>{{Cite journal |title=USA Standard Code for Information Interchange, USAS X3.4-1967 |publisher=United States of America Standards Institute |date=July 7, 1967}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last1=Jennings|first1=Tom|title=An annotated history of some character codes|url=http://worldpowersystems.com/archives/codes/#ASCII-1967|website=World Power Systems|accessdate=22 January 2015}}</ref> and experienced its most recent update during 1986.<ref>{{Cite journal |title=American National Standard for Information Systems — Coded Character Sets — 7-Bit American National Standard Code for Information Interchange (7-Bit ASCII), ANSI X3.4-1986 |publisher=American National Standards Institute |date=March 26, 1986}}</ref> Compared to earlier telegraph codes, the proposed Bell code and ASCII were both ordered for more convenient sorting (i.e., alphabetization) of lists, and added features for devices other than teleprinters. Originally based on the [[English alphabet]], ASCII encodes 128 specified [[character (computing)|characters]] into seven-bit integers as shown by the ASCII chart on the right.<ref>{{cite web |title=RFC 4949 |url=http://tools.ietf.org/search/rfc4949 |date=August 2007 |author=R. Shirley |accessdate=2013-12-23}}</ref> The characters encoded are numbers ''0'' to ''9'', lowercase letters ''a'' to ''z'', uppercase letters ''A'' to ''Z'', basic [[punctuation symbol]]s, [[control code]]s that originated with [[Teletype machine]]s, and a [[space (punctuation)|space]]. For example, lowercase ''[[j]]'' would become [[binary number|binary]] 1101010 and [[decimal]] 106. ASCII includes definitions for 128 characters: 33 are non-printing [[control character]]s (many now obsolete)<ref name="Maini2007">{{cite book |last=Maini |first=Anil Kumar |title=Digital Electronics: Principles, Devices and Applications |url=http://books.google.com/?id=NQSpNAEACAAJ&pg=PA28 |year=2007 |publisher=John Wiley and Sons |isbn=978-0-470-03214-5 |page=28 |quote=In addition, it defines codes for 33 nonprinting, mostly obsolete control characters that affect how the text is processed.}}</ref> that affect how text and space are processed<ref>International Organization for Standardization (December 1, 1975). "[http://kikaku.itscj.ipsj.or.jp/ISO-IR/001.pdf The set of control characters for ISO 646]". ''Internet Assigned Numbers Authority Registry''. Alternate U.S. version: [http://kikaku.itscj.ipsj.or.jp/ISO-IR/006.pdf]. Accessed 2008-04-14.</ref> and 95 printable characters, including the [[space (punctuation)|space]] (which is considered an invisible graphic<ref name="RFC20_1968">[http://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc20 "RFC 20: ASCII format for Network Interchange"], ANSI X3.4-1968, October 16, 1969.</ref><ref name="kenz">{{cite book |last=Mackenzie |first=Charles E. |title=Coded Character Sets, History and Development |year=1980 |publisher=Addison-Wesley |isbn=0-201-14460-3}}</ref>{{rp|223}}). ==History== The American Standard Code for Information Interchange (ASCII) was developed under the auspices of a committee of the American Standards Association (ASA), called the X3 committee, by its X3.2 (later X3L2) subcommittee, and later by that subcommittee's X3.2.4 working group. The ASA became the United States of America Standards Institute or USASI<ref name="kenz"/>{{rp|211}} and ultimately the [[American National Standards Institute]]. ===Bit width=== The X3.2 subcommittee designed ASCII based on the earlier [[teleprinter]] encoding systems. Like other [[character encoding]]s, ASCII specifies a correspondence between digital bit patterns and [[character (computing)|character]] symbols (i.e. [[grapheme]]s and [[control character]]s). This allows [[Digital data|digital]] devices to communicate with each other and to process, store, and communicate character-oriented information such as written language. Before ASCII was developed, the encodings in use included 26 [[English alphabet|alphabetic]] characters, 10 [[numerical digit]]s, and from 11 to 25 special graphic symbols. To include all these, and control characters compatible with the [[CCITT|Comité Consultatif International Téléphonique et Télégraphique]] (CCITT) [[International Telegraph Alphabet No. 2]] (ITA2) standard, [[Fieldata]], and early [[EBCDIC]], more than 64 codes were required for ASCII. The committee debated the possibility of a [[Shift code|shift]] function (like in [[ITA2]]), which would allow more than 64 codes to be represented by a [[six-bit character code|six-bit code]]. In a shifted code, some character codes determine choices between options for the following character codes. It allows compact encoding, but is less reliable for [[data transmission]] as an error in transmitting the shift code typically makes a long part of the transmission unreadable. The standards committee decided against shifting, and so ASCII required at least a seven-bit code.<ref name="kenz"/>{{rp|215, 236&thinsp;§&thinsp;4}} The committee considered an eight-bit code, since eight bits ([[octet (computing)|octet]]s) would allow two four-bit patterns to efficiently encode two digits with [[binary-coded decimal]]. However, it would require all data transmission to send eight bits when seven could suffice. The committee voted to use a seven-bit code to minimize costs associated with data transmission. Since perforated tape at the time could record eight bits in one position, it also allowed for a [[parity bit]] for [[error checking]] if desired.<ref name="kenz"/>{{rp|217, 236&thinsp;§&thinsp;5}} [[Eight-bit]] machines (with octets as the native data type) that did not use parity checking typically set the eighth bit to 0.<ref>{{cite book |authors=Stanley A. Sawyer, Steven George Krantz |title=A TeX Primer for Scientists |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=bXLDwmIJNkUC&pg=PA13 |year=1995 |publisher=[[CRC Press|CRC Press, LLC]] |isbn=978-0-8493-7159-2 |page=13}}</ref> ===Organization=== The code itself was patterned so that most control codes were together, and all graphic codes were together, for ease of identification. The first two columns (32 positions) were reserved for control characters.<ref name="kenz"/>{{rp|220, 236&thinsp;§&thinsp;8,9)}} The [[Space (punctuation)|"space" character]] had to come before graphics to make [[sorting algorithm|sorting]] easier, so it became position 20_{[[hexadecimal|hex]]};<ref name="kenz"/>{{rp|237&thinsp;§&thinsp;10}} for the same reason, many special signs commonly used as separators were placed before digits. The committee decided it was important to support [[upper case|uppercase]] [[sixbit code pages|64-character alphabets]], and chose to pattern ASCII so it could be reduced easily to a usable 64-character set of graphic codes,<ref name="kenz"/>{{rp|228, 237&thinsp;§&thinsp;14}} as was done in the [[DEC SIXBIT]] code. [[Lower case|Lowercase]] letters were therefore not interleaved with uppercase. To keep options available for lowercase letters and other graphics, the special and numeric codes were arranged before the letters, and the letter ''A'' was placed in position 41_{[[hexadecimal|hex]]} to match the draft of the corresponding British standard.<ref name="kenz"/>{{rp|238&thinsp;§&thinsp;18}} The digits 0–9 were arranged so they correspond to values in binary prefixed with 011, making conversion with [[binary-coded decimal]] straightforward. Many of the non-alphanumeric characters were positioned to correspond to their shifted position on typewriters; an important subtlety is that these were based on ''mechanical'' typewriters, not ''electric'' typewriters.<ref name=savard>{{cite web |title=Computer Keyboards |url=http://www.quadibloc.com/comp/kybint.htm |author=John J. G. Savard |accessdate=2014-08-24}}</ref> Mechanical typewriters followed the standard set by the Remington No. 2 (1878), the first typewriter with a shift key, and the shifted values of <code>23456789-</code> were <code>"#$%_&'()</code>{{snd}} early typewriters omitted ''0'' and ''1'', using ''O'' (capital letter ''o'') and ''l'' (lowercase letter ''L'') instead, but <code>1!</code> and <code>0)</code> pairs became standard once 0 and 1 became common. Thus, in ASCII <code>!"#$%</code> were placed in second column, rows 1–5, corresponding to the digits 1–5 in the adjacent column. The parentheses could not correspond to ''9'' and ''0'', however, because the place corresponding to ''0'' was taken by the space character. This was accommodated by removing <code>_</code> (underscore) from ''6'' and shifting the remaining characters left, which corresponded to many European typewriters that placed the parentheses with ''8'' and ''9''. This discrepancy from typewriters led to [[bit-paired keyboard]]s, notably the [[Teletype Model 33]], which used the left-shifted layout corresponding to ASCII, not to traditional mechanical typewriters. Electric typewriters, notably the more recently introduced [[IBM Selectric]] (1961), used a somewhat different layout that has become standard on computers{{mdashb}}following the [[IBM PC]] (1981), especially [[Model M]] (1984){{mdashb}}and thus shift values for symbols on modern keyboards do not correspond as closely to the ASCII table as earlier keyboards did. The <code>/?</code> pair also dates to the No. 2, and the <code>,&lt; .&gt;</code> pairs were used on some keyboards (others, including the No. 2, did not shift <code>,</code> (comma) or <code>.</code> (full stop) so they could be used in uppercase without unshifting). However, ASCII split the <code>;:</code> pair (dating to No. 2), and rearranged mathematical symbols (varied conventions, commonly <code>-* =+</code>) to <code>:* ;+ -=</code>. Some common characters were not included, notably <code>½¼¢</code>, while <code>^`~</code> were included as diacritics for international use, and <code>&lt;&gt;</code> for mathematical use, together with the simple line characters <code>\|</code> (in addition to common <code>/</code>). The ''@'' symbol was not used in continental Europe and the committee expected it would be replaced by an accented ''À'' in the French variation, so the ''@'' was placed in position 40<sub>[[hexadecimal|hex]]</sub>, right before the letter A.<ref name="kenz"/>{{rp|243}} The control codes felt essential for data transmission were the start of message (SOM), end of address (EOA), [[End of Message|end of message]] (EOM), end of transmission (EOT), "who are you?" (WRU), "are you?" (RU), a reserved device control (DC0), synchronous idle (SYNC), and acknowledge (ACK). These were positioned to maximize the [[Hamming distance]] between their bit patterns.<ref name="kenz"/>{{rp|243–5}} ===Publication=== With the other special characters and control codes filled in, ASCII was published as ASA X3.4-1963, leaving 28 code positions without any assigned meaning, reserved for future standardization, and one unassigned control code.<ref name="kenz"/>{{rp|66, 245}} There was some debate at the time whether there should be more control characters rather than the lowercase alphabet.<ref name="kenz"/>{{rp|435}} The indecision did not last long: during May 1963 the CCITT Working Party on the New Telegraph Alphabet proposed to assign lowercase characters to columns 6 and 7,<ref>Brief Report: Meeting of CCITT Working Party on the New Telegraph Alphabet, May 13–15, 1963.</ref> and [[International Organization for Standardization]] TC 97 SC 2 voted during October to incorporate the change into its draft standard.<ref>Report of ISO/TC/97/SC 2 – Meeting of October 29–31, 1963.</ref> The X3.2.4 task group voted its approval for the change to ASCII at its May 1963 meeting.<ref>Report on Task Group X3.2.4, June 11, 1963, Pentagon Building, Washington, DC.</ref> Locating the lowercase letters in columns 6 and 7 caused the characters to differ in bit pattern from the upper case by a single bit, which simplified [[case-insensitive]] character matching and the construction of keyboards and printers. The X3 committee made other changes, including other new characters (the [[bracket|brace]] and [[vertical bar]] characters),<ref>Report of Meeting No. 8, Task Group X3.2.4, December 17 and 18, 1963</ref> renaming some control characters (SOM became start of header (SOH)) and moving or removing others (RU was removed).<ref name="kenz"/>{{rp|247–248}} ASCII was subsequently updated as USASI X3.4-1967, then USASI X3.4-1968, ANSI X3.4-1977, and finally, ANSI X3.4-1986 (the first two are occasionally retronamed ANSI X3.4-1967, and ANSI X3.4-1968). The X3 committee also addressed how ASCII should be transmitted ([[least significant bit]] first), and how it should be recorded on perforated tape. They proposed a [[9-track]] standard for magnetic tape, and attempted to deal with some [[punched card]] formats. ===Use=== ASCII itself was first used commercially during 1963 as a seven-bit teleprinter code for [[American Telephone & Telegraph]]'s TWX (TeletypeWriter eXchange) network. TWX originally used the earlier five-bit [[ITA2]], which was also used by the competing [[Telex]] teleprinter system. [[Bob Bemer]] introduced features such as the [[Escape character|escape sequence]].<ref name="Brandel" /> His British colleague [[Hugh McGregor Ross]] helped to popularize this work{{snd}} according to Bemer, "so much so that the code that was to become ASCII was first called the Bemer-Ross Code in Europe".<ref>Bob Bemer (n.d.). [http://www.trailing-edge.com/~bobbemer/EUROPE.HTM Bemer meets Europe]. ''Trailing-edge.com''. Accessed 2008-04-14. Employed at [[IBM]] at that time</ref> Because of his extensive work on ASCII, Bemer has been called "the father of ASCII."<ref name="thocp">{{cite web |url=http://www.thocp.net/biographies/bemer_bob.htm |title=Biography of Robert William Bemer}}</ref> <!-- "The endorsement of the Federal government, then the largest purchaser of computer equipment, was probably the single most important reason for the subsequent wide adoption of ASCII." – Martha M. Gray.<ref>http://csrc.nist.gov/fips/fips1861.pdf</ref> /* ?? */ --> On March 11, 1968, U.S. President [[Lyndon B. Johnson]] mandated that all computers purchased by the United States federal government support ASCII, stating:<ref>Lyndon B. Johnson (March 11, 1968). [http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/index.php?pid=28724 Memorandum Approving the Adoption by the Federal Government of a Standard Code for Information Interchange]. ''The American Presidency Project''. Accessed 2008-04-14.</ref> <blockquote>I have also approved recommendations of the [[Secretary of Commerce]] regarding standards for recording the Standard Code for Information Interchange on magnetic tapes and paper tapes when they are used in computer operations. All computers and related equipment configurations brought into the [[Federal Government]] inventory on and after July 1, 1969, must have the capability to use the Standard Code for Information Interchange and the formats prescribed by the magnetic tape and paper tape standards when these media are used.</blockquote> ===Other standards=== Other international standards bodies have ratified character encodings such as [[ISO/IEC 646]] that are identical or nearly identical to ASCII, with extensions for characters outside the English [[alphabet]] and symbols used outside the United States, such as the symbol for the United Kingdom's [[pound sterling]] (£). Almost every country needed an adapted version of ASCII, since ASCII suited the needs of only the USA and a few other countries. For example, Canada had its own version that supported French characters. Other adapted encodings include [[ISCII]] (India), [[VISCII]] (Vietnam), and [[YUSCII]] (Yugoslavia). Although these encodings are sometimes referred to as ASCII, true ASCII is defined strictly only by the ANSI standard. ASCII was incorporated into the [[Unicode]] character set as the first 128 symbols, so the 7-bit ASCII characters have the same numeric codes in both sets. This allows [[UTF-8]] to be [[Backward compatibility|backward compatible]] with 7-bit ASCII, as a UTF-8 file containing only ASCII characters is identical to an ASCII file containing the same sequence of characters. Even more importantly, [[forward compatibility]] is ensured as software that recognizes only 7-bit ASCII characters as special and does not alter bytes with the highest bit set (as is often done to support 8-bit ASCII extensions such as ISO-8859-1) will preserve UTF-8 data unchanged.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://man7.org/linux/man-pages/man7/utf-8.7.html |title=utf-8(7) - Linux manual page |publisher=Man7.org |date=2014-02-26 |accessdate=2014-04-21}}</ref> ==ASCII control characters== {{main|Control character}} ASCII reserves the first 32 codes (numbers 0–31 decimal) for [[control character]]s: codes originally intended not to represent printable information, but rather to control devices (such as [[computer printer|printers]]) that make use of ASCII, or to provide [[Metadata|meta-information]] about data streams such as those stored on magnetic tape. For example, character 10 represents the "line feed" function (which causes a printer to advance its paper), and character 8 represents "backspace". RFC 2822 refers to control characters that do not include carriage return, line feed or [[Whitespace (computer science)|white space]] as non-whitespace control characters.<ref>RFC 2822 (April 2001). "NO-WS-CTL".</ref> Except for the control characters that prescribe elementary line-oriented formatting, ASCII does not define any mechanism for describing the structure or appearance of text within a document. Other schemes, such as [[markup language]]s, address page and document layout and formatting. The original ASCII standard used only short descriptive phrases for each control character. The ambiguity this caused was sometimes intentional, for example where a character would be used slightly differently on a terminal link than on a [[data stream]], and sometimes accidental, for example with the meaning of "delete". Probably the most influential single device on the interpretation of these characters was the [[Teletype Model 33]] ASR, which was a printing terminal with an available [[punched tape|paper tape]] reader/punch option. Paper tape was a very popular medium for long-term program storage until the 1980s, less costly and in some ways less fragile than magnetic tape. In particular, the Teletype Model 33 machine assignments for codes 17 (Control-Q, DC1, also known as XON), 19 (Control-S, DC3, also known as XOFF), and 127 ([[Delete key|Delete]]) became de facto standards. The Model 33 was also notable for taking the description of Control-G (BEL, meaning audibly alert the operator) literally as the unit contained an actual bell which it rang when it received a BEL character. Because the keytop for the O key also showed a left-arrow symbol (from ASCII-1963, which had this character instead of [[underscore]]), a noncompliant use of code 15 (Control-O, Shift In) interpreted as "delete previous character" was also adopted by many early timesharing systems but eventually became neglected. When a Teletype 33 ASR equipped with the automatic paper tape reader received a Control-S (XOFF, an abbreviation for transmit off), it caused the tape reader to stop; receiving Control-Q (XON, "transmit on") caused the tape reader to resume. This technique became adopted by several early computer operating systems as a "handshaking" signal warning a sender to stop transmission because of impending overflow; it persists to this day in many systems as a manual output control technique. On some systems Control-S retains its meaning but Control-Q is replaced by a second Control-S to resume output. The 33 ASR also could be configured to employ Control-R (DC2) and Control-T (DC4) to start and stop the tape punch; on some units equipped with this function, the corresponding control character lettering on the keycap above the letter was TAPE and <s>TAPE</s> respectively.<ref>{{cite web|last=McConnell|first=Robert|title=Understanding ASCII Codes|url=http://www.nadcomm.com/ascii_code.htm|accessdate=2014-05-11|author2=Haynes, James |author3=Warren, Richard }}</ref> Code 127 is officially named "delete" but the Teletype label was "rubout". Since the original standard did not give detailed interpretation for most control codes, interpretations of this code varied. The original Teletype meaning, and the intent of the standard, was to make it an ignored character, the same as NUL (all zeroes). This was useful specifically for paper tape, because punching the all-ones bit pattern on top of an existing mark would obliterate it.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://lists.gnu.org/archive/html/help-gnu-emacs/2014-05/msg00448.html|title=Re: editor and word processor history (was: Re: RTF for emacs)}}</ref> Tapes designed to be "hand edited" could even be produced with spaces of extra NULs (blank tape) so that a block of characters could be "rubbed out" and then replacements put into the empty space. Some software assigned special meanings to ASCII characters sent to the software from the terminal. Operating systems from [[Digital Equipment Corporation]], for example, interpreted DEL as an input character as meaning "remove previously-typed input character",<ref>{{cite web|url=http://bitsavers.trailing-edge.com/pdf/dec/pdp6/DEC-6-0-EX-SYS-UM-IP-PRE00_Multiprogramming_System_Manual_1965.pdf|title=PDP-6 Multiprogramming System Manual|page=43|publisher=[[Digital Equipment Corporation]]|year=1965}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://bitsavers.org/pdf/dec/pdp10/1970_PDP-10_Ref/1970PDP10Ref_Part3.pdf|title=PDP-10 Reference Handbook, Book 3, Communicating with the Monitor|page=5-5|publisher=[[Digital Equipment Corporation]]|year=1969}}</ref> and this interpretation also became common in Unix systems. Most other systems used BS for that meaning and used DEL to mean "remove the character at the cursor".{{citation needed|date=July 2014}} That latter interpretation is the most common now.{{citation needed|date=July 2014}} Many more of the control codes have been given meanings quite different from their original ones. The "escape" character (ESC, code 27), for example, was intended originally to allow sending other control characters as literals instead of invoking their meaning. This is the same meaning of "escape" encountered in URL encodings, [[C (programming language)|C language]] strings, and other systems where certain characters have a reserved meaning. Over time this meaning has been co-opted and has eventually been changed. In modern use, an ESC sent to the terminal usually indicates the start of a command sequence, usually in the form of a so-called "[[ANSI escape code]]" (or, more properly, a "[[Control Sequence Introducer]]") beginning with ESC followed by a "<nowiki>[</nowiki>" (left-bracket) character. An ESC sent from the terminal is most often used as an [[out-of-band data|out-of-band]] character used to terminate an operation, as in the [[Text Editor and Corrector|TECO]] and [[vi]] [[text editor]]s. In [[graphical user interface]] (GUI) and [[window (computing)|windowing]] systems, ESC generally causes an application to abort its current operation or to [[exit (operating system)|exit]] (terminate) altogether. The inherent ambiguity of many control characters, combined with their historical usage, created problems when transferring "plain text" files between systems. The best example of this is the [[newline]] problem on various [[operating system]]s. Teletype machines required that a line of text be terminated with both "Carriage Return" (which moves the printhead to the beginning of the line) and "Line Feed" (which advances the paper one line without moving the printhead). The name "Carriage Return" comes from the fact that on a manual [[typewriter]] the carriage holding the paper moved while the position where the typebars struck the ribbon remained stationary. The entire carriage had to be pushed (returned) to the right in order to position the left margin of the paper for the next line. [[Digital Equipment Corporation|DEC]] operating systems ([[OS/8]], [[RT-11]], [[RSX-11]], [[RSTS/E|RSTS]], [[TOPS-10]], etc.) used both characters to mark the end of a line so that the console device (originally [[Teleprinter|Teletype machines]]) would work. By the time so-called "glass TTYs" (later called CRTs or terminals) came along, the convention was so well established that backward compatibility necessitated continuing the convention. When [[Gary Kildall]] cloned [[RT-11]] to create [[CP/M]] he followed established [[Digital Equipment Corporation|DEC]] convention. Until the introduction of [[PC DOS]] in 1981, [[IBM]] had no hand in this because their 1970s operating systems used EBCDIC instead of ASCII and they were oriented toward punch-card input and line printer output on which the concept of carriage return was meaningless. IBM's [[PC DOS]] (also marketed as [[MS-DOS]] by Microsoft) inherited the convention by virtue of being a clone of [[CP/M]], and [[Windows]] inherited it from MS-DOS. Unfortunately, requiring two characters to mark the end of a line introduces unnecessary complexity and questions as to how to interpret each character when encountered alone. To simplify matters [[plain text]] data streams, including files, on [[Multics]]<ref>{{cite conference |url=http://www.multicians.org/jhs-jfo-terminals.pdf |title=Technical and human engineering problems in connecting terminals to a time-sharing system |last1=Ossanna |first1=J. F. |authorlink1=Joe Ossanna |last2=Saltzer |first2=J. H. |authorlink2=Jerry Saltzer |date=November 17–19, 1970 |publisher=[[AFIPS]] Press |booktitle=Proceedings of the November 17–19, 1970, Fall Joint Computer Conference |pages=355–362 |location=p. 357 |quote=Using a "new-line" function (combined carriage-return and line-feed) is simpler for both man and machine than requiring both functions for starting a new line; the American National Standard X3.4-19687 permits the line-feed code to carry the new-line meaning.}}</ref> used line feed (LF) alone as a line terminator. [[Unix]] and [[Unix-like]] systems, and [[Amiga]] systems, adopted this convention from Multics. The original [[Macintosh OS]], [[Apple DOS]], and [[ProDOS]], on the other hand, used carriage return (CR) alone as a line terminator; however, since Apple replaced these operating systems with the Unix-based [[OS&nbsp;X]] operating system, they now use line feed (LF) as well. Computers attached to the [[ARPANET]] included machines running operating systems such as TOPS-10 and [[TOPS-20#TENEX|TENEX]] using CR-LF line endings, machines running operating systems such as Multics using LF line endings, and machines running operating systems such as [[OS/360]] that represented lines as a character count followed by the characters of the line and that used [[EBCDIC]] rather than ASCII. The [[Telnet]] protocol defined an ASCII "Network Virtual Terminal" (NVT), so that connections between hosts with different line-ending conventions and character sets could be supported by transmitting a standard text format over the network. Telnet used ASCII along with CR-LF line endings, and software using other conventions would translate between the local conventions and the NVT.<ref>{{cite IETF|title=TELNET Protocol|rfc=158|pages=4-5|author=T. O'Sullivan|date=May 19, 1971|publisher =[[Internet Engineering Task Force|IETF]]|accessdate=2013-01-28}}</ref> The [[File Transfer Protocol]] adopted the Telnet protocol, including use of the Network Virtual Terminal, for use when transmitting commands and transferring data in the default ASCII mode.<ref>{{cite IETF|title=File Transfer Protocol|rfc=542|author=Nancy J. Neigus|date=Aug 12, 1973|publisher =[[Internet Engineering Task Force|IETF]]|accessdate=2013-01-28}}</ref><ref>{{cite IETF|title=File Transfer Protocol|rfc=765|author=[[Jon Postel]]|date=June 1980|publisher =[[Internet Engineering Task Force|IETF]]|accessdate=2013-01-28}}</ref> This adds complexity to implementations of those protocols, and to other network protocols, such as those used for E-mail and the World Wide Web, on systems not using the NVT's CR-LF line-ending convention.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://mercurial.selenic.com/wiki/EOLTranslationPlan|title=EOL translation plan for Mercurial|publisher=Mercurial|accessdate=2014-10-28}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Bare LFs in SMTP |url=http://cr.yp.to/docs/smtplf.html |author=[[Daniel J. Bernstein]] |accessdate=2013-01-28}}</ref> Older operating systems such as TOPS-10, along with CP/M, tracked file length only in units of disk blocks and used Control-Z (SUB) to mark the end of the actual text in the file. For this reason, EOF, or [[end-of-file]], was used colloquially and conventionally as a [[three-letter acronym]] for Control-Z instead of SUBstitute. The end-of-text code ([[End-of-text character|ETX]]), also known as [[Control-C]], was inappropriate for a variety of reasons, while using Z as the control code to end a file is analogous to it ending the alphabet and serves as a very convenient [[Mnemonic device|mnemonic aid]]. A historically common and still prevalent convention uses the ETX code convention to interrupt and halt a program via an input data stream, usually from a keyboard. In C library and [[Unix]] conventions, the [[null character]] is used to terminate text [[string (computer science)|strings]]; such [[null-terminated string]]s can be known in abbreviation as ASCIZ or ASCIIZ, where here Z stands for "zero". ===ASCII control code chart=== {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center" |- ! Binary !! Octal !! Decimal !! Hexadecimal !! Abbreviation !! Print form{{Efn|The [[Unicode]] characters from the area U+2400 to U+2421 reserved for representing control characters when it is necessary to print or display them rather than have them perform their intended function. Some browsers may not display these properly.}} !! [[Caret notation]]{{Efn|Caret notation is often used to represent control characters on a terminal. On most text terminals, holding down the {{keypress|[[Control key|Ctrl]]}} key while typing the second character will type the control character. Sometimes the shift key is not needed, for instance <code>^@</code> may be typable with just Ctrl and 2.}} !! Escape code{{Efn|Character escape codes in [[C (programming language)|C programming language]] and many other languages influenced by it, such as [[Java (programming language)|Java]] and [[Perl]] (though not all implementations necessarily support all escape codes).}} !! Name |- | 000 0000 || style="background:lightblue;" | 000 || style="background:#CFF;" | 0 || style="background:lightblue;" | 00 | NUL || style="font-size:large;" | ␀ || <code>[[^@]]</code> || <code>[[\0]]</code> || style="text-align:left;" | [[Null character|Null]] |- | 000 0001 || style="background:lightblue;" | 001 || style="background:#CFF;" | 1 || style="background:lightblue;" | 01 | SOH || style="font-size:large;" | ␁ || <code>[[^A]]</code> || || style="text-align:left;" | [[Start of Heading]] |- | 000 0010 || style="background:lightblue;" | 002 || style="background:#CFF;" | 2 || style="background:lightblue;" | 02 | STX || style="font-size:large;" | ␂ || <code>[[^B]]</code> || || style="text-align:left;" | [[Start of Text]] |- | 000 0011 || style="background:lightblue;" | 003 || style="background:#CFF;" | 3 || style="background:lightblue;" | 03 | ETX || style="font-size:large;" | ␃ || <code>[[^C]]</code> || || style="text-align:left;" | [[End-of-Text character|End of Text]] |- | 000 0100 || style="background:lightblue;" | 004 || style="background:#CFF;" | 4 || style="background:lightblue;" | 04 <!-- Please note that the character below, U+2404, is correct. If you are seeing it as "ENQ", please upgrade your fonts as the one you have is buggy. --> | EOT || style="font-size:large;" | ␄ || <code>[[^D]]</code> || || style="text-align:left;" | [[End-of-Transmission character|End of Transmission]] |- | 000 0101 || style="background:lightblue;" | 005 || style="background:#CFF;" | 5 || style="background:lightblue;" | 05 <!-- Please note that the character below, U+2405, is correct. If you are seeing it as "EOT", please upgrade your fonts as the one you have is buggy. --> | ENQ || style="font-size:large;" | ␅ || <code>[[^E]]</code> || || style="text-align:left;" | [[Enquiry character|Enquiry]] |- | 000 0110 || style="background:lightblue;" | 006 || style="background:#CFF;" | 6 || style="background:lightblue;" | 06 | ACK || style="font-size:large;" | ␆ || <code>[[^F]]</code> || || style="text-align:left;" | [[Acknowledge character|Acknowledgement]] |- | 000 0111 || style="background:lightblue;" | 007 || style="background:#CFF;" | 7 || style="background:lightblue;" | 07 | BEL || style="font-size:large;" | ␇ || <code>[[^G]]</code> || <code>[[\a]]</code> || style="text-align:left;" | [[Bell character|Bell]] |- | 000 1000 || style="background:lightblue;" | 010 || style="background:#CFF;" | 8 || style="background:lightblue;" | 08 | BS || style="font-size:large;" | ␈ || <code>[[^H]]</code> || <code>[[Backspace|\b]]</code> || style="text-align:left;" | [[Backspace]]{{Efn|The Backspace character can also be entered by pressing the {{keypress|Backspace}} key on some systems.}}{{Efn|name="bsp del mismatch"}} |- | 000 1001 || style="background:lightblue;" | 011 || style="background:#CFF;" | 9 || style="background:lightblue;" | 09 | HT || style="font-size:large;" | ␉ || <code>[[^I]]</code> || <code>[[\t]]</code> || style="text-align:left;" | [[Horizontal Tab]]{{Efn|The Tab character can also be entered by pressing the {{keypress|Tab}} key on most systems.}} |- | 000 1010 || style="background:lightblue;" | 012 || style="background:#CFF;" | 10 || style="background:lightblue;" | 0A | LF || style="font-size:large;" | ␊ || <code>[[^J]]</code> || <code>[[\n]]</code> || style="text-align:left;" | [[Line Feed]] |- | 000 1011 || style="background:lightblue;" | 013 || style="background:#CFF;" | 11 || style="background:lightblue;" | 0B | VT || style="font-size:large;" | ␋ || <code>[[^K]]</code> || <code>[[\v]]</code> || style="text-align:left;" | [[Vertical Tab]] |- | 000 1100 || style="background:lightblue;" | 014 || style="background:#CFF;" | 12 || style="background:lightblue;" | 0C | FF || style="font-size:large;" | ␌ || <code>[[^L]]</code> || <code>[[\f]]</code> || style="text-align:left;" | [[Form Feed]] |- | 000 1101 || style="background:lightblue;" | 015 || style="background:#CFF;" | 13 || style="background:lightblue;" | 0D | CR || style="font-size:large;" | ␍ || <code>[[^M]]</code> || <code>[[\r]]</code> || style="text-align:left;" | [[Carriage Return]]{{Efn|The Carriage Return character can also be entered by pressing the {{keypress|Enter}} or {{keypress|Return}} key on most systems.}} |- | 000 1110 || style="background:lightblue;" | 016 || style="background:#CFF;" | 14 || style="background:lightblue;" | 0E | SO || style="font-size:large;" | ␎ || <code>[[^N]]</code> || || style="text-align:left;" | [[Shift Out and Shift In characters|Shift Out]] |- | 000 1111 || style="background:lightblue;" | 017 || style="background:#CFF;" | 15 || style="background:lightblue;" | 0F | SI || style="font-size:large;" | ␏ || <code>[[^O]]</code> || || style="text-align:left;" | [[Shift Out and Shift In characters|Shift In]] |- | 001 0000 || style="background:lightblue;" | 020 || style="background:#CFF;" | 16 || style="background:lightblue;" | 10 | DLE || style="font-size:large;" | ␐ || <code>[[^P]]</code> || || style="text-align:left;" | [[Data Link Escape]] |- | 001 0001 || style="background:lightblue;" | 021 || style="background:#CFF;" | 17 || style="background:lightblue;" | 11 | DC1 || style="font-size:large;" | ␑ || <code>[[^Q]]</code> || || style="text-align:left;" | [[Device Control 1]] (oft. [[XON]]) |- | 001 0010 || style="background:lightblue;" | 022 || style="background:#CFF;" | 18 || style="background:lightblue;" | 12 | DC2 || style="font-size:large;" | ␒ || <code>[[^R]]</code> || || style="text-align:left;" | Device Control 2 |- | 001 0011 || style="background:lightblue;" | 023 || style="background:#CFF;" | 19 || style="background:lightblue;" | 13 | DC3 || style="font-size:large;" | ␓ || <code>[[^S]]</code> || || style="text-align:left;" | Device Control 3 (oft. [[XOFF]]) |- | 001 0100 || style="background:lightblue;" | 024 || style="background:#CFF;" | 20 || style="background:lightblue;" | 14 | DC4 || style="font-size:large;" | ␔ || <code>[[^T]]</code> || || style="text-align:left;" | Device Control 4 |- | 001 0101 || style="background:lightblue;" | 025 || style="background:#CFF;" | 21 || style="background:lightblue;" | 15 | NAK || style="font-size:large;" | ␕ || <code>[[^U]]</code> || || style="text-align:left;" | [[Negative-acknowledge character|Negative Acknowledgement]] |- | 001 0110 || style="background:lightblue;" | 026 || style="background:#CFF;" | 22 || style="background:lightblue;" | 16 | SYN || style="font-size:large;" | ␖ || <code>[[^V]]</code> || || style="text-align:left;" | [[Synchronous Idle]] |- | 001 0111 || style="background:lightblue;" | 027 || style="background:#CFF;" | 23 || style="background:lightblue;" | 17 | ETB || style="font-size:large;" | ␗ || <code>[[^W]]</code> || || style="text-align:left;" | [[End-of-Transmission-Block character|End of Transmission Block]] |- | 001 1000 || style="background:lightblue;" | 030 || style="background:#CFF;" | 24 || style="background:lightblue;" | 18 | CAN || style="font-size:large;" | ␘ || <code>[[^X]]</code> || || style="text-align:left;" | [[Cancel character|Cancel]] |- | 001 1001 || style="background:lightblue;" | 031 || style="background:#CFF;" | 25 || style="background:lightblue;" | 19 | EM || style="font-size:large;" | ␙ || <code>[[^Y]]</code> || || style="text-align:left;" | [[End of Medium]] |- | 001 1010 || style="background:lightblue;" | 032 || style="background:#CFF;" | 26 || style="background:lightblue;" | 1A | SUB || style="font-size:large;" | ␚ || <code>[[^Z]]</code> || || style="text-align:left;" | [[Substitute character|Substitute]] |- | 001 1011 || style="background:lightblue;" | 033 || style="background:#CFF;" | 27 || style="background:lightblue;" | 1B | ESC || style="font-size:large;" | ␛ || <code>^<nowiki>[</nowiki></code> || <code>[[\e]]</code>{{Efn|The <code>\e</code> escape sequence is not part of ISO C and many other language specifications. However, it is understood by several compilers, including [[GCC (software)|GCC]].}} || style="text-align:left;" | [[Escape character|Escape]]{{Efn|The Escape character can also be entered by pressing the {{keypress|Esc}} key on some systems.}} |- | 001 1100 || style="background:lightblue;" | 034 || style="background:#CFF;" | 28 || style="background:lightblue;" | 1C | FS || style="font-size:large;" | ␜ || <code>[[^\]]</code> || || style="text-align:left;" | [[File separator|File Separator]] |- | 001 1101 || style="background:lightblue;" | 035 || style="background:#CFF;" | 29 || style="background:lightblue;" | 1D | GS || style="font-size:large;" | ␝ || <code>^<nowiki>]</nowiki></code> || || style="text-align:left;" | [[Group separator|Group Separator]] |- | 001 1110 || style="background:lightblue;" | 036 || style="background:#CFF;" | 30 || style="background:lightblue;" | 1E | RS || style="font-size:large;" | ␞ || <code>^^</code>{{Efn|^^ means {{keypress|Ctrl|^}} (pressing the "Ctrl" and caret keys).}} || || style="text-align:left;" | [[Record separator|Record Separator]] |- | 001 1111 || style="background:lightblue;" | 037 || style="background:#CFF;" | 31 || style="background:lightblue;" | 1F | US || style="font-size:large;" | ␟ || <code>^_</code> || || style="text-align:left;" | [[Unit separator|Unit Separator]] |- | colspan="9" | |- | 111 1111 || style="background:lightblue;" | 177 || style="background:#CFF;" | 127 || style="background:lightblue;" | 7F | DEL || style="font-size:large;" | ␡ || <code>[[^?]]</code> || || style="text-align:left;" | [[Delete character|Delete]]{{Efn|The Delete character can sometimes be entered by pressing the {{keypress|Backspace}} key on some systems.}}{{Efn|name="bsp del mismatch"|The ambiguity of Backspace is due to early terminals designed assuming the main use of the keyboard would be to manually punch paper tape while not connected to a computer. To delete the previous character, one had to back up the paper tape punch, which for mechanical and simplicity reasons was a button on the punch itself and not the keyboard, then type the rubout character. They therefore placed a key producing rubout at the location used on typewriters for backspace. When systems used these terminals and provided command-line editing, they had to use the "rubout" code to perform a backspace, and often did not interpret the backspace character (they might echo "<code>^H</code>" for backspace). Other terminals not designed for paper tape made the key at this location produce Backspace, and systems designed for these used that character to back up. Since the delete code often produced a backspace effect, this also forced terminal manufacturers to make any {{keypress|Delete}} key produce something other than the Delete character.}} |} Other representations might be used by specialist equipment, for example [[ISO 2047]] graphics or [[hexadecimal]] numbers. ==ASCII printable characters== <!-- Section header linked to from redirects --> Codes 20<sub>[[hexadecimal|16]]</sub> to 7E<sub>[[hexadecimal|16]]</sub>, known as the printable characters, represent letters, digits, [[punctuation marks]], and a few miscellaneous symbols. There are 95 printable characters in total.{{efn|Printed out, the characters are: {{Pre2|scroll|<nowiki> !"#$%&'()*+,-./0123456789:;<=>?@ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ[\]^_`abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz{|}~</nowiki>}}}} Code 20_{[[hexadecimal|16]]}, the [[Space (punctuation)|"space" character]], denotes the space between words, as produced by the space bar of a keyboard. Since the space character is considered an invisible graphic (rather than a control character)<ref name="RFC20_1968" /><ref name="kenz" />{{rp|223}} it is listed in the table below instead of in the previous section. Code 7F_{[[hexadecimal|16]]} corresponds to the non-printable "delete" (DEL) control character and is therefore omitted from this chart; it is covered in the previous section's chart. Earlier versions of ASCII used the up arrow instead of the [[caret]] (5E_{[[hexadecimal|16]]}) and the left arrow instead of the [[underscore]] (5F_{[[hexadecimal|16]]}).<ref>[http://www.worldpowersystems.com/projects/codes/X3.4-1963/index.html ASA X3.4-1963].</ref> ===ASCII printable code chart=== {{anchor|3 ASCII printable characters|ASCII printable characters}}<!-- when changing a section title that might be link-referenced from ELSEWHERE, drop in the anchor template to maintain cross-linking integrity! --> {| style="background:none; text-align:center;" |- style="vertical-align:top;" | {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;" |- !Binary !! Oct !! Dec !! Hex !! Glyph |- |010 0000 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 040 || style="background:#cff;"| 32 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 20 || {{small|([[space (punctuation)|space]])}} |- |010 0001 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 041 || style="background:#cff;"| 33 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 21 || [[Exclamation mark|!]] |- |010 0010 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 042 || style="background:#cff;"| 34 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 22 || [[Quotation mark|"]] |- |010 0011 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 043 || style="background:#cff;"| 35 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 23 || [[Number sign|#]] |- |010 0100 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 044 || style="background:#cff;"| 36 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 24 || [[Dollar sign|$]] |- |010 0101 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 045 || style="background:#cff;"| 37 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 25 || [[Percent sign|%]] |- |010 0110 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 046 || style="background:#cff;"| 38 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 26 || [[Ampersand|&]] |- |010 0111 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 047 || style="background:#cff;"| 39 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 27 || [[Apostrophe|']] |- |010 1000 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 050 || style="background:#cff;"| 40 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 28 || [[Parentheses|(]] |- |010 1001 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 051 || style="background:#cff;"| 41 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 29 || [[Parentheses|)]] |- |010 1010 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 052 || style="background:#cff;"| 42 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 2A || [[Asterisk|*]] |- |010 1011 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 053 || style="background:#cff;"| 43 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 2B || [[Plus sign|+]] |- |010 1100 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 054 || style="background:#cff;"| 44 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 2C || [[Comma|,]] |- |010 1101 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 055 || style="background:#cff;"| 45 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 2D || [[Hyphen-minus|-]] |- |010 1110 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 056 || style="background:#cff;"| 46 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 2E || [[Full stop|.]] |- |010 1111 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 057 || style="background:#cff;"| 47 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 2F || [[Slash (punctuation)|/]] |- |011 0000 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 060 || style="background:#cff;"| 48 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 30 || [[0 (number)|0]] |- |011 0001 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 061 || style="background:#cff;"| 49 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 31 || [[1 (number)|1]] |- |011 0010 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 062 || style="background:#cff;"| 50 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 32 || [[2 (number)|2]] |- |011 0011 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 063 || style="background:#cff;"| 51 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 33 || [[3 (number)|3]] |- |011 0100 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 064 || style="background:#cff;"| 52 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 34 || [[4 (number)|4]] |- |011 0101 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 065 || style="background:#cff;"| 53 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 35 || [[5 (number)|5]] |- |011 0110 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 066 || style="background:#cff;"| 54 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 36 || [[6 (number)|6]] |- |011 0111 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 067 || style="background:#cff;"| 55 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 37 || [[7 (number)|7]] |- |011 1000 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 070 || style="background:#cff;"| 56 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 38 || [[8 (number)|8]] |- |011 1001 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 071 || style="background:#cff;"| 57 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 39 || [[9 (number)|9]] |- |011 1010 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 072 || style="background:#cff;"| 58 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 3A || [[Colon (punctuation)|:]] |- |011 1011 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 073 || style="background:#cff;"| 59 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 3B || [[Semicolon|;]] |- |011 1100 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 074 || style="background:#cff;"| 60 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 3C || [[Less-than sign|<]] |- |011 1101 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 075 || style="background:#cff;"| 61 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 3D || [[Equals sign|=]] |- |011 1110 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 076 || style="background:#cff;"| 62 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 3E || [[Greater-than sign|>]] |- |011 1111 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 077 || style="background:#cff;"| 63 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 3F || [[Question mark|?]] |} | {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;margin-left:1em" |- style="vertical-align:bottom;" !Binary !! Oct !! Dec !! Hex !! Glyph |- |100 0000 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 100 || style="background:#cff;"| 64 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 40 || [[At sign|@]] |- |100 0001 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 101 || style="background:#cff;"| 65 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 41 || [[A]] |- |100 0010 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 102 || style="background:#cff;"| 66 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 42 || [[B]] |- |100 0011 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 103 || style="background:#cff;"| 67 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 43 || [[C]] |- |100 0100 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 104 || style="background:#cff;"| 68 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 44 || [[D]] |- |100 0101 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 105 || style="background:#cff;"| 69 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 45 || [[E]] |- |100 0110 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 106 || style="background:#cff;"| 70 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 46 || [[F]] |- |100 0111 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 107 || style="background:#cff;"| 71 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 47 || [[G]] |- |100 1000 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 110 || style="background:#cff;"| 72 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 48 || [[H]] |- |100 1001 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 111 || style="background:#cff;"| 73 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 49 || [[I]] |- |100 1010 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 112 || style="background:#cff;"| 74 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 4A || [[J]] |- |100 1011 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 113 || style="background:#cff;"| 75 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 4B || [[K]] |- |100 1100 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 114 || style="background:#cff;"| 76 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 4C || [[L]] |- |100 1101 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 115 || style="background:#cff;"| 77 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 4D || [[M]] |- |100 1110 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 116 || style="background:#cff;"| 78 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 4E || [[N]] |- |100 1111 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 117 || style="background:#cff;"| 79 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 4F || [[O]] |- |101 0000 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 120 || style="background:#cff;"| 80 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 50 || [[P]] |- |101 0001 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 121 || style="background:#cff;"| 81 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 51 || [[Q]] |- |101 0010 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 122 || style="background:#cff;"| 82 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 52 || [[R]] |- |101 0011 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 123 || style="background:#cff;"| 83 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 53 || [[S]] |- |101 0100 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 124 || style="background:#cff;"| 84 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 54 || [[T]] |- |101 0101 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 125 || style="background:#cff;"| 85 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 55 || [[U]] |- |101 0110 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 126 || style="background:#cff;"| 86 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 56 || [[V]] |- |101 0111 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 127 || style="background:#cff;"| 87 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 57 || [[W]] |- |101 1000 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 130 || style="background:#cff;"| 88 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 58 || [[X]] |- |101 1001 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 131 || style="background:#cff;"| 89 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 59 || [[Y]] |- |101 1010 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 132 || style="background:#cff;"| 90 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 5A || [[Z]] |- |101 1011 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 133 || style="background:#cff;"| 91 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 5B || [[Square brackets|<nowiki>[</nowiki>]] |- |101 1100 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 134 || style="background:#cff;"| 92 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 5C || [[Backslash|\]] |- |101 1101 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 135 || style="background:#cff;"| 93 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 5D || [[Square brackets|<nowiki>]</nowiki>]] |- |101 1110 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 136 || style="background:#cff;"| 94 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 5E || [[Caret|^]] |- |101 1111 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 137 || style="background:#cff;"| 95 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 5F || [[Underscore|_]] |} | {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;margin-left:1em" |- style="vertical-align:bottom;" !Binary !! Oct !! Dec !! Hex !! Glyph |- |110 0000 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 140 || style="background:#cff;"| 96 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 60 || [[Grave accent|`]] |- |110 0001 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 141 || style="background:#cff;"| 97 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 61 || [[a]] |- |110 0010 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 142 || style="background:#cff;"| 98 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 62 || [[b]] |- |110 0011 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 143 || style="background:#cff;"| 99 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 63 || [[c]] |- |110 0100 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 144 || style="background:#cff;"| 100 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 64 || [[d]] |- |110 0101 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 145 || style="background:#cff;"| 101 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 65 || [[e]] |- |110 0110 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 146 || style="background:#cff;"| 102 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 66 || [[f]] |- |110 0111 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 147 || style="background:#cff;"| 103 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 67 || [[g]] |- |110 1000 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 150 || style="background:#cff;"| 104 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 68 || [[h]] |- |110 1001 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 151 || style="background:#cff;"| 105 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 69 || [[i]] |- |110 1010 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 152 || style="background:#cff;"| 106 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 6A || [[j]] |- |110 1011 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 153 || style="background:#cff;"| 107 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 6B || [[k]] |- |110 1100 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 154 || style="background:#cff;"| 108 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 6C || [[l]] |- |110 1101 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 155 || style="background:#cff;"| 109 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 6D || [[m]] |- |110 1110 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 156 || style="background:#cff;"| 110 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 6E || [[n]] |- |110 1111 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 157 || style="background:#cff;"| 111 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 6F || [[o]] |- |111 0000 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 160 || style="background:#cff;"| 112 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 70 || [[p]] |- |111 0001 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 161 || style="background:#cff;"| 113 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 71 || [[q]] |- |111 0010 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 162 || style="background:#cff;"| 114 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 72 || [[r]] |- |111 0011 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 163 || style="background:#cff;"| 115 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 73 || [[s]] |- |111 0100 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 164 || style="background:#cff;"| 116 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 74 || [[t]] |- |111 0101 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 165 || style="background:#cff;"| 117 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 75 || [[u]] |- |111 0110 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 166 || style="background:#cff;"| 118 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 76 || [[v]] |- |111 0111 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 167 || style="background:#cff;"| 119 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 77 || [[w]] |- |111 1000 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 170 || style="background:#cff;"| 120 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 78 || [[x]] |- |111 1001 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 171 || style="background:#cff;"| 121 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 79 || [[y]] |- |111 1010 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 172 || style="background:#cff;"| 122 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 7A || [[z]] |- |111 1011 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 173 || style="background:#cff;"| 123 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 7B || [[Bracket#Curly brackets|{]] |- |111 1100 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 174 || style="background:#cff;"| 124 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 7C || [[Vertical bar|<nowiki>|</nowiki>]] |- |111 1101 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 175 || style="background:#cff;"| 125 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 7D || [[Bracket#Curly brackets|}]] |- |111 1110 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 176 || style="background:#cff;"| 126 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 7E || [[Tilde|~]] |} |} ==Aliases== A June 1992 RFC<ref>RFC 1345 (June 1992).</ref> and the [[Internet Assigned Numbers Authority]] registry of character sets<ref name="IANA" /> recognize the following case-insensitive aliases for ASCII as suitable for use on the Internet: ANSI_X3.4-1968 (canonical name), iso-ir-6, ANSI_X3.4-1986, ISO_646.irv:1991, ASCII, ISO646-US, US-ASCII (preferred [[MIME]] name),<ref name="IANA">Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (May 14, 2007). "[http://www.iana.org/assignments/character-sets Character Sets]". Accessed 2008-04-14.</ref> us, IBM367, cp367, and csASCII. Of these, the IANA encourages use of the name "US-ASCII" for Internet uses of ASCII (even if it is a [[RAS syndrome|redundant acronym]], but the US is needed because of abuse of the ASCII term). One often finds this in the optional "charset" parameter in the Content-Type header of some MIME messages, in the equivalent "meta" element of some [[HTML]] documents, and in the encoding declaration part of the prologue of some [[XML]] documents. ==Variants== As computer technology spread throughout the world, different [[Standardization|standards bodies]] and corporations developed many variations of ASCII to facilitate the expression of non-English languages that used Roman-based alphabets. One could class some of these variations as "[[Extended ASCII|ASCII extensions]]", although some misuse that term to represent all variants, including those that do not preserve ASCII's character-map in the 7-bit range. Furthermore, the ASCII extensions have also been mislabelled as ASCII. Many other countries developed variants of ASCII to include non-English letters (e.g. [[é]], [[ñ]], [[ß]], [[Ł]]), currency symbols (e.g. [[£]], [[¥]]), etc. The [[PETSCII]] code [[Commodore International]] used for their [[8-bit]] systems is probably unique among post-1970 codes in being based on ASCII-1963, instead of the more common ASCII-1967, such as found on the [[ZX Spectrum character set|ZX Spectrum]] computer. [[ATASCII|Atari]] 8-bit computers and [[Galaksija (computer)#Character ROM|Galaksija]] computers also used ASCII variants. ===7-bit=== {{See also|UTF-7}} From early in its development,<ref>"Specific Criteria," attachment to memo from R. W. Reach, "X3-2 Meeting – September 14 and 15," September 18, 1961</ref> ASCII was intended to be just one of several national variants of an international character code standard, ultimately published as [[ISO/IEC 646]] (1972), which would share most characters in common but assign other locally useful characters to several [[code point]]s reserved for "national use." However, the four years that elapsed between the publication of ASCII-1963 and ISO's first acceptance of an international recommendation during 1967<ref>R. Maréchal, ISO/TC 97 – Computers and Information Processing: Acceptance of Draft ISO Recommendation No. 1052, December 22, 1967</ref> caused ASCII's choices for the national use characters to seem to be de facto standards for the world, causing confusion and incompatibility once other countries did begin to make their own assignments to these code points. ISO/IEC 646, like ASCII, was a 7-bit character set. It did not make any additional codes available, so the same code points encoded different characters in different countries. Escape codes were defined to indicate which national variant applied to a piece of text, but they were rarely used, so it was often impossible to know what variant to work with and therefore which character a code represented, and in general, text-processing systems could cope with only one variant anyway. Because the bracket and brace characters of ASCII were assigned to "national use" code points that were used for accented letters in other national variants of ISO/IEC 646, a German, French, or Swedish, etc. programmer using their national variant of ISO/IEC 646, rather than ASCII, had to write, and thus read, something such as :<code>ä aÄiÜ = 'Ön'; ü</code> instead of :<code>{ a[i] = '\n'; }</code> [[C trigraph]]s were created to solve this problem for [[ANSI C]], although their late introduction and inconsistent implementation in compilers limited their use. Many programmers kept their computers on US-ASCII, so plain-text in Swedish, German etc. (for example, in e-mail or [[Usenet]]) contained "{, }" and similar variants in the middle of words, something those programmers got used to. For example, a Swedish programmer mailing another programmer asking if they should go for lunch, could get "N{ jag har sm|rg}sar." as the answer, which should be "Nä jag har smörgåsar." meaning "No I've got sandwiches." ===8-bit=== {{See also|UTF-8}} Eventually, as 8-, [[16-bit|16-]] and [[32-bit]] (and later [[64-bit]]) computers began to replace [[18-bit|18-]] and [[36-bit]] computers as the norm, it became common to use an 8-bit byte to store each character in memory, providing an opportunity for extended, 8-bit, relatives of ASCII. In most cases these developed as true extensions of ASCII, leaving the original character-mapping intact, but adding additional character definitions after the first 128 (i.e., 7-bit) characters. Most early home computer systems developed their own 8-bit character sets containing line-drawing and game glyphs, and often filled in some or all of the control characters from 0–31 with more graphics. [[Kaypro]] [[CP/M]] computers used the "upper" 128 characters for the Greek alphabet. The IBM PC defined [[code page 437]], which replaced the control-characters with graphic symbols such as [[Emoticon|smiley faces]], and mapped additional graphic characters to the upper 128 positions. Operating systems such as [[DOS]] supported these code pages, and manufacturers of [[IBM PC]]s supported them in hardware. [[Digital Equipment Corporation]] developed the [[Multinational Character Set]] (DEC-MCS) for use in the popular [[VT220]] [[computer terminal|terminal]] as one of the first extensions designed more for international languages than for block graphics. The Macintosh defined [[Mac OS Roman]] and Postscript also defined a set, both of these contained both international letters and typographic punctuation marks instead of graphics, more like modern character sets. The [[ISO/IEC 8859]] standard (derived from the DEC-MCS) finally provided a standard that most systems copied (at least as accurately as they copied ASCII, but with many substitutions). A popular further extension designed by Microsoft, [[Windows-1252]] (often mislabeled as ISO-8859-1), added the typographic punctuation marks needed for traditional text printing. ISO-8859-1, Windows-1252, and the original 7-bit ASCII were the most common character encodings until 2008 when [[UTF-8]] became more common.<ref name="utf-8-2008" /> ISO/IEC 4873 introduced 32 additional control codes defined in the 80&ndash;9F [[hexadecimal]] range, as part of extending the 7-bit ASCII encoding to become an 8-bit system.<ref>{{cite book |author=The Unicode Consortium |editor-first=Julie D. |editor-last=Allen |title=The Unicode standard, Version 5.0 |date=2006-11-03 |publisher=Addison-Wesley |location=Upper Saddle River, NJ |isbn=0321480910 |chapterurl=http://unicode.org/book/ch13.pdf |accessdate=13 March 2015 |chapter-format=PDF |chapter=Chapter 13: Special Areas and Format Characters |page=314}}</ref> ===Unicode=== {{See also|Basic Latin (Unicode block)}} [[Unicode]] and the ISO/IEC 10646 [[Universal Character Set]] (UCS) have a much wider array of characters and their various encoding forms have begun to supplant ISO/IEC 8859 and ASCII rapidly in many environments. While ASCII is limited to 128 characters, Unicode and the UCS support more characters by separating the concepts of unique identification (using [[natural number]]s called ''code points'') and encoding (to 8-, 16- or 32-bit binary formats, called [[UTF-8]], [[UTF-16]] and [[UTF-32]]). To allow backward compatibility, the 128 ASCII and 256 ISO-8859-1 (Latin 1) characters are assigned Unicode/UCS code points that are the same as their codes in the earlier standards. Therefore, ASCII can be considered a 7-bit encoding scheme for a very small subset of Unicode/UCS, and ASCII (when prefixed with 0 as the eighth bit) is valid UTF-8. ==Order== ASCII-code order is also called ''ASCIIbetical'' order.<ref>{{cite journal |url=http://www.pcmag.com/encyclopedia_term/0,2542,t=ASCIIbetical&i=38025,00.asp |title=ASCIIbetical definition |magazine=[[PC Magazine]] |accessdate=2008-04-14}}</ref> [[Collation]] of data is sometimes done in this order rather than "standard" alphabetical order ([[collating sequence]]). The main deviations in ASCII order are: * All uppercase come before lowercase letters; for example, "Z" comes before "a" * Digits and many punctuation marks come before letters; for example, "4" precedes "one" * Numbers are sorted naïvely as strings; for example, "10" precedes "2" An intermediate order{{mdashb}}readily implemented{{mdashb}}converts uppercase letters to lowercase before comparing ASCII values. Naïve number sorting can be averted by [[Leading zero|zero-filling]] all numbers (e.g. "02" will sort before "10" as expected), although this is an external fix and has nothing to do with the ordering itself. ==See also== {{Portal|Computing}} * [[3568 ASCII]], an asteroid named after the character encoding * [[Ascii85]] * [[ASCII art]] * [[ASCII Ribbon Campaign]] * [[Basic Latin (Unicode block)]] (ASCII as a subset of Unicode) * [[Extended ASCII]] * [[HTML decimal character rendering]] * [[List of Unicode characters]] * [[Jargon File]], a glossary of computer programmer slang which includes a list of common slang names for ASCII characters ==Notes== {{Notelist|40em}} ==References== {{Reflist|40em}} ==Further reading== <!--I'm adding some additional resources here, both for the benefit of readers, and for use in providing inline citations for currently uncited items, above. This stems from the article's current Featured Article Review. --> {{Refbegin}} * {{cite journal |authorlink=Bob Bemer |first=R. W. |last=Bemer |title=A Proposal for Character Code Compatibility |journal=Communications of the ACM |volume=3 |issue=2 |year=1960 |pages=71–72 |doi=10.1145/366959.366961}} * {{cite web |first=R. W |last=Bemer |url=http://www.trailing-edge.com/~bobbemer/SURVEY.HTM |title=The Babel of Codes Prior to ASCII: The 1960 Survey of Coded Character Sets: The Reasons for ASCII |date=May 23, 2003}} from: ** {{cite journal |first=R. W. |last=Bemer |title=Survey of coded character representation |journal=Communications of the ACM |volume=3 |issue=12 |pages=639–641 |date=December 1960 |doi=10.1145/367487.367493}} ** {{cite journal |first1=H. J. |last1=Smith |first2=F. A. |last2=Williams |title=Survey of punched card codes |journal=Communications of the ACM |volume=3 |issue=12 |page=642 |date=December 1960 |doi=10.1145/367487.367491}} * {{cite journal |title=History and impact of computer standards |first=G. S. |last=Robinson |lastauthoramp=yes |first2=C. |last2=Cargill |journal=[[Computer (magazine)|Computer]] |volume=29 |issue=10 |pages=79–85 |year=1996 |doi=10.1109/2.539725}} * {{cite book |title=American National Standard Code for Information Interchange |publisher=American National Standards Institute |year=1977}} {{Refend}} ==External links== {{Commons category|ASCII}} <!--===========================(PLEASE NOTE)=============================== | PLEASE BE CAUTIOUS IN ADDING MORE LINKS TO THIS ARTICLE. WIKIPEDIA | | IS NOT A COLLECTION OF LINKS NOR SHOULD IT BE USED FOR ADVERTISING. | | | | This article already contains ASCII code charts, therefore any link | | to such a chart does not pass [[WP:ELNO]] #1 and WILL BE DELETED. | | | | This article is not about so-called "extended ASCII", therefore any | | link to a page about "extended ASCII" is not relevant and WILL BE | | DELETED. | | | | "ASCII converters" are a dime a dozen, so choosing any one would be | | linkspam for that site. All such links WILL BE DELETED. Add them to | | the Open Directory Project (dmoz.org) instead. | | | | See [[Wikipedia:External links]] & [[Wikipedia:Spam]] for details. | ===========================(PLEASE NOTE)===============================--> * [http://www.unicode.org/charts/PDF/U0000.pdf The ASCII subset] of [[Unicode]] * {{cite web|title=The Evolution of Character Codes, 1874-1968|first1=Eric|last1=Fischer|url=http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.96.678}} * [http://worldpowersystems.com/archives/codes/X3.4-1963/index.html Scanned copy of American Standard Code for Information Interchange ASA standard X3.4-1963] {{Character encoding|state=collapsed}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Ascii}} [[Category:ASCII]] [[Category:Character sets]] [[Category:Latin-alphabet representations]] [[Category:Presentation layer protocols]] 8ns6r5iodripfkawfa3zjyd727naccq 0 589 290580331 289167048 2009-05-17T20:43:54Z Erik9bot 8889502 [[WP:RBK|Reverted]] edits by [[Special:Contributions/Erik9bot|Erik9bot]] ([[User talk:Erik9bot|talk]]) to last version by Closedmouth wikitext text/x-wiki #REDIRECT [[Ashmore and Cartier Islands]]{{R from other capitalisation}} sct6r17itfol5e4evppwlfu78ky8pxd 0 590 688433071 685737036 2015-10-31T22:01:46Z Jareha 64979 /* Other uses */ Add [[Austin (building). wikitext text/x-wiki {{wiktionary|Austin}} '''[[Austin]]''' is the capital of Texas in the United States. '''Austin''' may also refer to: {{TOC right}} ==Geographical locations== ===Australia=== *[[Austin, Western Australia]] ===Canada=== *[[Austin, Manitoba]] *[[Austin, Ontario]] *[[Austin, Quebec]] *[[Austin Island]], Nunavut ===France=== *Saint-Austin, hamlet at [[la Neuville-Chant-d'Oisel]], Normandy ===United States of America=== *[[Austin, Arkansas]] *[[Austin, Colorado]] * Austin, Illinois: ** [[Austin Township, Macon County, Illinois]] **[[Austin, Chicago]], Cook County, Illinois *[[Austin, Indiana]] *[[Austin, Kentucky]] *[[Austin, Minnesota]] *[[Austin, Nevada]] *[[Austin, Oregon]] *[[Austin County, Texas]] (note that the city of Austin is located in Travis County) ==People== *[[Austin (name)]] ==Schools== *[[Austin College]], Sherman, Texas *[[University of Texas at Austin]], flagship institution of the University of Texas System *[[Austin Peay State University]], Clarksville, Tennessee ==Religion== *[[Augustine of Hippo]] or [[Augustine of Canterbury]] *An adjective for the [[Augustinians]] ==Business== *[[Austin Automobile Company]], short-lived American automobile company *[[Austin (brand)]], a brand owned by the Kellogg Company *[[Austin Motor Company]], British car manufacturer *[[American Austin Car Company]], short-lived American automobile maker ==Entertainment== *[[Austin (song)|"Austin" (song)]], a single by Blake Shelton *Austin, a kangaroo [[Beanie Baby]] produced by Ty, Inc. *Austin the kangaroo from the children's television series ''[[The Backyardigans]]'' ==Other uses== *[[USS Austin|USS ''Austin'']], three ships *[[Austin Station (disambiguation)]], various public transportation stations *[[Austin (building)|''Austin'' (building)]], a building designed by artist Ellsworth Kelly under construction in Austin, Texas ==See also== *[[Austen (disambiguation)]] *[[Augustine (disambiguation)]] *[[Special:Prefixindex/Austin|All pages beginning with Austin]] {{disambiguation|geo}} 38xtk4qsak4v87asudjuoc4e0q0as56 0 593 718047226 718045990 2016-05-01T07:08:29Z Jj98 12683541 /* Traditional animation */ ref wikitext text/x-wiki {{other uses}} {{Use dmy dates|date=June 2013}} {{multiple image|width=250px|direction=vertical|align=right |image1 = Animexample3edit.png | caption1=The bouncing ball animation (below) consists of these six frames. |image2 = Animexample.gif | caption2=This animation moves at 10 frames per second. }} '''Animation''' is the process of making the [[illusion]] of [[Motion (physics)|motion]] and change{{refn|With the "[[squash and stretch]]" principle often applied in case of [[character animation]].|group=Note}} by means of the rapid display of a sequence of static images that minimally differ from each other. The illusion&mdash;as in motion pictures in general&mdash;is thought to rely on the [[phi phenomenon]]. [[Animator]]s are artists who specialize in the creation of animation. Animation can be [[Recording|recorded]] with either analogue media, a [[flip book]], [[motion picture film]], video tape, [[digital media]], including formats with [[animated GIF]], [[Flash animation]] and digital video. To display animation, a [[digital camera]], computer, or [[Image projector|projector]] are used along with new technologies that are produced. Animation creation methods include the [[traditional animation]] creation method and those involving [[stop motion]] animation of two and three-dimensional objects, [[cutout animation|paper cutouts]], [[puppet]]s and [[Clay animation|clay figures]]. Images are displayed in a rapid succession, usually 24, 25, 30, or 60 [[film frame|frames]] per second. == History == {{Main|History of animation}} [[File:Vase animation.svg|right|250px|thumb|Reproduction of drawing on a pottery vessel found in Burnt City]] [[Image:Phenakistoscope 3g07690u.jpg|thumb|right|A [[phenakistoscope]] disc by [[Eadweard Muybridge]] (1893)]] Early examples of attempts to capture the phenomenon of [[motion (physics)|motion]] into a still drawing can be found in [[paleolithic]] [[cave painting]]s, where animals are often depicted with multiple legs in superimposed positions, clearly attempting to convey the perception of motion.{{sfn|Thomas|1958|p=8}} An earthen goblet discovered at the site of the 5,200-year-old [[Shahr-e Sukhteh|Burnt City]] in southeastern Iran, depicts what could possibly be the world's oldest example of animation.{{sfn|Ball|2008}} The artifact bears five sequential images depicting a [[wild goat|Persian Desert Ibex]] jumping up to eat the leaves of a tree.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Bhattacgarjee|first1=Subhankar|title=A short history of Animation, before Disney|url=https://medium.com/@SubhankarB/a-short-history-of-animation-before-disney-1d814db85aa1#.2ffjm9uuv|publisher=Medium|accessdate=15 March 2016|date=December 2, 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.theheritagetrust.wordpress.com/2012/07/25/worlds-oldest-animation|title=World's Oldest Animation?|publisher=The Heritage Trust|website=theheritagetrust.wordpress.com}}</ref> Ancient Chinese records contain several mentions of devices that were said to "give an impression of movement" to human or animal figures,{{sfn|Needham|1962|pages=123–124}} these accounts are unclear and may only refer to the actual movement of the figures through space.{{sfn|Rojas|Chow|2013|p=5}} In the 19th century, the [[phenakistoscope]] (1832), [[zoetrope]] (1834) and [[praxinoscope]] (1877).{{sfn|Laybourne|1998|pp=19–21}} The common [[flip book]] were early animation devices that produced an illusion of movement from a series of sequential drawings, animation did not develop further until the advent of [[film|motion picture film]] and [[cinematography]] in the 1890s.{{sfn|Solomon|1989|pp=10-11}} The [[cinématographe]] was a projector, printer, and camera in one machine that allowed moving pictures to be shown successfully on a screen which was invented by history's earliest film makers, [[Auguste and Louis Lumière]], in 1894.{{sfn|Neupert|2011}}<ref name="UCLA"/> The first animated projection (screening) was created in France, by [[Charles-Émile Reynaud]],{{sfn|Neupert|2011}} who was a French science teacher. Reynaud created the [[Praxinoscope]] in 1877 and the Théâtre Optique in December 1888.{{sfn|Solomon|1989|pp=8–10}} On 28 October 1892, he projected the first animation in public, ''[[Pauvre Pierrot]]'', at the Musée Grévin in Paris.{{sfn|Drazin|2011|pages=8-9}} This film is also notable as the first known instance of film perforations being used. His films were not photographed, they were drawn directly onto the transparent strip. In 1900, more than 500,000 people had attended these screenings. [[File:Lanature1882 praxinoscope projection reynaud.png|thumb|A projecting [[praxinoscope]], 1882, here shown superimposing an animated figure on a separately projected background scene]] The first film that was recorded on [[standard picture film]] and included animated sequences was the 1900 ''[[The Enchanted Drawing|Enchanted Drawing]]'',<ref name="Solomon12–13"/> which was followed by the first entirely animated film - the 1906 ''[[Humorous Phases of Funny Faces]]'' by [[J. Stuart Blackton]],<ref name="Crafton35"/> who, because of that, is considered the father of American animation. [[File:Fantasmagorie (Cohl).GIF|thumb|The first animated film created by using what came to be known as [[traditional animation|traditional (hand-drawn) animation]] - the 1908 ''[[Fantasmagorie (1908 film)|Fantasmagorie]]'' by [[Émile Cohl]]]] [[File:Charlie in Turkey Pat Sullivan Keen Cartoon Corporation 1916 685703 FLM11263.ogv|thumb|''Charlie in Turkey'' (1916), an animated film by [[Pat Sullivan (film producer)|Pat Sullivan]] for [[Keen Cartoon Corporation]].]] In Europe, the French artist, [[Émile Cohl]], created the first animated film using what came to be known as [[traditional animation]] creation methods - the 1908 ''[[Fantasmagorie (1908 film)|Fantasmagorie]]''.<ref name="Crafton60–61"/> The film largely consisted of a [[stick figure]] moving about and encountering all manner of morphing objects, a wine bottle that transforms into a flower.<ref name="Harryhausen_Dalton42"/> There were also sections of live action in which the animator's hands would enter the scene. The film was created by drawing each frame on paper and then shooting each frame onto [[negative film]], which gave the picture a blackboard look.<ref name="Crafton60–61"/> The author of the first [[puppet]]-animated film (''The Beautiful Lukanida'' (1912)) was the Russian-born (ethnically [[Poles|Polish]]) director Wladyslaw Starewicz, known as [[Ladislas Starevich]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Władysław Starewicz - Biography|url=http://culture.pl/en/artist/wladyslaw-starewicz|website=culture.pl|publisher=Adam Mickiewicz Institute|accessdate=2016-02-09}}</ref> More detailed hand-drawn animation, requiring a team of animators drawing each frame manually with detailed backgrounds and characters, were those directed by [[Winsor McCay]], a successful newspaper cartoonist, including the 1911 ''[[Little Nemo (1911 film)|Little Nemo]]'', the 1914 ''[[Gertie the Dinosaur]]'',{{sfn|Beckerman|2003|pp=18–19}} and the 1918 ''[[The Sinking of the Lusitania]]''.<ref name="Solomon14-19"/> During the 1910s, the production of animated short films, typically referred to as "[[animated cartoon|cartoons]]", became an industry of its own and cartoon shorts were produced for showing in movie theaters. The most successful producer at the time was [[John Randolph Bray]], who, along with animator [[Earl Hurd]], patented the [[Traditional animation#Cels|cel animation]] process which dominated the animation industry for the rest of the decade.{{sfn|Solomon|1989|p=24}}{{sfn|Solomon|1989|p=34}} ''[[El Apóstol]]'' (Spanish: "The Apostle") was a 1917 Argentine animated film utilizing cutout animation, and the world's first animated feature film.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Finkielman|first1=Jorge|title=The Film Industry in Argentina: An Illustrated Cultural History|year=2004|publisher=McFarland|location=North Carolina|isbn=0-7864-1628-9|page=20}}</ref><ref name="Crafton378"/> Unfortunately, a fire that destroyed producer Frederico Valle's film studio incinerated the only known copy of ''El Apóstol'', and it is now considered a [[lost film]].{{sfn|Beckerman|2003|p=25}}{{sfn|Bendazzi|1996}} [[Computer animation]] has become popular since ''[[Toy Story]]'' (1995), the first feature-length animated film completely made using this technique.<ref name="Masson432"/> In 2008, the animation market was worth US$68.4 billion.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.boi.gov.ph/pdf/valuepropositions/Animation/Animation.pdf |title=Animation |date=November 2009|accessdate= 24 July 2012|work= boi.gov.ph|publisher= Board of Investments}}</ref> Animation as an art and industry continues to thrive as of the mid-2010s, because well-made animated projects can find audiences across borders and in all [[Four-quadrant movie|four quadrants]]. Animated feature-length films returned the highest [[gross margin]]s (around 52%) of all [[film genre]]s in the 2004–2013 timeframe.<ref>{{cite news|last1=McDuling|first1=John|title=Hollywood Is Giving Up on Comedy|url=http://www.theatlantic.com/entertainment/archive/2014/07/the-completely-serious-decline-of-the-hollywood-comedy/373914/|accessdate=20 July 2014|work=The Atlantic|publisher=The Atlantic Monthly Group|date=3 July 2014}}</ref> == Techniques == === Traditional animation === {{Main|Traditional animation}} [[File:Animhorse.gif|thumb|right|An example of traditional animation, a horse animated by [[rotoscoping]] from [[Eadweard Muybridge]]'s 19th century photos]] '''Traditional animation''' (also called cel animation or hand-drawn animation) was the process used for most animated films of the 20th century. The individual frames of a traditionally animated film are photographs of drawings, first drawn on paper. To create the illusion of movement, each drawing differs slightly from the one before it. The animators' drawings are traced or photocopied onto transparent acetate sheets called [[cel]]s,<ref name="Thomas-Johnston277–279"/> which are filled in with paints in assigned colors or tones on the side opposite the line drawings.<ref name="Laybourne203"/> The completed character cels are photographed one-by-one against a painted background by a [[rostrum camera]] onto motion picture film.{{sfn|White|2006|pp=195–201}} The traditional cel animation process became obsolete by the beginning of the 21st century. Today, animators' drawings and the backgrounds are either scanned into or drawn directly into a computer system.{{sfn|White|2006|p=394}} Various software programs are used to color the drawings and simulate camera movement and effects.<ref name="Culhane296"/> The final animated piece is output to one of several delivery media, including traditional [[35&nbsp;mm film]] and newer media with [[digital video]]. The "look" of traditional cel animation is still preserved, and the [[character animator]]s' work has remained essentially the same over the past 70 years.{{sfn|Williams|2001|pp=52–57}} Some animation producers have used the term "tradigital" to describe cel animation which makes extensive use of computer technologies. Examples of traditionally animated feature films include ''[[Pinocchio (1940 film)|Pinocchio]]'' (United States, 1940),<ref name="Solomon63–65"/> ''[[Animal Farm (1954 film)|Animal Farm]]'' (United Kingdom, 1954), and ''[[The Illusionist (2010 film)|The Illusionist]]'' (British-French, 2010). Traditionally animated films which were produced with the aid of computer technology include ''[[The Lion King]]'' (US, 1994), ''[[The Prince of Egypt]]'' (US, 1998), ''[[Akira (film)|Akira]]'' (Japan, 1988),{{sfn|Beckerman|2003|p=80}} ''[[Spirited Away]]'' (Japan, 2001), ''[[The Triplets of Belleville]]'' (France, 2003), and ''[[The Secret of Kells]]'' (Irish-French-Belgian, 2009). * '''Full animation''' refers to the process of producing high-quality traditionally animated films that regularly use detailed drawings and plausible movement,<ref name="Culhane71"/> having a smooth animation.{{sfn|Culhane|1990|pp=194–195}} Fully animated films can be made in a variety of styles, from more realistically animated works those produced by the [[Walt Disney Animation Studios|Walt Disney studio]] (''[[The Little Mermaid (1989 film)|The Little Mermaid]]'', ''[[Beauty and the Beast (1991 film)|Beauty and the Beast]]'', ''[[Aladdin (1992 Disney film)|Aladdin]]'', ''[[The Lion King]]'') to the more 'cartoon' styles of the [[Warner Bros. Cartoons|Warner Bros. animation studio]]. Many of the [[Disney animated features]] are examples of full animation, as are non-Disney works, ''[[The Secret of NIMH]]'' (US, 1982), ''[[The Iron Giant]]'' (US, 1999), and ''[[Nocturna (Film)|Nocturna]]'' (Spain, 2007). * '''[[Limited animation]]''' involves the use of less detailed or more stylized drawings and methods of movement usually a choppy or "skippy" movement animation.{{sfn|Beckerman|2003|p=142}} Pioneered by the artists at the American studio [[United Productions of America]],{{sfn|Beckerman|2003|pp=54–55}} limited animation can be used as a method of stylized artistic expression, as in ''[[Gerald McBoing-Boing]]'' (US, 1951), ''[[Yellow Submarine (1968 film)|Yellow Submarine]]'' (UK, 1968), and the [[anime]] produced in Japan.{{sfn|Ledoux|1997|p=24, 29}} Its primary use, however, has been in producing cost-effective animated content for media for television (the work of [[Hanna-Barbera]],{{sfn|Lawson|Persons|2004|p=82}} [[Filmation]],{{sfn|Solomon|1989|p=241}} and other TV animation studios{{sfn|Lawson|Persons|2004|p=xxi}}) and later [[the Internet]] ([[web cartoon]]s). * '''[[Rotoscoping]]''' is a technique patented by [[Max Fleischer]] in 1917 where animators trace live-action movement, frame by frame.<ref name="Crafton158"/> The source film can be directly copied from actors' outlines into animated drawings,<ref name="Laybourne163–164"/> as in ''[[The Lord of the Rings (1978 film)|The Lord of the Rings]]'' (US, 1978), or used in a stylized and expressive manner, as in ''[[Waking Life]]'' (US, 2001) and ''[[A Scanner Darkly (film)|A Scanner Darkly]]'' (US, 2006). Some other examples are: ''[[Fire and Ice (1983 film)|Fire and Ice]]'' (US, 1983), ''[[Heavy Metal (film)|Heavy Metal]]'' (1981), and ''[[The Flowers of Evil (manga)|Aku no Hana]]'' (2013). * '''[[Films with live action and animation|Live-action/animation]]''' is a technique combining hand-drawn characters into live action shots or live action actors into animated shots.<ref name="Laybourne162–164"/> One of the earlier uses was in [[Koko the Clown]] when Koko was drawn over live action footage.{{sfn|Beck|2004|pp=18–19}} Other examples include ''[[Who Framed Roger Rabbit]]'' (US, 1988), ''[[Space Jam]]'' (US, 1996) and ''[[Osmosis Jones]]'' (US, 2001). === Stop motion animation === {{Main|Stop motion}} '''Stop-motion animation''' is used to describe animation created by physically manipulating real-world objects and photographing them one frame of film at a time to create the illusion of movement.{{sfn|Solomon|1989|p=299}} There are many different types of stop-motion animation, usually named after the medium used to create the animation.<ref name="Laybourne159"/> Computer software is widely available to create this type of animation; however, traditional stop motion animation is usually less expensive and time-consuming to produce than current computer animation.<ref name="Laybourne159"/> * '''[[Puppet animation]]''' typically involves stop-motion puppet figures interacting in a constructed environment, in contrast to real-world interaction in model animation.<ref name="Solomon171"/> The puppets generally have an [[armature (sculpture)|armature]] inside of them to keep them still and steady to constrain their motion to particular joints.<ref name="Laybourne155–156"/> Examples include ''[[The Tale of the Fox]]'' (France, 1937), ''[[The Nightmare Before Christmas]]'' (US, 1993), ''[[Corpse Bride]]'' (US, 2005), ''[[Coraline (film)|Coraline]]'' (US, 2009), the films of [[Jiří Trnka]] and the adult animated sketch-comedy television series ''[[Robot Chicken]]'' (US, 2005–present). ** '''[[Puppetoon]]''', created using techniques developed by [[George Pal]],{{sfn|Beck|2004|p=70}} are puppet-animated films which typically use a different version of a puppet for different frames, rather than simply manipulating one existing puppet.{{sfn|Beck|2004|pp=92–93}} [[File:Claychick.jpg|thumb|A clay animation scene from a [[Finland|Finnish]] television commercial]] * '''[[Clay animation]]''', or [[Plasticine]] animation (often called ''claymation'', which, however, is a [[Laika (company)|trademark]]ed name), uses figures made of clay or a similar malleable material to create stop-motion animation.{{sfn|Solomon|1989|p=299}}<ref name="Laybourne150–151"/> The figures may have an [[armature (sculpture)|armature]] or wire frame inside, similar to the related puppet animation (below), that can be manipulated to pose the figures.<ref name="Laybourne151–154"/> Alternatively, the figures may be made entirely of clay, in the films of [[Bruce Bickford (animator)|Bruce Bickford]], where clay creatures morph into a variety of different shapes. Examples of clay-animated works include ''[[Gumby|The Gumby Show]]'' (US, 1957–1967) ''[[Morph (animation)|Morph]]'' shorts (UK, 1977–2000), ''[[Wallace and Gromit]]'' shorts (UK, as of 1989), [[Jan Švankmajer]]'s ''[[Dimensions of Dialogue]]'' ([[Czechoslovakia]], 1982), ''[[The Trap Door]]'' (UK, 1984). Films include ''[[Wallace & Gromit: The Curse of the Were-Rabbit]]'', ''[[Chicken Run]]'' and ''[[The Adventures of Mark Twain (1985 film)|The Adventures of Mark Twain]]''.{{sfn|Beck|2004|p=250}} ** '''[[Strata-cut animation]]''', Strata-cut animation is most commonly a form of clay animation in which a long bread-like "loaf" of clay, internally packed tight and loaded with varying imagery, is sliced into thin sheets, with the animation camera taking a frame of the end of the loaf for each cut, eventually revealing the movement of the internal images within.{{sfn|Furniss|1998|pp=52–54}} * '''[[Cutout animation]]''' is a type of stop-motion animation produced by moving two-dimensional pieces of material paper or cloth.{{sfn|Laybourne|1998|pp=59–60}} Examples include [[Terry Gilliam]]'s animated sequences from ''[[Monty Python's Flying Circus]]'' (UK, 1969–1974); ''[[Fantastic Planet]]'' (France/Czechoslovakia, 1973) ; ''[[Tale of Tales (1979 film)|Tale of Tales]]'' (Russia, 1979), The pilot episode of the adult television sitcom series (and sometimes in episodes) of ''[[South Park]]'' (US, 1997) and the music video [[Live for the moment]], from Verona Riots band (produced by Alberto Serrano and Nívola Uyá, Spain 2014). ** '''[[Silhouette animation]]''' is a variant of cutout animation in which the characters are backlit and only visible as silhouettes.{{sfn|Culhane|1990|pp=170–171}} Examples include ''[[The Adventures of Prince Achmed]]'' ([[Weimar Republic]], 1926) and ''[[Ciné si|Princes et princesses]]'' (France, 2000). * '''[[Model animation]]''' refers to stop-motion animation created to interact with and exist as a part of a live-action world.<ref name="Harryhausen_Dalton9–11"/> Intercutting, [[matte (filmmaking)|matte]] effects, and split screens are often employed to blend stop-motion characters or objects with live actors and settings.<ref name="Harryhausen_Dalton222–226"/> Examples include the work of [[Ray Harryhausen]], as seen in films, ''[[Jason and the Argonauts (1963 film)|Jason and the Argonauts]]'' (1963),<ref name="Harryhausen_Dalton18"/> and the work of [[Willis H. O'Brien]] on films, ''[[King Kong (1933 film)|King Kong]]'' (1933). ** '''[[Go motion]]''' is a variant of model animation that uses various techniques to create [[motion blur]] between frames of film, which is not present in traditional stop-motion. The technique was invented by [[Industrial Light & Magic]] and [[Phil Tippett]] to create [[special effects]] scenes for the film ''[[The Empire Strikes Back]]'' (1980).<ref name="Wired">{{cite web|last1=Watercutter|first1=Angela|url=http://www.wired.com/2012/05/phil-tippett-feature/|title=35 Years After Star Wars, Effects Whiz Phil Tippett Is Slowly Crafting a Mad God|publisher=Wired|date=May 24, 2012|accessdate=2016-02-06}}</ref> Another example is the dragon named "Vermithrax" from ''[[Dragonslayer]]'' (1981 film). * '''[[Object animation]]''' refers to the use of regular inanimate objects in stop-motion animation, as opposed to specially created items.{{sfn|Laybourne|1998|pp=51–57}} ** '''[[Graphic animation]]''' uses non-drawn flat visual graphic material (photographs, newspaper clippings, magazines, etc.), which are sometimes manipulated frame-by-frame to create movement.<ref name="Laybourne128"/> At other times, the graphics remain stationary, while the stop-motion camera is moved to create on-screen action. ** '''[[Brickfilm]]''' A subgenre of object animation involving using [[Lego]] or other similar brick toys to make an animation.{{sfn|Paul|2005|pages=357–363}}{{sfn|Herman|2014}} These have had a recent boost in popularity with the advent of video sharing sites, [[YouTube]] and the availability of cheap cameras and animation software.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Haglund|first1=David|title=The Oldest Known LEGO Movie|url=http://www.slate.com/blogs/browbeat/2014/02/07/lego_movie_brickfilms_go_back_to_1973_watch_the_very_first_video.html|publisher=Slate|accessdate=25 February 2016|date=7 February 2014}}</ref> * '''[[Pixilation]]''' involves the use of live humans as stop motion characters.<ref name="Laybourne75–79"/> This allows for a number of surreal effects, including disappearances and reappearances, allowing people to appear to slide across the ground, and other effects.<ref name="Laybourne75–79"/> Examples of pixilation include ''[[The Secret Adventures of Tom Thumb]]'' and ''[[Angry Kid]]'' shorts. === Computer animation === {{Main|Computer animation}} '''Computer animation''' encompasses a variety of techniques, the unifying factor being that the animation is created digitally on a computer.<ref name="Culhane296"/><ref name="Serenko"/> 2D animation techniques tend to focus on image manipulation while 3D techniques usually build virtual worlds in which characters and objects move and interact.<ref name="Masson405"/> 3D animation can create images that seem real to the viewer. ==== 2D animation ==== [[File:Catenary animation.gif|thumb|A 2D animation of two circles joined by a chain]] [[2D computer graphics|2D animation]] figures are created or edited on the computer using 2D [[Raster graphics|bitmap graphics]] or created and edited using 2D [[vector graphics]].<ref name="Masson165"/> This includes automated computerized versions of traditional animation techniques, [[Interpolation|interpolated]] [[morphing]], [[onion skinning]]<ref name="Priebe71–72"/> and interpolated rotoscoping. 2D animation has many applications, including [[Scanimate|analog computer animation]], [[Flash animation]] and [[PowerPoint animation]]. [[Cinemagraph]]s are [[still photograph]]s in the form of an [[animated GIF]] file of which part is animated.{{sfn|White|2006|p=392}} Final line advection animation is a technique used in 2d animation,{{sfn|Lowe|Schnotz|2008|pp=246–247}} to give artists and animators more influence and control over the final product as everything is done within the same department.<ref name="Masson127–128"/> Speaking about using this approach in ''[[Paperman]]'', John Kahrs said that "Our animators can change things, actually erase away the CG underlayer if they want, and change the profile of the arm."<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.cartoonbrew.com/cgi/a-little-more-about-disneys-paperman-63782.html |title=A Little More About Disney's "Paperman" |last=Beck |first=Jerry |date=July 2, 2012|publisher=Cartoon Brew |access-date= |quote=}}</ref> ==== 3D animation ==== {{Main|Computer animation|3D computer graphics}} 3D animation is digitally modeled and manipulated by an animator. The animator usually starts by creating a 3D [[polygon mesh]] to manipulate.<ref name="Masson88"/> A mesh typically includes many vertices that are connected by edges and faces, which give the visual appearance of form to a 3D object or 3D environment.<ref name="Masson88"/> Sometimes, the mesh is given an internal digital skeletal structure called an [[Armature (computer animation)|armature]] that can be used to control the mesh by weighting the vertices.<ref name="Masson78–80"/> This process is called rigging and can be used in conjunction with keyframes to create movement. Other techniques can be applied, mathematical functions (e.g., gravity, particle simulations), simulated fur or hair, and effects, fire and water simulations.<ref name="Masson96"/> These techniques fall under the category of 3D dynamics.{{sfn|Lowe|Schnotz|2008|p=92}} ===== 3D terms ===== * '''[[Cel-shaded animation]]''' is used to mimic traditional animation using computer software.<ref>{{cite web|title=Cel Shading: the Unsung Hero of Animation?|url=http://www.animatormag.com/computer/cel-shading-hero-animation/|publisher=Animator Mag|accessdate=20 February 2016}}</ref> Shading looks stark, with less blending of colors. Examples include, ''[[Skyland]]'' (2007, France), ''[[The Iron Giant]]'' (1999, United States), ''[[Futurama]]'' (Fox, 1999) ''[[Appleseed Ex Machina]]'' (2007, Japan), ''[[The Legend of Zelda: The Wind Waker]]'' (2002, Japan) * '''[[Machinima]]''' – Films created by screen capturing in video games and virtual worlds. * '''[[Motion capture]]''' is used when live-action actors wear special suits that allow computers to copy their movements into CG characters.<ref name="Masson204"/> Examples include ''[[The Polar Express (film)|Polar Express]]'' (2004, US), ''[[Beowulf (2007 film)|Beowulf]]'' (2007, US), ''[[A Christmas Carol (2009 film)|A Christmas Carol]]'' (2009, US), ''[[The Adventures of Tintin (film)]]'' (2011, US) ''[[Kochadaiiyaan|kochadiiyan]]'' (2014, India). * '''[[Computer animation|Photo-realistic animation]]''' is used primarily for animation that attempts to resemble real life, using advanced rendering that mimics in detail skin, plants, water, fire, clouds, etc. Examples include ''[[Up (2009 film)|Up]]'' (2009, US), ''[[How to Train Your Dragon (film)|How to Train Your Dragon]]'' (2010, US), ''[[Ice Age (2002 film)|Ice Age]]'' (2002, US). === Mechanical animation === * '''[[Animatronics]]''' is the use of [[mechatronics]] to create machines which seem animate rather than robotic. ** '''[[Audio-Animatronics|Audio-Animatronics and Autonomatronics]]''' is a form of [[robotics]] animation, combined with 3-D animation, created by [[Walt Disney Imagineering]] for shows and attractions at Disney theme parks move and make noise (generally a recorded speech or song).{{sfn|Pilling|1997|p=249}} They are fixed to whatever supports them. They can sit and stand, and they cannot walk. An Audio-Animatron is different from an [[android (robot)|android]]-type robot in that it uses prerecorded movements and sounds, rather than responding to external stimuli. In 2009, Disney created an interactive version of the technology called Autonomatronics.<ref>{{cite web|last1=O'Keefe|first1=Matt|url=http://www.themeparktourist.com/features/20141110/29600/6-major-innovations-sprung-heads-disney-imagineers|title=6 Major Innovations That Sprung from the Heads of Disney Imagineers|publisher=Theme Park Tourist|accessdate=9 March 2016|date=November 11, 2014}}</ref> ** '''Linear Animation Generator''' is a form of animation by using static picture frames installed in a tunnel or a shaft. The animation illusion is created by putting the viewer in a linear motion, parallel to the installed picture frames.{{sfn|Parent|2007|pages=22–23}} The concept and the technical solution, were invented in 2007 by Mihai Girlovan in Romania. * '''[[Chuckimation]]''' is a type of animation created by the makers of the television series ''[[Action League Now!]]'' in which characters/props are thrown, or chucked from off camera or wiggled around to simulate talking by unseen hands.<ref name="Kenyon">{{cite web|last1=Kenyon|first1=Heather|title=How'd They Do That?: Stop-Motion Secrets Revealed|url=http://www.awn.com/animationworld/howd-they-do-stop-motion-secrets-revealed|publisher=Animation World Network|accessdate=2 March 2016|ref=Kenyon|date=February 1, 1998}}</ref> * '''[[Puppetry]]''' is a form of theatre or performance animation that involves the manipulation of puppets. It is very ancient, and is believed to have originated 3000 years BC. Puppetry takes many forms, they all share the process of animating inanimate performing objects. Puppetry is used in almost all human societies both as entertainment – in performance – and ceremonially in rituals, celebrations and carnivals. Most puppetry involves storytelling. [[File:Toy Story Zoetrope, Disney California Adventure 2.jpg|thumb|''[[Toy Story]]'' zoetrope at [[Disney California Adventure]] creates illusion of motion using figures, rather than static pictures.]] * '''[[Zoetrope]]''' is a device that produces the illusion of motion from a rapid succession of static pictures.{{sfn|Laybourne|1998|pp=19–21}}{{sfn|Solomon|1989|pp=8–10}} The term zoetrope is from the [[Greek language|Greek]] words ζωή (''zoē''), meaning "alive, active", and τρόπος (''tropos''), meaning "turn", with "zoetrope" taken to mean "active turn" or "wheel of life".{{sfn|Solomon|1989|pp=8–10}} === Other animation styles, techniques and approaches === [[File:World of Color overview.jpg|thumb|''[[World of Color]]'' hydrotechnics at [[Disney California Adventure]] creates illusion of motion using 1200 fountains with high-definition projections on mist screens.]] * '''[[Hydrotechnics]]''': a technique that includes lights, water, fire, fog, and lasers, with high-definition projections on mist screens. * '''[[Drawn on film animation]]''': a technique where footage is produced by creating the images directly on [[film stock]], for example by [[Norman McLaren]],<ref name="Faber1979"/> [[Len Lye]] and [[Stan Brakhage]]. * '''[[Paint-on-glass animation]]''': a technique for making animated films by manipulating slow drying [[oil paint]]s on sheets of glass,{{sfn|Pilling|1997|p=222}} for example by [[Aleksandr Petrov (animator)|Aleksandr Petrov]]. * '''Erasure animation''': a technique using traditional 2D media, photographed over time as the artist manipulates the image. For example, [[William Kentridge]] is famous for his [[charcoal]] erasure films,<ref>{{cite web|last1=Carbone|first1=Ken|title=Stone-Age Animation in a Digital World: William Kentridge at MoMA|url=http://www.fastcompany.com/1561390/stone-age-animation-digital-world-william-kentridge-moma|publisher=Fast Company|accessdate=7 March 2016|date=February 24, 2010}}</ref> and [[Piotr Dumała]] for his auteur technique of animating scratches on plaster. * '''[[Pinscreen animation]]''': makes use of a screen filled with movable pins that can be moved in or out by pressing an object onto the screen.{{sfn|Neupert|2011}} The screen is lit from the side so that the pins cast shadows. The technique has been used to create animated films with a range of textural effects difficult to achieve with traditional cel animation.{{sfn|Pilling|1997|p=204}} * '''[[Sand animation]]''': sand is moved around on a back- or front-lighted piece of glass to create each frame for an animated film. This creates an interesting effect when animated because of the [[light]] [[Contrast (vision)|contrast]].{{sfn|Furniss|1998|pp=30–33}} * '''[[Flip book]]''': a flip book (sometimes, especially in British English, called a flick book) is a book with a series of pictures that vary gradually from one page to the next, so that when the pages are turned rapidly, the pictures appear to animate by simulating motion or some other change.<ref name="Laybourne22-24"/>{{sfn|Solomon|1989|pp=8–10}} Flip books are often illustrated books for children, they also be geared towards adults and employ a series of photographs rather than drawings. Flip books are not always separate books, they appear as an added feature in ordinary books or magazines, often in the page corners.<ref name="Laybourne22-24"/> Software packages and websites are also available that convert digital video files into custom-made flip books.{{sfn|White|2006|p=203}} * '''[[Character animation]]''' * '''[[Multi-sketch]]ing''' * '''[[Special effects animation]]''' ==Production== The creation of non-trivial animation works (i.e., longer than a few seconds) has developed as a form of [[filmmaking]], with certain unique aspects.<ref name="Laybourne117"/> One thing live-action and animated [[Feature film|feature-length films]] do have in common is that they are both extremely labor-intensive and have high production costs.<ref name="Solomon274"/> The most important difference is that once a film is in the production phase, the [[marginal cost]] of one more shot is higher for animated films than live-action films. It is relatively easy for a director to ask for one more [[take]] during [[principal photography]] of a live-action film, but every take on an animated film must be manually rendered by animators (although the task of rendering slightly different takes has been made less tedious by modern computer animation). It is pointless for a studio to pay the salaries of dozens of animators to spend weeks creating a visually dazzling five-minute scene, if that scene fails to effectively advance the plot of the film. Thus, animation studios starting with Disney began the practice in the 1930s of maintaining story departments where [[storyboard artist]]s develop every single scene through [[storyboard]]s, then handing the film over to the animators only after the production team is satisfied that all the scenes will make sense as a whole.<ref name="Solomon120"/> While live-action films are now also storyboarded, they enjoy more latitude to depart from storyboards (i.e., real-time improvisation).<ref name="Laybourne100-101"/> Another problem unique to animation is the necessity of ensuring that the style of an animated film is consistent from start to finish, even as films have grown longer and teams have grown larger. Animators, like all artists, necessarily have their own individual styles, but must subordinate their individuality in a consistent way to whatever style was selected for a particular film. <ref name="Masson94"/> Since the early 1980s, feature-length animated films have been created by teams of about 500 to 600 people, of whom 50 to 70 are animators. It is relatively easy for two or three artists to match each other's styles; it is harder to keep dozens of artists synchronized with one another.{{sfn|Beck|2004|p=37}} This problem is usually solved by having a separate group of visual development artists develop an overall look and palette for each film before animation begins. Character designers on the visual development team draw [[model sheet]]s to show how each character should look like with different facial expressions, posed in different positions, and viewed from different angles.{{sfn|Williams|2001|p=34}}<ref name="Culhane146"/> On traditionally animated projects, [[maquette]]s were often sculpted to further help the animators see how characters would look from different angles.{{sfn|Williams|2001|pp=52–57}}{{sfn|Williams|2001|p=34}} Unlike live-action films, animated films were traditionally developed beyond the synopsis stage through the storyboard format; the storyboard artists would then receive credit for writing the film.<ref name="Laybourne99–100"/> In the early 1960s, animation studios began hiring professional screenwriters to write screenplays (while also continuing to use story departments) and screenplays had become commonplace for animated films by the late 1980s. ==Criticism== Animation has become a domineering force in media and cinema since its inception. With its popularity, a large amount of criticism has arisen, especially animated feature-length films.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Amidi|first1=Amid|title=NY Film Critics Didn't like a Single Animated Film This Year|url=http://www.cartoonbrew.com/feature-film/ny-film-critics-didnt-like-a-single-animated-film-this-year-53464.html|publisher=Cartoon Brew|accessdate=19 February 2016|date=2 December 2011}}</ref> Many concerns of cultural representation, psychological effects on children have been brought up around the animation industry, which has remained rather politically unchanged and stagnant since its inception into mainstream culture.<ref name="Nagel">{{cite web|last1=Nagel|first1=Jan|title=Gender in Media: Females Don't Rule|url=http://www.awn.com/animationworld/gender-media-females-dont-rule|publisher=Animation World Network|accessdate=3 March 2016|date=May 21, 2008}}</ref> Certain under-representation of women has been criticized in animation films and the industry.<ref name="Nagel"/><ref name="Vanity Fair"/> ==Awards== As with any other form of media, animation too has instituted awards for excellence in the field. The original awards for animation were presented by the [[Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences]] for animated shorts from the year 1932, during the 5th [[Academy Awards]] function. The first winner of the [[5th Academy Awards|Academy Award]] was the short ''[[Flowers and Trees]]'',<ref>{{cite web|title=Walt Disney's Oscars|url=http://www.waltdisney.org/blog/walt-disneys-oscars%C2%AE|publisher=The Walt Disney Family Museum|accessdate=22 February 2016}}</ref> a production by [[Walt Disney Productions]].{{sfn|Beckerman|2003|p=37}}<ref>{{cite book|last1=Shaffer|first1=Joshua C.|title=Discovering The Magic Kingdom: An Unofficial Disneyland Vacation Guide|date=September 24, 2010|publisher=Author House|location=Indiana|isbn=978-1-4520-6312-6|page=211}}</ref> The Academy Award for a feature-length animated motion picture was only instituted for the year 2001, and awarded during the 74th Academy Awards in 2002. It was won by the film ''[[Shrek]]'', produced by [[DreamWorks]] and [[Pacific Data Images]].{{sfn|Beckerman|2003|pp=84–85}} Disney/Pixar have produced the most films either to win or be nominated for the award. The list of both awards can be obtained here: *[[Academy Award for Best Animated Feature]] *[[Academy Award for Best Animated Short Film]] Several other countries have instituted an award for best animated feature film as part of their national film awards: [[Africa Movie Academy Award for Best Animation]] (since 2008), [[BAFTA Award for Best Animated Film]] (since 2006), [[César Award for Best Animated Film]] (since 2011), [[Golden Rooster Award for Best Animation]] (since 1981), [[Goya Award for Best Animated Film]] (since 1989), [[Japan Academy Prize for Animation of the Year]] (since 2007), [[National Film Award for Best Animated Film]] (since 2006). Also since 2007, the [[Asia Pacific Screen Award for Best Animated Feature Film]] has been awarded at the [[Asia Pacific Screen Awards]]. Since 2009, the [[European Film Awards]] have awarded the [[European Film Award for Best Animated Film]]. The [[Annie Award]] is another award presented for excellence in the field of animation. Unlike the Academy Awards, the Annie Awards are only received for achievements in the field of animation and not for any other field of technical and artistic endeavor. They were re-organized in 1992 to create a new field for Best Animated feature. The 1990s winners were dominated by Walt Disney, however newer studios, led by Pixar & DreamWorks, have now begun to consistently vie for this award. The list of awardees is as follows: *[[Annie Award for Best Animated Feature]] *[[Annie Award for Best Animated Short Subject]] *[[Annie Award for Best Animated Television Production]] == See also == {{Wikipedia books|1=Animation}} * [[Animation Department]] * [[12 basic principles of animation]] * [[Animation software]] * [[Architectural animation]] * [[Avar (animation variable)]] * [[Computer generated imagery]] * [[International Tournée of Animation]] * [[List of film-related topics|List of motion picture topics]] * [[Model sheet]] * [[Motion graphic design]] * [[Tradigital art]] * [[War film#Animated]] * [[Wire frame model]] == References == ===Notes=== {{reflist|group=Note}} ===Citations=== {{reflist|30em|refs= <ref name="UCLA">{{cite web|last=McLaughlin|first=Dan|title=A RATHER INCOMPLETE BUT STILL FASCINATING|url=http://animation.filmtv.ucla.edu/NewSite/WebPages/Histories.html|work=Film Tv|publisher=UCLA|accessdate=12 February 2013}}</ref> <ref name="Crafton35">{{Harvard citation no brackets|Crafton|1993|p=35}}</ref> <ref name="Crafton60–61">{{Harvard citation no brackets|Crafton|1993|pp=60–61}}</ref> <ref name="Crafton158">{{Harvard citation no brackets|Crafton|1993|p=158}}</ref> <ref name="Crafton378">{{Harvard citation no brackets|Crafton|1993|p=378}}</ref> <ref name="Culhane71">{{Harvard citation no brackets|Culhane|1990|p=71}}</ref> <ref name="Culhane146">{{Harvard citation no brackets|Culhane|1990|p=146}}</ref> <ref name="Culhane296">{{Harvard citation no brackets|Culhane|1990|p=296}}</ref> <ref name="Faber1979">{{Harvard citation no brackets|Faber|Walters|2004|p=1979}}</ref> <ref name="Priebe71–72">{{Harvard citation no brackets|Priebe|2006|pp=71–72}}</ref> <ref name="Serenko">{{Harvard citation no brackets|Serenko|2007}}</ref> <ref name="Solomon12–13">{{Harvard citation no brackets|Solomon|1989|pp=12–13}}</ref> <ref name="Solomon14-19">{{Harvard citation no brackets|Solomon|1989|pp=14–19}}</ref> <ref name="Solomon63–65">{{Harvard citation no brackets|Solomon|1989|pp=63–65}}</ref> <ref name="Solomon120">{{Harvard citation no brackets|Solomon|1989|p=120}}</ref> <ref name="Solomon171">{{Harvard citation no brackets|Solomon|1989|p=171}}</ref> <ref name="Solomon274">{{Harvard citation no brackets|Solomon|1989|p=274}}</ref> <ref name="Harryhausen_Dalton9–11">{{Harvard citation no brackets|Harryhausen|Dalton|2008|pages=9–11}}</ref> <ref name="Harryhausen_Dalton18">{{Harvard citation no brackets|Harryhausen|Dalton|2008|page=18}}</ref> <ref name="Harryhausen_Dalton42">{{Harvard citation no brackets|Harryhausen|Dalton|2008|page=42}}</ref> <ref name="Harryhausen_Dalton222–226">{{Harvard citation no brackets|Harryhausen|Dalton|2008|page=222–226}}</ref> <ref name="Thomas-Johnston277–279">{{Harvard citation no brackets|Thomas|Johnston|1981|pp=277–279}}</ref> <ref name="Laybourne75–79">{{Harvard citation no brackets|Laybourne|1998|pp=75–79}}</ref> <ref name="Laybourne99–100">{{Harvard citation no brackets|Laybourne|1998|pp=99–100}}</ref> <ref name="Laybourne100-101">{{Harvard citation no brackets|Laybourne|1998|pp=100–101}}</ref> <ref name="Laybourne117">{{Harvard citation no brackets|Laybourne|1998|p=117}}</ref> <ref name="Laybourne128">{{Harvard citation no brackets|Laybourne|1998|p=128}}</ref> <ref name="Laybourne150–151">{{Harvard citation no brackets|Laybourne|1998|pp=150–151}}</ref> <ref name="Laybourne151–154">{{Harvard citation no brackets|Laybourne|1998|pp=150–154}}</ref> <ref name="Laybourne155–156">{{Harvard citation no brackets|Laybourne|1998|pp=155–156}}</ref> <ref name="Laybourne159">{{Harvard citation no brackets|Laybourne|1998|p=159}}</ref> <ref name="Laybourne162–164">{{Harvard citation no brackets|Laybourne|1998|pp=162–163}}</ref> <ref name="Laybourne163–164">{{Harvard citation no brackets|Laybourne|1998|pp=163–164}}</ref> <ref name="Laybourne203">{{Harvard citation no brackets|Laybourne|1998|p=203}}</ref> <ref name="Laybourne22-24">{{Harvard citation no brackets|Laybourne|1998|pp=22–24}}</ref> <ref name="Masson78–80">{{Harvard citation no brackets|Masson|2007|pp=78–80}}</ref> <ref name="Masson88">{{Harvard citation no brackets|Masson|2007|p=88}}</ref> <ref name="Masson94">{{Harvard citation no brackets|Masson|2007|p=94}}</ref> <ref name="Masson96">{{Harvard citation no brackets|Masson|2007|p=96}}</ref> <ref name="Masson127–128">{{Harvard citation no brackets|Masson|2007|pp=127–128}}</ref> <ref name="Masson165">{{Harvard citation no brackets|Masson|2007|p=165}}</ref> <ref name="Masson204">{{Harvard citation no brackets|Masson|2007|p=204}}</ref> <ref name="Masson405">{{Harvard citation no brackets|Masson|2007|p=405}}</ref> <ref name="Masson432">{{Harvard citation no brackets|Masson|2007|p=432}}</ref> <ref name="Vanity Fair">{{cite web|url=http://www.vanityfair.com/culture/2010/03/disney-animation-girls-201003|title=Coloring the Kingdom|last1=Zohn|first1=Patricia|date=February 28, 2010|publisher=[[Vanity Fair (magazine)|Vanity Fair]] |access-date=December 7, 2015|quote=}}</ref> }} === Works cited === {{refbegin|30em}} * {{cite web|last1=Ball|first1=Ryan|title=Oldest Animation Discovered In Iran|url=http://www.animationmagazine.net/features/oldest-animation-discovered-in-iran/|publisher=Animation Magazine|accessdate=15 March 2016|date=March 12, 2008|ref=harv}} * {{cite book|last=Beck|first=Jerry|title=Animation Art: From Pencil to Pixel, the History of Cartoon, Anime & CGI|year=2004|location=Fulhamm London|publisher=Flame Tree Publishing|isbn=978-1-84451-140-2|ref=harv}} * {{cite book|last=Beckerman|first=Howard|title=Animation: The Whole Story|publisher=Allworth Press|year=2003|isbn=1-58115-301-5|ref=harv}} * {{cite web|url=http://www.awn.com/mag/issue1.4/articles/bendazzi1.4.html|title=The Untold Story of Argentina's Pioneer Animator|publisher=Animation World Network|last=Bendazzi |first=Giannalberto |year=1996 |accessdate=April 29, 2016|ref=harv}} * {{cite book|last=Crafton|first=Donald|year=1993|title=Before Mickey: The Animated Film 1898–1928|publisher=University of Chicago Press|location=Chicago|isbn=0-226-11667-0|ref=harv}} * {{cite book|author-link1=Shamus Culhane|last1=Culhane|first1=Shamus|title=Animation: Script to Screen|publisher=St. Martin's Press|year=1990|isbn=0-312-05052-6|ref=harv}} * {{cite book|last1=Drazin|first1=Charles|title=The Faber Book of French Cinema|date=March 17, 2011|publisher=Faber & Faber|isbn=978-0-571-21849-3|pages=8-9}} * {{cite book|last=Furniss|first=Maureen|title=Art in Motion: Animation Aesthetics|year=1998|publisher=Indiana University Press|isbn=1-86462-039-0|ref=harv}} * {{cite book|last1=Faber|first=Liz|last2=Walters|first2=Helen|title=Animation Unlimited: Innovative Short Films Since 1940|publisher=Laurence King Publishing|location=London|year=2004|isbn=1-85669-346-5|ref=harv}} * {{cite book|first1=Ray|last1=Harryhausen|author-link1=Ray Harryhausen|last2=Dalton|first2=Tony|author-link2=Tony Dalton|title=A Century of Model Animation: From Méliès to Aardman|year=2008|publisher=Aurum Press|isbn=978-0823099801|ref=harv}} * {{cite book|author-link1=Kit Laybourne|last1=Laybourne|first1=Kit|title=The Animation Book: A Complete Guide to Animated Filmmaking– from Flip-books to Sound Cartoons to 3-D Animation|publisher=Three Rivers Press|location=New York|year=1998|isbn=0-517-88602-2|ref=harv}} * {{cite book|last=Lawson|first=Tim|last2=Persons|first2=Alisa|title=[[The Magic Behind the Voices]]|trans-title=A Who's Who of Cartoon Voice Actors|publisher=University Press of Mississippi|year=2004|ref=harv|isbn=1-57806-696-4|ref=harv}} * {{cite book|last=Ledoux|first=Trish|title=Complete Anime Guide: Japanese Animation Film Directory and Resource Guide|publisher=Tiger Mountain Press|year=1997|isbn=0-9649542-5-7|ref=harv}} * {{cite book|last1=Lowe|first1=Richard|last2=Schnotz|first2=Wolfgang (Eds)|title=Learning with Animation. Research implications for design|publisher=Cambridge University Press|location=New York|year=2008|isbn=978-0-521-85189-3|ref=harv}} * {{cite book|last=Masson|first=Terrence|year=2007|title=CG101: A Computer Graphics Industry Reference|url=http://www.cg101.com/|author-link1=Terrence Masson|series=Unique and personal histories of early computer animation production, plus a comprehensive foundation of the industry for all reading levels.|location=Williamstown, Massachusetts|publisher=Digital Fauxtography|isbn=978-0-9778710-0-1|ref=harv}} * {{cite book |last=Needham |first=Joseph |year=1962 |title=Physics and Physical Technology |url= |location= |publisher=Cambridge University Press |chapter=Science and Civilization in China |volume=IV|ref=harv}} * {{cite book|last1=Parent|first1=Rick|title=Computer Animation: Algorithms & Techniques|date=November 1, 2007|publisher=Morgan Kaufmann|location=Ohio State University|isbn=978-0-12-532000-9|ref=harv}} * {{cite book|last1=Paul|first1=Joshua|title=Digital Video Hacks|date=2005|publisher=O'Reilly Media|isbn=0-596-00946-1|ref=harv}} * {{cite book|last=Pilling|first=Jayne|title=A Reader in Animation Studies|year=1997|publisher=Indiana University Press|editor=Society of Animation Studies|isbn=1-86462-000-5|ref=harv}} * {{cite book|first1=Ken A.|last1=Priebe|title=The Art of Stop-Motion Animation|year=2006|publisher=Thompson Course Technology|isbn=1-59863-244-2|ref=harv}} * {{cite book|first1=Richard|last1=Neupert|title=French Animation History|year=2011|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|isbn=978-1-4443-3836-2|ref=harv}} * {{cite book|last1=Rojas|first1=Carlos|last2=Chow|first2=Eileen|title=The Oxford Handbook of Chinese Cinemas|year=2013|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-998844-0|ref=harv}} * {{cite book|last=Herman|first=Sarah|year=2014|title=Brick Flicks: A Comprehensive Guide to Making Your Own Stop-Motion LEGO Movies|publisher=Skyhorse Publishing|location=New York|isbn=978-1-62914-649-2|ref=harv}} * {{cite journal|last=Serenko|first=Alexander|year=2007|title=Computers in Human Behavior |url=http://www.aserenko.com/papers/Serenko_Animation_Scale.pdf |journal=The development of an instrument to measure the degree of animation predisposition of agent users |publisher= |volume=23|number=1 |issue= |pages=478–495 |ref=harv}} * {{cite book|last=Solomon|first=Charles|year=1989|title=Enchanted Drawings: The History of Animation|location=New York|publisher=Random House, Inc.|isbn=978-0-394-54684-1|ref=harv}} * {{cite book|last=Thomas|first=Bob|title=The Art of Animation|year=1958|publisher=Walt Disney Studios|ref=harv}} * {{cite book|last=Thomas|first=Frank|author-link1=Frank Thomas (animator)|last2=Johnston|first2=Ollie|author-link2=Ollie Johnston|title=[[Disney Animation: The Illusion of Life]]|location=|publisher=Abbeville Press|year=1981|isbn=0-89659-233-2|ref=harv}} * {{cite book|last=White|first=Tony|title=Animation from Pencils to Pixels: Classical Techniques for the Digital Animator|year=2006|location=Milton Park|publisher=Taylor & Francis|isbn=978-0-240-80670-9|ref=harv}} * {{cite book|last=Williams|first=Richard|author-link1=Richard Williams (animator)|title=[[The Animator's Survival Kit]]|year=2001|publisher=Faber and Faber|isbn=978-0-571-20228-7|ref=harv}} {{refend}} == Further reading == {{refbegin|30em}} * {{cite journal |url=http://www.uca.edu/org/ccsmi/ccsmi/classicwork/Myth%20Revisited.htm |title=Journal of Film and Video |date=Spring 1993 |journal=The Myth of Persistence of Vision Revisited |publisher= |volume=45 |issue=1 |pages=3–13 |author=Anderson, Joseph and Barbara}} * {{cite book|last=Godfrey|first=Bob|last2=Jackson|first2=Anna|title=The Do-It-Yourself Film Animation Book|publisher=BBC Publications|year=1974|isbn=978-0-563-10829-0|ref=harv}} * {{cite book|author=Musa, S; Ziatdinov, R; Griffiths, C.|year=2013|title=Introduction to computer animation and its possible educational applications|editors=M. Gallová, J. Gunčaga, Z. Chanasová, M.M. Chovancová|journal=New Challenges in Education. Retrospection of history of education to the future in the interdisciplinary dialogue among didactics of various school subjects|edition=1st|pages=177–205|location=Ružomberok, Slovakia|publisher=VERBUM – vydavateľstvo Katolíckej univerzity v Ružomberku}} * {{cite book|first1=Siegfried|last1=Zielinski|title=Audiovisions: Cinema and Television as Entr'actes in History|year=1999|publisher=Amsterdam University Press|isbn=90-5356-303-2|ref=harv}} {{refend}} == External links == {{Wikiquote}} {{Wiktionary|animation}} {{Commons category|Animations}} * {{dmoz|Arts/Animation}} {{Library resources box |by=no |onlinebooks=no |others=no |about=yes |label=Animation }} * {{Wayback |date=20080307025951 |url=http://academic.evergreen.edu/curricular/eat/handouts/Pictures/CutSandPaintRules.pdf |title=Experimental Animation Techniques }} * [http://www.sparetimelabs.com/animato/animato/cartoon/cartoon.html The making of an 8-minute cartoon short] * [http://www.nfb.ca/film/animando_english/ "Animando"], a 12-minute film demonstrating 10 different animation techniques (and teaching how to use them). {{Animation}} {{Film genres}} {{Portal bar|Animation|Film|Arts|Visual arts}} {{Authority control}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Animation}} [[Category:Animation| ]] [[Category:Articles containing video clips]] 0883kss6x61q38hjzdozwsnaak7wtt4 0 594 717019926 716866787 2016-04-25T07:21:06Z Bgwhite 264323 [[WP:CHECKWIKI]] error fix. Broken bracket problem. Do [[Wikipedia:GENFIXES|general fixes]] and cleanup if needed. - using [[Project:AWB|AWB]] wikitext text/x-wiki {{About|the Greek and Roman god||Apollo (disambiguation)|and|Phoebus (disambiguation)}} {{Redirect-distinguish|Phoebus|Phobos (mythology)}} {{pp-semi-indef}} {{pp-move-indef|small=yes}} {{Use dmy dates|date=June 2013}} <!-- this article uses the BCE/CE convention --> {{Infobox deity | type = Greek | name = Apollo | image = File:Apollo of the Belvedere.jpg | image_size = | alt = | caption = ''[[Apollo Belvedere]]'', ca. 120–140 CE | god_of = God of music, poetry, art, oracles, archery, plague, medicine, sun, light and knowledge | abode = [[Mount Olympus]] | symbol = [[Lyre]], [[Bay Laurel|laurel]] wreath, [[Python (mythology)|python]], [[raven]], bow and arrows | consort = | parents = [[Zeus]] and [[Leto]] | siblings = [[Artemis]] | children = [[Asclepius]], [[Troilus]], [[Aristaeus]], [[Orpheus]] | mount = | Roman_equivalent = Apollo }} {{Ancient Greek religion}} {{Contains special characters}} '''Apollo''' ([[Attic Greek|Attic]], [[Ionic Greek|Ionic]], and [[Homeric Greek]]: {{lang|grc|Ἀπόλλων}}, ''Apollōn'' ({{small|[[Genitive|GEN]]}} {{lang|grc|Ἀπόλλωνος}}); [[Doric Greek|Doric]]: {{lang|grc|Ἀπέλλων}}, ''Apellōn''; [[Arcadocypriot Greek|Arcadocypriot]]: {{lang|grc|Ἀπείλων}}, ''Apeilōn''; [[Aeolic Greek|Aeolic]]: {{lang|grc|Ἄπλουν}}, ''Aploun''; {{lang-la|Apollō}}) is one of the most important and complex of the [[Twelve Olympians|Olympian deities]] in [[Ancient Greek religion|classical Greek]] and [[Ancient Roman religion|Roman religion]] and [[Greek mythology|Greek]] and [[Roman mythology]]. The ideal of the ''[[kouros]]'' (a beardless, athletic youth), Apollo has been variously recognized as a god of music, truth and prophecy, healing, the sun and light, plague, poetry, and more. Apollo is the son of [[Zeus]] and [[Leto]], and has a twin sister, the chaste huntress [[Artemis]]. Apollo is known in Greek-influenced [[Etruscan mythology]] as ''Apulu''.<ref>Krauskopf, I. 2006. "The Grave and Beyond." ''The Religion of the Etruscans.'' edited by N. de Grummond and E. Simon. Austin: University of Texas Press. p. vii, p. 73-75.</ref> As the patron of [[Delphi]] (''Pythian Apollo''), Apollo was an [[oracular]] god—the prophetic deity of the [[Pythia|Delphic Oracle]]. Medicine and healing are associated with Apollo, whether through the god himself or mediated through his son [[Asclepius]], yet Apollo was also seen as a god who could bring ill-health and deadly [[Plague (disease)|plague]]. Amongst the god's custodial charges, Apollo became associated with dominion over [[Colonies in antiquity|colonists]], and as the patron defender of herds and flocks. As the leader of the [[Muse]]s (''Apollon Musegetes'') and director of their choir, Apollo functioned as the patron god of music and poetry. [[Hermes]] created the [[lyre]] for him, and the instrument became a common [[Apollo#Attributes and symbols|attribute of Apollo]]. Hymns sung to Apollo were called [[paean]]s. In Hellenistic times, especially during the 3rd century BCE, as ''Apollo Helios'' he became identified among Greeks with [[Helios]], [[Titan (mythology)|Titan]] [[solar deity|god of the sun]], and his sister Artemis similarly equated with [[Selene]], Titan [[lunar deity|goddess of the moon]].<ref>For the iconography of the Alexander–Helios type, see H. Hoffmann, 1963. "Helios", in ''Journal of the American Research Center in Egypt'' '''2''', pp. 117–23; cf. Yalouris 1980, no. 42.</ref> In Latin texts, on the other hand, [[Joseph Fontenrose]] declared himself unable to find any conflation of Apollo with [[Sol (mythology)|Sol]] among the [[Classical Latin|Augustan poets]] of the 1st century, not even in the conjurations of [[Aeneas]] and [[Latinus]] in ''[[Aeneid]]'' XII (161–215).<ref>Joseph Fontenrose, "Apollo and Sol in the Latin poets of the first century BC", ''Transactions of the American Philological Association'' '''30''' (1939), pp 439–55; "Apollo and the Sun-God in Ovid", ''American Journal of Philology'' '''61''' (1940) pp 429–44; and "Apollo and Sol in the Oaths of Aeneas and Latinus" ''Classical Philology'' '''38'''.2 (April 1943), pp. 137–138.</ref> Apollo and Helios/Sol remained separate beings in literary and mythological texts until the 3rd century CE. ==Etymology== The name of Apollo itself—though not ''Paean'', a possible name of a precursor [[List of Mycenaean deities|god]] to or epithet of him—is generally considered to be absent from the [[Linear B]] ([[Mycenean Greek]]) texts although it is possible that the name is in fact attested in the [[Lacuna (manuscripts)|lacunose]] form '']pe-rjo-['' (Linear B: ]{{lang|gmy|𐀟𐁊}}-[) on the [[Knossos|KN]] E 842 tablet.<ref>[[Robert S. P. Beekes|R. S. P. Beekes]], ''Etymological Dictionary of Greek'', Brill, 2009, p. 118.</ref><ref>{{cite journal|journal=Internationale Archäologie|title=Apollon Delphinios – Apollon Didymeus: Zwei Gesichter eines milesischen Gottes und ihr Bezug zur Kolonisation Milets in archaischer Zeit|first=Alexander|last=Herda|url=http://www.academia.edu/515462/Apollon_Delphinios_Apollon_Didymeus_Zwei_Gesichter_eines_milesischen_Gottes_und_ihr_Bezug_zur_Kolonisation_Milets_in_archaischer_Zeit|page=16|publication-date=2008|volume=Arbeitsgemeinschaft, Symposium, Tagung, Kongress. Band 11: Kult(ur)kontakte. Apollon in Milet/Didyma, Histria, Myus, Naukratis und auf Zypern. Akten des Table Ronde in Mainz vom 11.–12. März 2004|language=German|isbn=978-3-89646-441-5}}</ref><ref>{{citation|title=DĀMOS: Database of Mycenaean at Oslo|url=http://www.hf.uio.no/ifikk/english/research/projects/damos/|publisher=[[University of Oslo]]. Department of Philosophy, Classics, History of Art and Ideas|chapter=KN 842 E|chapterurl=https://www2.hf.uio.no/damos/Index/item/chosen_item_id/775}}.</ref> The etymology of the name is uncertain. The spelling {{lang|grc|Ἀπόλλων}} ({{IPA-el|a.pól.lɔːn|pron}} in [[Attic Greek|Classical Attic]]) had almost superseded all other forms by the beginning of the common era, but the [[Dorians|Doric]] form ''Apellon'' ({{lang|grc|Ἀπέλλων}}), is more archaic, derived from an earlier {{lang|grc|*Ἀπέλjων}}. It probably is a cognate to the Doric month ''Apellaios'' ({{lang|grc|Ἀπελλαῖος}}),<ref name="DDD">{{cite book |last1=van der Toorn |first1=Karel |last2=Becking |first2=Bob |last3=van der Horst |first3=Pieter Willem |title=Dictionary of Deities and Demons in the Bible |url=https://books.google.com/?id=PHgUAQAAIAAJ&pg=PA73 |year=1999 |publisher=Brill |isbn=978-90-04-11119-6 |page=73}}</ref> and the offerings [[apellaia]] ({{lang|grc|ἀπελλαῖα}}) at the initiation of the young men during the family-festival [[apellai]] ({{lang|grc|ἀπέλλαι}}).<ref>"The young men became grown-up [[kouros|kouroi]], and Apollon was the "megistos kouros" ( The Great Kouros) : Jane Ellen Harrison (2010): ''Themis: A study to the Social origins of Greek Religion'' Cambridge University Press. pp. 439–441, ISBN 1108009492</ref><ref>''Visible Religion. Volume IV–V. Approaches to Iconology.'' Leiden, E. J. Brill, 1985 p. 143 [https://books.google.com/books?id=UesUAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA143&dq=apellaia&hl=el&sa=X&ei=CgiPU5enDObaygPayYCABg&ved=0CEIQ6AEwAw#v=onepage&q=apellaia&f=false]</ref> According to some scholars the words are derived from the Doric word ''apella'' ({{lang|grc|ἀπέλλα}}), which originally meant "wall," "fence for animals" and later "assembly within the limits of the square."<ref name=Nilsson556>The word usually appears in plural: [[Hesychius of Alexandria|Hesychius]]: {{lang|grc|ἀπέλλαι}} (''apellai''), {{lang|grc|σηκοί}} ("folds"), {{lang|grc|ἐκκλησίαι}} ("assemblies"), {{lang|grc|ἀρχαιρεσίαι}} ("elections"): Nilsson, Vol. I, p. 556</ref><ref>Doric Greek verb: {{lang|grc|ἀπέλλάζειν}} ("to assemble"), and the festival {{lang|grc|ἀπέλλαι}} (''apellai''), which surely belonged to Apollo. Nilsson, Vol I, p. 556.</ref> [[Apella]] ({{lang|grc|Ἀπέλλα}}) is the name of the popular assembly in Sparta,<ref name=Nilsson556/> corresponding to the ''[[Ecclesia (ancient Athens)|ecclesia]]'' ({{lang|grc|ἐκκλησία}}). [[Robert S. P. Beekes|R. S. P. Beekes]] rejected the connection of the theonym with the noun ''apellai'' and suggested a [[Pre-Greek]] proto-form *''Apal<sup>y</sup>un''.<ref>Beekes, 2009, pp. 115 and 118–119.</ref> Several instances of [[popular etymology]] are attested from ancient authors. Thus, the Greeks most often associated Apollo's name with the Greek verb {{lang|grc|ἀπόλλυμι}} (''apollymi''), "to destroy".<ref>{{cite web|author=Mike Campbell |url=http://www.behindthename.com/php/view.php?name=apollo |title=Meaning, Origin and History of the Name Apollo |publisher=Behind the Name |accessdate=30 July 2013}}</ref> [[Plato]] in ''[[Cratylus]]'' connects the name with {{lang|grc|ἀπόλυσις}} (''apolysis''), "redemption", with {{lang|grc|ἀπόλουσις}} (''apolousis''), "purification", and with {{lang|grc|ἁπλοῦν}} (''[h]aploun''), "simple",<ref>The {{lang|grc|ἁπλοῦν}} suggestion is repeated by [[Plutarch]] in ''[[Moralia]]'' in the sense of "[[1 (number)|unity]]".</ref> in particular in reference to the Thessalian form of the name, {{lang|grc|Ἄπλουν}}, and finally with {{lang|grc|Ἀειβάλλων}} (''aeiballon''), "ever-shooting". [[Hesychius of Alexandria|Hesychius]] connects the name Apollo with the Doric {{lang|grc|ἀπέλλα}} (''apella''), which means "assembly", so that Apollo would be the god of political life, and he also gives the explanation {{lang|grc|σηκός}} (''sekos''), "fold", in which case Apollo would be the god of flocks and herds. In the [[Ancient Macedonian language]] {{lang|grc|πέλλα}} (''pella'') means "stone," and some [[toponyms]] may be derived from this word: {{lang|grc|Πέλλα}} ([[Pella]],<ref>[[Robert S. P. Beekes|R. S. P. Beekes]], ''Etymological Dictionary of Greek'', Brill, 2009, p. 1168.</ref> the capital of [[Macedonia (ancient kingdom)|Ancient Macedonia]]) and {{lang|grc|Πελλήνη}} (''Pellēnē''/''[[Pallini|Pallene]]''). A number of non-Greek etymologies have been suggested for the name,<ref>Martin Nilsson, ''Die Geschichte der Griechische Religion'', vol. I (C. H. Beck), 1955:555–564.</ref> The [[Hittite language|Hittite]] form ''[[Apaliunas]]'' (''<sup>d</sup>{{lang|hit-Latn|x-ap-pa-li-u-na-aš}}'') is attested in the [[Manapa-Tarhunta letter]],<ref>The reading of ''Apaliunas'' and the possible identification with Apollo is due to [[Emil Forrer]] (1931). It was doubted by [[Paul Kretschmer|Kretschmer]], ''Glotta'' XXIV, p. 250. Martin Nilsson (1967), Vol I, p. 559</ref> perhaps related to [[Hurrian]] (and certainly the [[List of Etruscan mythological figures|Etruscan]]) ''[[Aplu (deity)|Aplu]]'', a god of plague, in turn likely from [[Akkadian]] ''Aplu Enlil'' meaning simply "the son of [[Enlil]]", a title that was given to the god [[Nergal]], who was linked to [[Shamash]], Babylonian god of the sun.<ref name="Grummond">de Grummond, Nancy Thomson (2006) ''Etruscan Myth, Sacred History, and Legend''. (Philadelphia, Pennsylvania: University of Pennsylvania Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology); Mackenzie, Donald A. (2005) ''Myths of Babylonia and Assyria'' (Gutenberg)</ref> The role of Apollo as god of plague is evident in the invocation of [[Apollo Smintheus]] ("mouse Apollo") by Chryses, the Trojan priest of Apollo, with the purpose of sending a plague against the Greeks (the reasoning behind a god of the plague becoming a god of healing is of course [[apotropaic]], meaning that the god responsible for bringing the plague must be appeased in order to remove the plague). The [[Hittite language|Hittite]] testimony reflects an early form ''{{lang|grc-Latin|*Apeljōn}}'', which may also be surmised from comparison of Cypriot {{lang|grc|Ἀπείλων}} with Doric {{lang|grc|Ἀπέλλων}}.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Angel |first1=John L. |last2=Mellink |first2=Machteld Johanna | title = Troy and the Trojan War: A Symposium Held at Bryn Mawr College, October 1984| year = 1986| publisher = Bryn Mawr Commentaries| isbn = 978-0-929524-59-7| page = 42 }}</ref> A [[Luwian language|Luwian]] etymology suggested for ''Apaliunas'' makes Apollo "The One of Entrapment", perhaps in the sense of "Hunter".<ref>{{cite book |last1=Immerwahr |first1=Sara Anderson |last2=Chapin |first2=Anne Proctor | title = Charis: Essays in Honor of Sara A. Immerwahr| year = 2004| publisher = Amer School of Classical| isbn = 978-0-87661-533-1| page = 254 }}</ref> ===Greco-Roman epithets=== Apollo, like other Greek deities, had a number of [[epithet]]s applied to him, reflecting the variety of roles, duties, and aspects ascribed to the god. However, while Apollo has a great number of appellations in Greek myth, only a few occur in [[Latin literature]], chief among them '''Phoebus''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|f|iː|b|ə|s}} {{respell|FEE|bəs}}; {{lang|grc|Φοῖβος}}, ''Phoibos'', literally "bright"),<ref>[[Robert S. P. Beekes|R. S. P. Beekes]], ''Etymological Dictionary of Greek'', Brill, 2009, p. 1582.</ref> which was very commonly used by both the Greeks and Romans in Apollo's role as the god of light. As sun-god and god of light, Apollo was also known by the epithets '''Aegletes''' ({{IPAc-en|ə|ˈ|ɡ|l|iː|t|iː|z}} {{respell|ə|GLEE|teez}}; Αἰγλήτης, ''Aiglētēs'', from {{lang|grc|αἴγλη}}, "light of the sun"),<ref>[[Apollonius of Rhodes]], iv. 1730;'' Pseudo-Apollodorus, [[Bibliotheke|Biblioteca]]'', i. 9. § 26</ref> '''Helius''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|h|iː|l|i|ə|s}} {{respell|HEE|lee-əs}}; {{lang|grc|Ἥλιος}}, ''[[Helios]]'', literally "sun"),<ref name="simbolismo">{{cite book| last = Álvaro, Jr., Santos| first = Allan| title = Simbolismo divino| url = https://books.google.com/?id=uAiConL3xyYC| publisher = Allan Álvaro, Jr., Santos }}</ref> '''Phanaeus''' ({{IPAc-en|f|ə|ˈ|n|iː|ə|s}} {{respell|fə|NEE|əs}}; {{lang|grc|Φαναῖος}}, ''Phanaios'', literally "giving or bringing light"), and '''[[Apollo Lyceus|Lyceus]]''' ({{IPAc-en|l|aɪ|ˈ|s|iː|ə|s}} {{respell|ly|SEE|əs}}; {{lang|grc|Λύκειος}}, ''Lykeios'', from [[Proto-Greek language|Proto-Greek]] *{{lang|grc|λύκη}}, "light"). The meaning of the epithet "Lyceus" later became associated with Apollo's mother [[Leto]], who was the patron goddess of [[Lycia]] ({{lang|grc|Λυκία}}) and who was identified with the wolf ({{lang|grc|λύκος}}),<ref>Aelian, ''On the Nature of Animals'' 4. 4 (A.F. Scholfield, tr.).</ref> earning him the epithets '''Lycegenes''' ({{IPAc-en|l|aɪ|ˈ|s|ɛ|dʒ|ə|n|iː|z}} {{respell|ly|SEJ|ə-neez}}; {{lang|grc|Λυκηγενής}}, ''Lukēgenēs'', literally "born of a wolf" or "born of Lycia") and '''Lycoctonus''' ({{IPAc-en|l|aɪ|ˈ|k|ɒ|k|t|ə|n|ə|s}} {{respell|ly|KOK|tə-nəs}}; {{lang|grc|Λυκοκτόνος}}, ''Lykoktonos'', from {{lang|grc|λύκος}}, "wolf", and {{lang|grc|κτείνειν}}, "to kill"). As god of the sun, Apollo was called '''[[Sol (mythology)|Sol]]''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|s|ɒ|l}} {{respell|SOL|'}}, literally "sun" in Latin) by the Romans. In association with his birthplace, [[Cynthus|Mount Cynthus]] on the island of [[Delos]], Apollo was called '''Cynthius''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|s|ɪ|n|θ|i|ə|s}} {{respell|SIN|thee-əs}}; {{lang|grc|Κύνθιος}}, ''Kunthios'', literally "Cynthian"), '''Cynthogenes''' ({{IPAc-en|s|ɪ|n|ˈ|θ|ɒ|dʒ|ɨ|n|iː|z}} {{respell|sin|THOJ|i-neez}}; {{lang|grc|Κυνθογενής}}, ''Kynthogenēs'', literally "born of Cynthus"), and '''Delius''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|d|iː|l|i|ə|s}} {{respell|DEE|lee-əs}}; Δήλιος, ''Delios'', literally "Delian"). As [[Artemis]]'s twin, Apollo had the epithet '''Didymaeus''' ({{IPAc-en|d|ɪ|d|ɨ|ˈ|m|iː|ə|s}} {{respell|did-i|MEE|əs}}; {{lang|grc|Διδυμαῖος}}, ''Didymaios'', from δίδυμος, "twin"). [[File:Bassai Temple Of Apollo Detail.jpg|250px|thumb|Partial view of the temple of Apollo Epikurios (healer) at [[Bassae]] in southern Greece]] Apollo was worshipped as '''Actiacus''' ({{IPAc-en|æ|k|ˈ|t|aɪ|.|ə|k|ə|s}} {{respell|ak|TY|ə-kəs}}; {{lang|grc|Ἄκτιακός}}, ''Aktiakos'', literally "Actian"), '''Delphinius''' ({{IPAc-en|d|ɛ|l|ˈ|f|ɪ|n|i|ə|s}} {{respell|del|FIN|ee-əs}}; {{lang|grc|Δελφίνιος}}, ''Delphinios'', literally "Delphic"), and '''Pythius''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|p|ɪ|θ|i|ə|s}} {{respell|PITH|ee-əs}}; {{lang|grc|Πύθιος}}, ''Puthios'', from Πυθώ, ''Pythō'', the area around Delphi), after [[Actium]] ({{lang|grc|Ἄκτιον}}) and [[Delphi]] (Δελφοί) respectively, two of his principal places of worship.<ref>[[Ovid]], ''[[Metamorphoses]]'' xiii. 715</ref><ref>[[Strabo]], x. p. 451</ref> An [[etiology]] in the ''[[Homeric hymns]]'' associated the epithet "Delphinius" with dolphins. He was worshipped as '''Acraephius''' ({{IPAc-en|ə|ˈ|k|r|iː|f|i|ə|s}} {{respell|ə|KREE|fee-əs}}; {{lang|grc|Ἀκραιφιος}},{{clarify|date=March 2014|reason=Please put proper accent onto Greek word.}} ''Akraiphios'', literally "Acraephian") or '''Acraephiaeus''' ({{IPAc-en|ə|ˌ|k|r|iː|f|i|ˈ|iː|ə|s}} {{respell|ə|KREE|fee|EE|əs}}; {{lang|grc|Ἀκραιφιαίος}}, ''Akraiphiaios'', literally "Acraephian") in the [[Boeotia]]n town of [[Acraephia]] ({{lang|grc|Ἀκραιφία}}), reputedly founded by his son [[Acraepheus]]; and as '''[[Apollo Smintheus|Smintheus]]''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|s|m|ɪ|n|θ|j|uː|s}} {{respell|SMIN|thews}}; {{lang|grc|Σμινθεύς}}, ''Smintheus'', "Sminthian"—that is, "of the town of Sminthos or Sminthe")<ref name=LSJsmintheus>{{LSJ|*sminqeu/s|Σμινθεύς|shortref}}.</ref> near the [[Troad]] town of [[Hamaxitus]]. The epithet "Smintheus" has historically been confused with {{lang|grc|σμίνθος}}, "mouse", in association with Apollo's role as a god of disease. For this he was also known as '''Parnopius''' ({{IPAc-en|p|ɑr|ˈ|n|oʊ|p|i|ə|s}} {{respell|par|NOH|pee-əs}}; {{lang|grc|Παρνόπιος}}, ''Parnopios'', from {{lang|grc|πάρνοψ}}, "locust") and to the Romans as '''Culicarius''' ({{IPAc-en|ˌ|k|juː|l|ɨ|ˈ|k|ær|i|ə|s}} {{respell|KEW|li|KARR|ee-əs}}; from Latin ''culicārius'', "of midges"). [[File:TempleDelos.jpg|thumb|250px|Temple of the Delians at [[Delos]], dedicated to Apollo (478 BC). 19th-century pen-and-wash restoration.]] [[File:Chryse.jpg|thumb|250px|Temple of Apollo Smintheus at [[Çanakkale]], Turkey]] In Apollo's role as a healer, his appellations included '''Acesius''' ({{IPAc-en|ə|ˈ|s|iː|ʒ|ə|s}} {{respell|ə|SEE|zhəs}}; {{lang|grc|Ἀκέσιος}}, ''Akesios'', from {{lang|grc|ἄκεσις}}, "healing"), '''[[Acestor]]''' ({{IPAc-en|ə|ˈ|s|ɛ|s|t|ər}} {{respell|ə|SES|tər}}; {{lang|grc|Ἀκέστωρ}}, ''Akestōr'', literally "healer"), '''[[Paean (god)|Paean]]''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|p|iː|ə|n}} {{respell|PEE|ən}}; {{lang|grc|Παιάν}}, ''Paiān'', from {{lang|grc|παίειν}}, "to touch"),{{citation needed|date=March 2014}} and '''Iatrus''' ({{IPAc-en|aɪ|ˈ|æ|t|r|ə|s}} {{respell|eye|AT|rəs}}; {{lang|grc|Ἰατρός}}, ''Iātros'', literally "physician").<ref>[[Euripides]], ''[[Andromache (play)|Andromache]]'' 901</ref> Acesius was the epithet of Apollo worshipped in [[Elis]], where he had a temple in the [[agora]].<ref name="Smith">{{cite book|url=http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0104%3Aalphabetic+letter%3DA%3Aentry+group%3D2%3Aentry%3Dacesius-bio-1|chapter=Acesius|last=Smith|first=William|title=Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology|place=London|year=1873}} At the Perseus Project.</ref> The Romans referred to Apollo as '''Medicus''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|m|ɛ|d|ɨ|k|ə|s}} {{respell|MED|i-kəs}}; literally "physician" in Latin) in this respect. A [[Roman temple|temple]] was dedicated to ''Apollo Medicus'' at Rome, probably next to the temple of [[Bellona (goddess)|Bellona]]. As a protector and founder, Apollo had the epithets '''[[Alexicacus]]''' ({{IPAc-en|ə|ˌ|l|ɛ|k|s|ɨ|ˈ|k|eɪ|k|ə|s}} {{respell|ə|LEK|si|KAY|kəs}}; {{lang|grc|Ἀλεξίκακος}}, ''Alexikakos'', literally "warding off evil"), '''Apotropaeus''' ({{IPAc-en|ə|ˌ|p|ɒ|t|r|ə|ˈ|p|iː|ə|s}} {{respell|ə|POT|rə|PEE|əs}}; {{lang|grc|Ἀποτρόπαιος}}, ''Apotropaios'', from {{lang|grc|ἀποτρέπειν}}, "to avert"), and '''Epicurius''' ({{IPAc-en|ˌ|ɛ|p|ɨ|ˈ|k|j|ʊr|i|ə|s}} {{respell|EP|i|KEWR|ee-əs}}; {{lang|grc|Ἐπικούριος}}, ''Epikourios'', from {{lang|grc|ἐπικουρέειν}}, "to aid"),<ref name=simbolismo/> and '''Archegetes''' ({{IPAc-en|ɑr|ˈ|k|ɛ|dʒ|ə|t|iː|z}} {{respell|ar|KEJ|ə-teez}}; {{lang|grc|Ἀρχηγέτης}}, ''Arkhēgetēs'', literally "founder"), '''Clarius''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|k|l|ær|i|ə|s}} {{respell|KLARR|ee-əs}}; {{lang|grc|Κλάριος}}, ''Klārios'', from [[Doric Greek|Doric]] {{lang|grc|κλάρος}}, "allotted lot"), and '''Genetor''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|dʒ|ɛ|n|ɨ|t|ər}} {{respell|JEN|i-tər}}; {{lang|grc|Γενέτωρ}}, ''Genetōr'', literally "ancestor").<ref name=simbolismo/> To the Romans, he was known in this capacity as '''Averruncus''' ({{IPAc-en|ˌ|æ|v|ə|ˈ|r|ʌ|ŋ|k|ə|s}} {{respell|AV|ər|RUNG|kəs}}; from Latin ''āverruncare'', "to avert"). He was also called '''[[Agyieus]]''' ({{IPAc-en|ə|ˈ|dʒ|aɪ|.|ɨ|juː|s}} {{respell|ə|GWEE|ews}}; {{lang|grc|Ἀγυιεύς}}, ''Aguīeus'', from {{lang|grc|ἄγυια}}, "street") for his role in protecting roads and homes; and '''Nomius''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|n|oʊ|m|i|ə|s}} {{respell|NOH|mee-əs}}; {{lang|grc|Νόμιος}}, ''Nomios'', literally "pastoral") and '''Nymphegetes''' ({{IPAc-en|n|ɪ|m|ˈ|f|ɛ|dʒ|ɨ|t|iː|z}} {{respell|nim|FEJ|i-teez}}; {{lang|grc|Νυμφηγέτης}}, ''Numphēgetēs'', from {{lang|grc|Νύμφη}}, "Nymph", and {{lang|grc|ἡγέτης}}, "leader") for his role as a protector of shepherds and pastoral life. In his role as god of prophecy and truth, Apollo had the epithets '''Manticus''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|m|æ|n|t|ɨ|k|ə|s}} {{respell|MAN|ti-kəs}}; {{lang|grc|Μαντικός}}, ''Mantikos'', literally "prophetic"), '''Leschenorius''' ({{IPAc-en|ˌ|l|ɛ|s|k|ɨ|ˈ|n|ɔər|i|ə|s}} {{respell|LES|ki|NOHR|ee-əs}}; {{lang|grc|Λεσχηνόριος}}, ''Leskhēnorios'', from {{lang|grc|λεσχήνωρ}}, "converser"), and '''Loxias''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|l|ɒ|k||s|i|ə|s}} {{respell|LOK|see-əs}}; {{lang|grc|Λοξίας}}, ''Loxias'', from {{lang|grc|λέγειν}}, "to say").<ref name=simbolismo/> The epithet "Loxias" has historically been associated with {{lang|grc|λοξός}}, "ambiguous". In this respect, the Romans called him '''Coelispex''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|s|ɛ|l|ɨ|s|p|ɛ|k|s}} {{respell|SEL|i-speks}}; from Latin ''coelum'', "sky", and ''specere'', "to look at"). The epithet '''Iatromantis''' ({{IPAc-en|aɪ|ˌ|æ|t|r|ə|ˈ|m|æ|n|t|ɪ|s}} {{respell|eye|AT|rə|MAN|tis}}; {{lang|grc|Ἰατρομάντις}}, ''Iātromantis'', from {{lang|grc|ἰατρός}}, "physician", and {{lang|grc|μάντις}}, "prophet") refers to both his role as a god of healing and of prophecy. As god of music and arts, Apollo had the epithet '''Musagetes''' ({{IPAc-en|m|juː|ˈ|s|æ|dʒ|ɨ|t|iː|z}} {{respell|mew|SAJ|i-teez}}; [[Doric Greek|Doric]] {{lang|grc|Μουσαγέτας}}, ''Mousāgetās'')<ref>{{LSJ|*mousage/tas|Μουσαγέτας|shortref}}.</ref> or '''Musegetes''' ({{IPAc-en|m|juː|ˈ|s|ɛ|dʒ|ɨ|t|iː|z}} {{respell|mew|SEJ|i-teez}}; {{lang|grc|Μουσηγέτης}}, ''Mousēgetēs'', from {{lang|grc|Μούσα}}, "[[Muse]]", and {{lang|grc|ἡγέτης}}, "leader"). As a god of archery, Apollo was known as '''Aphetor''' ({{IPAc-en|ə|ˈ|f|iː|t|ər}} {{respell|ə|FEE|tər}}; {{lang|grc|Ἀφήτωρ}}, ''Aphētōr'', from {{lang|grc|ἀφίημι}}, "to let loose") or '''Aphetorus''' ({{IPAc-en|ə|ˈ|f|ɛ|t|ər|ə|s}} {{respell|ə|FET|ər-əs}}; {{lang|grc|Ἀφητόρος}}, ''Aphētoros'', of the same origin), '''Argyrotoxus''' ({{IPAc-en|ˌ|ɑr|dʒ|ɨ|r|ə|ˈ|t|ɒ|k|s|ə|s}} {{respell|AR|ji-rə|TOK|səs}}; {{lang|grc|Ἀργυρότοξος}}, ''Argyrotoxos'', literally "with silver bow"), '''Hecaërgus''' ({{IPAc-en|ˌ|h|ɛ|k|i|ˈ|ɜr|ɡ|ə|s}} {{respell|HEK|ee|UR|gəs}}; {{lang|grc|Ἑκάεργος}}, ''Hekaergos'', literally "far-shooting"), and '''Hecebolus''' ({{IPAc-en|h|ɨ|ˈ|s|ɛ|b|ə|l|ə|s}} {{respell|hi|SEB|ə-ləs}}; {{lang|grc|Ἑκηβόλος}}, ''Hekēbolos'', literally "far-shooting"). The Romans referred to Apollo as '''Articenens''' ({{IPAc-en|ɑr|ˈ|t|ɪ|s|ɨ|n|ə|n|z}} {{respell|ar|TISS|i-nənz}}; "bow-carrying"). Apollo was called '''Ismenius''' ({{IPAc-en|ɪ|z|ˈ|m|iː|n|i|ə|s}} {{respell|iz|MEE|nee-əs}}; {{lang|grc|Ἰσμηνιός}}, ''Ismēnios'', literally "of Ismenus") after Ismenus, the son of [[Amphion]] and [[Niobe]], whom he struck with an arrow. ===Celtic epithets and cult titles=== Apollo was worshipped throughout the [[Roman Empire]]. In the traditionally [[Celtic nations|Celtic]] lands he was most often seen as a healing and sun god. He was often equated with [[List of Celtic gods|Celtic gods]] of similar character.<ref>Miranda J. Green, ''Dictionary of Celtic Myth and Legend'', Thames and Hudson Ltd, 1997</ref> * '''[[Apollo Atepomarus]]''' ("the great horseman" or "possessing a great horse"). Apollo was worshipped at [[Mauvières]] ([[Indre]]). Horses were, in the Celtic world, closely linked to the sun.<ref>''Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum'' XIII, 1863–1986; A. Ross, ''Pagan Celtic Britain'', 1967; M.J. Green, ''The Gods of the Celts'', 1986, London</ref> * '''[[Apollo Belenus]]''' ('bright' or 'brilliant'). This epithet was given to Apollo in parts of [[Gaul]], Northern Italy and [[Noricum]] (part of modern Austria). Apollo Belenus was a healing and sun god.<ref>J. Zwicker, ''Fontes Historiae Religionis Celticae'', 1934–36, Berlin; ''Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum'' V, XI, XII, XIII; J. Gourcest, "Le culte de Belenos en Provence occidentale et en Gaule", ''Ogam'' '''6'''.6 (1954:257–262); E. Thevonot, "Le cheval sacre dans la Gaule de l'Est", ''Revue archeologique de l'Est et du Centre-Est'' (vol 2), 1951; [], "Temoignages du culte de l'Apollon gaulois dans l'Helvetie romaine"'', Revue celtique'' (vol 51), 1934.</ref> * '''[[Apollo Cunomaglus]]''' ('hound lord'). A title given to Apollo at a shrine at [[Nettleton, Wiltshire#Roman-period shrine|Nettleton Shrub]], [[Wiltshire]]. May have been a god of healing. Cunomaglus himself may originally have been an independent healing god.<ref>W.J. Wedlake, ''The Excavation of the Shrine of Apollo at Nettleton, Wiltshire, 1956–1971'', Society of Antiquaries of London, 1982.</ref> * '''[[Apollo Grannus]]'''. Grannus was a healing spring god, later equated with Apollo.<ref>M. Szabo, ''The Celtic Heritage in Hungary'' (Budapest 1971)</ref><ref name="thevonat">Divinites et sanctuaires de la Gaule, E. Thevonat, 1968, Paris</ref><ref name="devries">La religion des Celtes, J. de Vries, 1963, Paris</ref> * '''Apollo Maponus'''. A god known from inscriptions in Britain. This may be a local fusion of Apollo and [[Maponus]]. * '''[[Apollo Moritasgus]]''' ('masses of sea water'). An epithet for Apollo at Alesia, where he was worshipped as god of healing and, possibly, of physicians.<ref>J. Le Gall, ''Alesia, archeologie et histoire'' (Paris 1963).</ref> * '''[[Apollo Vindonnus]]''' ('clear light'). Apollo Vindonnus had a temple at [[Essarois]], near [[Châtillon-sur-Seine]] in present-day [[Burgundy]]. He was a god of healing, especially of the eyes.<ref name=thevonat/> * '''[[Apollo Virotutis]]''' ('benefactor of mankind?'). Apollo Virotutis was worshipped, among other places, at Fins d'Annecy ([[Haute-Savoie]]) and at [[Jublains]] ([[Maine-et-Loire]]).<ref name=devries/><ref>''Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum'' XIII</ref> ==Origins== [[File:Omphalos museum.jpg|thumb|250px|The [[Omphalos]] in the Museum of [[Delphi]]]] The cult centers of Apollo in Greece, [[Delphi]] and [[Delos]], date from the 8th century BCE. The Delos sanctuary was primarily dedicated to [[Artemis]], Apollo's twin sister. At Delphi, Apollo was venerated as the slayer of [[Pytho]]. For the Greeks, Apollo was all the Gods in one and through the centuries he acquired different functions which could originate from different gods. In [[archaic period in Greece|archaic Greece]] he was the [[prophet]], the oracular god who in older times was connected with "healing". In [[classical period in Greece|classical Greece]] he was the god of light and of music, but in popular religion he had a strong function to keep away evil.<ref>Martin Nilsson (1967)".Die Geschicte der Giechischen Religion.Vol I".C.F.Beck Verlag.Munchen. p 529</ref> [[Walter Burkert]]<ref>Burkert, Walter. ''Greek Religion'', 1985:144.</ref> discerned three components in the prehistory of Apollo worship, which he termed "a Dorian-northwest Greek component, a Cretan-Minoan component, and a Syro-Hittite component." From his eastern origin Apollo brought the art of inspection of "symbols and [[omen|omina]]" (σημεία και τέρατα : ''semeia kai terata''), and of the observation of the [[omen]]s of the days. The inspiration oracular-cult was probably introduced from [[Anatolia]]. The [[ritualism]] belonged to Apollo from the beginning. The Greeks created the [[Legalism (Western philosophy)|legalism]], the supervision of the orders of the gods, and the demand for moderation and harmony. Apollo became the god of shining youth, the protector of music, spiritual-life, moderation and perceptible order. The improvement of the old [[Anatolia]]n god, and his elevation to an intellectual sphere, may be considered an achievement of the [[Greek people]].<ref name="Nilsson563">[[Martin P. Nilsson|Martin Nilsson]]. ''Die Geschichte der Griechische Religion Vol I'', pp. 563–564</ref> ===Healer and god-protector from evil=== The function of Apollo as a "healer" is connected with [[Paean (god)|Paean]] ({{lang|grc|Παιών-Παιήων}}), the physician of the Gods in the ''[[Iliad]]'', who seems to come from a more primitive religion.<ref>Paieon ({{lang|grc|Παιήων}}) puts pain-relieving medicines on the wounds of Pluton and Ares ( [[Ilias]] E401). This art is related with Egypt: ([[Odyssey]] D232): M. Nilsson Vol I, p. 543</ref> Paeοn is probably connected with the [[Mycenean Greece|Mycenean]] ''pa-ja-wo-ne'' (Linear B: {{lang|gmy|𐀞𐀊𐀍𐀚}}),<ref>{{cite book|title=The Mycenaeans|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QXwzT1048Z4C&lpg=PA144&pg=PA160#v=onepage&f=false|page=160|first=Louise|last=Schofield|year=2007|publisher=The British Museum Press|isbn=978-0-89236-867-9}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://minoan.deaditerranean.com/linear-b-transliterations/knossos/kn-v/kn-v/#toc-kn-v-52|title=KN V 52+|website=Deaditerranean: Minoan Linear A & Mycenaean Linear B}}</ref><ref name=Chawick>{{cite book|last=Chadwick|first=John|author-link=John Chadwick|title=The Mycenaean World|location=Cambridge, UK|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=1976|isbn=0-521-29037-6|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RMj7M_tGaNMC&lpg=PP1&pg=PA89#v=onepage&q&f=false|page=89}} At Google Books.</ref> but this is not certain. He did not have a separate cult, but he was the personification of the holy magic-song sung by the magicians that was supposed to cure disease. Later the Greeks knew the original meaning of the relevant song "paean" ({{lang|grc|παιάν}}). The magicians were also called "seer-doctors" ({{lang|grc|ἰατρομάντεις}}), and they used an ecstatic prophetic art which was used exactly by the god Apollo at the oracles.<ref>{{lang|grc|Ἐπὶ καταπαύσει λοιμῶν καὶ νόσων ᾄδόμενος}}. ''Which is sung to stop the plagues and the diseases''. Proklos: Chrestom from Photios Bibl. code. 239, p. 321: Martin Nilsson. Die Geschicthe der Griechischen religion. Vol I, p. 543</ref> In the ''Iliad'', Apollo is the healer under the gods, but he is also the bringer of disease and death with his arrows, similar to the function of the terrible [[Vedic]] god of disease [[Rudra]].<ref name="Martin Nilsson 1967 p. 541">"The conception that the diseases come from invisible shots sent by magicians or supernatural beings is common in primitive people and also in European folklore. In North-Europe they speak of the "[[Elf-shot]]s". In Sweden where the Lapps were called magicians, they speak of the "Lappen-shots". Martin Nilsson (1967). Vol I, p. 541</ref> He sends a terrible plague ({{lang|grc|λοιμός}}) to the [[Achaeans (Homer)|Achaeans]]. The god who sends a disease can also prevent from it; therefore, when it stops, they make a purifying ceremony and offer him a [[hecatomb]] to ward off evil. When the oath of his priest appeases, they pray and with a song they call their own god, the beautiful ''Paean''.<ref>[[Ilias]] A 314. Martin Nilsson (1967). Vol I, p. 543</ref> Some common epithets of Apollo as a healer are "paion" ({{lang|grc|παιών}}, literally "healer" or "helper")<ref>[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.04.0062:entry=paean-harpers]: Harper's Dictionary of classical antiquity</ref> "epikourios" ({{lang|grc|ἐπικουρώ}}, "help"), "oulios" ({{lang|grc|οὐλή}}, "healed wound", also a "scar" )<ref>[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:abo:tlg,0099,001:14:1:6&lang=original Perseus.tufts.edu]</ref> and "loimios" ({{lang|grc|λοιμός}}, "plague"). In classical times, his strong function in popular religion was to keep away evil, and was therefore called "apotropaios" ({{lang|grc|ἀποτρέπω}}, "divert", "deter", "avert") and "alexikakos" (from [[verb|v.]] {{lang|grc|ἀλέξω}} + [[noun|n.]] {{lang|grc|κακόν}}, "defend from evil").<ref>Pausanias VIII 41, 8-IV 34, 7-Sittig. Nom P. 48. f-Aristoph. Vesp. V. 61-Paus. I 3, 4. Martin Nilsson (1967) Vol I, p. 540, 544</ref> In later writers, the word, usually spelled "Paean", becomes a mere epithet of Apollo in his capacity as a god of [[healing]].<ref>{{cite book| last = Graf| first = Fritz| title = Apollo| url = https://books.google.com/?id=it9n9_I-UOkC&pg=PA66| year = 2008| publisher = Taylor & Francis| isbn = 978-0-203-58171-1| page = 66 }}</ref> Homer illustrated Paeon the god, and the song both of [[apotropaic]] thanksgiving or triumph.{{Citation needed|date=May 2011}} Such songs were originally addressed to Apollo, and afterwards to other gods: to [[Dionysus]], to Apollo [[Helios]], to Apollo's son [[Asclepius]] the healer. About the 4th century BCE, the paean became merely a formula of adulation; its object was either to implore protection against disease and misfortune, or to offer thanks after such protection had been rendered. It was in this way that Apollo had become recognised as the god of music. Apollo's role as the slayer of the [[Python (mythology)|Python]] led to his association with battle and victory; hence it became the [[Ancient Rome|Roman]] custom for a paean to be sung by an army on the march and before entering into battle, when a fleet left the harbour, and also after a victory had been won. ===Dorian origin=== [[File:Apollo-WaltersArt.jpg|left|thumb|''Apollo Victorious over the Python'' by the Florentine [[Pietro Francavilla]] (dated 1591) depicting Apollo's first triumph, when he slew with his bow and arrows the serpent Python, which lies dead at his feet<ref>{{cite web | publisher=[[The Walters Art Museum]] | url=http://art.thewalters.org/detail/7866 | title=Apollo Victorious over the Python | accessdate=21 June 2013}}</ref> ([[Walters Art Museum|The Walters Art Museum]]).]] The connection with Dorians and their initiation festival ''[[apellai]]''{{clarify|date=March 2014|reason=Same as the one at the etymology section; please clarify -or rephrase- how the linked to Spartan Assembly is a Festival.}} is reinforced by the month ''Apellaios'' in northwest Greek calendars,<ref>Graf, ''Apollo'', pp. 104–113; Burkert also notes in this context [[Archilochus]] ''Fr.'' 94.</ref> but it can explain only the Doric type of the name, which is connected with the [[Ancient Macedonian language|Ancient Macedonian]] word "pella" ([[Pella]]), ''stone''. Stones played an important part in the cult of the god, especially in the oracular shrine of Delphi ([[Omphalos]]).<ref>Compare: [[Baetylus]]. In Semitic: sacred stone</ref><ref>Martin Nilsson (1967). Vol I. p. 556</ref> The "Homeric hymn" represents Apollo as a Northern intruder. His arrival must have occurred during the "Dark Ages" that followed the destruction of the [[Mycenaean Greece|Mycenaean civilization]], and his conflict with [[Gaia (mythology)|Gaia]] (Mother Earth) was represented by the legend of his slaying her daughter the serpent [[Python (mythology)|Python]].<ref>Herbert W. Park (1956). ''The delphic oracle''. Vol.I, p. 3</ref> The earth deity had power over the ghostly world, and it is believed that she was the deity behind the oracle.<ref>Lewis Farnel(1909)''The cult of the city states. Clarendon Press. VIII. pp. 8–10''</ref> The older tales mentioned two dragons who were perhaps intentionally conflated. A female dragon named [[Delphyne]] ({{lang|grc|δελφύς}}, "womb"), who is obviously connected with Delphi and ''Apollo Delphinios'', and a male serpent [[Typhon]] ({{lang|grc|τύφειν}}, "to smoke"), the adversary of [[Zeus]] in the [[Titanomachy]], who the narrators confused with [[Python (mythology)|Python]].<ref>"Many pictures show the serpent Python living in amity with Apollo and guarding the Omphalos. Karl Kerenyi (1951). ed. 1980: ''The gods of the Greeks'', pp. 36–37</ref><ref>"In a Pompeian fresco Python is lying peacefully on the ground and the priests with the sacred double axe in their hand bring the bull (''bouphronion''). Jane. H. Harisson (1912): ''Themis. A study of the social origins of the Greek religion''. Cambridge University Press. pp. 423–424</ref> Python was the good daemon (ἀγαθὸς δαίμων) of the temple as it appears in [[Minoan civilization|Minoan]] religion,<ref>In Minoan religion the serpent is the protector of the household (underground stored corn). Also in Greek religion, "snake of the house" ({{lang|grc|οἰκουρὸς ὄφις}}) in the temple of [[Athena]] at Acropolis, etc., and in Greek folklore. Martin Nilsson, Vol.I, pp. 213–214</ref> but she was represented as a dragon, as often happens in Northern European folklore as well as in the East.<ref>Nordig sagas. [[Hittites|Hittite]] myth of [[Illuyankas]]. Also in the Bible: [[Leviathan]]. W. Porzig (1930).'' Illuyankas and Typhon. Kleinasiatische Forschung'', pp. 379–386</ref> Apollo and his sister [[Artemis]] can bring death with their arrows. The conception that diseases and death come from invisible shots sent by supernatural beings, or magicians is common in [[Germanic mythology|Germanic]] and [[Norse mythology]].<ref name="Martin Nilsson 1967 p. 541"/> In [[Greek mythology]] Artemis was the leader ({{lang|grc|ἡγεμών}}, "hegemon") of the [[nymphs]], who had similar functions with the [[Norse mythology|Nordic]] [[Elf|Elves]].<ref name="Nilsson499">. Martin Nilsson (1967), Vol I, pp. 499–500</ref> The "elf-shot" originally indicated disease or death attributed to the elves, but it was later attested denoting stone [[arrow (weapon)|arrow]]-heads which were used by witches to harm people, and also for healing rituals.<ref>Hall, Alaric. 2005. 'Getting Shot of Elves: Healing, Witchcraft and Fairies in the Scottish Witchcraft Trials', [http://eprints.whiterose.ac.uk/5597/], 116 (2005), pp.&nbsp;19–36.</ref> The [[Vedic]] Rudra has some similar functions with Apollo. The terrible god is called "The Archer", and the bow is also an attribute of [[Shiva]].<ref>For {{IAST|Śarva}} as a name of Shiva see: Apte, p.&nbsp;910.</ref> Rudra could bring diseases with his arrows, but he was able to free people of them, and his alternative Shiba is a healer physician god.<ref>For association between Rudra and disease, with Rigvedic references, see: Bhandarkar, p.&nbsp;146.</ref> However the [[Indo-European language|Indo-European]] component of Apollo does not explain his strong relation with omens, exorcisms, and with the oracular cult. ===Minoan origin=== [[File:AMI - Goldene Doppelaxt.jpg|thumb|250px|Ornamented golden [[Minoan civilization|Minoan]] [[labrys]]]] It seems an oracular cult existed in Delphi from the [[Mycenaean Greece|Mycenaean]] ages.<ref>''[[Odyssey]]'' 8.80</ref> In historical times, the priests of Delphi were called [[labrys|Labryaden]], "the double-axe men", which indicates [[Minoan civilization|Minoan]] origin. The double-axe, [[labrys]], was the holy symbol of the [[Crete|Cretan]] [[labyrinth]].<ref>Huxley (1975). ''Cretan Paewones. Roman and Byzantine studies'', pp.&nbsp;129–134</ref><ref>H.G.Wunderlich. ''The secret of Creta'' Souvenir Press Ltd. London p.&nbsp;319</ref> The Homeric hymn adds that Apollo appeared as a dolphin and carried Cretan priests to Delphi, where they evidently transferred their religious practices. ''Apollo Delphinios'' was a sea-god especially worshiped in Crete and in the islands, and his name indicates his connection with Delphi<ref name="Martin Nilsson 1967 p. 529">Martin Nilsson (1967). Vol&nbsp;I, p.&nbsp;529</ref> and the holy serpent [[Delphyne]] ("womb").{{citation needed|date=March 2014|reason=Sources needed on both A."Delphyne ("womb")" (going from "delphys="womb"" to "Delphyne="womb"" is something unsubstantiated) and B.Delphinios connected to Delphyne.}} Apollo's sister [[Artemis]], who was the Greek goddess of hunting, is identified with [[Britomartis]] ([[Diktynna]]), the [[Minoan civilization|Minoan]] "Mistress of the animals". In her earliest depictions she is accompanied by the "Mister of the animals", a male god of hunting who had the bow as his attribute. His original name is unknown, but it seems that he was absorbed by the more popular Apollo, who stood by the virgin "Mistress of the Animals", becoming her brother.<ref name=Nilsson499/> The old oracles in Delphi seem to be connected with a local tradition of the priesthood, and there is not clear evidence that a kind of inspiration-prophecy existed in the temple. This led some scholars to the conclusion that Pythia carried on the rituals in a consistent procedure through many centuries, according to the local tradition. In that regard, the mythical seeress [[Sibyl]] of [[Anatolia]]n origin, with her ecstatic art, looks unrelated to the oracle itself.<ref>Hugh Bowden (2005). ''Classical Athens and the Delphic oracle'', pp. 17–18</ref> However, the Greek tradition is referring to the existence of vapours and chewing of laurel-leaves, which seem to be confirmed by recent studies.<ref>{{cite book| author = William J. Broad| title = The oracle: the lost secrets and hidden message of ancient Delphi| year = 2006| publisher = Penguin Group USA| isbn = 1-59420-081-5| page = 32 }}</ref> [[Plato]] describes the priestesses of Delphi and [[Dodona]] as frenzied women, obsessed by "mania" ({{lang|grc|μανία}}, "frenzy"), a Greek word he connected with ''mantis'' ({{lang|grc|μάντις}}, "prophet").<ref>{{LSJ|ma/ntis|μάντις|shortref}}.</ref> Frenzied women like Sibyls from whose lips the god speaks are recorded in the [[Near East]] as [[Mari, Syria|Mari]] in the second millennium BC.<ref>Walter Burkert (1985).''The Greek religion''. p. 116</ref> Although Crete had contacts with Mari from 2000 BC,<ref>F.Schachermeyer (1964). p. 128</ref> there is no evidence that the ecstatic prophetic art existed during the Minoan and Mycenean ages. It is more probable that this art was introduced later from [[Anatolia]] and regenerated an existing oracular cult that was local to Delphi and dormant in several areas of Greece.<ref>Martin Nilsson (1967). Vol I, pp. 543–545</ref> ===Anatolian origin=== [[File:Coin of Apollo Agyieus.png|thumb|250px|Illustration of a coin of Apollo Agyieus from [[Ambracia]]]] A non-Greek origin of Apollo has long been assumed in scholarship.<ref name="DDD"/> The name of Apollo's mother [[Leto]] has [[Lydia]]n origin, and she was worshipped on the coasts of [[Asia Minor]]. The inspiration oracular cult was probably introduced into Greece from [[Anatolia]], which is the origin of [[Sibyl]], and where existed some of the oldest oracular shrines. Omens, symbols, purifications, and exorcisms appear in old [[Assyria|Assyro]]-[[Babylon]]ian texts, and these rituals were spread into the empire of the [[Hittites]]. In a Hittite text is mentioned that the king invited a Babylonian priestess for a certain "purification".<ref name=Nilsson563/> A similar story is mentioned by [[Plutarch]]. He writes that the [[Creta]]n [[prophet|seer]] [[Epimenides]] purified [[Athens]] after the pollution brought by the [[Alcmeonidae]], and that the seer's expertise in [[sacrifice]]s and reform of funeral practices were of great help to [[Solon]] in his reform of the Athenian state.<ref>Plutarch, ''Life of Solon'', 12; [[Aristotle]], ''[[Constitution of the Athenians#Aristotle|Ath. Pol]]''. 1.</ref> The story indicates that Epimenides was probably heir to the shamanic religions of Asia, and proves, together with the [[Homeric]] hymn, that Crete had a resisting religion up to historical times. It seems that these rituals were dormant in Greece, and they were reinforced when the Greeks migrated to [[Anatolia]]. [[Homer]] pictures Apollo on the side of the [[Troy|Trojans]], fighting against the [[Achaeans (Homer)|Achaeans]], during the [[Trojan War]]. He is pictured as a terrible god, less trusted by the Greeks than other gods. The god seems to be related to ''Appaliunas'', a tutelary god of [[Wilusa]] ([[Troy]]) in Asia Minor, but the word is not complete.<ref>[[Paul Kretschmer]] (1936). Glotta XXIV p. 250. Martin Nilsson (1967). Vol I, p. 559.</ref> The stones found in front of the gates of [[Homer]]ic Troy were the symbols of Apollo. The Greeks gave to him the name {{lang|grc|ἀγυιεύς}} ''[[agyieus]]'' as the protector god of public places and houses who wards off evil, and his symbol was a tapered stone or column.<ref>Martin Nilsson, ''Die Geschichte der Griechische Religion.'' vol. I (C. H. Beck), 1955:563f.</ref> However, while usually Greek festivals were celebrated at the [[full moon]], all the feasts of Apollo were celebrated at the seventh day of the month, and the emphasis given to that day (''sibutu'') indicates a [[Babylonia]]n origin.<ref>Martin Nilsson (1967). Vol I, p. 561.</ref> The [[Late Bronze Age]] (from 1700 to 1200 BCE) [[Hittites|Hittite]] and [[Hurrian]] ''Aplu'' was a god of [[Plague (disease)|plague]], invoked during plague years. Here we have an [[apotrope|apotropaic]] situation, where a god originally bringing the plague was invoked to end it. Aplu, meaning ''the son of'', was a title given to the god [[Nergal]], who was linked to the Babylonian god of the sun [[Shamash]].<ref name=Grummond /> Homer interprets Apollo as a terrible god ({{lang|grc|δεινὸς θεός}}) who brings death and disease with his arrows, but who can also heal, possessing a magic art that separates him from the other Greek gods.<ref>Martin Nilsson (1967). Vol I. pp. 559–560.</ref> In ''[[Iliad]]'', his priest prays to ''Apollo Smintheus'',<ref>"You Apollo Smintheus, let my tears become your arrows against the Danaans, for revenge". [[Iliad]] 1.33 (A 33).</ref> the mouse god who retains an older agricultural function as the protector from field rats.<ref name=LSJsmintheus/><ref>An ancient aetiological myth connects ''sminthos'' with mouse and suggests Cretan origin. Apollo is the mouse-god (Strabo 13.1.48).</ref><ref>"Sminthia" in several areas of Greece. In [[Rhodes]] (Lindos) they belong to Apollo and Dionysos who have destroyed the rats that were swallowing the grapes". Martin Nilsson (1967). pp. 534–535.</ref> All these functions, including the function of the healer-god [[Paean (god)|Paean]], who seems to have Mycenean origin, are fused in the cult of Apollo. ==Oracular cult== [[File:Columns of the Temple of Apollo at Delphi, Greece.jpeg|thumb|250px|Columns of the [[Temple of Apollo (Delphi)|Temple of Apollo]] at Delphi, Greece]] Unusually among the Olympic deities, Apollo had two cult sites that had widespread influence: [[Delos]] and [[Delphi]]. In cult practice, [[Delos|Delian Apollo]] and [[Pythian Apollo]] (the Apollo of Delphi) were so distinct that they might both have shrines in the same locality.<ref>Burkert 1985:143.</ref> Apollo's [[Cult (religion)|cult]] was already fully established when written sources commenced, about 650 BCE. Apollo became extremely important to the Greek world as an oracular deity in the [[Archaic Greece|archaic period]], and the frequency of [[theophoric names]] such as ''Apollodorus'' or ''Apollonios'' and cities named ''Apollonia'' testify to his popularity. Oracular sanctuaries to Apollo were established in other sites. In the 2nd and 3rd century CE, those at [[Didyma]] and [[Clarus]] pronounced the so-called "theological oracles", in which Apollo confirms that all deities are aspects or servants of an [[Monism#Monism, pantheism, and panentheism|all-encompassing, highest deity]]. "In the 3rd century, Apollo fell silent. [[Julian the Apostate]] (359 - 61) tried to revive the Delphic oracle, but failed."<ref name="DDD"/> ===Oracular shrines=== [[File:Delos lions.jpg|thumb|250px|Delos lions]] Apollo had a famous [[oracle]] in Delphi, and other notable ones in [[Clarus]] and [[Branchidae]]. His oracular shrine in [[Abae]] in [[Phocis]], where he bore the [[toponym]]ic epithet ''[[Abaeus]]'' ({{lang|grc|Ἀπόλλων Ἀβαῖος}}, ''Apollon Abaios''), was important enough to be consulted by [[Croesus]].<ref>[[Herodotus]], 1.46.</ref> His oracular shrines include: * [[Abae]] in [[Phocis]]. * [[Bassae]] in the [[Peloponnese]]. * At [[Clarus]], on the west coast of [[Asia Minor]]; as at Delphi a holy spring which gave off a ''pneuma'', from which the priests drank. * In [[Ancient Corinth|Corinth]], the Oracle of Corinth came from the town of [[Tenea]], from prisoners supposedly taken in the Trojan War. * At [[Khyrse]], in [[Troad]], the temple was built for Apollo Smintheus. * In [[Delos]], there was an oracle to the Delian Apollo, during summer. The Hieron (Sanctuary) of Apollo adjacent to the Sacred Lake, was the place where the god was said to have been born. * In [[Delphi]], the [[Pythia]] became filled with the ''[[pneuma]]'' of Apollo, said to come from a spring inside the [[Adyton]]. * In [[Didyma]], an oracle on the coast of [[Anatolia]], south west of [[Lydia]]n ([[Luwian]]) [[Sardis]], in which priests from the lineage of the Branchidae received inspiration by drinking from a healing spring located in the temple. Was believed to have been founded by [[Branchus]], son or lover of Apollo. * In [[Manbij|Hierapolis Bambyce]], Syria (modern Manbij), according to the treatise ''[[De Dea Syria]]'', the sanctuary of the [[Atargatis|Syrian Goddess]] contained a robed and bearded image of Apollo. Divination was based on spontaneous movements of this image.<ref>[[Lucian]] (attrib.), ''[[De Dea Syria]]'' [http://www.sacred-texts.com/cla/luc/tsg/tsg07.htm#35 35–37].</ref> * At [[Patara (Lycia)|Patara]], in [[Lycia]], there was a seasonal winter oracle of Apollo, said to have been the place where the god went from Delos. As at Delphi the oracle at Patara was a woman. * In [[Segesta]] in Sicily. Oracles were also given by sons of Apollo. * In [[Oropus]], north of [[Athens]], the oracle [[Amphiaraus]], was said to be the son of Apollo; Oropus also had a sacred spring. * in Labadea, {{convert|20|mi|km}} east of Delphi, [[Trophonius]], another son of Apollo, killed his brother and fled to the cave where he was also afterwards consulted as an oracle. ==Temples of Apollo== A lot of temples dedicated to Apollo were built in Greece and in the Greek colonies, and they show the spread of the cult of Apollo, and the evolution of the Greek architecture, which was mostly based on the rightness of form, and on mathematical relations. Some of the earliest temples, especially in [[Crete]], don't belong to any Greek order. It seems that the first peripteral temples were rectangle wooden structures. The different wooden elements were considered divine, and their forms were preserved in the marble or stone elements of the temples of [[Doric order]]. The Greeks used standard types, because they believed that the world of objects was a series of typical forms which could be represented in several instances. The temples should be canonic, and the architects were trying to achieve the esthetic perfection.<ref>To know what a thing is, we must know the look of it": Rhys Carpenter: ''The esthetic basis of Greek art''. Indiana University Press. p. 108</ref> From the earliest times there were certain rules strictly observed in rectangular peripteral and prostyle buildings. The first buildings were narrow to hold the roof, and when the dimensions changed, some mathematical relations became necessary, in order to keep the original forms. This probably influenced the theory of numbers of [[Pythagoras]], who believed that behind the appearance of things, there was the permanent principle of mathematics.<ref name="C. M. Bowra 1957 p. 166">C. M. Bowra (1957). ''The Greek experience'', p. 166.</ref> The [[Doric order]] dominated during the 6th and the 5th century B.C, but there was a mathematical problem regarding the position of the triglyphs, which couldn’t be solved without changing the original forms. The order was almost abandoned for the [[Ionic order]], but the Ionic capital also posed an insoluble problem at the corner of a temple. Both orders were abandoned for the [[Corinthian order]] gradually during the Hellenistic age, and under Rome. The most important temples are: ===Greek temples=== *[[Thebes, Greece]]: The oldest temple probably dedicated to ''Apollo Ismenius'' was built in the 9th century B.C It seems that it was a curvilinear building. The [[Doric order|Doric]] temple was built in the early 7th century B.C, but only some small parts have been found <ref>William Dinsmoor (1950),''The architecture of Ancient Greece'', p. 218, ISBN 0-8196-0283-3</ref> A festival called [[Daphnephoria]] was celebrated every ninth year in honour of Apollo Ismenius (or Galaxius). The people held laurel branches ( daphnai), and at the head of the procession, walked a youth (chosen priest of Apollo), who was called "daphnephoros".<ref name="William Smith 1875. p. 384">William Smith.'' A Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities'', John Murray, London, 1875. p. 384</ref> *[[Eretria]]: According to the Homeric hymn to Apollo, the god arrived to the plain, seeking for a location to establish its oracle. The first temple of ''Apollo Daphnephoros'', "Apollo, laurel-bearer", or "carrying off Daphne", is dated to 800 BC. The temple was curvilinear ''hecatombedon'' (a hundred feet). In a smaller building were kept the bases of the laurer branches which were used for the first building. Another temple probably peripteral was built in the 7th century B.C, with an inner row of wooden columns over its Geometric predecessor. It was rebuilt peripteral around 510 BC, with the [[stylobate]] measuring 21,00 X 43,00 m. The number of [[pteron]] column was 6 x 14.<ref>[http://odysseus.culture.gr/h/2/eh251.jsp?obj_id=1689 Hellenic Ministry of culture, Temple of Apollo Daphnephoros]</ref><ref>Rufus B. Richardson, "A Temple in Eretria" ''The American Journal of Archaeology and of the History of the Fine Arts'', '''10'''.3 (July – September 1895:326–337)</ref> *[[Dreros]] ([[Crete]]). The temple of ''Apollo Delphinios'' dates from the 7th century B.C, or probably from the middle of the 8th century BC. According to the legend, Apollo appeared as a dolphin, and carried Cretan priests to the port of [[Delphi]].<ref name="Martin Nilsson 1967 p. 529"/> `The dimensions of the plan are 10,70 X 24,00 m, and the building was not peripteral. It contains column-bases of the [[Minoan civilization|Minoan]] type, which may be considered as the predecessors of the [[Doric order|Doric]] columns.<ref>Robertson pp. 56 and 323</ref> *[[Gortyn]] ([[Crete]]). A temple of ''Pythian Apollo'', was built in the 7th century BC. The plan measured 19,00 X 16,70 m, and it was not peripteral. The walls were solid, made from limestone, and there was single door on the east side. *[[Thermon]] ([[West Greece]]): The [[Doric order|Doric]] temple of ''Apollo Thermios'', was built in the middle of the 7th century BC. It was built on an older curvilinear building dating perhaps from the 10th century B.C, on which a [[peristyle]] was added. The temple was narrow, and the number of pteron columns (probably wooden) was 5 X 15. There was a single row of inner columns. It measures 12.13 X 38.23 m at the stylobate, which was made from stones.<ref name="Spivey, p. 112">Spivey, p. 112</ref> *'''Napes''' ([[Lesbos]]): An [[Aeolic order|Aeolic]] temple probably of ''Apollo Napaios'' was built in the 7th century BC. Some special capitals with floral ornament have been found, which are called [[Aeolic order|Aeolic]], and it seems that they were borrowed from the East.<ref name=Robertson324>D.S Robertson(1945):''A handbook of Greek and Roman architecture'', Cambridge University Press pp. 324-329</ref> *[[Cyrene, Libya]]: The oldest [[Doric order|Doric]] temple of Apollo was built in c. 600 BC. The number of pteron columns was 6 x 11, and it measures 16.75 X 30.05 m at the stylobate. There was a double row of sixteen inner columns on stylobates. The capitals were made from stone.<ref name=Robertson324/> *[[Naukratis]]: An [[Ionic order|Ionic]] temple was a built in the early 6th century BC. Only some fragments have been found, and the earlier made from limestone, are identified among the oldest of the [[Ionic order]].<ref>Robertson, p. 98</ref> [[File:Apollotempel.gif|thumb|left|200px| Floor plan of the temple of Apollo, Corinth]] *[[Corinth]]: A [[Doric order|Doric]] temple was built in the 6th century BC. The temple's [[stylobate]] measures 21.36 x 53.30 m, and the number of pteron columns was 6 x 15. There was a double row of inner columns. The style is similar with the Temple of Alcmeonidae at [[Delphi]].<ref>Robertson p. 87</ref> The Corinthians were considered to be the inventors of the [[Doric order]] <ref name="Spivey, p. 112"/> [[File:Siracusa-Temple-of-Apoll-Plan-bjs.png|thumb|right|200px|Floor plan of the temple of Apollo, Syracuse]] *[[Syracuse, Sicily]]: A [[Doric order|Doric]] temple was built at the beginning of the 6th century BC. The temple's [[stylobate]] measures 21.47 X 55.36 m and the number of pteron columns was 6 x 17. It was the first temple in Greek west built completely out of stone. A second row of columns were added, obtaining the effect of an inner porch.<ref>Mertens 2006, pp. 104–109.</ref> *[[Selinus]] ([[Sicily]]):The [[Doric order|Doric]] [[Temple C (Selinus)|Temple C]] dates from 550 BC, and it was probably dedicated to Apollo. The temple's stylobate measures 10.48 X 41.63 m and the number of pteron columns was 6 x 17. There was portico with a second row of columns, which is also attested for the temple at [[Syracuse, Sicily|Syracuse]].<ref>[[Inscriptiones Graecorum|IG]] XIV 269</ref> *[[Delphi]]: The first temple dedicated to Apollo, was built in the 7th century BC. According to the legend, it was wooden made of laurel branches. The "Temple of Alcmeonidae" was built in c. 513 BC. and it is the oldest Doric temple with significant marble elements. The temple's stylobate measures 21.65 X 58.00 m, and the number of pteron columns as 6 x 15.<ref>[http://www.ancient-greece.org/architecture/delphi-temple-of-apollo.html Temple of Apollo at Delphi], Ancient-Greece.org</ref> A fest similar with Apollo's fest at [[Thebes, Greece]] was celebrated every nine years. A boy was sent to the temple, who walked on the sacred road and returned carrying a laurel branch (''dopnephoros''). The maidens participated with joyful songs.<ref name="William Smith 1875. p. 384"/> *[[Chios]]: An [[Ionic order|Ionic]] temple of ''Apollo Phanaios'' was built at the end of the 6th century BC. Only some small parts have been found, but the capitals had floral ornament.<ref name=Robertson324/> *[[Abae]] ([[Phocis (ancient region)|Phocis]]). The temple was destroyed by the [[Persia]]ns in the invasion of [[Xerxes I of Persia|Xerxes]] in 480 BCE, and later by the [[Boeotia]]ns. It was rebuilt by [[Hadrian]].<ref>{{harvnb|Smith|2011|p=1}}</ref> The oracle was in use from early [[Mycenae]]an times to the Roman period, and shows the continuity of Mycenaean and Classical Greek religion.<ref>See reports of the German Archaeological Institute in Archaeological Reports for 2008/9 43-45</ref> *[[Delos]]: A temple probably dedicated to Apollo and not peripteral, was built in the late 7th century B.C, with a plan measuring 10,00 X 15,60 m. The [[Doric order|Doric]] Great temple of Apollo, was built in c. 475 BC. The temple's stylobate measures 13.72 X 29.78 m, and the number of pteron columns as 6 x 13. Marble was extensively used.<ref name=Robertson324/> *[[Ambracia]]: A [[Doric order|Doric]] peripteral temple dedicated to ''Apollo Pythios Sotir'' was built in 500 B.C, and It is lying at the centre of the Greek city [[Arta, Greece|Arta]]. Only some parts have been found, and it seems that the temple was built on earlier sanctuaries dedicated to Apollo. The temple measures 20,75 X 44,00 m at the [[stylobate]]. The foundation which supported the statue of the god, still exists.<ref>[http://odysseus.culture.gr/h/2/eh251.jsp?obj_id=7002 Ministry of culture.Temple of Apollo Pythios Sotir]</ref> [[File:Bassai Temple of Apollo Plan.svg|left|thumb|200px|Floor plan of the Temple of Apollo at Bassae]] *[[Bassae]] ([[Peloponnesus]]):A temple dedicated to ''Apollo Epikourios'' ("Apollo the helper"), was built in 430 B.C and it was designed by [[Iktinos]].It combined [[Doric order|Doric]] and [[Ionic order|Ionic]] elements, and the earliest use of column with a [[Corinthian order|Corinthian]] capital in the middle.<ref>[http://odysseus.culture.gr/h/3/eh351.jsp?obj_id=6664 Hellenic Ministry of Culture: The Temple of Epicurean Apollo].</ref> The temple is of a relatively modest size, with the [[stylobate]] measuring 14.5 X 38.3 metres<ref name="WHO">[http://www.worldheritagesite.org/sites/apolloepicurius.html Temple of Apollo Epicurius at Bassae], World Heritage Site.</ref> containing a [[Doric order|Doric]] [[peristyle]] of 6 x 15 columns. The roof left a central space open to admit light and air. [[File:Tempel des Apollo Didymaeos in Milet.png|right|thumb|180px|Temple of Apollo, Didyma]] *[[Didyma]] (near [[Miletus]]): The gigantic [[Ionic order|Ionic]] temple of ''Apollo Didymaios'' started around 540 BC. The construction ceased and then it was restarted in 330 BC. The temple is dipteral, with an outer row of 10 X 21 columns, and it measures 28.90 x 80.75 m at the stylobate.<ref>Peter Schneider: ''Neue Funde vom archaischen Apollontempel in Didyma''. In: Ernst-Ludwig Schwandner (ed.): ''Säule und Gebälk. Zu Struktur und Wandlungsprozeß griechisch-römischer Architektur''. Bauforschungskolloquium in Berlin vom 16.-18. Juni 1994. Diskussionen zur Archäologischen Bauforschung</ref> *[[Clarus]] (near ancient [[Colophon (city)|Colophon]]): According to the legend, the famous seer Calchas, on his return from Troy, came to Clarus. He challenged the seer Mopsus, and died when he lost.<ref>[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.04.0064:entry=clarus-geo perseus tufts Clarus]</ref> The [[Doric order|Doric]] temple of ''Apollo Clarius'' was probably built in the 3rd century B.C, and it was peripteral with 6 x 11 columns. It was reconstructed at the end of the Hellenistic period, and later from the emperor [[Hadrian]] but Pausanias claims that it was still incomplete in the 2nd century B.C.<ref>[http://www.klaros.org/apollon-klarios-tapinagi-ve-sunaklari?lang=en Prophecy centre of Apollo Clarius]</ref> *[[Hamaxitus]] ([[Troad]]): In [[Iliad]], [[Chryses]] the priest of Apollo, addresses the god with the epithet Smintheus (Lord of Mice), related with the god’s ancient role as bringer of the disease (plague). Recent excavations indicate that the Hellenistic temple of ''Apollo Smintheus'' was constructed at 150–125 BC, but the symbol of the mouse god was used on coinage probably from the 4th century B.C.<ref>Bresson (2007) 154-5, citing the excavations reports of Özgünel (2001).</ref> The temple measures 40,00 X23,00 m at the [[stylobate]], and the number of pteron columns was 8 X 14.<ref>Robertson p.333</ref> ===Etruscan and Roman temples=== *[[Veii]] ([[Etruria]]): The temple of Apollo was built in the late 6th century B.C., and indicates the spread of Apollo’s culture (Aplu) in Etruria. There was a prostyle porch, which is called [[Tuscan order|Tuscan]] , and a triple cella 18,50 m wide.<ref name="Robertson pp. 200-201">Robertson pp. 200-201</ref> *[[Falerii Veteres]] ([[Etruria]]): A temple of Apollo was built probably in the 4th-3rd century B.C. Parts of a teraccotta capital, and a teraccotta base have been found. It seems that the Etruscan columns were derived from the archaic Doric.<ref name="Robertson pp. 200-201"/> A cult of [[Soranus (mythology)|Apollo Soranus]] is attested by one inscription found near Falerii.<ref>[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.04.0006:entry=falerii-veteres Perseus tufts: Falerii Veteres]</ref> [[File:Pompeii Regio 07 Insula 07 Temple of Apollo plan 01.jpg|thumb|left|180px|Plan of the [[Temple of Apollo (Pompeii)]]]] *[[Pompeii]], (Italy): The cult of Apollo, was widespread in the region of Campania, since the 6th century B.C. The temple was built in 120 B.V, but its beginnings lie in the 6th century BC. It was reconstructed after an earthquake in A.D 63. It demonstrates a mixing of styles, which formed the basis of Roman architecture. The columns in front of the cella formed a [[Tuscan order|Tuscan]] prostyle porch, and the cella is situated unusually far back. The peripteral colonnade of 48 [[Ionic order|Ionic]] columns was placed in such a way, that the emphasis was given to the front side.<ref>Davidson CSA :[http://sites.davidson.edu/csa/the-temple-of-apollo-at-pompeii-a-mishmash-of-architecture/ Temple of Apollo, Pompeii]</ref> * Rome: The [[temple of Apollo Sosianus]] and the ''temple of Apollo Medicus'' . The first temple building dates to 431 BC, and was dedicated to Apollo Medicus (the doctor), after a plague of 433 BC.<ref>[http://www.thelatinlibrary.com/livy/liv.4.shtml#25 Livy 4.25]</ref> It was rebuilt by [[Gaius Sosius]], probably in 34 B.C. Only three columns with [[Corinthian order|Corinthian]] capitals exist today. It seems that the cult of Apollo had existed in this area since at least to the mid-5th century BC.<ref>[http://www.thelatinlibrary.com/livy/liv.34.shtml#43 Livy 34.43]</ref> *Rome:The [[temple of Apollo Palatinus]] was located on the Palatine hill within the sacred boundary of the city . It was dedicated by [[Augustus]] on 28 B.C. The façade of the original temple was [[Ionic order|Ionic]], and it was constructred from solid blocks of marble. Many famous statues by Greek masters were on display in and around the temple, including a marble statue of the god at the entrance, and a statue of Apollo in the cella.<ref>[http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Gazetteer/Places/Europe/Italy/Lazio/Roma/Rome/_Texts/PLATOP*/Aedes_Apollinis_Palatini.html A topographical dictionary of Ancient Rome]</ref> ==Mythology== ===Birth=== [[File:Apollo Artemis Brygos Louvre G151.jpg|thumb|250px|Apollo (left) and [[Artemis]]. [[Brygos]] (potter signed), tondo of an Attic red-figure cup c. 470 BC, [[Musée du Louvre]].]] When Zeus' wife [[Hera]] discovered that Leto was pregnant and that Zeus was the father, she banned [[Leto]] from giving birth on "terra firma". In her wanderings, Leto found the newly created floating island of [[Delos]], which was neither mainland nor a real island. She gave birth there and was accepted by the people, offering them her promise that her son would be always favourable toward the city. Afterwards, Zeus secured Delos to the bottom of the ocean. This island later became sacred to Apollo. It is also stated that Hera kidnapped [[Eileithyia]], the goddess of childbirth, to prevent Leto from going into labor. The other gods tricked Hera into letting her go by offering her a necklace, nine yards (8 m) long, of amber. Mythographers agree that [[Artemis]] was born first and then assisted with the birth of Apollo, or that Artemis was born one day before Apollo, on the island of [[Ortygia]] and that she helped Leto cross the sea to Delos the next day to give birth to Apollo. Apollo was born on the seventh day ({{lang|grc|ἑβδομαγενής}}, ''hebdomagenes'')<ref>{{LSJ|e(bdomagenh/s|ἑβδομαγενής|shortref}}.</ref> of the month Thargelion —according to Delian tradition—or of the month Bysios—according to Delphian tradition. The seventh and twentieth, the days of the new and full moon, were ever afterwards held sacred to him. ===Youth=== Four days after his birth, Apollo killed the [[chthonic]] dragon [[Python (mythology)|Python]], which lived in [[Delphi]] beside the [[Castalian Spring]]. This was the spring which emitted vapors that caused the oracle at Delphi to give her prophecies. Hera sent the serpent to hunt Leto to her death across the world. To protect his mother, Apollo begged [[Hephaestus]] for a bow and arrows. After receiving them, Apollo cornered Python in the sacred cave at Delphi.<ref>''Children of the Gods'' by Kenneth McLeish, page 32.</ref> Apollo killed Python but had to be punished for it, since Python was a child of [[Gaia (mythology)|Gaia]]. Hera then sent the giant [[Tityos]] to rape Leto. This time Apollo was aided by his sister Artemis in protecting their mother. During the battle Zeus finally relented his aid and hurled Tityos down to [[Tartarus]]. There, he was pegged to the rock floor, covering an area of {{convert|9|acre|m2}}, where a pair of [[vulture]]s feasted daily on his liver. ===Trojan War=== Apollo shot arrows infected with the plague into the Greek encampment during the [[Trojan War]] in retribution for [[Agamemnon]]'s insult to [[Chryses]], a priest of Apollo whose daughter [[Chryseis]] had been captured. He demanded her return, and the Achaeans complied, indirectly causing the anger of Achilles, which is the theme of the ''[[Iliad]]''. In the ''[[Iliad]]'', when [[Diomedes]] injured [[Aeneas]], Apollo rescued him. First, [[Aphrodite]] tried to rescue Aeneas but Diomedes injured her as well. Aeneas was then enveloped in a cloud by Apollo, who took him to Pergamos, a sacred spot in [[Troy]]. Apollo aided [[Paris (mythology)|Paris]] in the killing of [[Achilles]] by guiding the arrow of his bow into [[Achilles]]' heel. One interpretation of his motive is that it was in revenge for Achilles' sacrilege in murdering [[Troilus]], the god's own son by [[Hecuba]], on the very altar of the god's own temple. ===Admetus=== When Zeus struck down Apollo's son Asclepius with a lightning bolt for resurrecting [[Hippolytus (mythology)|Hippolytus]] from the dead (transgressing [[Themis]] by stealing [[Hades]]'s subjects), Apollo in revenge killed the [[Cyclops|Cyclopes]], who had fashioned the bolt for Zeus.<ref>Pseudo-Apollodorus, ''[[Bibliothke]]'' iii. 10.4.</ref> Apollo would have been banished to [[Tartarus]] forever for this, but was instead sentenced to one year of [[Penal labour|hard labor]], due to the intercession of his mother, [[Leto]]. During this time he served as [[shepherd]] for [[Admetus|King Admetus]] of [[Pherae]] in [[Thessaly]]. Admetus treated Apollo well, and, in return, the god conferred great benefits on Admetus. Apollo helped Admetus win [[Alcestis]], the daughter of [[Pelias|King Pelias]] and later convinced the [[Moirai|Fates]] to let Admetus live past his time, if another took his place. But when it came time for Admetus to die, his parents, whom he had assumed would gladly die for him, refused to cooperate. Instead, Alcestis took his place, but [[Heracles]] managed to "''[[Coercion|persuade]]''" [[Thanatos]], the god of death, to return her to the world of the living. [[File:Niobe JacquesLouisDavid 1772 Dallas Museum of Art.jpg|thumb|250px|''Artemis and Apollo Piercing Niobe's Children with their Arrows'' by [[Jacques-Louis David]], [[Dallas Museum of Art]]]] ===Niobe=== [[Niobe]], the queen of [[Thebes (Greece)|Thebes]] and wife of [[Amphion]], boasted of her superiority to Leto because she had fourteen children ([[Niobids]]), seven male and seven female, while Leto had only two. Apollo killed her sons, and Artemis her daughters. Apollo and Artemis used poisoned arrows to kill them, though according to some versions of the myth, a number of the Niobids were spared ([[Chloris]], usually). Amphion, at the sight of his dead sons, either killed himself or was killed by Apollo after swearing revenge. A devastated Niobe fled to [[Spil Mount|Mount Sipylos]] in [[Asia Minor]] and turned into stone as she wept. Her tears formed the river [[Achelous]]. Zeus had turned all the people of Thebes to stone and so no one buried the Niobids until the ninth day after their death, when the gods themselves entombed them. ===Consorts and children=== Love affairs ascribed to Apollo are a late development in Greek mythology.<ref>"The love-stories themselves were not told until later." [[Karl Kerenyi]], ''The Gods of the Greeks'' 1951:140.</ref> Their vivid anecdotal qualities have made some of them favorites of painters since the Renaissance, the result being that they stand out more prominently in the modern imagination. ====Female lovers==== {{Main|Apollo and Daphne}} [[File:Apollo & Daphne September 2a.jpg|thumb|250px|[[Apollo and Daphne]] by [[Bernini]] in the [[Galleria Borghese]]]] [[Daphne]] was a [[nymph]], daughter of the [[Sea and river deity|river god]] [[Peneus]], who had scorned Apollo. The myth explains the connection of Apollo with δάφνη (''daphnē''), the [[Bay Laurel|laurel]] whose leaves his priestess employed at [[Delphi]].<ref>The ancient Daphne episode is noted in late narratives, notably in [[Ovid]], ''[[Metamorphoses]]'', in [[Hyginus]], ''[[Fabulae]]'', 203 and by the fourth-century-CE teacher of rhetoric and Christian convert, [[Libanius]], in ''Narrationes''.</ref> In [[Ovid]]'s [[Metamorphoses]], Phoebus Apollo chaffs Cupid for toying with a weapon more suited to a man, whereupon Cupid wounds him with a golden dart; simultaneously, however, Cupid shoots a leaden arrow into Daphne, causing her to be repulsed by Apollo. Following a spirited chase by Apollo, Daphne prays to her father, Peneus, for help, and he changes her into the laurel tree, sacred to Apollo. ''Artemis Daphnaia'', who had her temple among the Lacedemonians, at a place called Hypsoi<ref>G. Shipley, "The Extent of Spartan Territory in the Late Classical and Hellenistic Periods", ''The Annual of the British School at Athens'', 2000.</ref> in Antiquity, on the slopes of Mount Cnacadion near the Spartan frontier,<ref>[[Pausanias (geographer)|Pausanias]], 3.24.8 ([http://www.theoi.com/Text/Pausanias3B.html on-line text]); Lilius Gregorius Gyraldus, ''Historiae Deorum Gentilium'', Basel, 1548, Syntagma 10, is noted in this connection in [http://www.textlog.de/40739.html Benjamin Hederich, ''Gründliches mythologisches Lexikon'', 1770]</ref> had her own sacred laurel trees.<ref>[[Karl Kerenyi]], ''The Gods of the Greeks'', 1951:141</ref> At [[Eretria]] the identity of an excavated 7th- and 6th-century temple to ''Apollo Daphnephoros'', "Apollo, laurel-bearer", or "carrying off Daphne", a "place where the citizens are to take the oath", is identified in inscriptions.<ref>Rufus B. Richardson, "A Temple in Eretria" ''The American Journal of Archaeology and of the History of the Fine Arts'', '''10'''.3 (July - September 1895:326–337); Paul Auberson, ''Eretria. Fouilles et Recherches I, Temple d'Apollon Daphnéphoros, Architecture'' (Bern, 1968). See also [[Plutarch]], ''Pythian Oracle'', 16.</ref> [[Leucothea]] was daughter of [[Orchamus]] and sister of [[Clytia]]. She fell in love with Apollo who disguised himself as Leucothea's mother to gain entrance to her chambers. Clytia, jealous of her sister because she wanted Apollo for herself, told Orchamus the truth, betraying her sister's trust and confidence in her. Enraged, Orchamus ordered Leucothea to be buried alive. Apollo refused to forgive Clytia for betraying his beloved, and a grieving Clytia wilted and slowly died. Apollo changed her into an incense plant, either heliotrope or sunflower, which follows the sun every day. [[Marpessa]] was kidnapped by [[Idas]] but was loved by Apollo as well. [[Zeus]] made her choose between them, and she chose Idas on the grounds that Apollo, being immortal, would tire of her when she grew old. [[Castalia]] was a [[nymph]] whom Apollo loved. She fled from him and dove into the [[castalian Spring|spring]] at Delphi, at the base of [[Mt. Parnassos]], which was then named after her. Water from this spring was sacred; it was used to clean the Delphian temples and inspire the priestesses. In the last [[oracle]] is mentioned that the "water which could speak", has been lost for ever. By [[Cyrene (mythology)|Cyrene]], Apollo had a son named [[Aristaeus]], who became the patron god of cattle, [[fruit trees]], hunting, husbandry and [[bee-keeping]]. He was also a [[culture-hero]] and taught humanity dairy skills, the use of nets and traps in hunting, and how to cultivate olives. [[Hecuba]], was the wife of King [[Priam]] of [[Troy]], and Apollo had a son with her named [[Troilus]]. An [[oracle]] prophesied that Troy would not be defeated as long as Troilus reached the age of twenty alive. He was ambushed and killed by [[Achilleus]]. [[Cassandra]], was daughter of Hecuba and Priam, and Troilus' half-sister. Apollo fell in love with Cassandra and promised her the gift of prophecy to seduce her, but she rejected him afterwards. Enraged, Apollo indeed gave her the ability to know the future, with a curse that she could only see the future tragedies and that no one would ever believe her. [[Coronis (Greek mythology)|Coronis]], was daughter of [[Phlegyas]], King of the [[Lapiths]]. Pregnant with [[Asclepius]], Coronis fell in love with [[Ischys]], son of [[Elatus]]. A crow informed Apollo of the affair. When first informed he disbelieved the crow and turned all crows black (where they were previously white) as a punishment for spreading untruths. When he found out the truth he sent his sister, Artemis, to kill Coronis (in other stories, Apollo himself had killed Coronis). As a result, he also made the crow sacred and gave them the task of announcing important deaths. Apollo rescued the baby and gave it to the [[centaur]] [[Chiron]] to raise. Phlegyas was irate after the death of his daughter and burned the Temple of Apollo at Delphi. Apollo then killed him for what he did. In [[Euripides]]' play ''[[Ion (play)|Ion]]'', Apollo fathered [[Ion (mythology)|Ion]] by [[Creusa]], wife of [[Xuthus]]. Creusa left Ion to die in the wild, but Apollo asked [[Hermes]] to save the child and bring him to the oracle at [[Delphi]], where he was raised by a priestess. [[Acantha]], was the spirit of the [[Acanthus (genus)|acanthus]] tree, and Apollo had one of his other liaisons with her. Upon her death, Apollo transformed her into a sun-loving herb. According to the ''[[Bibliotheca (Pseudo-Apollodorus)|Biblioteca]]'', the "library" of mythology mis-attributed to Apollodorus, he fathered the [[Corybantes]] on the Muse [[Thalia (Muse)|Thalia]].<ref>Apollodorus, [http://www.theoi.com/Text/Apollodorus1.html ''Bibliotheca'', 1.3.4]. Other ancient sources, however, gave the Corybantes different parents; see [[James George Frazer|Sir James Frazer]]'s [http://www.theoi.com/Text/Ap1a.html#46 note] on the passage in the ''Bibliotheca''.</ref> ====Consorts and children: extended list==== {{colbegin|2}} # [[Acacallis (mythology)|Acacallis]] ## Amphithemis (Garamas)<ref>[[Apollonius Rhodius]], ''Argonautica'', 1491 ff</ref> ## Naxos, [[eponym]] of the island [[Naxos (island)|Naxos]]<ref>[[Scholia]] on [[Apollonius Rhodius]], ''Argonautica'', 1491 ff</ref> ## Phylacides ## Phylander<ref>[[Pausanias (geographer)|Pausanias]], ''Description of Greece'', 10. 16. 5</ref> # [[Acantha]] # [[Aethusa]] ## [[Eleuther]] # [[Aganippe]] ## Chios<ref>[[Pseudo-Plutarch]], ''On Rivers'', 7. 1</ref> # Alciope<ref>[[Photius]], ''Lexicon'' s. v. Linos</ref> ## [[Linus (mythology)|Linus]] (possibly) # [[Amphissa (mythology)|Amphissa / Isse]], daughter of Macareus # Anchiale / [[Acacallis (mythology)|Acacallis]] ## Oaxes<ref>[[Servius]] on [[Virgil]]'s Eclogue 1, 65</ref> # Areia, daughter of Cleochus / [[Acacallis (mythology)|Acacallis]] / Deione ## [[Miletus (mythology)|Miletus]] # Astycome, nymph ## Eumolpus (possibly)<ref>[[Photius]], ''Lexicon'', s. v. ''Eumolpidai''</ref> # Arsinoe, daughter of [[Leucippus]] ## [[Asclepius]] (possibly) ## [[Eriopis]] # Babylo ## Arabus<ref>[[Pliny the Elder]], ''[[Naturalis Historia]]'', 7. 56 - 57 p. 196</ref> # [[Bolina]] # [[Calliope]], Muse ## [[Orpheus]] (possibly) ## [[Linus (mythology)|Linus]] (possibly) ## [[Ialemus]] # [[Cassandra]] # [[Castalia]] # [[Celaeno]], daughter of Hyamus / [[Melaina]] / [[Thyia]] ## [[Delphus]] # [[Chione (daughter of Daedalion)|Chione]] / Philonis / [[Leuconoe]] ## [[Philammon]] # Chrysorthe ## [[Coronus (Greek mythology)|Coronus]] # Chrysothemis ## [[Parthenos (mythology)|Parthenos]] # [[Coronis (mythology)|Coronis]] ## [[Asclepius]] # [[Corycia|Coryceia]] ## [[Lycorus]] (Lycoreus) # [[Creusa]] ## [[Ion (mythology)|Ion]] # [[Cyrene (mythology)|Cyrene]] ## [[Aristaeus]] ## [[Idmon]] (possibly) ## Autuchus<ref>[[Scholia]] on [[Apollonius Rhodius]], ''Argonautica'', 2. 498</ref> # Danais, Cretan nymph ## The [[Korybantes|Curetes]]<ref>[[Tzetzes]] on [[Lycophron]], 77</ref> # [[Daphne]] # Dia, daughter of [[Lycaon (Arcadia)|Lycaon]] ## Dryops # [[Dryope]] ## Amphissus # Euboea (daughter of Macareus of [[Locris]]) ## [[Agreus]] # [[Evadne]], daughter of Poseidon ## [[Iamus]] # [[Gryne]] # [[Hecate]] ## [[Scylla]] (possibly)<ref>[[Scholia]] on [[Apollonius Rhodius]], ''Argonautica'' 4.828, referring to "[[Hesiod]]", ''[[Megalai Ehoiai]]'' fr.</ref> # [[Hecuba]] ## [[Troilus]] ## [[Hector]] (possibly)<ref>[[Tzetzes]] on [[Lycophron]], 266</ref> # [[Hestia]] (wooed her unsuccessfully) # [[Hypermnestra#Daughter of Thestius and Eurythemis|Hypermnestra]], wife of [[Oicles]] ## [[Amphiaraus]] (possibly) # Hypsipyle<ref>[[Arnobius]], ''Adversus Nationes'', 4. 26; not the same as [[Hypsipyle]] of [[Lemnos]]</ref> # Hyria (Thyria) ## [[Cycnus#Son of Apollo|Cycnus]] # Lycia, nymph or daughter of Xanthus ## Eicadius<ref>[[Servius]] on ''[[Aeneid]]'', 3. 332</ref> ## Patarus<ref>[[Stephanus of Byzantium]] s. v. ''Patara''</ref> # [[Manto (mythology)|Manto]] ## [[Mopsus]] # [[Marpessa]] # [[Meliae|Melia]] ## Ismenus<ref>[[Pausanias (geographer)|Pausanias]], ''Description of Greece'', 9. 10. 5</ref> ## Tenerus<ref>[[Pausanias (geographer)|Pausanias]], ''Description of Greece'', 9. 26. 1</ref> # [[Ocyrhoe]] # [[Othreis]] ## Phager # Parnethia, nymph ## Cynnes<ref>[[Photius]], Lexicon, s. v. ''Kynneios''</ref> # Parthenope ## [[Lycomedes]] # Phthia ## Dorus ## [[Laodocus]] ## [[Polypoetes]] # Prothoe<ref>[[Arnobius]], ''Adversus Nationes'', 4. 26</ref> # [[Procleia]] ## [[Tenes]] (possibly) # [[Psamathe (Crotopus)|Psamathe]] ## [[Linus (mythology)|Linus]] # [[Rhoeo]] ## [[Anius]] # Rhodoessa, nymph ## Ceos, eponym of the island [[Ceos]]<ref>''[[Etymologicum Magnum]]'' 507, 54, under ''Keios''</ref> # Rhodope ## Cicon, eponym of the tribe [[Cicones]]<ref>''[[Etymologicum Magnum]]'' 513, 37, under ''Kikones''</ref> # [[Sinope (mythology)|Sinope]] ## [[Syrus]] # [[Stilbe]] ## Centaurus ## [[Lapithes (hero)|Lapithes]] ## Aineus # Syllis / Hyllis ## [[Zeuxippus (mythology)|Zeuxippus]] # [[Thaleia]], Muse / Rhetia, nymph ## The [[Corybantes]] # Themisto, daughter of Zabius of [[Hyperborea]]<ref>Stephanus of Byzantium, s. v. ''Galeōtai''</ref> ## Galeotes ## Telmessus (?) # [[Thero (Greek mythology)|Thero]] ## Chaeron # [[Urania]], Muse ## Linus (possibly) # Urea, daughter of Poseidon ## Ileus ([[Oileus]]?) # Wife of [[Erginus]] ## [[Trophonius]] (possibly) # Unknown consorts ## [[Acraepheus]], eponym of the city Acraephia<ref>[[Stephanus of Byzantium]], s. v. ''Akraiphia''</ref> ## [[Chariclo]] (possibly)<ref>[[Scholia]] on [[Pindar]], Pythian Ode 4. 181</ref> ## [[Erymanthus (person)|Erymanthus]] ## Marathus, eponym of [[Marathon]]<ref>[[Suda]] s. v. Marathōn</ref> ## Megarus<ref>[[Stephanus of Byzantium]] s. v ''Megara''</ref> ## [[Melaneus]] ## [[Oncius]]<ref>[[Pausanias (geographer)|Pausanias]], ''Description of Greece'', 8. 25. 4</ref><ref>[[Stephanus of Byzantium]] s. v. ''Ogkeion''</ref> ## [[Phemonoe]] ## Pisus, founder of [[Pisa]] in [[Etruria]]<ref>[[Servius]] on ''Aeneid'', 10. 179</ref> ## Younger Muses ### [[Cephisso]] ### [[Apollonis]] ### [[Borysthenis]] {{colend}} ====Male lovers==== [[File:Hyacinthus.jpg|thumb|upright|''Apollo and Hyacinthus'', 16th-century Italian engraving by [[Jacopo Caraglio]]]] [[Hyacinth (mythology)|Hyacinth]] or Hyacinthus was one of Apollo's male lovers. He was a [[Sparta]]n prince, beautiful and athletic. The pair was practicing throwing the [[Discus throw|discus]] when a discus thrown by Apollo was blown off course by the jealous [[Zephyrus]] and struck Hyacinthus in the head, killing him instantly. Apollo is said to be filled with grief: out of Hyacinthus' blood, Apollo created a [[hyacinth (plant)|flower]] named after him as a memorial to his death, and his tears stained the flower petals with the interjection {{lang|grc|αἰαῖ}}, meaning ''alas''.<ref>{{LSJ|ai)ai{{=}}|αἰαῖ}}, {{LSJ|ai)/2|αἴ|shortref}}.</ref> The Festival of Hyacinthus was a celebration of Sparta. Another male lover was [[Cyparissus]], a descendant of [[Heracles]]. Apollo gave him a tame deer as a companion but Cyparissus accidentally killed it with a [[Pilum|javelin]] as it lay asleep in the undergrowth. Cyparissus asked Apollo to let his tears fall forever. Apollo granted the request by turning him into the [[Cupressaceae|Cypress]] named after him, which was said to be a sad tree because the sap forms droplets like tears on the trunk. Other male lovers of Apollo include: * [[Admetus]]<ref>[[Callimachus]], Hymn to Apollo, 49.</ref><ref name="Plutarch, Numa" /> * [[Atymnius]],<ref>[[Nonnus]], ''[[Dionysiaca]]'', 11. 258; 19. 181.</ref> otherwise known as a beloved of [[Sarpedon]] * [[Branchus]] (alternately, a son of Apollo) * [[Carnus]] * Clarus<ref>[[Philostratus]], ''Letters'', 5. 3.</ref> * Hippolytus of [[Sicyon]] (not the same as [[Hippolytus (mythology)|Hippolytus, the son of Theseus]])<ref name="Plutarch, Numa">[[Plutarch]], ''Life of Numa'', 4. 5.</ref> * [[Hymenaios]]<ref>[[Antoninus Liberalis]], ''Metamorphoses'', 23.</ref> * [[Iapis]] * Leucates, who threw himself off a rock when Apollo attempted to carry him off<ref>[[Servius]] on ''[[Aeneid]]'', 3. 279.</ref> * [[Phorbas]] (probably the son of Triopas)<ref>[[Plutarch]], ''Life of Numa'', 4. 5, cf. also [[Hyginus]], ''Poetical Astronomy'', 2. 14.</ref> * Potnieus<ref>[[Clement of Rome]], ''Homilia'', 5. 15.</ref> ===Apollo's lyre=== [[File:Apollo Kitharoidos Antikensammlung Berlin 2.jpg|thumb|upright|Apollo with his [[lyre]]. Statue from [[Pergamon Museum]], Berlin.]] [[File:Chariot clock Apollo.jpg|thumb|upright|An Empire style [[chariot clock]] depicting the god and his lyre. France, c. 1815.]] [[Hermes]] was born on [[Mount Kyllini|Mount Cyllene]] in Arcadia. The story is told in the [[Homeric Hymn]] to [[Hermes]].<ref>{{cite web|title=English translation of the Homeric Hymn to Hermes|url=http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0138%3Ahymn|website=Perseus|accessdate=28 January 2015}}</ref> His mother, [[Maia (mythology)|Maia]], had been secretly impregnated by [[Zeus]]. Maia wrapped the infant in blankets but Hermes escaped while she was asleep. Hermes ran to [[Thessaly]], where Apollo was grazing his cattle. The infant Hermes stole a number of his cows and took them to a cave in the woods near [[Pylos]], covering their tracks. In the cave, he found a [[tortoise]] and killed it, then removed the insides. He used one of the cow's intestines and the tortoise shell and made the first [[lyre]]. Apollo complained to Maia that her son had stolen his cattle, but Hermes had already replaced himself in the blankets she had wrapped him in, so Maia refused to believe Apollo's claim. Zeus intervened and, claiming to have seen the events, sided with Apollo. Hermes then began to play music on the lyre he had invented. Apollo, a god of music, fell in love with the instrument and offered to allow exchange of the cattle for the lyre. Hence, Apollo then became a master of the lyre. ===Apollo in the ''Oresteia''=== In [[Aeschylus]]' ''[[Oresteia]]'' trilogy, [[Clytemnestra]] kills her husband, King [[Agamemnon]] because he had sacrificed their daughter [[Iphigenia]] to proceed forward with the Trojan war, and [[Cassandra]], a prophetess of Apollo. Apollo gives an order through the Oracle at Delphi that Agamemnon's son, [[Orestes]], is to kill Clytemnestra and [[Aegisthus]], her lover. Orestes and Pylades carry out the revenge, and consequently Orestes is pursued by the [[Erinyes]] (Furies, female personifications of [[revenge|vengeance]]). Apollo and the Furies argue about whether the [[matricide]] was justified; Apollo holds that the bond of marriage is sacred and Orestes was avenging his father, whereas the Erinyes say that the bond of blood between mother and son is more meaningful than the bond of marriage. They invade his temple, and he says that the matter should be brought before Athena. Apollo promises to protect Orestes, as Orestes has become Apollo's supplicant. Apollo advocates Orestes at the trial, and ultimately Athena rules in favor of Apollo. ===Other stories=== Apollo killed the [[Aloadae]] when they attempted to storm [[Mount Olympus (Mountain)|Mt. Olympus]]. [[Callimachus]] sang<ref>Callimachus, ''Hymn to Apollo''2.5</ref> that Apollo rode on the back of a swan to the land of the [[Hyperborea]]ns during the winter months. Apollo turned [[Cephissus (mythology)|Cephissus]] into a [[sea monster]]. Another contender for the birthplace of Apollo is the Cretan islands of [[Paximadia (islands)|Paximadia]]. ====Musical contests==== =====Pan===== Once [[Pan (mythology)|Pan]] had the audacity to compare his music with that of Apollo, and to challenge Apollo, the god of the [[kithara]], to a trial of skill. [[Tmolus]], the mountain-god, was chosen to umpire. Pan blew on his pipes, and with his rustic melody gave great satisfaction to himself and his faithful follower, [[Midas]], who happened to be present. Then Apollo struck the strings of his lyre. Tmolus at once awarded the victory to Apollo, and all but Midas agreed with the judgment. He dissented and questioned the justice of the award. Apollo would not suffer such a depraved pair of ears any longer, and caused them to become the ears of a [[donkey]]. =====Marsyas===== [[File:IAM 400T - Statue of Marsyas.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Marsyas]] under Apollo's punishment, [[Istanbul Archaeology Museums|İstanbul Archaeology Museum]]]] Apollo has ominous aspects aside from his plague-bringing, death-dealing arrows: [[Marsyas]] was a [[satyr]] who challenged Apollo to a contest of music. He had found an [[aulos]] on the ground, tossed away after being invented by [[Athena]] because it made her cheeks puffy. The contest was judged by the [[Muse]]s. After they each performed, both were deemed equal until Apollo decreed they play and sing at the same time. As Apollo played the [[lyre]], this was easy to do. Marsyas could not do this, as he only knew how to use the flute and could not sing at the same time. Apollo was declared the winner because of this. Apollo [[flaying|flayed]] Marsyas alive in a cave near [[Celaenae]] in [[Phrygia]] for his [[hubris]] to challenge a god. He then nailed Marsyas' shaggy skin to a nearby pine-tree. Marsyas' blood turned into the river [[Marsyas (river)|Marsyas]]. Another variation is that Apollo played his instrument (the lyre) upside down. Marsyas could not do this with his instrument (the [[flute]]), and so Apollo hung him from a tree and flayed him alive.<ref>''Man Myth and Magic'' by Richard Cavendish</ref> =====Cinyras===== Apollo also had a [[lyre]]-playing contest with [[Cinyras]], his son, who committed suicide when he lost. [[File:Apollo Anzio Musei Capitolini MC286.jpg||thumb|upright=.75|left|Head of Apollo, marble, Roman copy of a Greek original of the 4th century BCE, from the collection of [[Cardinal Albani]]]] ===Roman Apollo=== The Roman worship of Apollo was adopted from the Greeks. As a quintessentially [[List of Greek mythological figures|Greek god]], Apollo had no direct Roman equivalent, although later Roman poets often referred to him as '''Phoebus'''.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.theoi.com/Heroine/Koronis.html |title=Koronis |publisher=Theoi |accessdate=30 July 2013}}</ref> There was a tradition that the Delphic oracle was consulted as early as the period of the [[Roman Kingdom|kings of Rome]] during the reign of [[Tarquinius Superbus]].<ref>[[Livy]] [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?lookup=Liv.+1.56 1.56].</ref> On the occasion of a pestilence in the 430s BCE, Apollo's [[Temple of Apollo Sosianus|first temple]] at Rome was established in the Flaminian fields, replacing an older cult site there known as the "Apollinare".<ref>Livy [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text.jsp?doc=Perseus:text:1999.02.0026:book=3:chapter=63 3.63.7], [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text.jsp?doc=Perseus:text:1999.02.0145:book=4:chapter=25 4.25.3].</ref> During the [[Second Punic War]] in 212 BCE, the ''[[Ludi Apollinares]]'' ("Apollonian Games") were instituted in his honor, on the instructions of a prophecy attributed to one Marcius.<ref>Livy [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text.jsp?doc=Perseus:text:1999.02.0147:book=25:chapter=12 25.12].</ref> In the time of [[Augustus]], who considered himself under the special protection of Apollo and was even said to be his son, his worship developed and he became one of the chief gods of Rome.<ref>{{cite book |author=J. H. W. G. Liebeschuetz |title=Continuity and Change in Roman Religion |year=1979 |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxford |isbn=0-19-814822-4 |pages=82–85 }}</ref> After the [[battle of Actium]], which was fought near a sanctuary of Apollo, Augustus enlarged Apollo's temple, dedicated a portion of the spoils to him, and instituted [[quinquennial]] games in his honour.<ref>[[Suetonius]], ''[[On the Life of the Caesars#Life of Augustus|Augustus]]'' [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Augustus*.html#18.2 18.2]; [[Cassius Dio]] [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/51*.html#1 51.1.1–3].</ref> He also erected [[Temple of Apollo (Palatine)|a new temple]] to the god on the [[Palatine Hill|Palatine hill]].<ref>Cassius Dio [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/53*.html#1.3 53.1.3].</ref> Sacrifices and prayers on the Palatine to Apollo and [[Diana (mythology)|Diana]] formed the culmination of the [[Secular Games]], held in 17 BCE to celebrate the dawn of a new era.<ref>''[[Inscriptiones Latinae Selectae]]'' 5050, translated by {{cite book |last1=Beard |first1=Mary |authorlink=Mary Beard (classicist) |last2=North |first2=John |last3=Price |first3=Simon |title=Religions of Rome: Volume 2: A Sourcebook |year=1998 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=Cambridge |isbn=0-521-45015-2|page=5.7b }}</ref> ==Festivals== The chief Apollonian festivals were the [[Boedromia]], [[Carneia]], Carpiae, [[Daphnephoria]], [[Delia (festival)|Delia]], [[Hyacinthia]], [[Metageitnia]], [[Pyanepsia]], [[Pythia]] and [[Thargelia]]. ==Attributes and symbols== [[File:Ai-Khanoum-gold stater of Antiochos1.jpg|thumb|250px|Gold stater of the [[Seleucid]] king [[Antiochus I Soter]] (reigned 281–261 BCE) showing on the reverse a nude Apollo holding his key attributes: two arrows and a bow]] Apollo's most common attributes were the bow and [[arrow]]. Other attributes of his included the [[kithara]] (an advanced version of the common [[lyre]]), the [[plectrum]] and the sword. Another common emblem was the [[sacrificial tripod]], representing his prophetic powers. The [[Pythian Games]] were held in Apollo's honor every four years at [[Delphi]]. The [[bay laurel]] plant was used in expiatory sacrifices and in making the [[laurel wreath|crown of victory]] at these games. The [[palm tree]] was also sacred to Apollo because he had been born under one in [[Delos]]. Animals sacred to Apollo included [[wolf|wolves]], dolphins, [[roe deer]], [[swan]]s, [[cicada]]s (symbolizing music and song), [[hawk]]s, [[raven]]s, [[Corvus (genus)|crow]]s, snakes (referencing Apollo's function as the god of prophecy), mice and [[griffin]]s, mythical eagle–lion hybrids of Eastern origin. [[File:Apolocitaredo8.jpg|thumb|250px||''[[Apollo Citharoedus]]'' ("Apollo with a kithara"), [[Musei Capitolini]], Rome]] As god of colonization, Apollo gave oracular guidance on colonies, especially during the height of colonization, 750–550 BCE. According to Greek tradition, he helped [[Crete|Cretan]] or [[Arcadia]]n colonists found the city of [[Troy]]. However, this story may reflect a cultural influence which had the reverse direction: [[Hittites|Hittite]] [[Cuneiform script|cuneiform]] texts mention a Minor Asian god called ''Appaliunas'' or ''Apalunas'' in connection with the city of [[Wilusa]] attested in Hittite inscriptions, which is now generally regarded as being identical with the Greek [[Troy|Ilion]] by most scholars. In this interpretation, Apollo's title of ''Lykegenes'' can simply be read as "born in Lycia", which effectively severs the god's supposed link with wolves (possibly a [[folk etymology]]). In literary contexts, Apollo represents harmony, order, and reason—characteristics contrasted with those of [[Dionysus]], god of wine, who represents ecstasy and disorder. The contrast between the roles of these gods is reflected in the adjectives [[Apollonian and Dionysian]]. However, the Greeks thought of the two qualities as complementary: the two gods are brothers, and when Apollo at winter left for [[Hyperborea]], he would leave the Delphic oracle to Dionysus. This contrast appears to be shown on the two sides of the [[Borghese Vase]]. Apollo is often associated with the [[Golden mean (philosophy)|Golden Mean]]. This is the Greek [[Ideal (ethics)|ideal]] of [[moderation]] and a [[virtue]] that opposes [[gluttony]]. ==Apollo in the arts== [[File:Apollo Saurocton Louvre.jpg|thumb|180px|The Louvre ''Apollo Sauroctonos'', Roman copy after [[Praxiteles]] (360 BC)]] '''Apollo''' is a common theme in Greek and Roman art and also in the art of the [[Renaissance]]. The earliest Greek word for a statue is "delight" ({{lang|grc|ἄγαλμα}}, ''agalma''), and the sculptors tried to create forms which would inspire such guiding vision. Greek art puts into '''Apollo''' the highest degree of power and beauty that can be imagined. The sculptors derived this from observations on human beings, but they also embodied in concrete form, issues beyond the reach of ordinary thought. The naked bodies of the statues are associated with the cult of the body that was essentially a religious activity. The muscular frames and limbs combined with slim waists indicate the Greek desire for health, and the physical capacity which was necessary in the hard Greek environment. The statues of Apollo embody beauty, balance and inspire awe before the beauty of the world. The evolution of the Greek sculpture can be observed in his depictions from the almost static formal [[Kouros]] type in [[Archaic period in Greece|early archaic period]], to the representation of motion in a relative harmonious whole in [[Archaic period in Greece|late archaic period]]. In [[classical Greece]] the emphasis is not given to the illusive imaginative reality represented by the ideal forms, but to the analogies and the interaction of the members in the whole, a method created by [[Polykleitos]]. Finally [[Praxiteles]] seems to be released from any art and religious conformities, and his masterpieces are a mixture of [[Realism (arts)|naturalism]] with stylization. ===Art and Greek philosophy=== The evolution of the Greek art seems to go parallel with the Greek philosophical conceptions, which changed from the natural-philosophy of [[Thales]] to the [[Metaphysics|metaphysical]] theory of [[Pythagoras]]. Thales searched for a simple material-form directly perceptible by the senses, behind the appearances of things, and his theory is also related to the older [[animism]]. This was paralleled in sculpture by the absolute representation of vigorous life, through unnaturally simplified forms.<ref name="Homann63">E. Homann-Wedeking. Transl. J.R. Foster (1968). ''Art of the world. Archaic Greece'', Methuen & Co Ltd. London, pp. 63–65, 193.</ref> Pythagoras believed that behind the appearance of things, there was the permanent principle of mathematics, and that the forms were based on a transcendental mathematical relation.<ref name="C. M. Bowra 1957 p. 166"/> The forms on earth, are imperfect imitations ({{lang|grc|εἰκόνες}}, ''eikones'', "images") of the celestial world of numbers. His ideas had a great influence on post-Archaic art, and the Greek architects and sculptors were always trying to find the mathematical relation, that would lead to the esthetic perfection.<ref name="Carpenter55">R. Carpenter (1975). ''The esthetic basis of Greek art''. Indiana University Press. pp. 55–58.</ref> ([[Aesthetic canon|canon]]). In classical Greece, [[Anaxagoras]] asserted that a divine reason (mind) gave order to the seeds of the universe, and [[Plato]] extended the Greek belief of ''ideal forms'' to his metaphysical theory of ''forms'' (''ideai'', "ideas"). The forms on earth are imperfect duplicates of the intellectual celestial ideas. The Greek words ''oida'' ({{lang|grc|οἶδα}}, "(I) know") and ''eidos'' ({{lang|grc|εἶδος}}, "species") have the same root as the word ''idea'' ({{lang|grc|ἰδέα}}),<ref name =Carpenter55/> indicating how the Greek mind moved from the gift of the senses, to the principles beyond the senses. The artists in Plato's time moved away from his theories and art tends to be a mixture of naturalism with stylization. The Greek sculptors considered the senses more important, and the proportions were used to unite the sensible with the intellectual. ===Archaic sculpture=== [[File:KAMA Kouros Porte Sacrée.jpg|thumb|180px|left|Sacred Gate Kouros, marble (610–600 BC), [[Kerameikos|Kerameikos Archaeological Museum in Athens]]]] [[Kouros]] (''male youth'') is the modern term given to those representations of standing male youths which first appear in the [[archaic period in Greece]]. This type served certain religious needs and was first proposed for what was previously thought to be depictions of ''Apollo''.<ref>V.I. Leonardos(1895). ''Archaelogiki Ephimeris'', Col 75, n 1.</ref><ref>Lechat (1904). ''La sculpture Attic avant Phidias'', p. 23.</ref> The first statues are certainly still and formal. The formality of their stance seems to be related with the [[Egypt]]ian precedent, but it was accepted for a good reason. The sculptors had a clear idea of what a young man is, and embodied the archaic smile of good manners, the firm and springy step, the balance of the body, dignity, and youthful happiness. When they tried to depict the most abiding qualities of men, it was because men had common roots with the unchanging gods.<ref name="Bowra144">C. M. Bowra (1957). ''The Greek experience'', pp. 144–152.</ref> The adoption of a standard recognizable type for a long time, is probably because nature gives preference in survival of a type which has long be adopted by the climatic conditions, and also due to the general Greek belief that nature expresses itself in ''ideal forms'' that can be imagined and represented.<ref name=Carpenter55/> These forms expressed immortality. Apollo was the immortal god of ''ideal balance and order''. His shrine in [[Delphi]], that he shared in winter with Dionysius had the inscriptions: {{lang|grc|γνῶθι σεαυτόν}} (gnōthi seautón="know thyself") and {{lang|grc|μηδὲν ἄγαν}} (''mēdén ágan'', "nothing in excess"), and {{lang|grc|ἐγγύα πάρα δ'ἄτη}} (eggýa pára d'atē, "make a pledge and mischief is nigh").<ref>See {{LSJ|a)/th|ἄτη|shortref}}.</ref> [[File:WLA metmuseum Marble statue of a kouros youth 2.jpg|thumb|200px|right|New York Kouros, Met. Mus. 32.11.1, marble (620–610 BC), [[Metropolitan Museum of Art]]]] In the first large-scale depictions during the early archaic period (640–580 BC), the artists tried to draw one's attention to look into the interior of the face and the body which were not represented as lifeless masses, but as being full of life. The Greeks maintained, until late in their civilization, an almost [[animism|animistic]] idea that the statues are in some sense alive. This embodies the belief that the image was somehow the god or man himself.<ref>C.M. Bowra. ''The Greek experience'', p. 159.</ref> A fine example is the statue of the ''Sacred gate Kouros'' which was found at the cemetery of [[Dipylon]] in Athens ([[Dipylon]] [[Kouros]]). The statue is the "thing in itself", and his slender face with the deep eyes express an intellectual eternity. According to the Greek tradition the [[Dipylon|Dipylon master]] was named [[Daedalus]], and in his statues the limbs were freed from the body, giving the impression that the statues could move. It is considered that he created also the ''New York kouros'', which is the oldest fully preserved statue of ''Kouros'' type, and seems to be the incarnation of the god himself.<ref name=Homann63/> [[File:7262 - Piraeus Arch. Museum, Athens - The Piraeus Apollo - Photo by Giovanni Dall'Orto, Nov 14 2009.jpg|thumb|left|180px|[[Piraeus Apollo]], archaic-style bronze, [[Archaeological Museum of Piraeus]]]] The animistic idea as the representation of the imaginative reality, is sanctified in the [[Homeric]] poems and in Greek myths, in stories of the god [[Hephaestus]] ([[Phaistos]]) and the mythic [[Daedalus]] (the builder of the [[labyrinth]]) that made images which moved of their own accord. This kind of art goes back to the [[Minoan civilization|Minoan]] period, when its main theme was the representation of motion in a specific moment.<ref name="Schachermeyer242">F. Schachermeyer (1964). ''Die Minoische Kultur des alten Creta'', Kohlhammer Stuttgart, pp. 242–244.</ref> These free-standing statues were usually marble, but also the form rendered in limestone, bronze, ivory and terracotta. The earliest examples of life-sized statues of Apollo, may be two figures from the [[Ionians|Ionic]] sanctuary on the island of [[Delos]]. Such statues were found across the Greek speaking world, the preponderance of these were found at the sanctuaries of Apollo with more than one hundred from the sanctuary of ''Apollo Ptoios'', [[Boeotia]] alone.<ref>J. Ducat (1971). ''Les Kouroi des Ptoion''.</ref> The last stage in the development of the ''Kouros type'' is the late archaic period (520–485 BC), in which the Greek sculpture attained a full knowledge of human anatomy and used to create a relative harmonious whole. Ranking from the very few bronzes survived to us is the masterpiece bronze [[Piraeus Apollo]]. It was found in [[Piraeus]], the harbour of Athens. The statue originally held the bow in its left hand, and a cup of pouring libation in its right hand. It probably comes from north-eastern [[Peloponnesus]]. The emphasis is given in anatomy, and it is one of the first attempts to represent a kind of motion, and beauty relative to proportions, which appear mostly in post-Archaic art. The statue throws some light on an artistic centre which, with an independently developed harder, simpler, and heavier style, restricts [[Ionia]]n influence in Athens. Finally, this is the germ from which the art of [[Polykleitos]] was to grow two or three generations later.<ref name="Homann144">Homann-Wedeking (1966). ''Art of the World. Archaic Greece'', pp. 144–150.</ref> ===Classical sculpture=== [[File:Apollon de Mantoue Louvre MA689.jpg|thumb|left|180px|Apollo of the "Mantoua type", marble Roman copy after a 5th-century BCE Greek original attributed to [[Polykleitos]], Musée du Louvre]] In the next century which is the beginning of the [[Classical Greece|Classical period]], it was considered that beauty in visible things as in everything else, consisted of symmetry and proportions. The artists tried also to represent motion in a specific moment ([[Myron]]), which may be considered as the reappearance of the dormant [[Minoan civilization|Minoan]] element.<ref name=Schachermeyer242/> Anatomy and geometry are fused in one, and each does something to the other. The Greek sculptors tried to clarify it by looking for mathematical proportions, just as they sought some reality behind appearances. [[Polykleitos]] in his ''Canon'' wrote that beauty consists in the proportion not of the elements (materials), but of the parts, that is the interrelation of parts with one another and with the whole. It seems that he was influenced by the theories of [[Pythagoras]].<ref>"Each part (finger, palm, arm, etc.) transmitted its individual existence to the next, and then to the whole" : ''Canon of [[Polykleitos]]'', also [[Plotinus]], ''Ennead'' I vi. i: Nigel Spivey (1997). ''Greek art'', Phaidon Press Ltd. London. pp. 290–294.</ref> The famous ''Apollo of Mantua'' and its variants are early forms of the [[Apollo Citharoedus]] statue type, in which the god holds the [[cithara]] in his left arm. The type is represented by [[neo-Attic]] Imperial Roman copies of the late 1st or early 2nd century, modelled upon a supposed Greek bronze original made in the second quarter of the 5th century BCE, in a style similar to works of [[Polykleitos]] but more archaic. The Apollo held the ''cythara'' against his extended left arm, of which in the Louvre example, a fragment of one twisting scrolling horn upright remains against his biceps. Though the proportions were always important in Greek art, the appeal of the Greek sculptures eludes any explanation by proportion alone. The statues of Apollo were thought to incarnate his living presence, and these representations of illusive imaginative reality had deep roots in the [[Minoan civilization|Minoan]] period, and in the beliefs of the first [[Greek language|Greek]] speaking people who entered the region during the bronze-age. Just as the Greeks saw the mountains, forests, sea and rivers as inhabited by concrete beings, so nature in all of its manifestations possesses clear form, and the form of a work of art. Spiritual life is incorporated in matter, when it is given artistic form. Just as in the arts the Greeks sought some reality behind appearances, so in mathematics they sought permanent principles which could be applied wherever the conditions were the same. Artists and sculptors tried to find this ideal order in relation with mathematics, but they believed that this ideal order revealed itself not so much to the dispassionate intellect, as to the whole sentient self.<ref name=Homann63/> Things as we see them, and as they really are, are one, that each stresses the nature of the other in a single unity. ===Pediments and friezes=== [[File:Apollo west pediment Olympia copy MFA Munich.jpg|thumb|upright|Apollo, West Pediment Olympia. Munich, copy from original, 460 BCE at the [[Temple of Zeus]], [[Olympia, Greece]].]] In the archaic pediments and friezes of the temples, the artists had a problem to fit a group of figures into an isosceles triangle with acute angles at the base. The [[Siphnian Treasury]] in [[Delphi]] was one of the first Greek buildings utilizing the solution to put the dominating form in the middle, and to complete the descending scale of height with other figures sitting or kneeling. The pediment shows the story of [[Heracles]] stealing Apollo's tripod that was strongly associated with his oracular inspiration. Their two figures hold the centre. In the pediment of the temple of [[Zeus]] in [[Olympia, Greece|Olympia]], the single figure of Apollo is dominating the scene.<ref name=Bowra144/> [[File:Part of the Bassae Frieze at the British Museum.jpg|thumb|left|Part of the [[Bassae Frieze]] at the [[British Museum]]. Apollo and Artemis in the northeast corner.]] These representations rely on presenting scenes directly to the eye for their own visible sake. They care for the schematic arrangements of bodies in space, but only as parts in a larger whole. While each scene has its own character and completeness it must fit into the general sequence to which it belongs. In these archaic pediments the sculptors use empty intervals, to suggest a passage to and fro a busy battlefield. The artists seem to have been dominated by geometrical pattern and order, and this was improved when classical art brought a greater freedom and economy.<ref name=Bowra144/> ===Hellenistic Greece-Rome=== Apollo as a handsome beardless young man, is often depicted with a [[kithara]] (as [[Apollo Citharoedus]]) or bow in his hand, or reclining on a tree (the [[Apollo Lykeios]] and [[Apollo Sauroctonos]] types). The [[Apollo Belvedere]] is a [[marble]] sculpture that was rediscovered in the late 15th century; for centuries it epitomized the ideals of [[Classical Antiquity]] for Europeans, from the [[Renaissance]] through the 19th century. The marble is a [[Hellenistic Greece|Hellenistic]] or Roman copy of a bronze original by the Greek sculptor [[Leochares]], made between 350 and 325 BCE. The life-size so-called "[[Adonis]]" found in 1780 on the site of a ''[[Roman villa|villa suburbana]]'' near the [[Via Labicana]] in the Roman suburb of Centocelle is identified as an Apollo by modern scholars. In the late 2nd century CE floor mosaic from [[El Djem]], Roman ''Thysdrus'', he is identifiable as [[Helios|Apollo Helios]] by his effulgent [[Halo (religious iconography)|halo]], though now even a god's divine [[nudity|nakedness]] is concealed by his cloak, a mark of increasing conventions of modesty in the later [[Roman Empire|Empire]]. Another haloed Apollo in mosaic, from [[Hadrumentum]], is in the museum at [[Sousse]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.tunisiaonline.com/mosaics/mosaic05b.html |title=Mosaics in Tunisia: Apollo and the Muses |publisher=Web.archive.org |date=8 July 2008 |accessdate=30 July 2013 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080708143541/http://www.tunisiaonline.com/mosaics/mosaic05b.html |archivedate=8 July 2008 }}</ref> The conventions of this representation, head tilted, lips slightly parted, large-eyed, curling [[Hairstyle|hair cut]] in locks grazing the neck, were developed in the 3rd century BCE to depict [[Alexander the Great]].<ref>Bieber 1964, Yalouris 1980.</ref> Some time after this mosaic was executed, the earliest depictions of Christ would also be beardless and haloed. ==Modern reception== [[File:Onthemorningthomas4.jpg|thumb|''The Overthrow of Apollo and the Pagan Gods'', watercolour from [[William Blake's illustrations of On the Morning of Christ's Nativity|William Blake's illustrations of ''On the Morning of Christ's Nativity'']] (1809)]] Apollo has often featured in postclassical art and literature. [[Percy Bysshe Shelley]] composed a "Hymn of Apollo" (1820), and the god's instruction of the Muses formed the subject of [[Igor Stravinsky]]'s ''[[Apollon musagète]]'' (1927–1928). In 1978, the Canadian band [[Rush (band)|Rush]] released [[Hemispheres (Rush album)|an album]] with songs [[Cygnus X-1 (song series)#Book II: Hemispheres|"Apollo: Bringer of Wisdom"/"Dionysus: Bringer of Love"]]. In discussion of the arts, a distinction is sometimes made between the [[Apollonian and Dionysian]] impulses where the former is concerned with imposing intellectual order and the latter with chaotic creativity. [[Friedrich Nietzsche]] argued that a fusion of the two was most desirable. [[Carl Jung]]'s [[Apollo archetype]] represents what he saw as the disposition in people to over-intellectualise and maintain emotional distance. In spaceflight, the NASA program for landing astronauts on the Moon was named [[Apollo program|Apollo]]. ==Genealogy== {{chart top|Apollo's family tree|collapsed=no}} {{chart/start}} {{chart|}} {{chart| | | | | | | | |URA |y|GAI |URA=[[Uranus (mythology)|Uranus]]|GAI=[[Gaia (mythology)|Gaia]]}} {{chart| | | | | |,|-|-|-|v|-|^|-|v|-|-|-|.}} {{chart|URA| |COE |y|PHO | |CRO |y|RHE |COE=[[Coeus]]|PHO=[[Phoebe (mythology)|Phoebe]]|URA=<small>Uranus'&nbsp;genitals</small>|CRO=[[Cronus]]|RHE=[[Rhea (mythology)|Rhea]]}} {{chart| |!| |,|-|-|-|'|,|-|-|-|-|-|-|^|v|-|-|-|v|-|-|-|v|-|-|-|v|-|-|-|.}} {{chart| |!|LET|~|y|ZEU |V|~|~|y|~|HER | |POS | |HAD | |DEM | |HES |LET=[[Leto]]|HES=[[Hestia]]|DEM=[[Demeter]]|ZEU=[[Zeus]]|HER=[[Hera]]|HAD=[[Hades]]|POS=[[Poseidon]]}} {{chart| |!| | |,|-|^|-|.| |:| |,|^|-|.| |!}} {{chart| |!| |APO | |ART |:| |!| |AAA |!|APO='''Apollo'''|ART=[[Artemis]]|AAA= &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;a <ref>According to [[Homer]], ''[[Iliad]]'' [http://data.perseus.org/citations/urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0012.tlg001.perseus-eng1:1.570 1.570&ndash;579], [http://data.perseus.org/citations/urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0012.tlg001.perseus-eng1:14.338 14.338], ''[[Odyssey]]'' [http://data.perseus.org/citations/urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0012.tlg002.perseus-eng1:8.312 8.312], Hephaestus was apparently the son of Hera and Zeus, see Gantz, p. 74.</ref>|border_AAA=0}} {{chart|border=0| |!| | | | | | | | |:| |!| | |!|BBB |BBB=&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;b <ref>According to [[Hesiod]], ''[[Theogony]]'' [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Hes.+Th.+927 927&ndash;929], Hephaestus was produced by Hera alone, with no father, see Gantz, p. 74.</ref>}} {{chart| |!| | | | | | | | |:| |!| | |!| |!}} {{chart| |!| | | | | | | | |:|ARE | |HEP |ARE=[[Ares]]|HEP=[[Hephaestus]]}} {{chart| |!| | | | | | | | |D|~|~|~|y|~|~|~|~|MET |MET=[[Metis (mythology)|Metis]]}} {{chart| |!| | | | | | | | |:| | |ATH |ATH=[[Athena]] <ref>According to [[Hesiod]]'s ''[[Theogony]]'' [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Hes.+Th.+886 886&ndash;890], of Zeus' children by his seven wives, Athena was the first to be conceived, but the last to be born; Zeus impregnated Metis then swallowed her, later Zeus himself gave birth to Athena "from his head", see Gantz, pp. 51&ndash;52, 83&ndash;84.</ref>}} {{chart| |!| | | | | | | | |D|~|~|~|y|~|~|~|~|MAI |MAI=[[Maia (mythology)|Maia]]}} {{chart| |!| | | | | | | | |:| | |HER |HER=[[Hermes]]}} {{chart| |!| | | | | | | | |D|~|~|~|y|~|~|~|~|SEM |SEM=[[Semele]]}} {{chart| |!| | | | | | | | |:| | |DIO |DIO=[[Dionysus]]}} {{chart| |!| | | | | | | | |L|~|~|~|~|y|~|~|~|DIO |DIO=[[Dione (Titaness)|Dione]]}} {{chart|border=0|AAA | | | | | | | | | | | |BBB|AAA=&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;a <ref>According to [[Hesiod]], ''[[Theogony]]'' [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Hes.+Th.+183 183&ndash;200], Aphrodite was born from Uranus' severed genitals, see Gantz, pp. 99&ndash;100.</ref>|BBB=&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;b <ref>According to [[Homer]], Aphrodite was the daughter of Zeus (''[[Iliad]]'' [http://data.perseus.org/citations/urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0012.tlg001.perseus-eng1:3.374 3.374], [http://data.perseus.org/citations/urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0012.tlg001.perseus-eng1:20.105 20.105]; ''[[Odyssey]]'' [http://data.perseus.org/citations/urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0012.tlg002.perseus-eng1:8.308 8.308], [http://data.perseus.org/citations/urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0012.tlg002.perseus-eng1:8.320 320]) and Dione (''[[Iliad]]'' [http://data.perseus.org/citations/urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0012.tlg001.perseus-eng1:5.370 5.370&ndash;71]), see Gantz, pp. 99&ndash;100.</ref>}} {{chart| |`|-|-|-|-|-|-|-|-|-|-|-|.| |!}} {{chart| | | | | | | | | | | | | |APH |APH=[[Aphrodite]]}} {{chart/end}} {{chart bottom}} ==See also== {{Portal|Greek mythology|Hellenismos}} *[[Dryad]] *[[Epirus]] *[[Pasiphaë]] *[[Sibylline oracles]] *[[Tegyra]] *[[Temple of Apollo (disambiguation)]] ==Notes== {{Reflist|20em}} ==References== * {{EB1911 |last=Freese |first=John Henry |wstitle=Apollo }} ===Primary sources=== [[File:Belvedere Apollo Pio-Clementino Inv1015 n3.jpg|thumb|Head of the ''[[Apollo Belvedere]]'']] * [[Hesiod]], ''[[Theogony]]'', in ''The Homeric Hymns and Homerica with an English Translation by Hugh G. Evelyn-White'', Cambridge, MA., Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1914. [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0130%3Acard%3D1 Online version at the Perseus Digital Library]. * [[Homer]], ''The Iliad with an English Translation by A.T. Murray, Ph.D. in two volumes''. Cambridge, MA., Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann, Ltd. 1924. [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0134%3Abook%3D1%3Acard%3D1 Online version at the Perseus Digital Library]. * [[Homer]]; ''The Odyssey with an English Translation by A.T. Murray, PH.D. in two volumes''. Cambridge, MA., Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann, Ltd. 1919. [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0136%3Abook%3D1%3Acard%3D1 Online version at the Perseus Digital Library]. * [[Sophocles]], ''Oedipus Rex'' * [[Palaephatus]], ''On Unbelievable Tales'' 46. Hyacinthus (330 BCE) * Pseudo-Apollodorus, ''[[Bibliotheca (Pseudo-Apollodorus)|Bibliotheca]]'' 1.3.3 (140 BCE) * [[Ovid]], ''Metamorphoses'' 10. 162–219 (1–8 CE) * [[Pausanias (geographer)|Pausanias]], ''Description of Greece'' 3.1.3, 3.19.4 (160–176 CE) * [[Philostratus the Elder]], ''Images'' i.24 Hyacinthus (170–245 CE) * [[Philostratus the Younger]], ''Images'' 14. Hyacinthus (170–245 CE) * [[Lucian]], ''Dialogues of the Gods'' 14 (170 CE) * [[First Vatican Mythographer]], 197. Thamyris et Musae ===Secondary sources=== * M. Bieber, 1964. ''Alexander the Great in Greek and Roman Art''. Chicago. * Hugh Bowden, 2005. ''Classical Athens and the Delphic Oracle: Divination and Democracy''. Cambridge University Press. * [[Walter Burkert]], 1985. ''Greek Religion'' (Harvard University Press) III.2.5 ''passim'' * Gantz, Timothy, ''Early Greek Myth: A Guide to Literary and Artistic Sources'', Johns Hopkins University Press, 1996, Two volumes: ISBN 978-0-8018-5360-9 (Vol. 1), ISBN 978-0-8018-5362-3 (Vol. 2). * {{cite book| author = Fritz Graf| title = Apollo| year = 2009| publisher = Taylor & Francis US| isbn = 978-0-415-31711-5 }} * [[Robert Graves]], 1960. ''The Greek Myths'', revised edition. Penguin. * Miranda J. Green, 1997. ''Dictionary of Celtic Myth and Legend'', Thames and Hudson. * [[Karl Kerenyi]], 1953. ''Apollon: Studien über Antiken Religion und Humanität'' revised edition. * Karl Kerenyi, 1951. ''The Gods of the Greeks'' * Mertens, Dieter; Schutzenberger, Margareta. ''Città e monumenti dei Greci d'Occidente: dalla colonizzazione alla crisi di fine V secolo a.C.''. Roma L'Erma di Bretschneider, 2006. ISBN 88-8265-367-6. * Martin Nilsson, 1955. ''Die Geschichte der Griechische Religion'', vol. I. C.H. Beck. * [[Pauly–Wissowa]], ''Realencyclopädie der klassischen Altertumswissenschaft'': II, "Apollon". The best repertory of cult sites (Burkert). * Pfeiff, K.A., 1943. ''Apollon: Wandlung seines Bildes in der griechischen Kunst''. Traces the changing iconography of Apollo. * D.S.Robertson (1945) ''A handbook of Greek and Roman Architecture'' Cambridge University Press * [[William Smith (lexicographer)|Smith, William]]; ''[[Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology]]'', London (1873). [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.04.0104:entry=heracles-bio-1&highlight=orthrus "Apollo"] *Spivey Nigel (1997) ''Greek art'' Phaedon Press Ltd. ==External links== {{Commons|Apollo}} {{Wiktionary|Apollo}} * [http://www.maicar.com/GML/Apollo.html Apollo] at the Greek Mythology Link, by Carlos Parada * [http://warburg.sas.ac.uk/vpc/VPC_search/subcats.php?cat_1=5&cat_2=80 The Warburg Institute Iconographic Database: ca 1650 images of Apollo] {{Greek religion}} {{Roman religion}} {{Apollo and Daphne}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Apollo| ]] [[Category:Arts gods]] [[Category:Deities in the Iliad]] [[Category:Dragonslayers]] [[Category:Health gods]] [[Category:Knowledge gods]] [[Category:LGBT themes in mythology]] [[Category:Muses]] [[Category:Temples of Apollo]] [[Category:Mythological Greek archers]] [[Category:Mythological rapists]] [[Category:Oracular gods]] [[Category:Roman gods]] [[Category:Solar gods]] 4lp23eq7kso9sisvd8okj6yjj1e21oh 0 595 716730004 716729895 2016-04-23T13:49:53Z Wolbo 326384 Formatting infobox wikitext text/x-wiki {{Use mdy dates|date=March 2016}} {{Infobox tennis biography | name = Andre Agassi | image = Andre Agassi Indian Wells 2006.jpg | fullname = Andre Kirk Agassi | country = {{Flagu|United States}} | residence = [[Las Vegas Valley|Las Vegas]], Nevada | birth_date = {{birth date and age|1970|04|29}} | birth_place = Las Vegas, Nevada | height = {{height|ft=5|in=11}} | turnedpro = 1986 | retired = September 3, 2006 | plays = Right-handed (two-handed backhand) | coach = [[Emmanuel Agassi]] (1970–83)<br />[[Nick Bollettieri]] (1983–93)<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.nytimes.com/1993/07/10/sports/tennis-agassi-has-streisand-but-loses-bollettieri.html |title=TENNIS; Agassi Has Streisand But Loses Bollettieri |date=July 10, 1993 |publisher=''The New York Times'' |first=Robin |last=Finn |accessdate=July 5, 2014}}</ref><br />[[Brad Gilbert]] (1994–2002)<br />[[Darren Cahill]] (2002–2006) | careerprizemoney = [[United States Dollar|US$]] 31,152,975 | tennishofyear = 2011 | tennishofid = andre-agassi | singlesrecord = 870–274 <small>(76.05% on the [[Grand Prix tour]], [[ATP Tour]], in [[Grand Slam (tennis)|Grand Slams]] and [[Davis Cup]])</small> | singlestitles = 60 <small>(in Grand Prix and ATP Tour play and 68 in total)</small> | highestsinglesranking = No. '''1''' (April 10, 1995) | AustralianOpenresult = '''W''' ([[1995 Australian Open – Men's Singles|1995]], [[2000 Australian Open – Men's Singles|2000]], [[2001 Australian Open – Men's Singles|2001]], [[2003 Australian Open – Men's Singles|2003]]) | FrenchOpenresult = '''W''' ([[1999 French Open – Men's Singles|1999]]) | Wimbledonresult = '''W''' ([[1992 Wimbledon Championships – Men's Singles|1992]]) | USOpenresult = '''W''' ([[1994 US Open – Men's Singles|1994]], [[1999 US Open – Men's Singles|1999]]) | Othertournaments = Yes | MastersCupresult = '''W''' ([[1990 ATP Tour World Championships|1990]]) | GrandSlamCupresult = F ([[Grand Slam Cup#1998|1998]]) | doublesrecord = 40–42<small> (on the [[Grand Prix tour]], [[ATP Tour]], in [[Grand Slam (tennis)|Grand Slams]] and [[Davis Cup]])</small> | doublestitles = 1 | FrenchOpenDoublesresult = QF (1992) | USOpenDoublesresult = 1R (1987) | highestdoublesranking = No. 123 (August 17, 1992) | Team = yes | DavisCupresult = '''W''' (1990, 1992, 1995) | medaltemplates-expand = yes | medaltemplates = {{MedalCompetition|Olympic Games – [[Tennis at the Summer Olympics|Tennis]]}} {{MedalGold | [[1996 Summer Olympics|1996 Atlanta]] | [[Tennis at the 1996 Summer Olympics – Men's singles|Singles]] }} }} '''Andre Kirk Agassi''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|ɑː|n|d|r|eɪ|_|ˈ|æ|ɡ|ə|s|i}}; born April 29, 1970) is an American retired professional tennis player and former [[List of ATP number 1 ranked singles players|World No. 1]], who was one of the game's most dominant players from the early 1990s to the mid-2000s.<ref name="bio">{{cite web |url=http://www.thebiographychannel.co.uk/biographies/andre-agassi.html |title=Bio:Andre Agassi |publisher=[[Biography Channel]] |accessdate=January 27, 2011}}</ref> Generally considered by critics and fellow players to be one of [[100 Greatest of All Time|the greatest tennis players of all time]],<ref name="SI">{{cite news |title=Top 10 Men's Tennis Players of All Time |work=Sports Illustrated |url=http://sportsillustrated.cnn.com/multimedia/photo_gallery/1009/top.ten.tennis/content.4.html |accessdate=July 21, 2012}}</ref><ref name="tennis">{{cite journal |title=Tennis Magazine: 40 Greatest Players |publisher=Tennis Magazine |date=December 2005}}</ref><ref name="cba">{{cite news |url=http://www.cbc.ca/sports/columns/newsmakers/andre-agassi.html |title=Tennis's love affair with Agassi comes to an end |publisher=[[CBC Sports]] |accessdate=May 15, 2010 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/20090725010912/http://www.cbc.ca:80/sports/columns/newsmakers/andre-agassi.html |archivedate=July 25, 2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.telegraph.co.uk/sport/tennis/wimbledon/3030108/Grand-slammed.html |title=Grand-slammed |work=The Daily Telegraph |location=London |accessdate=May 15, 2010 |first=John |last=Parsons |date=June 26, 2002 |archiveurl=//web.archive.org/web/20100525021835/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/sport/tennis/wimbledon/3030108/Grand-slammed.html |archivedate=May 25, 2010 |deadurl=no}}</ref><ref name="stars">[http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/tennis/5113548.stm "Stars pay tribute to Agassi"]. [[BBC]]. Retrieved May 15, 2010.</ref> Agassi had been called the greatest service returner in the history of the game.<ref name="cba" /><ref>[http://uk.eurosport.yahoo.com/tennis/simon-reed/article/1176/ "Reed's shotmakers: Men's return of serve"]. [[Yahoo! Sports]]. Retrieved May 15, 2010.</ref><ref>[http://www.nytimes.com/2005/09/13/sports/tennis/13tv.html "Adjectives Tangled in the Net"]. ''[[The New York Times]]''. Retrieved May 15, 2010.</ref><ref>[http://articles.latimes.com/1995-03-14/sports/sp-42741_1_andre-agassi?pg=1 "Sampras, Agassi Have Just Begun to Fight"] ''[[Los Angeles Times]]''. Retrieved15, 2010.</ref> Described by the [[BBC]] upon his retirement as "perhaps the biggest worldwide star in the sport's history",<ref name="stars" /> Agassi compiled performances that, along with his unorthodox apparel and attitude, saw him cited as one of the most charismatic players in the history of the game. As a result, he is credited for helping to revive the popularity of tennis during the 1990s.<ref name="cba" /><ref name="stars" /><ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.independent.co.uk/sport/tennis/dont-walk-away-andre-charismatic-gifts-of-agassi-should-not-be-allowed-to-slip-through-net-406318.html |title=Don't Walk Away, Andre |work=The Independent |location=UK |date=July 2, 2006 |accessdate=June 6, 2011 |first=Ronald |last=Atkin |archiveurl=//web.archive.org/web/20110606110540/http://www.independent.co.uk/sport/tennis/dont-walk-away-andre-charismatic-gifts-of-agassi-should-not-be-allowed-to-slip-through-net-406318.html |archivedate=June 6, 2011 |deadurl=no}}</ref> In singles tennis, Agassi is an eight-time [[Grand Slam (tennis)|Grand Slam]] champion and a [[Tennis at the 1996 Summer Olympics|1996 Olympic gold medalist]], as well as finishing runner-up in seven other Grand Slam tournaments. During the [[History of tennis#Open Era|Open Era]], Agassi is the first male player to win 4 Australian Open titles and those were an Open Era record until [[Novak Djokovic]] won his 5th title on February 1, 2015. Agassi is one of five male singles players to achieve the [[Grand Slam (tennis)#Career Grand Slam|Career Grand Slam]] in the Open Era and one of seven in history,<ref>{{cite news |url=http://latimesblogs.latimes.com/olympics_blog/2008/08/federer-gets-hi.html |title=Roger Federer gets his gold medal |publisher=Latimesblogs.latimes.com |date=August 16, 2008 |accessdate=June 6, 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.atpworldtour.com/News/Tennis/2010/09/36-US-Open-Week-2/US-Open-Monday-Final-Nadal-Completes-Career-Slam.aspx |title=Nadal Completes Career Grand Slam With US Open Title |publisher=ATP Tennis |accessdate=January 27, 2011}}</ref> the first of two to achieve the Career Golden Grand Slam (Career Grand Slam and Olympic Gold Medal), and the only man to win the Career Golden Grand Slam and the [[ATP World Tour Finals|ATP Tour World Championships]] (won in [[1990 ATP Tour World Championships|1990]]): a distinction dubbed as a "Career Super Grand Slam" by ''[[Sports Illustrated]]''.<ref name="SI" /> Agassi was the first male player to win all four Grand Slam tournaments on three different surfaces (hard, clay and grass), and the last American male to win the French Open, in 1999<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.fft.fr/rolandgarros/default_en.asp?ID=1576 |title=Singles winners from 1925 to 2005 |publisher=[[French Open|Roland Garros]] |accessdate=January 26, 2011}}</ref> and the Australian Open (2003).<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.australianopen.com/en_AU/event_guide/history/players/107.html |title=Australian Open – Past Men's Singles Champions |publisher=Australian Open |accessdate=January 26, 2011}}</ref> He also won 17 [[ATP World Tour Masters 1000|ATP Masters Series]] titles and was part of a winning [[Davis Cup]] team in [[1990 Davis Cup|1990]], [[1992 Davis Cup|1992]] and [[1995 Davis Cup|1995]].<ref name="tennis" /> Agassi reached the World No. 1 ranking for the first time in 1995 but was troubled by personal issues during the mid-to-late 1990s and sank to World No. 141 in 1997, prompting many to believe that his career was over.<ref name="greatath" /> Agassi returned to World No. 1 in 1999 and enjoyed the most successful run of his career over the next four years. During his 20-plus year tour career, Agassi was known by the nickname "The Punisher".<ref>Jhabvala, Nick. [http://sportsillustrated.cnn.com/2009/extramustard/10/30/chad-ochocinco-andre-agassi-tale/index.html "Tale of the Tape"]. ''[[Sports Illustrated]]''. November 2, 2009. Retrieved July 21, 2012.</ref><ref>Mehrotra, Abhishek. [http://www.espnstar.com/editorial/news/detail/item640226/Agassi:-Last-of-the-great-Americans/ "Agassi: Last of the great Americans"]. ''[[espnstar.com|ESPN Star]]''. Retrieved July 21, 2012.</ref><ref>[http://sports.in.msn.com/gallery/nickometer-popular-nicknames-in-the-world-of-sport?page=37 "Nickometer: Popular nicknames in the world of sport"]. [[MSN]] Sport. May 3, 2012. Retrieved July 21, 2012.</ref><ref>Calvert, Sean. [http://betting.betfair.com/tennis/australian-open-betting/australian-open-betting-the-best-finals-ever-100111.html "Australian Open Betting: The best finals ever"]. [[Betfair]]. January 10, 2011. Retrieved July 21, 2012.</ref> After suffering from [[sciatica]] caused by two bulging discs in his back, a [[spondylolisthesis]] ([[vertebrae|vertebral]] displacement) and a [[bone spur]] that interfered with the [[nerve]], Agassi retired from professional tennis on September 3, 2006, after losing in the third round of the [[US Open (tennis)|US Open]] to [[Benjamin Becker]]. He is the founder of the Andre Agassi Charitable Foundation,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.agassifoundation.org/ |title=Andre Agassi Foundation For Education |accessdate=January 26, 2011 |archiveurl=//web.archive.org/web/20101224192909/http://www.agassifoundation.org/ |archivedate=December 24, 2010 |deadurl=no}}</ref> which has raised over $60&nbsp;million for at-risk children in Southern Nevada.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.atptennis.com/en/players/tribute/agassi/agassi_charity.asp |publisher=ATP Tour, Inc. |title=Tribute to a legend: Andre Agassi Charitable Foundation |accessdate=February 15, 2007}}</ref> In 2001, the Foundation opened the Andre Agassi College Preparatory Academy in Las Vegas, a K-12 public [[charter school]] for at-risk children.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.agassiprep.org |publisher=Andre Agassi Preparatory Academy |title=Homepage of |accessdate=February 15, 2007 |archiveurl=//web.archive.org/web/20070225092139/http://www.agassiprep.org/ |archivedate=February 25, 2007 |deadurl=no}}</ref> He has been married to fellow tennis player [[Steffi Graf]] since 2001. ==1970–85: Early life== Andre Agassi was born in Las Vegas, Nevada to [[Emmanuel Agassi|Emmanuel "Mike" Agassi]] and Elizabeth "Betty" Agassi (née Dudley).<ref name="bio" /><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.netglimse.com/celebs/bio/andre_agassi.shtml |title=Andre Agassi Biography |publisher=Netglimpse.com |accessdate=August 14, 2007 |archiveurl=//web.archive.org/web/20070911163118/http://www.netglimse.com/celebs/bio/andre_agassi.shtml |archivedate=September 11, 2007 |deadurl=no}}</ref> His father, a former Olympic boxer for [[Iran]], stated he is from a mixed, mostly [[Armenians|Armenian]], heritage. He later elaborated that his grandfather was [[Assyrian people|Assyrian]].<ref name="persianbio">{{cite web |url=http://www.persianmirror.com/culture/famous/bios/andreagassi.cfm |title=Bio:Andre Agassi |publisher=Persian Mirror |accessdate=January 27, 2011 |archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/5gzbWaTky |archivedate=May 23, 2009 |deadurl=yes}}</ref><ref name="zindamagazine.com">{{cite web |url=http://www.zindamagazine.com/html/archives/1995/zn082895.html |title=400 ASSYRIAN ATHLETES IN THE STATE OLYMPICS |publisher=ZENDA renamed Zinda Magazine in 1999 |date=August 28, 1995 |accessdate=June 6, 2011}}</ref><ref name="peoplebio">{{cite web |url=http://www.peopleandprofiles.com/ProfilesDet-28/Andre+Agassi.html?profile_id=127 |title=Andre Agassi Profile |publisher=Peopleandprofiles.com |accessdate=June 6, 2011 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110715063938/http://www.peopleandprofiles.com/ProfilesDet-28/Andre+Agassi.html?profile_id=127 |archivedate=July 15, 2011 |deadurl=yes}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5R1y1nvcWccC&pg=PA278&lpg=PA278&dq=andre+aghassi+Armenian+-wikipedia.org |title=Aramaic (Assyrian/Syriac) dictionary |accessdate=June 6, 2011}}</ref><ref name="The man behind Andre">{{cite web |url=http://www.agassi.fr/index2.php?option=com_content&do_pdf=1&id=527 |title=The man behind Andre |accessdate=June 6, 2011}}</ref> However, in an October 2004 Inside Tennis interview, he stated "My great great great great grandfather was 'Syrian'". He married an Armenian woman. Their son married an Armenian. Their son married an Armenian. Their son married an Armenian. My father married an Armenian."<ref name="The man behind Andre" /> Andre Agassi's mother, Betty, is a breast cancer survivor. He has three older siblings – Rita (last wife to [[Pancho Gonzales]]), Philip and Tami.<ref>{{cite web |title=Andre Agassi |url=http://www.persianmirror.com/culture/famous/bios/andreagassi.cfm |archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/5gzbWaTky |work=PersianMirror |publisher=PersianMirror |year=2004 |archivedate=May 23, 2009 |accessdate=May 23, 2009}} {{dead link|date=May 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.dcourier.com/main.asp?SectionID=2&SubSectionID=2&ArticleID=127375 |title=Column: Q&A with Rita Agassi; a tennis life and journey |publisher=''The Daily Courier'' |author=Howard, Chris |date=January 14, 2014 |accessdate=January 25, 2014}}</ref> One of his ancestors changed his surname from Agassian to Agassi to avoid persecution.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.armenianweekly.com/2010/04/14/only-in-america-an-interview-with-mike-agassi/ |title=Only in America? An Interview with Mike Agassi |publisher=''The Armenian Weekly'' |first=Frank |last=Nahigian |accessdate=September 9, 2014}}</ref> In a passage from the book ''Open'', Agassi details how his father made him play a match for money with football legend [[Jim Brown]], in 1979, when Agassi was 9 years old. Brown was at a Vegas tennis club complaining to the owner about a money match that was canceled. Agassi's father stepped in and told Brown that he could play his son and he would put up his house for the wager. Brown countered with a $10,000 bet, but after he was warned by the club owner not to take the bet because he would lose and be embarrassed, Brown agreed with Mike Agassi that they would set the amount after he and Andre played two sets. Brown lost those sets, 3–6, 3–6, declined the 10K wager, and offered to play the third set for $500. He lost 2–6.<ref name=Open>{{cite book |last=Agassi |first=Andre |title=Open: An Autobiography |year=2010 |publisher=Vintage |location=London |isbn=978-0-307-38840-7 |pages=50–53}}</ref> At age 13, Andre was sent to [[Nick Bollettieri]]'s Tennis Academy in Florida.<ref name="greatath">{{cite book |last1=Jensen |first1=Jeffry |editor1-first=Dawn P |editor1-last=Dawson |title=Great Athletes |edition=Revised |volume=1 |year=2002 |origyear=1992 |publisher=Salem Press |isbn=1-58765-008-8 |pages=17–19}}</ref> He was meant to stay for only 3 months because that was all his father could afford. After thirty minutes of watching Agassi play, Bollettieri called Mike and said: "Take your check back. He's here for free," claiming that Agassi had more natural talent than anyone else he had seen.<ref name="lxbpdn">{{cite news |url=http://sportsillustrated.cnn.com/2006/magazine/08/30/agassi0717/index.html |publisher=Gary Smith for Sports Illustrated |title=Coming into Focus |accessdate=February 15, 2007 |archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/5mr2GHwNg |archivedate=January 17, 2010 |deadurl=no}}</ref> Agassi dropped out of school in the ninth grade.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.nytimes.com/2009/11/12/books/12agassi.html |work=The New York Times |title=A Team, but Watch How You Put It |first=Charles |last=McGrath |date=November 12, 2009 |accessdate=May 5, 2010 |archiveurl=//web.archive.org/web/20100415171054/http://www.nytimes.com/2009/11/12/books/12agassi.html? |archivedate=April 15, 2010 |deadurl=no}}</ref> ==International tennis career biography== ===1986–1993: Breakthrough and the first major title=== He turned professional at the age of 16 and competed in his first tournament at [[La Quinta, California]]. He won his first match against [[John Austin (tennis)|John Austin]], but then lost his second match to [[Mats Wilander]]. By the end of the year, Agassi was ranked world no. 91.<ref name="Tennis28">{{cite web |url=http://www.tennis28.com/rankings/history/agassi.html |title=Tennis28-Bio:Andre Agassi |accessdate=June 12, 2009 |publisher=Tennis28}}</ref> He won his first top-level singles title in 1987 at the [[ATP Itaparica|Sul American Open]] in [[Itaparica]]<ref name="greatath" /> and ended the year ranked world no. 25.<ref name="greatath" /> He won six additional tournaments in 1988 (Memphis, [[1988 U.S. Men's Clay Court Championships|U.S. Men's Clay Court Championships]], [[World Championship Tennis#WCT 1988|Forest Hills WCT]], Stuttgart Outdoor, [[1988 Volvo International|Volvo International]] and [[1988 Livingston Open|Livingston Open]]),<ref name="greatath" /> and, by December of that year, he had surpassed US$1&nbsp;million in career prize money after playing in just 43 tournaments—the fastest anyone in history had reached that level.<ref>[http://www.imdb.com/name/nm1152468/bio Andre Agassi – Biography]</ref> During the year, he set the open-era record for most consecutive victories by a male teenager, a record that stood for 17 years until [[Rafael Nadal]] broke it in 2005.<ref>{{cite news |title=Teen Nadal gives Spain reign over French Open |date=June 5, 2006 |url=http://www.usatoday.com/sports/tennis/french/2005-06-05-day-14_x.htm |agency=Associated Press (USA Today) |accessdate=April 6, 2010}}</ref> His year-end ranking was world no. 3, behind second-ranked [[Ivan Lendl]] and top-ranked [[Mats Wilander]]. Both the [[Association of Tennis Professionals]] and ''Tennis'' magazine named Agassi the Most Improved Player of the Year for 1988.<ref name="greatath" /> In addition to not playing the Australian Open (which later became his best Grand Slam event) for the first eight years of his career, Agassi chose not to play at [[The Championships, Wimbledon|Wimbledon]] from 1988 through 1990 and publicly stated that he did not wish to play there because of the event's traditionalism, particularly its "predominantly white" dress code to which players at the event are required to conform. Strong performances on the tour meant that Agassi was quickly tipped as a future Grand Slam champion. While still a teenager, he reached the semi-finals of both the French Open and the [[US Open (tennis)|US Open]] in 1988 and made the US Open semi-finals in 1989. He began the 1990s with a series of near-misses. He reached his first Grand Slam final in 1990 at the French Open, where he was favored before losing in four sets to [[Andrés Gómez]], which he attributes to worrying about his wig falling off.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.dailymail.co.uk/tvshowbiz/article-1224168/Andre-Agassi-admits-I-wore-wig--lost-French-Open.html |title=Andre Agassi admits: 'I wore a wig... and it lost me the French Open' |author=Allan Hall |accessdate=November 11, 2014 |publisher=Daily Mail Online}}</ref> He reached his second Grand Slam final of the year at the US Open, defeating defending champion [[Boris Becker]] in the semi-finals. His opponent in the final was [[Pete Sampras]]; a year earlier, Agassi had crushed Sampras, after which he told his coach that he felt bad for Sampras because he was never going to make it as a pro. Agassi lost the US Open final to Sampras in three sets.<ref name="greatath" /> The rivalry between these two American players became the dominant rivalry in tennis over the rest of the decade. Also in 1990, Agassi helped the United States win its first [[Davis Cup]] in 8 years and won his only [[Tennis Masters Cup]], beating reigning Wimbledon champion [[Stefan Edberg]] in the final. In 1991, Agassi reached his second consecutive French Open final, where he faced fellow Bollettieri Academy alumnus [[Jim Courier]]. Courier emerged the victor in a five-set final. Agassi decided to play at Wimbledon in 1991, leading to weeks of speculation in the media about the clothes he would wear. He eventually emerged for the first round in a completely white outfit.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://articles.baltimoresun.com/1991-06-28/sports/1991179074_1_wimbledon-agassi-centre-court |title=Agassi makes a big splash in white on Centre Court |date=June 28, 1991 |publisher=Baltimore The Sun}}</ref> He reached the quarterfinals on that occasion, losing in five sets to [[David Wheaton]]. Agassi's Grand Slam tournament breakthrough came at Wimbledon, not at the French Open or the US Open, where he had previously enjoyed success. In 1992, he defeated [[Goran Ivanišević]] in a five-set final.<ref name="greatath" /><ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.nytimes.com/1992/07/06/sports/tennis-on-the-grass-at-wimbledon-agassi-finally-hits-pay-dirt.html |title=On the Grass at Wimbledon, Agassi Finally Hits Pay Dirt |date=July 6, 1992 |publisher=NY Times}}</ref> Along the way, Agassi overcame two former Wimbledon champions: [[Boris Becker]] and [[John McEnroe]]. No other baseliner would triumph at Wimbledon until [[Lleyton Hewitt]] ten years later. Agassi was named the [[BBC Sports Personality of the Year Overseas Personality|BBC Overseas Sports Personality of the Year]] in 1992. Agassi once again played on the United States' [[Davis Cup]] winning team in 1992. It was their second Davis cup title in three years. 1993 saw Agassi win the only doubles title of his career, at the [[Cincinnati Masters]], partnered with [[Petr Korda]]. Agassi missed much of the early part of that year with injuries. Although he made the quarterfinals in his Wimbledon title defense, he lost to eventual champion and world no. 1 Pete Sampras in five sets. Agassi lost in the first round at the US Open to [[Thomas Enqvist]] and required wrist surgery late in the year. ===1994–1997: Rise to the top, Olympic Gold and the fall=== With new coach [[Brad Gilbert]] on board, Agassi began to employ more of a tactical, consistent approach, which fueled his resurgence. He started slowly in 1994, losing in the first week at the French Open and Wimbledon. Nevertheless, he emerged during the hard-court season, winning the [[Canada Masters|Canadian Open]]. His comeback culminated at the [[1994 US Open (tennis)|1994 US Open]] with a five-set fourth-round victory against compatriot [[Michael Chang]]. He then became the first man to capture the US Open as an [[Seed (tennis)|unseeded]] player, beating [[Michael Stich]] in the final.<ref name="greatath" /> Along the way, he beat 5 seeded players. In 1995, Agassi shaved his balding head, breaking with his old "image is everything" style. He competed in the [[1995 Australian Open]] (his first appearance at the event) and won, beating Sampras in a four-set final.<ref name="greatath" /> Agassi and Sampras met in five tournament finals in 1995, all on [[hardcourt]], with Agassi winning three. Agassi won three Masters Series events in 1995 ([[Cincinnati Masters|Cincinnati]], [[Miami Masters|Key Biscayne]], and the Canadian Open) and seven titles total.<ref name="greatath" /> He compiled a career-best 26-match winning streak during the summer hard-court circuit, with the last victory being in an intense late night four-set semifinal of the [[1995 US Open (tennis)|US Open]] against [[Boris Becker]]. The streak ended the next day when Agassi lost the final to Sampras. Agassi reached the [[List of ATP number 1 ranked players|world no. 1]] ranking for the first time in April 1995. He held that ranking until November, for a total of 30 weeks. Agassi skipped most of the fall indoor season which allowed Sampras surpass him and finish ranked no. 1 at the year-ending ranking. In terms of win/loss record, 1995 was Agassi's best year. He won 73 matches while losing 9 and was also once again a key player on the United States' [[Davis Cup]] winning team—the third and final Davis Cup title of Agassi's career. 1996 was a less successful year for Agassi, as he failed to reach any Grand Slam final. He suffered two early-round losses at the hands of compatriots [[Chris Woodruff]] and [[Doug Flach]] at the French Open and Wimbledon, respectively, and lost to Chang in straight sets in the Australian and US Open semi-finals. At the time, Agassi blamed the Australian Open loss on the windy conditions, but later said in his biography that he had lost the match on purpose, as he did not want to play Boris Becker, whom he would have faced in that final. The high point for Agassi was winning the men's singles gold medal at the [[1996 Summer Olympics|Olympic Games]] in [[Atlanta]], beating [[Sergi Bruguera]] of Spain in the final.<ref name="greatath" /> Agassi also successfully defended his singles titles in Cincinnati and Key Biscayne. 1997 was the low point of Agassi's career. His wrist injury resurfaced, and he played only 24 matches during the year. He later confessed that he started using [[methamphetamine|crystal methamphetamine]] at that time, allegedly on the urging of a friend.<ref name="sports.espn.go.com">{{cite web |url=http://sports.espn.go.com/sports/tennis/news/story?id=4600027 |title=Andre Agassi book says he used crystal meth |publisher=[[ESPN]] |accessdate=January 27, 2011}}</ref> He failed an ATP drug test, but wrote a letter claiming the same friend had spiked a drink. The ATP dropped the failed drug test as a warning. In his autobiography, Agassi admitted that the letter was a lie.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/tennis/8329193.stm |publisher=BBC News |title=Agassi admits use of crystal meth |date=October 28, 2009 |accessdate=March 30, 2010}}</ref> He quit the drug soon after. At this time Agassi was also in a failing marriage with actress [[Brooke Shields]] and had lost interest in the game.<ref>Andre Agassi interview. ''[[The Ellen DeGeneres Show]]''. November 19, 2009.</ref> He won no top-level titles, and his ranking sank to world no. 141 on November 10, 1997, prompting many to believe that his run as one of the sport's premier competitors was over and that he would never again win any significant championships.<ref name="greatath" /> ===1998–2003: Return to glory and Career Super Slam=== [[File:Agassi-Auopen2005.jpg|thumb|Agassi serving]] In 1998, Agassi began a rigorous conditioning program and worked his way back up the rankings by playing in Challenger Series tournaments, a circuit for pro players ranked outside the world's top 50. After returning to top physical and mental shape, Agassi recorded the most successful period of his tennis career and also played classic matches in that period against [[Pete Sampras]] and [[Patrick Rafter]]. In 1998, Agassi won five titles and leapt from world no. 110 to no. 6, the highest jump into the top 10 made by any player during a calendar year.<ref name="atpbio">{{cite web |url=http://www.atptennis.com/5/en/players/playerprofiles/highlights.asp?playernumber=A092 |title=Andre Agassi player profile |publisher=Atptennis.com |accessdate=June 6, 2011 |archiveurl=//web.archive.org/web/20110608193305/http://www.atptennis.com/5/en/players/playerprofiles/highlights.asp?playernumber=A092 |archivedate=June 8, 2011 |deadurl=no}}</ref> At Wimbledon, he had an early loss in the second round to [[Tommy Haas]]. He won five titles in ten finals and was runner-up at the [[Miami Masters|Masters Series tournament in Key Biscayne]], losing to [[Marcelo Ríos]], who became world no. 1 as a result. At the year end he was awarded the ATP Most Improved Player of the Year for the second time in his career (the first being 10 years earlier in 1988). Agassi entered the history books in 1999 when he came back from two sets to love down to beat [[Andrei Medvedev]] in a five-set French Open final, becoming, at the time, only the fifth male player (joining [[Rod Laver]], [[Fred Perry]], [[Roy Emerson]] and [[Don Budge]]—these have since been joined by a sixth, [[Roger Federer]] and a seventh, [[Rafael Nadal]]) to win all four Grand Slam singles titles during his career. Only Laver, Agassi, Federer and Nadal have achieved this feat during the [[History of tennis#Open Era|open era]]. This win also made him the first (of only three, the second and third being [[Roger Federer]] and [[Rafael Nadal]] respectively) male player in history to have won all four Grand Slam titles on three different surfaces (clay, grass and hard courts), a tribute to his adaptability, as the other four men won their Grand Slam titles on clay and grass courts. Agassi also became the only male player to win the [[Career Super Slam]], consisting of all four Grand Slam tournaments plus an Olympic gold medal in singles and a [[ATP World Tour Finals|Year-End Championship]].<ref name="SI" /> Agassi followed his 1999 French Open victory by reaching the Wimbledon final, where he lost to Sampras in straight sets.<ref name="greatath" /> He rebounded from his Wimbledon defeat by winning the [[1999 US Open (tennis)|US Open]], beating [[Todd Martin]] in five sets (rallying from a two sets to one deficit) in the final. Overall during the year Agassi won 5 titles including two majors and the ATP Masters Series in Paris, where he beat [[Marat Safin]]. Agassi ended 1999 as the world no. 1, ending Sampras's record of six consecutive year-ending top rankings (1993–98).<ref name="greatath" /> This was the only time Agassi ended the year at no. 1. He began the next year by capturing his second Australian Open title, beating Sampras in a five-set semi-final and [[Yevgeny Kafelnikov]] in a four-set final.<ref name="greatath" /> He was the first male player to have reached four consecutive Grand Slam finals since [[Rod Laver]] achieved the Grand Slam in 1969.{{#tag:ref|[[Roger Federer]] has since surpassed this feat, reaching ten consecutive Grand Slam finals from 2005–2007.|group=lower-alpha}} At the time, Agassi was also only the fourth player since Laver to be the reigning champion of three of four Grand Slam events, missing only the Wimbledon title.{{#tag:ref|[[Pete Sampras]] held the 1993 Wimbledon, [[1993 US Open (tennis)|1993 US Open]] and [[1994 Australian Open]] titles simultaneously. [[Jimmy Connors]] (1974), [[Roger Federer]] (2004, 2006 and 2007) and [[Novak Djokovic]] (2011) won those three Majors in the same year, although Connors' Grand Slam titles were all played on [[Tennis court#Grass courts|grass courts]]. [[Mats Wilander]] won all but Wimbledon in 1988 during his similar rise to the year-end world no. 1. [[Rafael Nadal]] won the French Open and Wimbledon "Channel Slam" (2008) and 2009 Australian Open, before replicating the Channel Slam alongside winning the US Open in 2010.|group=lower-alpha}}. 2000 also saw Agassi reach the semi-finals at Wimbledon, where he lost in five sets to Rafter in a match considered by many to be one of the best ever at Wimbledon.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport2/hi/tennis/wimbledon_history/3742067.stm |title=Classic Matches: Rafter v Agassi |date=May 31, 2004 |accessdate=October 25, 2007 |publisher=BBC Sport |archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/5mr2GUooH |archivedate=January 17, 2010 |deadurl=no}}</ref> At the inaugural [[2000 Tennis Masters Cup|Tennis Masters Cup]] in Lisbon, Agassi reached the final after defeating Marat Safin in the semi-finals to end the Russian's hopes to become the youngest world no. 1 in the history of tennis. Agassi then lost to [[Gustavo Kuerten]] in the final, allowing Kuerten to be crowned year-end world no. 1. Agassi opened 2001 by successfully defending his Australian Open title with a straight-sets final win over [[Arnaud Clément]].<ref name="greatath" /> En route, he beat a cramping Rafter in five sets in front of a sell-out crowd in what turned out to be the Aussie's last Australian Open. At Wimbledon, they met again in the semi-finals, where Agassi lost another close match to Rafter, 8–6 in the fifth set. In the quarterfinals at the US Open, Agassi lost a 3-hour, 33&nbsp;minute epic match<ref>{{cite news |url=http://sportsillustrated.cnn.com/tennis/2001/us_open/news/2001/09/05/sampras_agassi |title=Believe the hype |work=Sports Illustrated |date=September 6, 2001 |accessdate=June 6, 2011 |archiveurl=//web.archive.org/web/20110604013156/http://sportsillustrated.cnn.com/tennis/2001/us_open/news/2001/09/05/sampras_agassi |archivedate=June 4, 2011 |deadurl=no}}</ref> with Sampras, 7–6, 6–7, 6–7, 6–7,<ref>{{cite news |url=http://sportsillustrated.cnn.com/tennis/2001/us_open/news/2001/09/05/agassi_sidebar_ap |title=Unbreakable |date=September 6, 2001 |work=Sports Illustrated |accessdate=January 26, 2011}}</ref> with no breaks of serve during the 52-game match. Despite the setback, Agassi finished 2001 ranked world no. 3, becoming the only male tennis player to finish a year ranked in the top 3 in three different decades<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.sportsline.com/tennis/players/playerpage/201490/2006 |title=SportsLine:Andre Agassi |year=2006 |publisher=Sportsline |accessdate=January 26, 2011}}</ref> (1980s, 1990s, 2000s). He also was the oldest player (age 31) to finish in the top three since 32-year-old Connors finished at world no. 2 in 1984.<ref name="atpbio" /> 2002 opened with disappointment for Agassi, as injury forced him to skip the Australian Open, where he was a two-time defending champion. Agassi recovered from the injury and later that year defended his [[Key Biscayne]] title beating then rising Roger Federer in a four-set final. The last duel between Agassi and Sampras came in the final of the US Open, which Sampras won in four sets and left Sampras with a 20–14 edge in their 34 career meetings. The match was the last of Sampras's career. Agassi's US Open finish, along with his Masters Series victories in Key Biscayne, [[Rome Masters|Rome]] and [[Madrid Open (tennis)|Madrid]], helped him finish 2002 as the oldest year-end world no. 2 at 32 years and 8 months.<ref name="atpbio" /> In 2003, Agassi won the eighth (and final) Grand Slam title of his career at the Australian Open, where he beat [[Rainer Schüttler]] in straight sets in the final. In March, he won his sixth career and third consecutive [[Key Biscayne]] title, in the process surpassing his wife, [[Steffi Graf]], who was a five-time winner of the event. The final was his 18th straight win in that tournament, which broke the previous record of 17 set by Sampras from 1993–95. (Agassi's winning streak continued to 20 after winning his first two matches at the 2004 edition of that tournament before bowing to [[Agustín Calleri]].) With the victory, Agassi became the youngest (19 years old) and oldest (32) winner of the Key Biscayne tournament. On April 28, 2003, he recaptured the world no. 1 ranking after a quarterfinal victory over [[Xavier Malisse]] at the [[Queen's Club Championships]] to become the oldest top-ranked male player since the ATP rankings began at 33 years and 13 days. He had held the world no. 1 ranking for two weeks, when [[Lleyton Hewitt]] took it back on May 12, 2003. Agassi then recaptured the world no. 1 ranking once again on June 16, 2003, which he held for 12 weeks until September 7, 2003. During his career, Agassi held the world no. 1 ranking for a total of 101 weeks. Agassi's ranking slipped when injuries forced him to withdraw from many events. He did manage to reach the US Open semi-finals, where he lost to [[Juan Carlos Ferrero]] and surrendered his world no. 1 ranking to Ferrero. At the year-end Tennis Masters Cup, Agassi lost in the final to Federer and finished the year ranked world no. 4. At age 33, he was the oldest player to rank in the top 5 since Connors, at age 35, was world no. 4 in 1987.<ref name="atpbio" /> ===2004–2006: Final years=== In 2004, Agassi began the year with a five-set loss in the semi-finals of the Australian Open to [[Marat Safin]]; the loss ended Agassi's 26-match winning streak at the event, a record that still stands. He won the [[Cincinnati Masters|Masters series event in Cincinnati]] to bring his career total to 59 top-level singles titles and a record 17 ATP Masters Series titles, having already won seven of the nine ATP Masters tournament—all except the tournaments in [[Monte Carlo Masters|Monte Carlo]] and [[Hamburg Masters|Hamburg]]. At 34, he became the second-oldest singles champion in Cincinnati tournament history (the tournament began in 1899), surpassed only by [[Ken Rosewall]], who won the title in 1970 at age 35. He finished the year ranked world no. 8, the oldest player to finish in the top 10 since the 36-year-old Connors was world no. 7 in 1988.<ref name="atpbio" /> Agassi also became only the sixth male player during the [[Tennis open era|open era]] to reach 800 career wins with his first-round victory over [[Alex Bogomolov]] in [[Countrywide Classic]] in Los Angeles. Agassi's 2005 began with a quarterfinal loss to Federer at the Australian Open. Agassi had several other deep runs at tournaments, but had to withdraw from several events due to injury. He lost to [[Jarkko Nieminen]] in the first round of the French Open. He won his fourth title in Los Angeles and reached the final of the [[Canada Masters|Rogers Cup]], before falling to world no. 2 [[Rafael Nadal]]. Agassi's 2005 was defined by an improbable run to the US Open final. After beating [[Răzvan Sabău]] and [[Ivo Karlović]] in straight sets and [[Tomáš Berdych]] in four sets, Agassi won three consecutive five-set matches to advance to the final. The most notable of these matches was his quarterfinal victory over [[James Blake (tennis)|James Blake]], where he rallied from two sets down to win 7–6 in the fifth set. His other five-set victims were [[Xavier Malisse]] in the fourth round and [[Robby Ginepri]] in the semi-finals. In the final, Agassi faced Federer, who was seeking his second consecutive US Open title and his sixth Grand Slam title in two years. Federer defeated Agassi in four sets. Agassi finished 2005 ranked world no. 7, his 16th time in the year-end top-10 rankings, which tied Connors for the most times ranked in the top 10 at year's end. Agassi had a poor start to 2006. He was still recovering from an ankle injury and also suffering from back and leg pain and lack of match play. Agassi withdrew from the Australian Open because of the ankle injury, and his back injury and other pains forced him to withdraw from several other events, eventually skipping the entire clay-court season, including the French Open. This caused his ranking to drop out of the top 10 for the last time. Agassi returned for the grass-court season, playing a tune-up, and then [[2006 Wimbledon Championships – Men's Singles|Wimbledon]]. He was defeated in the third round by world no. 2 (and eventual runner-up) [[Rafael Nadal]]. Against conventions, Agassi, the losing player, was interviewed on court after the match.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/13653101 |title=Upsetting day: Agassi, then Roddick ousted |date=June 1, 2006 |accessdate=October 27, 2007 |agency=Associated Press |publisher=NBC Sports |archiveurl=//web.archive.org/web/20071105214848/http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/13653101 |archivedate=November 5, 2007 |deadurl=no}}</ref> At Wimbledon, Agassi announced his plans to retire following the US Open. Agassi played only two events during the summer hard-court season, with his best result being a quarterfinal loss at the [[Countrywide Classic]] in Los Angeles to [[Fernando González]] of Chile. As a result, he was unseeded at the US Open. Agassi had a short, but dramatic, run in his final US Open. Because of extreme back pain, Agassi was forced to receive anti-inflammatory injections after every match. After a tough four-set win against [[Andrei Pavel]], Agassi faced eighth-seeded [[Marcos Baghdatis]] in the second round, who had earlier advanced to the [[2006 Australian Open]] final and Wimbledon semi-finals. Agassi won in five tough sets as the younger Baghdatis succumbed to muscle cramping in the final set. In his last match, Agassi fell to 112th-ranked big-serving [[Benjamin Becker]] of Germany in four sets. Agassi received a four-minute standing ovation from the crowd after the match and delivered a retirement speech. ==Earnings== Agassi earned more than $30&nbsp;million in prize-money during his career, sixth only to Federer, Djokovic, Nadal, Sampras and Murray to date (October 22, 2015). He also earned more than $25&nbsp;million a year through endorsements during his career, fourth in all sports at the time.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.forbes.com/lists/2005/53/1YUQ.html |title=Forbes:Andre Agassi |work=Forbes |accessdate=January 26, 2011}}</ref> ==Post-retirement== Since retiring after the [[2006 US Open (tennis)|2006 US Open]], Agassi has participated in a series of charity tournaments and continues his work with his own charity. On September 5, 2007, he was a surprise guest commentator for the [[Andy Roddick]]/[[Roger Federer]] [[2007 US Open (tennis)|US Open]] quarter-final. He played an exhibition match at Wimbledon, teaming with his wife, Steffi Graf, to play with [[Tim Henman]] and [[Kim Clijsters]]. He played [[World Team Tennis]] for the [[Philadelphia Freedoms]] in the summer of 2009.<ref>[http://sportsillustrated.cnn.com/2009/tennis/02/26/agassi.ap/index.html Andre Agassi Will Play WTT] SI.com, March 1, 2009 {{wayback|url=http://sportsillustrated.cnn.com/2009/tennis/02/26/agassi.ap/index.html |date=20121026001825 }}</ref> At the [[2009 French Open]], Agassi was on hand to present Roger Federer, who completed his Career Grand Slam by winning the tournament and joined Agassi as one of six men to complete the Career Grand Slam, with the trophy.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.guardian.co.uk/sport/2009/jun/07/roger-federer-wins-french-open |title=Roger Federer beats Robin Soderling to win French Open tennis |publisher=The Guardian |date=June 7, 2009 |accessdate=September 7, 2014}}</ref> Also in 2009 Agassi played at the [[Outback Champions Series]] event for the first time. He played the [[Cancer Treatment Centers of America Championship at Surprise|Cancer Treatment Centers of America Tennis Championships]] at [[Surprise, Arizona]], where he reached the final before bowing to eventual champion [[Todd Martin]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.championsseriestennis.com/events/event-results/ |title=Champions Series Tennis – Arizona 2009 |year=2009 |accessdate=April 12, 2012}}</ref> He also announced that he will not be playing the tour on a full-time basis, and played the tournament as a favor to long-time friend [[Jim Courier]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.cbssports.com/tennis/story/12343241 |title=Agassi reaches Outback Champions Series final |publisher=CBS Sports |accessdate=January 26, 2011}}</ref> Agassi returned to the tour renamed for the PowerShares Series in 2011 and participated in a total of seven events while winning two. Agassi beat Courier in the final of the Staples Champions Cup in [[Boston]]<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.powersharesseries.com/agassi-thrills-the-crowd-and-wins-staples-champions-cup/ |title=Agassi thrills the crowd and wins Staples Champions Cup |publisher=PowerShares Series |accessdate=May 29, 2014}}</ref> and later defeated Sampras at the CTCA Championships at his hometown Las Vegas.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.powersharesseries.com/vegas-crowd-lifts-hometown-hero-to-victory/ |title=Hometown crowd lifts Agassi to victory in Las Vegas |publisher=PowerShares Series |accessdate=May 29, 2014}}</ref> In 2012 Agassi took part in five tournaments, winning three of those. In November, at first he won BILT Champions Showdown in [[San Jose, California|San Jose]], beating [[John McEnroe]] in the final.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.powersharesseries.com/steve-g-tennis-agassi-defeats-mcenroe-to-win-san-jose-powershares-series-event/ |title=Agassi Defeats McEnroe To Win San Jose Powershares Series Event |publisher=PowerShares Series |accessdate=May 29, 2014}}</ref> The following day, he defended his title of the CTCA Championships, while defeating Courier in the decisive match.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.powersharesseries.com/agassi-beats-mcenroe-and-courier-to-capture-home-town-victory-in-las-vegas/ |title=Agassi Beats McEnroe And Courier To Capture Home Town Victory in Las Vegas |publisher=PowerShares Series |accessdate=May 29, 2014}}</ref> In the series season finale, he beat [[Michael Chang]] for the Acura Champions Cup.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.powersharesseries.com/agassi-wins-final-powershares-event-of-the-season/ |title=Agassi Wins Final Powershares Event of the Season |publisher=PowerShares Series |accessdate=May 29, 2014}}</ref> The series and Agassi came back to action in 2014. Agassi won both tournaments he participated in. At the Camden Wealth Advisors Cup's final in Houston, Agassi beat [[James Blake (tennis)|James Blake]] for a rematch of their 2005 US Open quarterfinal.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.powersharesseries.com/in-reprise-of-2005-u-s-open-epic-andre-agassi-beats-james-blake-to-win/ |title=In Reprise of 2005 U.S. Open Epic, Andre Agassi Beats James Blake to Win |publisher=PowerShares Series |accessdate=May 29, 2014}}</ref> He defeated Blake again in [[Portland, Oregon|Portland]] to win the title of the Cancer Treatment Centers of America Championships.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.powersharesseries.com/agassi-ends-blake-run-with-powershares-series-title-in-portland/ |title=Agassi Ends Blake Run with PowerShares Series Title in Portland |publisher=PowerShares Series |accessdate=May 29, 2014}}</ref> In 2015 Agassi took part in just one event of the PowerShares Series, losing to [[Mark Philippoussis]] in the final of the Champions Shootout.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.powersharesseries.com/mark-philippoussis-defeats-andre-agassi-to-win-15-powershares-series-opener-in-salt-lake-city/ |title=Mark Philippoussis Defeats Andre Agassi to Win '15 PowerShares Series Opener in Salt Lake City |publisher=PowerShares Series |accessdate=September 18, 2015}}</ref> In 2009 in [[Macau]] Agassi and Sampras met for the first time on court since the 2002 US Open final. Sampras won the exhibition in three sets.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://sports.ndtv.com/tennis/news/113944-sampras-beats-agassi-in-macau-exhibition |title=Sampras beats Agassi in Macau exhibition |publisher=NDTV Sports |accessdate=May 29, 2014}}</ref> The rivalry between the former champions headlined sports media again in March 2010 after the two participated in the "Hit for Haiti" charity event organized to raise money for the victims of the [[2010 Haiti earthquake|earthquake]]. Partnered with Roger Federer and [[Rafael Nadal]], the old rivals began making jokes on each other what ended up with Sampras intentionally striking a serve at Agassi's body. After the event Agassi admitted that he had crossed the line with his jokes and publicly apologized to Sampras.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.theguardian.com/sport/2010/mar/16/andre-agassi-apologises-pete-sampras |title=Andre Agassi apologises for mocking Pete Sampras in charity match |work=The Guardian |location=London |date=March 16, 2010 |accessdate=May 29, 2014}}</ref> Agassi and Sampras met again one year later for an exhibition match at [[Madison Square Garden]] in New York in front of 19 000 spectators as Sampras defeated Agassi in two sets.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.nytimes.com/2011/03/01/sports/tennis/01tennis.html?_r=0 |title=Agassi and Sampras Meet a Year After Flare-Up |publisher=New York Times |date=March 1, 2011 |accessdate=May 29, 2014}}</ref> On March 3, 2014 Agassi and Sampras squared off for an exhibition in London for the annual [[World Tennis Day]]. This time it was Agassi who came out on top in two straight sets.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.stevegtennis.com/2014/03/world-tennis-day-exhibition-showdown-results-from-hong-kong-london-and-new-york/ |title=World Tennis Day Exhibition Showdown Results From Hong Kong, London and New York |publisher=SteveG Tennis |date=March 2014 |accessdate=May 29, 2014}}</ref> ==Playing style== Early in his career, Agassi would look to end points quickly by playing first-strike tennis, typically by inducing a weak return with a deep, hard shot, and then playing a winner at an extreme angle. His groundstrokes, return of serve, baseline game, anticipation, phenomenal [[eye–hand coordination]] were always among the best in the game. On the rare occasion that he charged the net, Agassi liked to take the ball in the air and hit a swinging volley for the winner. His favored groundstroke was his flat, accurate two-handed backhand, hit well cross-court but in particular down the line. His forehand was nearly as strong, in particular his inside-out forehand to the ad court.<ref>{{cite web |author=Nick Bollettieri |url=http://www.tennisplayer.net/public/tour_strokes/nick_bollettieri/nick_bollet_agassi_backhand_images/nick_bollet_agassi_backhand.html?format=print |title=Building the Agassi Backhand |website=tennisplayer.net |accessdate=June 4, 2014}}</ref> Agassi's strength was in dictating play from the back of the court. While he was growing up, his father and Nick Bollettieri trained him in this way.<ref name="ReferenceA">Open: Andre Agassi HarpersCollins 2009</ref> When in control of a point, Agassi would often pass up an opportunity to attempt a winner and hit a conservative shot to minimize his errors, and to make his opponent run more. This change to more methodical, less aggressive baseline play was largely initiated by his longtime coach, Brad Gilbert, in their first year together in 1994. Gilbert encouraged Agassi to wear out opponents with his deep, flat groundstrokes and to use his fitness to win attrition wars, and noted Agassi's two-handed backhand down the line as his very best shot.<ref name="ReferenceA" /> A signature play later in his career was a change up drop shot to the deuce court after deep penetrating groundstrokes. This would often be followed by a passing shot or lob if the opponent was fast enough to retrieve it. Agassi's serve was never the strength of his game, but it improved steadily over the course of his career to being above average. He often used his hard slice serve to the deuce service box to send his opponent off the court, followed by a shot to the opposite corner. Agassi's service speed when hitting a flat first serve would range between {{convert|110|and|125|mph|km/h|abbr=on}}. His second serve usually was a heavy "kick" serve in the mid-80s range.{{according to whom|date=July 2013}}{{citation needed|date=July 2013}} Agassi was raised on hardcourts, but found much of his early major-tournament success on the red clay of Roland Garros, reaching two consecutive finals there early in his career. His first major win was at the slick grass of Wimbledon in 1992, a tournament that he professed to hating at the time.<ref name="ReferenceA" /> His strongest surface over the course of his career, was indeed hardcourt, where he won six of his eight majors. ==Business ventures== Agassi established a [[limited liability company]] named Andre Agassi Ventures (formerly named Agassi Enterprises).<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.reviewjournal.com/sports/rogers-steps-down-agassi-enterprises-president |title=Rogers steps down as Agassi Enterprises president |publisher=''Las Vegas Review Journal'' |date=October 16, 2008 |accessdate=September 9, 2014}}</ref> Agassi, along with five athlete partners (including [[Wayne Gretzky]], [[Joe Montana]], [[Shaquille O'Neal]], [[Ken Griffey, Jr.]], and [[Monica Seles]]) opened a chain of sports-themed restaurant named [[Official All Star Café]] in April 1996. The restaurant closed down in 2001.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.lasvegassun.com/news/1999/nov/29/its-official-strips-all-star-cafe-to-close/ |title=It's official: Strip’s All Star Cafe to close |publisher=''Las Vegas Sun'' |date=November 29, 1999 |accessdate=September 9, 2014}}</ref> In 1999, he paid $1 million for a 10 percent stake in Nevada First Bank and made a $10 million profit when it was sold to Western Alliance Bancorp in 2006.<ref name="bloomberg2007">{{cite web |url=http://www.bloomberg.com/apps/news?pid=newsarchive&sid=aOozd2LtdR1M |title=Agassi, Graf Stake Tennis Winnings on $600 Million Idaho Resort |publisher=Bloomberg |date=July 26, 2007 |first=Anthony |last=Effinger |accessdate=September 9, 2014}}</ref> In 2002, he joined the [[Tennis Channel]] to promote the channel to consumers and cable and satellite industry, and made an equity investment in the network.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://pwww.sportsbusinessdaily.com/Journal/Issues/2002/09/20020909/For-The-Record/Complete-For-The-Record.aspx |title=Complete For the Record |publisher=SportsBusiness Journal |date=September 9, 2002 |accessdate=September 9, 2014}}</ref> After meeting chef [[Michael Mina]] at one of his restaurants in San Francisco, Agassi partnered with him in 2002 to start Mina Group Inc. and opened 18 concept restaurants in San Francisco, [[San Jose, California|San Jose]], [[Dana Point]], [[Atlantic City]] and Las Vegas.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.starchefs.com/cook/chefs/bio/michael-mina |title=Chef Michael Mina of Michael Mina – Biography |publisher=Starchefs.com |date=November 2011 |accessdate=September 11, 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.andreagassi.com/michael-mina/ |title=COMMON TASTES |publisher=Andre Agassi Ventures |accessdate=September 11, 2014}}</ref> Agassi was an equity investor of a group that acquired [[Golden Nugget Las Vegas]] and [[Golden Nugget Laughlin]] from [[Mirage Resorts|MGM Mirage]] for $215 million in 2004.<ref name="bloomberg2007" /><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.lasvegassun.com/news/2004/jan/23/golden-nugget-buyers-land-four-year-license/ |title=Golden Nugget buyers land four-year license |publisher=''Las Vegas Sun'' |date=January 23, 2004 |first=Liz |last=Benston |accessdate=September 11, 2014}}</ref> One year later, the group sold the hotel-casino to [[Landry's, Inc.]] for $163 million in cash and $182 million in assumed debt.<ref name="bloomberg2007" /><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.lasvegassun.com/news/2005/feb/11/golden-nugget-owners-vow-to-return-to-vegas-market/ |title=Golden Nugget owners vow to return to Vegas market |publisher=''Las Vegas Sun'' |date=February 11, 2005 |first=Liz |last=Benston |accessdate=September 11, 2014}}</ref> In 2007, he sat on the board of Meadows Bank, an independent bank in Nevada.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.reviewjournal.com/business/independent-bank-have-agassi-board |title=Independent bank to have Agassi on board |publisher=''Las Vegas Review-Journal |date=September 5, 2007 |accessdate=September 11, 2014}}</ref> He has invested in start-up companies backed by [[Allen & Company]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.sportsbusinessdaily.com/Journal/Issues/2004/03/20040322/SBJ-In-Depth/The-Dealmaker.aspx |title=The dealmaker |publisher=SportsBusiness Journal |date=March 22, 2004 |first=Daniel |last=Kaplan |accessdate=September 9, 2014}}</ref> Agassi and Graf formed a company called Agassi Graf Holdings. They invested in PURE, a nightclub at [[Caesars Palace]], which opened in 2004,<ref name="bloomberg2007" /> and sold it to Angel Management Group in 2010.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.lasvegassun.com/news/2011/mar/16/agassi-graf-lawsuit-over/ |title=Andre Agassi, Steffi Graf allege default in sale of Pure nightclub stake |publisher=''Las Vegas Sun'' |date=March 16, 2011 |first=Steve |last=Green |accessdate=September 11, 2014}}</ref> In August 2006, Agassi and Graf developed a joint venture with high-end furniture maker Kreiss Enterprises.<ref name="bloomberg2007" /> They launched a furniture line called Agassi Graf Collection.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.apartmenttherapy.com/agassi-graf-furniture-by-kreis-43301 |title=Agassi Graf Furniture by Kreiss |publisher=Apartment therapy |accessdate=September 9, 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9500E4DE133EF937A1575BC0A9609C8B63 |title=CURRENTS: FURNITURE; A Swan Song for Agassi, but a Duet With Graf |publisher=''The New York Times'' |date=August 24, 2006 |first=Elaine |last=Louie |accessdate=September 9, 2014}}</ref> In September, Agassi and Graf, through their company Agassi Graf Development LLC, along with Bayview Financial LP, finalized an agreement to develop a condominium hotel, Fairmont Tamarack, at [[Tamarack Resort]] in [[Donnelly, Idaho]].<ref name="bloomberg2007" /><ref>{{cite web |url=http://tamarackidaho.com/about/media_room/news_releases.php?pressid=141 |title=News Releases |publisher=Tamarack Resort |date=September 6, 2006 |accessdate=September 9, 2014}}</ref> Due to difficult market conditions and delays, they withdrew from the project in 2009.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.usta.com/News/APNews/2008/07/21/Agassi-terminates-contract-to-buy-at-Idaho-resort/ |title=Agassi terminates contract to buy at Idaho resort |publisher=USTA |date=June 6, 2008 |accessdate=September 9, 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.cnbc.com/id/100773005# |title=Andre Agassi: Las Vegas is back in business |publisher=CNBC |date=June 10, 2013 |first=Kiran |last=Moodley |accessdate=September 9, 2014}}</ref> The group still own three small chunks of land.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.idahostatesman.com/2013/12/22/2939882_tamaracks-waiting-game.html?rh=1 |title=Overcoming downhill run, Tamarack plays the waiting game |publisher=''Idaho Statesman'' |date=December 22, 2013 |first=Zach |last=Kyle |accessdate=September 9, 2014}}</ref> In September, they collaborated with [[Steve Case]]'s Exclusive Resorts to co-develop luxury resorts and design Agassi-Graf Tennis and Fitness Centers.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.prnewswire.com/news-releases/andre-agassi-partners-with-exclusive-resorts-57128267.html |title=Andre Agassi Partners with Exclusive Resorts |publisher=PR Newswire |date=September 25, 2006 |accessdate=September 11, 2014}}</ref> They also invested in online ticket reseller [[viagogo]] in 2009 and both serve as board members and advisors of the company.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://blogs.wsj.com/digits/2009/02/04/andre-agassi-and-steffi-graf-invest-in-online-ticketing/ |title=Andre Agassi and Steffi Graf Invest in Online Ticketing |publisher=''The Wall Street Journal'' |date=February 4, 2009 |first=Ty |last=McMahan |accessdate=September 9, 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://techcrunch.com/2009/02/05/viagogo-raises-15-million-round-and-signs-tennis-stars-to-battle-seatwave/ |title=Viagogo Raises $15 million Round And Signs Tennis Stars To Battle Seatwave |publisher=TechCrunch |date=February 5, 2009 |first=Mike |last=Butcher |accessdate=September 9, 2014}}</ref> In October 2012, [[Village Roadshow]] and investors including Agassi and Graf announced plans to build new water park called [[Wet'n'Wild Las Vegas]] in Las Vegas. Village Roadshow has a 51% stake in the park while Agassi, Graf, and other private investors hold the remaining 49%.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://blogs.wsj.com/dealjournalaustralia/2012/10/05/agassi-graf-score-aussie-investor-for-vegas-water-park/ |title=Agassi, Graf Score Aussie Investor for Vegas Water Park |publisher=''The Wall Street Journal'' |date=October 5, 2012 |first=Ross |last=Kelly |accessdate=September 9, 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.lasvegassun.com/news/2012/oct/04/wet-n-wild-water-park-returning-las-vegas/ |title=Wet 'n’ Wild water park coming to Las Vegas |publisher=''Las Vegas Sun'' |date=October 4, 2012 |first=Richard N. |last=Velotta |accessdate=September 9, 2014}}</ref> The park opened in May 2013.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.lasvegasweekly.com/as-we-see-it/2013/may/17/wet-n-wild-returns-sort-fill-las-vegas-water-park-/ |title=WET 'N’ WILD RETURNS, SORT OF, TO FILL THE LAS VEGAS WATER PARK VOID |publisher=''Las Vegas Weekly'' |date=May 17, 2013 |first=Brock |last=Radke |accessdate=September 9, 2014}}</ref> [[IMG (company)|IMG]] managed Agassi from the time he turned pro in 1986 through January 2000, before switching to SFX Sports Group.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.nytimes.com/2000/01/12/sports/plus-tennis-atp-tour-agassi-jumps-from-img-to-sfx.html |title=PLUS: TENNIS – ATP TOUR; Agassi Jumps From I.M.G. to SFX |publisher=''The New York Times'' |date=January 12, 2000 |accessdate=September 9, 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.sportsbusinessdaily.com/Journal/Issues/2001/04/20010409/No-Topic-Name/Shuffled-Exec-Stays-At-SFX-For-Agassi-Account.aspx |title=Shuffled exec stays at SFX for Agassi account |publisher=SportsBusiness Journal |date=April 9, 2001 |first=Daniel |last=Kaplan |accessdate=September 9, 2014}}</ref> His business manager, lawyer, and agent was childhood friend Perry Rogers, but they have been estranged since 2008.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://sports.espn.go.com/sports/tennis/columns/story?id=6695878 |title=Andre Agassi's triumphs are his own |publisher=ESPN |date=July 8, 2011 |first=Joel |last=Drucker |accessdate=September 9, 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.sportsbusinessdaily.com/Daily/Issues/2008/10/Issue-23/Sports-Industrialists/Andre-Agassi-Ends-Business-Relationship-With-Perry-Rogers.aspx |title=Andre Agassi Ends Business Relationship With Perry Rogers |publisher=SportsBusiness Journal |date=October 16, 2008 |accessdate=September 9, 2014}}</ref> In 2009, he and Graf signed with [[Creative Artists Agency|CAA]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.sportsbusinessdaily.com/Journal/Issues/2009/04/20090406/This-Weeks-News/CAA-Continues-Sports-Push-Signs-Agassi-Graf.aspx |title=CAA continues sports push, signs Agassi, Graf |publisher=SportsBusiness Journal |date=April 6, 2009 |first1=Liz |last1=Mullen |first2=Daniel |last2=Kaplan |accessdate=September 10, 2014}}</ref> ===Equipment and endorsements=== Agassi used [[Prince Sports|Prince]] [[Prince original graphite|Graphite]] racket early in his career.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.tennis.com/pro-game/2012/05/prince-of-a-racquet/37907/#.VA-dyPldUrU |title=Prince of a Racquet |publisher=Tennis.com |date=May 1, 2012 |first=Steve |last=Tignor |accessdate=September 9, 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.sportsbusinessdaily.com/Journal/Issues/2013/06/03/Marketing-and-Sponsorship/Prince.aspx |title=Racket brand regroups and looks to rebound |publisher=SportsBusiness Journal |date=June 3, 2013 |first=John |last=George |accessdate=September 9, 2014}}</ref> He signed a $7 million endorsement contract with Belgian tennis racquet makers [[Donnay (sports)|Donnay]].<ref name="LATimes1990">{{cite web |url=http://articles.latimes.com/1990-06-26/business/fi-640_1_tennis-star |title=Athletic Firms Going to the Net in Quest for Next Tennis Celebrity |publisher=''The Los Angeles Times'' |date=June 26, 1990 |first=Bruce |last=Horovitz |accessdate=September 11, 2014}}</ref> He later switched to [[Head (company)|Head Ti Radical]] racket<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.sportsbusinessdaily.com/Journal/Issues/2000/08/20000828/No-Topic-Name/WHAT-THEYRE-WEARING-AND-HITTING-WITH-AT-THE-US-OPEN.aspx |title=WHAT THEY'RE WEARING (AND HITTING WITH) AT THE U.S. OPEN |publisher=SportsBusiness Journal |date=August 28, 2000 |accessdate=September 9, 2014}}</ref> and Head's LiquidMetal Radical racket, having signed a multimillion-dollar endorsement deal with Head in 1993.<ref name="head2003">{{cite web |url=http://www.sportsbusinessdaily.com/Journal/Issues/2003/11/20031110/Marketingsponsorship/Headpenn-Signs-Agassi-Beyond-Playing-Days.aspx |title=Head/Penn signs Agassi beyond playing days |publisher=SportsBusiness Journal |date=November 10, 2003 |accessdate=September 9, 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.head.com/corporate/history.php |title=OUR HISTORY |publisher=HEAD |accessdate=September 9, 2014}}</ref> He renewed his contract in 1999 and in November 2003, he signed a lifetime agreement with Head.<ref name="head2003" /><ref name="forbes2004">{{cite web |url=http://www.forbes.com/forbes/2004/0705/093.html |title=King of the Court |publisher=''Forbes'' |date=July 5, 2004 |first=Kurt |last=Badenhausen |accessdate=September 9, 2014}}</ref> He also endorses Penn tennis balls. On July 25, 2005 Agassi left [[Nike, Inc.|Nike]] after 17 years and signed an endorsement deal with [[Adidas]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://sports.espn.go.com/sports/tennis/news/story?id=2116135 |title=Agassi signs Adidas deal after long-term deal with Nike |author=Darren Rovell |date=July 25, 2005 |publisher=[[ESPN]] |accessdate=January 26, 2011}}</ref> A major reason for Agassi leaving Nike was because Nike refused to donate to Agassi's charities, and Adidas was more than happy to do so. On May 13, 2013 Agassi rejoined Nike.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://tennis.si.com/2013/05/14/andre-agassi-nike-commercials/ |title=Andre Agassi re-signs with Nike: A look back at his memorable commercials |publisher=Sports Illustrated |date=May 14, 2013 |accessdate=May 15, 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.nicekicks.com/2013/05/13/andre-agassi-rejoins-nike/ |title=Andre Asassi Rejoins Nike |author=Brittany Shelton |publisher=NiceKicks |date=May 13, 2013 |accessdate=May 15, 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.sportsbusinessdaily.com/Daily/Issues/2013/05/14/Marketing-and-Sponsorship/Agassi.aspx |title=Back Home: Andre Agassi Returns To Nike After Eight Years With Adidas |publisher=Street & Smith |date=May 14, 2013 |accessdate=May 15, 2013}}</ref> Agassi was sponsored by [[DuPont]],<ref>{{cite web |url=https://twitter.com/darrenrovell/status/224595325262905344 |title=1989 Andre Agassi ad for DuPont's CoolMax material |publisher=Twitter |date=July 15, 2012 |accessdate=September 9, 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.sportsbusinessdaily.com/Journal/Issues/1998/08/19980831/No-Topic-Name/Sponsor-Deals-To-Gauge-Tennis-Appeal.aspx |title=Sponsor deals to gauge tennis' appeal |publisher=SportsBusiness Journal |date=August 31, 1998 |first=Mike |last=Reynolds |accessdate=September 9, 2014}}</ref> [[Ebel]],<ref name="LATimes1990" /> [[Mountain Dew]] in 1993,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.sportsbusinessdaily.com/Journal/Issues/2002/08/20020812/Special-Report/Soft-Drink-Recasts-Image-To-Mirror-Teen-Spirit.aspx |title=Soft drink recasts image to mirror teen spirit |publisher=SportsBusiness Journal |date=August 12, 2002 |first= |accessdate=September 9, 2014}}</ref> [[Mazda]] in 1997,<ref name="kiamotors">{{cite web |url=http://www.sportsbusinessdaily.com/Journal/Issues/2002/09/20020930/This-Weeks-Issue/Kia-After-Good-Agassi-Mileage.aspx |title=Kia after good Agassi mileage |publisher=SportsBusiness Journal |date=September 30, 2002 |first=Daniel |last=Kaplan |accessdate=September 9, 2014}}</ref> [[Kia Motors]] in 2002,<ref name="forbes2004" /><ref name="kiamotors" /> [[American Express]]<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.sportsbusinessdaily.com/Journal/Issues/2003/08/20030804/Marketingsponsorship/Mastercard-Mounts-Challenge-As-Visas-NFL-Deal-Enters-Final-Year.aspx |title=MasterCard mounts challenge as Visa's NFL deal enters final year |publisher=SportsBusiness Journal |date=August 4, 2003 |accessdate=September 9, 2014}}</ref> and [[Deutsche Bank]] in 2003.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.theage.com.au/articles/2003/03/03/1046540132230.html |title=Sporting Life |publisher=''The Age'' |date=March 4, 2003 |first=Geoff |last=McClure |accessdate=September 9, 2014}}</ref> In 1990, he appeared in a television commercial for [[Canon Inc.]], promoting the [[Canon EOS]] Rebel camera.<ref name="canon2004">{{cite web |url=http://www.sportsbusinessdaily.com/Journal/Issues/2004/08/20040809/Marketingsponsorship/Agassi-Still-In-Canons-Picture.aspx |title=Agassi still in Canon's picture |publisher=SportsBusiness Journal |date=August 9, 2004 |first=Daniel |last=Kaplan |accessdate=September 9, 2014}}</ref> Between 1999 and 2000, he signed a multimillion-dollar, multiyear endorsement deal with [[Schick (razors)|Schick]] and became the worldwide spokesman for the company.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.sportsbusinessdaily.com/Journal/Issues/2000/04/20000410/No-Topic-Name/IMG-SFX-Both-Claim-Deal146s-Theirs.aspx |title=IMG, SFX both claim deal's theirs |publisher=SportsBusiness Journal |date=April 10, 2000 |first=Liz |last=Mullen |accessdate=September 9, 2014}}</ref> Agassi signed a multiyear contract with [[Twinlab]] and promoted the company's nutritional supplements.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.sportsbusinessdaily.com/Journal/Issues/2000/03/20000313/Marketingsponsorship/Marketingsponsorship.aspx |title=Marketing/Sponsorship |publisher=SportsBusiness Journal |date=March 13, 2000 |accessdate=September 9, 2014}}</ref> In mid-2003, he was named the spokesman of Aramis Life, a fragrance by [[Estée Lauder Companies|Aramis]] and signed a five-year deal with the company.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1G1-105786446.html |title=THE AGASSI AND THE FRAGRANCY.(Andre Agassi to market Aramis Life)(Brief Article) |publisher=Daily News Record |date=July 21, 2003 |last=Palmieri |first=Jean E. |accessdate=September 9, 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.sportsbusinessdaily.com/Journal/Issues/2003/02/20030224/This-Weeks-Issue/Agassi-Sniffs-Out-5-Year-Endorsement.aspx |title=Agassi sniffs out 5-year endorsement |publisher=SportsBusiness Daily |date=February 24, 2003 |first=Liz |last=Mullen |accessdate=September 9, 2014}}</ref> In March 2004, he signed a ten-year agreement worth $1.5 million a year with [[24 Hour Fitness]], which will open five Andre Agassi fitness centers by year-end.<ref name="forbes2004" /> Prior to the 2012 Australian Open, Agassi and Australian winemaker [[Jacobs Creek (Australia)|Jacobs Creek]] announced a three-year partnership and created the Open Film Series to "[share] personal stories about the life defining moments that shaped his character on and off the court."<ref>{{cite web |url=http://jacobscreek.com/australia/news/australian-open-success! |title=Australian Open Success! |publisher=Jacobs Creek |date=March 20, 2012 |accessdate=September 9, 2014}}</ref> In 2007, watchmaker [[Longines]] named Agassi as their brand ambassador.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.longines.com/ambassadors/andre-agassi |title=AMBASSADORS – Andre Agassi |publisher=Longines |accessdate=September 9, 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://vegasmagazine.com/watches/articles/andre-agassi-teams-with-longines |title=Andre Agassi Teams with Longines |publisher=Vegas Magazine |date= |first=Matt |last=Stewart |accessdate=September 19, 2014}}</ref> Agassi and his mother appeared in a [[Got Milk?]] advertisement in 2002. Agassi has appeared in many advertisements and television commercials with Graf. They both endorsed [[Deutsche Telekom]] in 2002,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.sportsbusinessdaily.com/Journal/Issues/2002/04/20020422/This-Weeks-Issue/Newlyweds-Will-Pitch-Cellular-Online-Products.aspx |title=Newlyweds will pitch cellular, online products |publisher=SportsBusiness Journal |date=April 22, 2002 |first=Daniel |last=Kaplan |accessdate=September 9, 2014}}</ref> [[Genworth Financial]]<ref name="genworth">{{cite web |url=http://www.sportsbusinessdaily.com/Journal/Issues/2004/06/20040607/Marketingsponsorship/Agassi-Graf-United-In-Genworth-Ad-Campaign.aspx |title=Agassi, Graf united in Genworth ad campaign |publisher=Sports |date=June 7, 2004 |first=Daniel |last=Kaplan |accessdate=September 9, 2014}}</ref> and [[Canon Inc.]]<ref name="canon2004" /> in 2004, [[LVMH]] in 2007,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.nytimes.com/2007/08/08/business/media/08adco.html?pagewanted=print |title=Mr. Gorbachev, Show Off This Bag |publisher=''The New York Times'' |first=Eric |last=Pfanner |date=August 8, 2007 |accessdate=September 9, 2014}}</ref> and [[Nintendo]] [[Wii]]<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.si.com/tennis/beyond-baseline/2013/11/06/daily-bagel-andre-agassi-steffi-graf-commercial |title=Daily Bagel: Andre Agassi, Steffi Graf star in video-game commercial |publisher=''Sports Illustrated'' |date=November 6, 2013 |first=Courtney |last=Nguyen |accessdate=September 9, 2014}}</ref> and [[Wii Fit U]]<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.videogamer.com/wiiu/wii_fit_u/news/andre_agassi_and_steffi_graf_promote_wii_fit_u.html |title=Andre Agassi and Steffi Graf promote Wii Fit U |website=VideoGamer.com |date=November 13, 2013 |first=James |last=Orry |accessdate=September 9, 2014}}</ref> and [[Longines]] in 2013.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.tennis.com/photos-video/2013/05/video-agassi-and-graf-new-longines-watch-ad/47677/#.VBvVmvldUrU |title=Video: Agassi and Graf in new Longines watch ad |publisher=Tennis.com |date=May 29, 2013 |first=Jonathan |last=Scott |accessdate=September 19, 2014}}</ref> ==Personal life== ===Relationships and family=== In the early 1990s Agassi dated American entertainer [[Barbra Streisand]]. Writing about the relationship in his 2009 autobiography, he said, "We agree that we're good for each other, and so what if she's twenty-eight years older? We're simpatico, and the public outcry only adds spice to our connection. It makes our friendship feel forbidden, taboo – another piece of my overall rebellion. Dating Barbra Streisand is like wearing Hot Lava." Agassi was married to [[Brooke Shields]] from 1997 to 1999.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.people.com/people/archive/article/0,,20128036,00.html |title=Double Fault |publisher=People.com |date=April 26, 2014 |first=Tom |last=Gliatto |accessdate=September 7, 2014}}</ref> He married [[Steffi Graf]] on October 22, 2001 at their Las Vegas home, Graf being advanced in her pregnancy. They have two children: son Jaden Gil (born 2001) and daughter Jaz Elle (born 2003).<ref>{{cite web |last=Knolle |first=Sharon |url=http://abcnews.go.com/Entertainment/story?id=101751&page=1 |title=Andre Agassi and Steffi Graf Wed |publisher=Abcnews.go.com |accessdate=June 6, 2011 |archiveurl=//web.archive.org/web/20110522145516/http://abcnews.go.com/Entertainment/story?id=101751&page=1 |archivedate=May 22, 2011 |deadurl=no}}</ref> Agassi has said that he and Graf are not pushing their children toward becoming tennis players.<ref>[http://www.nzherald.co.nz/sport/news/article.cfm?c_id=4&objectid=10861440 "Tennis: Agassi taking different tact with fatherhood,"] The New Zealand Herald, January 25, 2013</ref> The Graf-Agassi family resides in [[Summerlin, Nevada|Summerlin]], a community in the [[Las Vegas Valley]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.reviewjournal.com/sports/love-everything-graf-now |title=Love is everything to Graf now |publisher=''Las Vegas Review-Journal'' |date=May 20, 2010 |accessdate=September 18, 2014}}</ref> Long-time trainer [[Gil Reyes (tennis)|Gil Reyes]] has been called one of Agassi's closest friends; some have described him as being a "father figure" to Agassi.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://sportsillustrated.cnn.com/features/1999/year_in_review/flashbacks/father_best/ |title=Father Knew Best |work=Sports Illustrated |accessdate=January 26, 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://safinhantuchova.blogspot.com/2008/07/papa-gil.html |title=Peter Bodo Blog: Papa Gil |accessdate=January 26, 2011}}</ref> In 2012, Agassi and Reyes introduced their own line of fitness equipment, BILT By Agassi and Reyes.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.thepostgame.com/blog/training-day/201209/bilt-andre-agassi-gil-reyes-fitness-gym-equipment-safety |title=Andre Agassi and Trainer Introduce Their Personalized Fitness Equipment to the Public |work=ThePostGame.com |accessdate=September 7, 2012}}</ref> In December 2008, Agassi's childhood friend and former business manager, Perry Rogers, sued Graf for $50,000 in management fees he claimed that she owed him.<ref>[http://media.lasvegassun.com/media/pdfs/blogs/documents/2008/12/06/Complaint_and_Summons.pdf ''Alliance Sports Management v. Stephanie Graf'' ''[[Las Vegas Sun]]'']. Retrieved October 23, 2009.</ref><ref>[http://www.lvrj.com/news/35674229.html "Ex-manager for Agassi sues Graf" ''[[Las Vegas Review-Journal]]'' December 7, 2008]. Retrieved October 23, 2009.</ref> ===Autobiography=== Agassi's autobiography, ''Open'' (written with assistance from [[J. R. Moehringer]]<ref>[http://www.nytimes.com/2009/11/09/books/09book.html?_r=1 "Agassi Basks in His Own Spotlight" by Janet Malin ''New York Times'' November 8, 2009]. Retrieved December 11, 2009.</ref>), was published in November 2009. In it, Agassi admitted that he used and tested positive for [[methamphetamine]] in 1997.<ref name="sports.espn.go.com" /><ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.nydailynews.com/sports/more_sports/2009/10/27/2009-10-27_agassi.html |location=New York |work=Daily News |title=Andre Agassi admits to using crystal meth in forthcoming autobiography |first=Nathaniel |last=Vinton |date=October 27, 2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.nbcwashington.com/news/sports/NATL-Andre-Agassi-Admits-to-Using-Crystal-Meth-66510482.html |title=Andre Agassi Admits to Using Crystal Meth |date=October 27, 2009 |accessdate=January 26, 2011}}</ref> In response to this revelation, [[Roger Federer]] declared himself shocked and disappointed, while [[Marat Safin]] argued that Agassi should return his prize money and be stripped of his titles.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://sport.repubblica.it/news/sport/tennis-federer-deluso-e-scioccato-da-agassi/3730572.html |title=TENNIS, FEDERER: DELUSO E SCIOCCATO DA AGASSI |language=it |trans_title=}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.guardian.co.uk/sport/2009/nov/10/andre-agassi-marat-safin-drugs |location=London |work=The Guardian |title=Marat Safin tells Andre Agassi to relinquish titles after drug admission |date=November 10, 2009}}</ref> In an exclusive interview with CBS, Agassi justified himself and asked for understanding, saying that "It was a period in my life where I needed help."<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.sportmediaset.mediaset.it/altrisport/articoli/articolo27870.shtml |title=Agassi: "Ora chiedo comprensione". Droga, ex tennista si giustifica in tv |language=it |publisher=Sport-[[Mediaset]] |accessdate=November 22, 2013}}</ref> He also revealed that he had always hated tennis during his career because of the constant pressure it exerted on him. He also revealed he wore a hairpiece earlier in his career and thought [[Pete Sampras]] was "robotic".<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.guardian.co.uk/sport/2009/oct/29/andre-agassi-hate-tennis |title=Why did Andre Agassi hate tennis? |first=Stuart |last=Jeffries |work=The Guardian |location=London |date=October 29, 2009 |accessdate=January 25, 2010}}</ref> The book reached No. 1 on the [[New York Times Best Seller list|''New York Times'' Best Seller list]]<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.nytimes.com/2009/11/29/books/bestseller/besthardnonfiction.html?ref=bestseller |work=The New York Times |title=Hardcover Nonfiction |date=November 29, 2009 |accessdate=March 30, 2010 |first=Jennifer |last=Schuessler}}</ref> and received favorable reviews.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://latimesblogs.latimes.com/jacketcopy/2009/11/book-reviews-agassi-mayle-mourlevat-palin.html |work=The Los Angeles Times |title=Jacket Copy |date=November 20, 2009}}</ref> It won the Autobiography category of the 2010 [[British Sports Book Awards]].<ref>{{cite news |url=http://blogs.telegraph.co.uk/sport/simonbriggs/100005984/the-british-sports-book-awards-go-global/ |title=Andre Agassi's 'Open' wins at the British Sports Book Awards. Pity about the gloopy speech |work=[[The Daily Telegraph]] |author=Simon Briggs |date=March 12, 2010 |accessdate=November 26, 2012 |location=London}}</ref> ==Politics== Agassi has donated more than $100,000 to Democratic candidates.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.newsmeat.com/sports_political_donations/Andre_Agassi.php |title=Andre Agassi's Federal Campaign Contribution Report |publisher=NewsMeat |accessdate=January 26, 2011}}</ref> On September 1, 2010, when he appeared on daily WNYC public radio program "The Brian Lehrer Show," he stated that he is a registered Independent.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://beta.wnyc.org/shows/bl/2010/sep/01/net-effects/ |title=Andre Agassi: Net Effects |publisher="The Brian Lehrer Show" |accessdate=January 26, 2011}}</ref> ==Philanthropy== Agassi founded the Andre Agassi Charitable Association in 1994, which assists Las Vegas' young people. He was awarded the [[ATP Arthur Ashe Humanitarian award]] in 1995 for his efforts to help disadvantaged youth. He is regularly cited as the most charitable and socially involved player in professional tennis. It has also been claimed that he may be the most charitable athlete of his generation.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.blackvoices.com/black_sports/columnists/roysjohnson/_a/sportsmanperson-of-the-year/20061002123009990001 |title=Sportsman/Person of the Year |accessdate=January 26, 2011}}</ref> Agassi's charities help in assisting children reach their athletic potential. His Boys & Girls Club sees 2,000 children throughout the year and boasts a world-class junior tennis team. It also has a basketball program (the Agassi Stars) and a rigorous system that encourages a mix of academics and athletics. In 2001, Agassi opened the Andre Agassi College Preparatory Academy<ref name=Prep>{{cite web |url=http://www.agassiprep.org |title=Andre Agassi College Preparatory Academy |accessdate=January 26, 2011 |archiveurl=//web.archive.org/web/20110211235357/http://agassiprep.org/ |archivedate=February 11, 2011 |deadurl=no}}</ref> in Las Vegas, a tuition-free charter school for at-risk children in the area. He personally donated $35 million to the school.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.sportsbusinessdaily.com/Journal/Issues/2006/03/20060306/Opinion/Stern-NBA-Make-Doing-Well-By-Doing-Good-Contagious.aspx |title=Stern, NBA make doing well by doing good contagious |publisher=SportsBusiness Journal |date=March 6, 2006 |first=Marc |last=Pollick |accessdate=September 10, 2014}}</ref> In 2009, the graduating class had 100 percent graduation rate and expected a 100 percent college acceptance rate.<ref>{{cite web |last=Smith |first=Karen |url=http://www.cw.edu/page.php?subj=about&page=president-blog&id=20 |title=CW President's Blog |publisher=[[College of Westchester]] |date=September 23, 2009 |accessdate=June 6, 2011 |archiveurl=//web.archive.org/web/20110719183024/http://www.cw.edu/page.php?subj=about&page=president-blog&id=20 |archivedate=July 19, 2011 |deadurl=no}}</ref> Among other child-related programs that Agassi supports through his Andre Agassi Charitable Foundation is Clark County's only residential facility for abused and neglected children, Child Haven. In 1997, Agassi donated funding to Child Haven for a six-room classroom building now named the Agassi Center for Education. His foundation also provided $720,000 to assist in the building of the Andre Agassi Cottage for Medically Fragile Children. This 20-bed facility opened in December 2001, and accommodates developmentally delayed or handicapped children and children quarantined for infectious diseases.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.athlete.com/profile.php?id=351 |title=Andre Agassi |publisher=Athlete.com |accessdate=June 6, 2011 |archiveurl=//web.archive.org/web/20110707182451/http://www.athlete.com/profile.php?id=351 |archivedate=July 7, 2011 |deadurl=no}}</ref> In 2007, along with several other athletes, Agassi founded the charity [[Athletes for Hope]], which helps professional athletes get involved in charitable causes and aims to inspire all people to volunteer and support their communities.<ref>{{cite web |title=History |url=http://www.athletesforhope.org/history.html |publisher=[[Athletes for Hope]]}}</ref> He created the Canyon-Agassi Charter School Facilities Fund and is now known as the Turner-Agassi Charter School Facilities Fund. The Fund is an investment initiative for social change, focusing on the "nationwide effort to move charters from stopgap buildings into permanent campuses." It has funded over 30 campuses for high performing [[Charter schools in the United States|charter schools]] and seeks to provide investors with a healthy return. In September 2013, the Andre Agassi Foundation for Education formed a partnership with V20 Foods to launch Box Budd!es, a line of kids' healthy snacks. All proceeds go to the Foundation.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.reviewjournal.com/business/food-thought-agassis-box-buddes-raises-educations-funds-healthful-snacks |title=Food for thought: Agassi's Box Budd!es raises educations funds with healthful snacks |publisher=''[[Las Vegas Review-Journal]]'' |date=October 7, 2013 |first=Laura |last=Carroll |accessdate=September 11, 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.foodnavigator-usa.com/Manufacturers/Andre-Agassi-teams-up-with-V20-Foods-to-launch-Box-Budd!es-snacks-for-kids |title=Andre Agassi teams up with V20 Foods to launch Box Budd!es snacks for kids |publisher=Foodnavigator-usa.com |date=September 25, 2013 |first=Elaine |last=Watson |accessdate=September 11, 2014}}</ref> In February 2014, Agassi remodeled the vacant [[University of Phoenix]] building as a new school called the Doral Academy West through the Canyon-Agassi Charter School Facilities Fund. Doral Academy opened in August 2014.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.reviewjournal.com/news/agassi-school-fund-makes-first-investment-las-vegas |title=Agassi school fund makes first investment in Las Vegas |publisher=''Las Vegas Review-Journal'' |date=February 2, 2014 |first=Jennifer |last=Robinson |accessdate=September 10, 2014}}</ref> The Fund purchased a 4.6-acre plot in [[Henderson, Nevada]] to house the Somerset Academy of Las Vegas, which will relocate from its campus inside a church.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.reviewjournal.com/business/canyon-agassi-group-buys-46-acre-plot-academy |title=Canyon-Agassi group buys 4.6-acre plot for academy |publisher=''Las Vegas Review-Journal'' |date=February 7, 2014 |accessdate=September 10, 2014}}</ref> ==Career statistics== {{Main|Andre Agassi career statistics}} ===Singles timeline overview=== {| class=wikitable style=text-align:center;font-size:89% ! width=100 | Tournament !! 1986 !! 1987 !! 1988 !! 1989 !! 1990 !! 1991 !! 1992 !! 1993 !! 1994 !! 1995 !! 1996 !! 1997 !! 1998 !! 1999 !! 2000 !! 2001 !! 2002 !! 2003 !! 2004 !! 2005 !! 2006 !! {{Tooltip| SR | Strike Rate}} !! {{Tooltip| W–L | Win–Loss}} |- | colspan=24 align=left | '''Grand Slams''' |- | align=left | [[Australian Open]] | style=color:#ccc|NH | A | A | A | A | A | A | A | A | bgcolor=lime | [[1995 Australian Open – Men's Singles|'''W''']] | bgcolor=yellow | [[1996 Australian Open – Men's Singles|SF]] | A | bgcolor=afeeee | [[1998 Australian Open – Men's Singles|4R]] | bgcolor=afeeee | [[1999 Australian Open – Men's Singles|4R]] | bgcolor=lime | [[2000 Australian Open – Men's Singles|'''W''']] | bgcolor=lime | [[2001 Australian Open – Men's Singles|'''W''']] | A | bgcolor=lime | [[2003 Australian Open – Men's Singles|'''W''']] | bgcolor=yellow | [[2004 Australian Open – Men's Singles|SF]] | bgcolor=ffebcd | [[2005 Australian Open – Men's Singles|QF]] | A | 4 / 9 | 48–5 |- | align=left | [[French Open]] | A | bgcolor=afeeee | [[1987 French Open – Men's Singles|2R]] | bgcolor=yellow | [[1988 French Open – Men's Singles|SF]] | bgcolor=afeeee | [[1989 French Open – Men's Singles|3R]] | bgcolor=thistle | [[1990 French Open – Men's Singles|F]] | bgcolor=thistle | [[1991 French Open – Men's Singles|F]] | bgcolor=yellow | [[1992 French Open – Men's Singles|SF]] | A | bgcolor=afeeee | [[1994 French Open – Men's Singles|2R]] | bgcolor=ffebcd | [[1995 French Open – Men's Singles|QF]] | bgcolor=afeeee | [[1996 French Open – Men's Singles|2R]] | A | bgcolor=afeeee | [[1998 French Open – Men's Singles|1R]] | bgcolor=lime | [[1999 French Open – Men's Singles|'''W''']] | bgcolor=afeeee | [[2000 French Open – Men's Singles|2R]] | bgcolor=ffebcd | [[2001 French Open – Men's Singles|QF]] | bgcolor=ffebcd | [[2002 French Open – Men's Singles|QF]] | bgcolor=ffebcd | [[2003 French Open – Men's Singles|QF]] | bgcolor=afeeee | [[2004 French Open – Men's Singles|1R]] | bgcolor=afeeee | [[2005 French Open – Men's Singles|1R]] | A | 1 / 17 | 51–16 |- | align=left | [[Wimbledon Championships|Wimbledon]] | A | bgcolor=afeeee | [[1987 Wimbledon Championships – Men's Singles|1R]] | A | A | A | bgcolor=ffebcd | [[1991 Wimbledon Championships – Men's Singles|QF]] | bgcolor=lime | [[1992 Wimbledon Championships – Men's Singles|'''W]] | bgcolor=ffebcd | [[1993 Wimbledon Championships – Men's Singles|QF]] | bgcolor=afeeee | [[1994 Wimbledon Championships – Men's Singles|4R]] | bgcolor=yellow | [[1995 Wimbledon Championships – Men's Singles|SF]] | bgcolor=afeeee | [[1996 Wimbledon Championships – Men's Singles|1R]] | A | bgcolor=afeeee | [[1998 Wimbledon Championships – Men's Singles|2R]] | bgcolor=thistle | [[1999 Wimbledon Championships – Men's Singles|F]] | bgcolor=yellow | [[2000 Wimbledon Championships – Men's Singles|SF]] | bgcolor=yellow | [[2001 Wimbledon Championships – Men's Singles|SF]] | bgcolor=afeeee | [[2002 Wimbledon Championships – Men's Singles|2R]] | bgcolor=afeeee | [[2003 Wimbledon Championships – Men's Singles|4R]] | A | A | bgcolor=afeeee | [[2006 Wimbledon Championships – Men's Singles|3R]] | 1 / 14 | 46–13 |- | align=left | [[US Open (tennis)|US Open]] | bgcolor=afeeee | [[1986 US Open – Men's Singles|1R]] | bgcolor=afeeee | [[1987 US Open – Men's Singles|1R]] | bgcolor=yellow | [[1988 US Open – Men's Singles|SF]] | bgcolor=yellow | [[1989 US Open – Men's Singles|SF]] | bgcolor=thistle | [[1990 US Open – Men's Singles|F]] | bgcolor=afeeee | [[1991 US Open – Men's Singles|1R]] | bgcolor=ffebcd | [[1992 US Open – Men's Singles|QF]] | bgcolor=afeeee | [[1993 US Open – Men's Singles|1R]] | bgcolor=lime | [[1994 US Open – Men's Singles|'''W]] | bgcolor=thistle | [[1995 US Open – Men's Singles|F]] | bgcolor=yellow | [[1996 US Open – Men's Singles|SF]] | bgcolor=afeeee | [[1997 US Open – Men's Singles|4R]] | bgcolor=afeeee | [[1998 US Open – Men's Singles|4R]] | bgcolor=lime | [[1999 US Open – Men's Singles|'''W]] | bgcolor=afeeee | [[2000 US Open – Men's Singles|2R]] | bgcolor=ffebcd | [[2001 US Open – Men's Singles|QF]] | bgcolor=thistle | [[2002 US Open – Men's Singles|F]] | bgcolor=yellow | [[2003 US Open – Men's Singles|SF]] | bgcolor=ffebcd | [[2004 US Open – Men's Singles|QF]] | bgcolor=thistle | [[2005 US Open – Men's Singles|F]] | bgcolor=afeeee | [[2006 US Open – Men's Singles|3R]] | 2 / 21 | 79–19 |- | colspan=24 align=left | '''Year-End Championship |- | align=left | [[Tennis Masters Cup|Masters Cup]] | style=color:#ccc|DNQ | style=color:#ccc|DNQ | bgcolor=afeeee | [[1988 Nabisco Masters – Singles|RR]] | bgcolor=afeeee | [[1989 Nabisco Masters – Singles|RR]] | bgcolor=lime | [[1990 ATP Tour World Championships – Singles|'''W]] | bgcolor=yellow | [[1991 ATP Tour World Championships – Singles|SF]] | style=color:#ccc|DNQ | style=color:#ccc|DNQ | bgcolor=yellow | [[1994 ATP Tour World Championships – Singles|SF]] | A | bgcolor=afeeee | [[1996 ATP Tour World Championships – Singles|RR]] | style=color:#ccc|DNQ | bgcolor=afeeee | [[1998 ATP Tour World Championships – Singles|RR]] | bgcolor=thistle | [[1999 ATP Tour World Championships – Singles|F]] | bgcolor=thistle | [[2000 Tennis Masters Cup – Singles|F]] | bgcolor=afeeee | [[2001 Tennis Masters Cup – Singles|RR]] | bgcolor=afeeee | [[2002 Tennis Masters Cup – Singles|RR]] | bgcolor=thistle | [[2003 Tennis Masters Cup – Singles|F]] | A | bgcolor=afeeee | [[2005 Tennis Masters Cup – Singles|RR]] | style=color:#ccc|RET | 1 / 13 | 22–20 |- | colspan=24 align=left | '''Overall''' |- ! style=text-align:left|Win–Loss ! 5–6 ! 26–17 ! 63–11 ! 41–19 ! 45–12 ! 39–17 ! 42–15 ! 33–11 ! 52–14 ! 73–9 ! 38–14 ! 12–12 ! 68–18 ! 63–14 ! 40–15 ! 46–15 ! 53–12 ! 47–10 ! 37–13 ! 38–12 ! 10–8 ! colspan=2 align=center | 870–274 |- ! style=text-align:left|Titles ! 0 ! 1 ! 6 ! 1 ! 4 ! 2 ! 3 ! 2 ! 5 ! 7 ! 3 ! 0 ! 5 ! 5 ! 1 ! 4 ! 5 ! 4 ! 1 ! 1 ! 0 ! colspan=2 align=center | 60 / 343 |- | align=left | '''Ranking''' | 91 | 25 | bgcolor=99ccff | '''3''' | bgcolor=EEE8AA | 7 | bgcolor=EEE8AA | 4 | bgcolor=EEE8AA | 10 | bgcolor=EEE8AA | 9 | 24 | bgcolor=thistle | '''2''' | bgcolor=thistle | '''2''' | bgcolor=EEE8AA | 8 | 110 | bgcolor=EEE8AA | 6 | bgcolor=lime | '''1''' | bgcolor=EEE8AA | 6 | bgcolor=99ccff | '''3''' | bgcolor=thistle | '''2''' | bgcolor=EEE8AA | 4 | bgcolor=EEE8AA | 8 | bgcolor=EEE8AA | 7 | 150 ! colspan=2 | {{Tooltip| $31,152,975 | Career Prize Money}} |} ===Grand Slam Finals=== By winning the [[1999 French Open]], Agassi completed a men's singles Career Grand Slam. He is the 5th of 7 male players in history (after [[Don Budge|Budge]], [[Fred Perry|Perry]], [[Rod Laver|Laver]], [[Roy Emerson|Emerson]] and before [[Roger Federer]] and [[Rafael Nadal]]) to achieve this. {| class="sortable wikitable" ! width=75 | Outcome ! width=50 | Year ! width=210 | Championship ! width=50 | Surface ! width=230 | Opponent in the final ! width=230 | Score in the final |- bgcolor=EBC2AF | bgcolor=FFA07A | Runner-up | [[1990 French Open – Men's Singles|1990]] | [[French Open]] | Clay | {{flagicon|ECU}} [[Andrés Gómez]] | 3–6, 6–2, 4–6, 4–6 |- bgcolor=CCCCFF | bgcolor=FFA07A | Runner-up | [[1990 US Open – Men's Singles|1990]] | [[US Open (tennis)|US Open]] | Hard | {{flagicon|USA}} [[Pete Sampras]] | 4–6, 3–6, 2–6 |- bgcolor=EBC2AF | bgcolor=FFA07A | Runner-up | [[1991 French Open – Men's Singles|1991]] | French Open | Clay | {{flagicon|USA}} [[Jim Courier]] | 6–3, 4–6, 6–2, 1–6, 4–6 |- bgcolor=CCFFCC | bgcolor=98FB98 | Winner | [[1992 Wimbledon Championships – Men's Singles|1992]] | [[Wimbledon Championships|Wimbledon]] | Grass | {{flagicon|CRO}} [[Goran Ivanišević]] | 6–7<sup>(8–10)</sup>, 6–4, 6–4, 1–6, 6–4 |- bgcolor=CCCCFF | bgcolor=98FB98 | Winner | [[1994 US Open – Men's Singles|1994]] | US Open | Hard | {{flagicon|GER}} [[Michael Stich]] | 6–1, 7–6<sup>(7–5)</sup>, 7–5 |- bgcolor=FFFFCC | bgcolor=98FB98 | Winner | [[1995 Australian Open – Men's Singles|1995]] | [[Australian Open]] | Hard | {{flagicon|USA}} Pete Sampras | 4–6, 6–1, 7–6<sup>(8–6)</sup>, 6–4 |- bgcolor=CCCCFF | bgcolor=FFA07A | Runner-up | [[1995 US Open – Men's Singles|1995]] | US Open | Hard | {{flagicon|USA}} Pete Sampras | 4–6, 3–6, 6–4, 5–7 |- bgcolor=EBC2AF | bgcolor=98FB98 | Winner | [[1999 French Open – Men's Singles|1999]] | French Open | Clay | {{flagicon|UKR}} [[Andrei Medvedev]] | 1–6, 2–6, 6–4, 6–3, 6–4 |- bgcolor=CCFFCC | bgcolor=FFA07A | Runner-up | [[1995 Wimbledon Championships – Men's Singles|1999]] | Wimbledon | Grass | {{flagicon|USA}} Pete Sampras | 3–6, 4–6, 5–7 |- bgcolor=CCCCFF | bgcolor=98FB98 | Winner | [[1999 US Open – Men's Singles|1999]] | US Open | Hard | {{flagicon|USA}} [[Todd Martin]] | 6–4, 6–7<sup>(5–7)</sup>, 6–7<sup>(2–7)</sup>, 6–3, 6–2 |- bgcolor=FFFFCC | bgcolor=98FB98 | Winner | [[2000 Australian Open – Men's Singles|2000]] | Australian Open | Hard | {{flagicon|RUS}} [[Yevgeny Kafelnikov]] | 3–6, 6–3, 6–2, 6–4 |- bgcolor=FFFFCC | bgcolor=98FB98 | Winner | [[2001 Australian Open – Men's Singles|2001]] | Australian Open | Hard | {{flagicon|FRA}} [[Arnaud Clément]] | 6–4, 6–2, 6–2 |- bgcolor=CCCCFF | bgcolor=FFA07A | Runner-up | [[2002 US Open – Men's Singles|2002]] | US Open | Hard | {{flagicon|USA}} Pete Sampras | 3–6, 4–6, 7–5, 4–6 |- bgcolor=FFFFCC | bgcolor=98FB98 | Winner | [[2003 Australian Open – Men's Singles|2003]] | Australian Open | Hard | {{flagicon|GER}} [[Rainer Schüttler]] | 6–2, 6–2, 6–1 |- bgcolor=CCCCFF | bgcolor=FFA07A | Runner-up | [[2005 US Open – Men's Singles|2005]] | US Open | Hard | {{flagicon|SUI}} [[Roger Federer]] | 3–6, 6–2, 6–7<sup>(1–7)</sup>, 1–6 |} ===Records=== {| class="wikitable collapsible collapsed" |- ! Time span ! Selected Grand Slam tournament records ! Players matched |- | '''1990 YEC{{#tag:ref|Abbreviation for "[[ATP World Tour Finals|Year-End Championship]]".|group=lower-alpha}} —<br /> 1999 French Open || '''Career "Super Slam"{{#tag:ref|A "Career Super Slam" entails winning all 4 [[Grand Slam (tennis)|Majors]], the [[ATP World Tour Finals|Year-End Championship]] and the [[Tennis at the Summer Olympics|Olympic]] gold medal in singles.|group=lower-alpha}}<ref name="SI" /> || '''Stands alone''' |- | 1992 Wimbledon —<br /> 1999 French Open || Career Golden Slam<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.tsn.ca/tennis/story/?id=333700 |title=Nadal Captures U.S. Open To Complete Career Grand Slam |publisher=The Sports Network (TSN) |date=September 14, 2010 |accessdate=June 12, 2012 |quote=Nadal...also owns an Olympic gold medal, which makes him one of only two men to corral the career Golden Slam, with the great Agassi being the other.}}</ref> || [[Rafael Nadal]] |- | 1992 Wimbledon —<br /> 1999 French Open || Career Grand Slam<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.nytimes.com/1999/06/07/sports/tennis-agassi-revival-reaches-a-peak-in-french-open.html?pagewanted=all&src=pm |title=Agassi Revival Reaches a Peak in French Open |first=Robin |last=Finn |newspaper=The New York Times |date=June 7, 1999 |accessdate=July 9, 2012}}</ref> || [[Rod Laver]]<br />[[Roger Federer]]<br />Rafael Nadal |- | 1996 Olympics —<br /> 1999 US Open || Simultaneous holder of Olympic singles gold medal and Majors on clay & hard court || Rafael Nadal |- | 1996 Olympics —<br /> 2000 Australian Open || Simultaneous holder of Olympic singles gold medal and 3 Majors || Rafael Nadal |} {| class="wikitable collapsible collapsed" |- ! Grand Slam tournaments ! Time Span ! Records at each Grand Slam tournament ! Players matched |- | '''Australian Open || '''2000–2004 || '''26 consecutive match wins || '''Stands alone |- | Australian Open || 1995 || Won tournament on the first attempt || [[Jimmy Connors]]<br />[[Roscoe Tanner]]<br />[[Vitas Gerulaitis]]<br />[[Johan Kriek]] |- | '''Australian Open || '''1995–2005 || '''88.89% (48–6) match winning percentage || '''Stands alone |- | '''Australian Open || '''2003 || '''71.6% (121–48) games winning percentage in 1 tournament || '''Stands alone |- | '''US Open || '''1986–2006 || '''21 consecutive tournaments played<ref>{{cite web |title=US Open Singles Record Book |url=http://www.usopen.org/pdf/Record_Book_Singles_Records.pdf |accessdate=August 26, 2012 |publisher=US Open}}</ref> || '''Stands alone |} {| class="wikitable collapsible collapsed" |- ! Time span ! Other selected records ! Players matched |- | 1990–2003 || 6 [[Miami Masters]] titles<ref>{{cite web |title=Sony Open – Records and Stats |url=http://www.sonyopentennis.com/en/the-open/records-and-stats |accessdate=March 29, 2014 |publisher=Sony Open Tennis}}</ref> || [[Novak Djokovic]] |- | 1995–2003 || Oldest player ranked no. 1 (33 years 4 months)<ref>{{cite web |title=Federer Rises Above |url=http://www.atpworldtour.com/News/DEUCE-Tennis/Federer-No1/Federer-No1-Tribute.aspx |first=James |last=Buddell |location=London |date=July 16, 2012 |accessdate=July 16, 2012 |publisher=ATP World Tour |quote=Andre Agassi, who remains the oldest player to have been no. 1 in the South African Airways ATP Rankings, at 33 years and 131 days in 2003, proved to be a great inspiration.}}</ref> || '''Stands alone''' |- | 1988–2005 || Ended 16 years ranked inside the top 10 || [[Jimmy Connors]] |} ==Professional awards== * [[Tennis world champions named by the International Tennis Federation|ITF World Champion]]: 1999. * [[ATP Awards|ATP Player of the Year]]: 1999. * [[ATP Awards|ATP Most Improved Player]]: 1988, 1998 ==Recognition== * In 1992, Agassi was named the [[BBC Overseas Sports Personality of the Year]]. * In 2010, ''[[Sports Illustrated]]'' named Agassi the 7th greatest male player of all time.<ref name="SI" /> * On July 9, 2011, Agassi was inducted into the [[International Tennis Hall of Fame]] at a ceremony in Newport, Rhode Island.<ref name="tennis" /> ==Video== * ''Wimbledon 2000 Semi-final – Agassi vs. Rafter (2003)'' Starring: Andre Agassi, Patrick Rafter; Standing Room Only, DVD Release Date: August 16, 2005, Run Time: 213&nbsp;minutes, {{OCLC|61774054}}. * ''Charlie Rose with Andre Agassi (May 7, 2001)'' Charlie Rose, Inc., DVD Release Date: August 15, 2006, Run Time: 57&nbsp;minutes. * ''Wimbledon: The Record Breakers (2005)'' Starring: Andre Agassi, Boris Becker; Standing Room Only, DVD Release Date: August 16, 2005, Run Time: 52&nbsp;minutes, {{OCLC|61658553}}. ==Video games== {{main|Andre Agassi Tennis}} * ''[[Andre Agassi Tennis]]'' for the [[Super Nintendo Entertainment System|SNES]], [[Sega Genesis]], [[Sega Game Gear]], [[Master System]], and Mobile phone<ref name="mobygames">[http://www.mobygames.com/game/andre-agassi-tennis ''Andre Agassi Tennis''] at [[MobyGames]]</ref> * ''[[Agassi Tennis Generation]]'' for [[PlayStation 2|PS2]] and [[Game Boy Advance|GBA]] * ''Smash Court Pro Tournament'' for PS2 * ''[[Top Spin 4]]'' (On cover of game) for [[Xbox 360]], [[PlayStation 3]] and [[Wii]] ==See also== {{Portal|Biography|Tennis}} * [[List of Grand Slam Men's Singles champions]] * [[Agassi–Sampras rivalry]] * [[Tennis male players statistics]] * [[ATP World Tour records]] * [[Tennis records of All Time – Men's Singles]] * [[Tennis records of the Open Era – Men's Singles]] ==Notes== {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} ==References== {{Reflist|30em}} ==Further reading== * {{Cite book |author=Agassi, Mike; Cobello, Dominic; Welsh, Kate |title=The Agassi Story |publisher=ECW Press |location=Toronto |year=2004 |isbn=978-1-55022-656-0 |oclc=}} * {{Cite book |author=Andre Agassi |title=Open: An Autobiography (Vintage) |publisher=Vintage |location=London |year=2010 |isbn=0-307-38840-9 |oclc=}} ==External links== {{Commons category|Andre Agassi}} {{wikiquote}} * {{ATP|A092}} * {{ITF profile|10000009}} * {{DavisCup player|10000009}} * {{Worldcat id|lccn-n92-119422}} * {{Tennishof|andre-agassi}} * [http://www.thetennischannel.com/game/players/PlayerProfile.aspx?id=611 Player profile at TheTennisChannel.com] * [http://www.andreagassi.com/ Andre Agassi Ventures] * [http://www.sptimes.com/2004/08/01/Sports/For_Agassi__it_s_subs.shtml/ For Agassi, it's substance over style], 2004 * [http://www.americanrhetoric.com/speeches/andreagassifarewelltotennis.htm Farewell to Tennis Speech at the U.S. Open] * [http://www.americanrhetoric.com/speeches/andreagassistefgrafinduction.htm Agassi's Tennis Hall of Fame Induction for Steffi Graf] * {{IMDb name|1152468}} {{Andre Agassi start boxes}} {{navboxes | title = Andre Agassi in the [[grand slam (tennis)|Grand Slam Tournaments]] | list1 = {{Australian Open men's singles champions}} {{French Open men's singles champions}} {{Wimbledon men's singles champions}} {{US Open men's singles champions}} {{Tennis Career Grand Slam Champions}} {{Men's tennis players who won two or more Grand Slam singles titles in one calendar year}} }} {{navboxes | title = Andre Agassi's [[Andre Agassi career statistics|achievements]] | list1 = {{Tennis World Number Ones (men)}} {{Year-End Championships winners}} {{ATP Masters Series tournament winners}} {{ATP Masters Series tournament doubles winners}} {{Footer Olympic Champions Tennis Men}} }} {{Authority control}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Agassi, Andre}} [[Category:1970 births]] [[Category:American male tennis players]] [[Category:American people of Armenian descent]] [[Category:American people of Iranian-Assyrian descent]] [[Category:American people of Iranian descent]] 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1996 Summer Olympics]] [[Category:American sportspeople in doping cases]] [[Category:20th-century American businesspeople]] [[Category:21st-century American businesspeople]] [[Category:American investors]] [[Category:American real estate businesspeople]] d2818pbs6qbq5japl4fk6yroy95np62 0 596 597922680 160875858 2014-03-03T06:44:16Z Paine Ellsworth 9092818 add [[WP:RCAT|Rcat]] wikitext text/x-wiki #REDIRECT [[Constructed language]] {{Redr|from alternative name|printworthy}} jnept57qayj24l0w8kjlfe74z3pqdxo 0 597 714445405 713541637 2016-04-09T20:22:16Z JorisvS 801435 /* top */ wikitext text/x-wiki {{distinguish|Austronesian languages}} {{Use dmy dates|date=June 2013}} {{Infobox language family |name=Austroasiatic |altname=Mon–Khmer |region=[[South Asia|South]] and [[Southeast Asia]] |familycolor=Austroasiatic |family=One of the world's primary [[language family|language families]] |protoname=[[Proto-Mon–Khmer language|Proto-Mon–Khmer]] |child1=[[Munda languages|Munda]] |child2=[[Khasic languages|Khasi]]–[[Palaungic languages|Palaungic]] |child3=[[Khmuic languages|Khmuic]] |child4=[[Pakanic languages|Pakanic]] |child5=[[Vietic languages|Vietic]] |child6=[[Katuic languages|Katuic]] |child7=[[Bahnaric languages|Bahnaric]] |child8=[[Khmer language|Khmer]] |child9=[[Pearic languages|Pearic]] |child10=[[Nicobarese languages|Nicobarese]] |child11=[[Aslian languages|Aslian]] |child12=[[Monic languages|Monic]] |child13=[[Shompen language|Shompen]]? |iso5=aav |glotto=aust1305 |glottorefname=Austroasiatic |map=Austroasiatic-en.svg |mapcaption=Austroasiatic languages }} The '''Austroasiatic languages''',<ref>Sometimes also as '''Austro-Asiatic''' or '''Austroasian'''.</ref> in recent classifications synonymous with '''Mon–Khmer''',<ref>Bradley (2012) notes, ''MK in the wider sense including the Munda languages of eastern South Asia is also known as Austroasiatic.''</ref> are a large [[language family]] of continental [[Southeast Asia]], also scattered throughout [[India]], [[Bangladesh]], [[Nepal]] and the southern border of [[China]]. The name ''Austroasiatic'' comes from the [[Latin]] words for "south" and "Asia", hence "South Asia". Of these languages, only [[Vietnamese language|Vietnamese]], [[Khmer language|Khmer]], and [[Mon language|Mon]] have a long-established [[recorded history]], and only Vietnamese and Khmer have official status (in [[Vietnam]] and [[Cambodia]], respectively). The rest of the languages are spoken by minority groups. ''[[Ethnologue]]'' identifies 168 Austroasiatic languages. These form thirteen established families (plus perhaps [[Shompen language|Shompen]], which is poorly attested, as a fourteenth), which have traditionally been grouped into two, as Mon–Khmer and [[Munda languages|Munda]]. However, one recent classification posits three groups (Munda, Nuclear Mon-Khmer and [[Khasi–Khmuic languages|Khasi–Khmuic]])<ref>Diffloth 2005</ref> while another has abandoned Mon–Khmer as a taxon altogether, making it synonymous with the larger family.<ref>Sidwell 2009</ref> Austroasiatic languages have a disjunct distribution across India, Bangladesh, Nepal and Southeast Asia, separated by regions where other languages are spoken. They appear to be the [[autochthonous language]]s of Southeast Asia, with the neighboring [[Indo-Aryan languages|Indo-Aryan]], [[Tai–Kadai languages|Tai–Kadai]], [[Dravidian languages|Dravidian]], [[Austronesian languages|Austronesian]], and [[Sino-Tibetan languages]] being the result of later migrations.<ref name="SidwellBlench2011" /> == Typology == {{Expand section|date=November 2010}} The Austroasiatic languages are well known for having a [[sesquisyllable|"sesquisyllabic"]] pattern, with basic nouns and verbs consisting of a reduced [[minor syllable]] plus a full syllable. Many of them also have [[infix]]es. The Austroasiatic languages are further characterized as having unusually large vowel inventories and employing some sort of [[Register (phonology)|register]] contrast, either between [[modal voice|modal]] (normal) voice and [[breathy voice|breathy]] (lax) voice or between modal voice and [[creaky voice]].<ref>DIPFLOTH, Gerard. [http://www.sealang.net/archives/mks/pdf/15:139-154.pdf "Proto-Austroasiatic creaky voice."] (1989).</ref> Languages in the Pearic branch and some in the Vietic branch can have a three- or even four-way voicing contrast. However, some Austroasiatic languages have lost the register contrast by evolving more diphthongs or in a few cases, such as Vietnamese, [[tonogenesis]]. ==Proto-language== {{Main|Proto-Mon–Khmer language}} Much work has been done on the reconstruction of [[Proto-Mon–Khmer]] in [[Harry L. Shorto]]'s ''Mon–Khmer Comparative Dictionary''. Little work has been done on the [[Munda languages]], which are not well documented. With their demotion from a primary branch, Proto-Mon–Khmer becomes synonymous with Proto-Austroasiatic. [[Paul Sidwell]] (2005) reconstructs the consonant inventory of Proto-Mon–Khmer as follows: {| class="IPA wikitable" |- |*p||*t||*c||*k||*ʔ |- |*b||*d||*ɟ||*ɡ|| |- |*ɓ||*ɗ||*ʄ|| || |- |*m||*n||*ɲ||*ŋ|| |- |*w||*l, *r||*j|| || |- | ||*s|| || ||*h |} This is identical to earlier reconstructions except for {{IPA|*ʄ}}. {{IPA|*ʄ}} is better preserved in the [[Katuic languages]], which Sidwell has specialized in. Sidwell (2011) suggests that the likely homeland of Austroasiatic is the middle [[Mekong]], in the area of the Bahnaric and Katuic languages (approximately where modern Laos, Thailand, and Cambodia come together), and that the family is not as old as frequently assumed, dating to perhaps 2000 BCE.<ref name="SidwellBlench2011"/> ==Internal classification== Linguists traditionally recognize two primary divisions of Austroasiatic: the Mon–Khmer languages of Southeast Asia, [[North-East India|Northeast India]] and the [[Nicobar Islands]], and the Munda languages of [[East India|East]] and Central India and parts of Bangladesh. However, no evidence for this classification has ever been published. Each of the families that is written in boldface type below is accepted as a valid clade.{{clarify|date=February 2016}} By contrast, the relationships ''between'' these families within Austroasiatic is debated. In addition to the traditional classification, two recent proposals are given, neither of which accept traditional "Mon–Khmer" as a valid unit. However, little of the data used for competing classifications has ever been published, and therefore cannot be evaluated by peer review. In addition, there are suggestions that additional branches of Austroasiatic might be preserved in substrata of [[Acehnese language|Acehnese]] in Sumatra (Diffloth), the [[Chamic languages]] of Vietnam, and the [[Land Dayak languages]] of Borneo (Adelaar 1995).<ref>Roger Blench, ''2009. Are there four additional unrecognised branches of Austroasiatic?'' Presentation at ICAAL-4, Bangkok, 29–30 October–. Summarized in Sidwell and Blench (2011).</ref> ===Sidwell (2009, 2011)=== [[File:Mekongbasin.jpg|thumb|right|400px|[[Paul Sidwell]] and [[Roger Blench]] propose that the Austroasiatic phylum had dispersed via the [[Mekong]] River [[drainage basin]].]] [[Paul Sidwell]] (2009a), in a [[lexicostatistical]] comparison of 36 languages which are well-known enough to exclude loan words, finds little evidence for internal branching, though he did find an area of increased contact between the Bahnaric and Katuic languages, such that languages of all branches apart from the geographically distant Munda and Nicobarese show greater similarity to Bahnaric and Katuic the closer they are to those branches, without any noticeable innovations common to Bahnaric and Katuic. He therefore takes the conservative view that the thirteen branches of Austroasiatic should be treated as equidistant on current evidence. Sidwell & [[Roger Blench|Blench]] (2011) discuss this proposal in more detail, and note that there is good evidence for a Khasi–Palaungic node, which could also possibly be closely related to Khmuic.<ref name="SidwellBlench2011">Sidwell, Paul, and Roger Blench. 2011. "The Austroasiatic Urheimat: the Southeastern Riverine Hypothesis." Enfield, N.J. (ed.) ''Dynamics of Human Diversity'', 317-345. Canberra: Pacific Linguistics. http://rogerblench.info/Archaeology/SE%20Asia/SR09/Sidwell%20Blench%20offprint.pdf</ref> If this would the case, Sidwell & Blench suggest that Khasic may have been an early offshoot of Palaungic that had spread westward. Sidwell & Blench (2011) suggest [[Shompen language|Shompen]] as an additional branch, and believe that a Vieto-Katuic connection is worth investigating. In general, however, the family is thought to have diversified too quickly for a deeply nested structure to have developed, since Proto-Austroasiatic speakers are believed by Sidwell to have radiated out from the central [[Mekong]] River valley relatively quickly. {{clade |label1=Austroasiatic&nbsp;<br>=&nbsp;Mon–Khmer&nbsp; |1={{clade |1=[[Munda languages|Munda]] |label2=&nbsp;Khasi–Palaungic&nbsp; |2={{clade |1=[[Khasic languages|Khasian]] |2=[[Palaungic languages|Palaungic]] }} |3=[[Khmuic languages|Khmuic]] |4=[[Pakanic languages|Pakanic]] |6=[[Vietic languages|Vietic]] |7=[[Katuic languages|Katuic]] |8=[[Bahnaric languages|Bahnaric]] |9=[[Khmer language|Khmer]] |10=[[Pearic languages|Pearic]] |11=[[Monic languages|Monic]] |12=[[Aslian languages|Aslian]] |13=[[Nicobarese languages|Nicobarese]] |14=?[[Shompen language|Shompen]] }} }} ===Previously existent branches=== [[Roger Blench]] (2009)<ref>Blench, Roger. 2009. "[http://icaal.org/abstract/blench-are.html Are there four additional unrecognised branches of Austroasiatic?]."</ref> also proposes that there may have been other primary branches of Austroasiatic that are now extinct, based on [[Stratum (linguistics)|substrate]] evidence in modern-day languages. *'''Pre-[[Chamic language|Chamic]] languages''' (the languages of coastal Vietnam prior to the [[Chamic language|Chamic]] migrations). Chamic has various Austroasiatic loanwords that cannot be clearly traced to existing Austroasiatic branches (Sidwell 2006).<ref name="Sidwell2006">Sidwell, Paul. 2006. "[http://sealang.net/sala/archives/pdf8/sidwell2006dating.pdf Dating the Separation of Acehnese and Chamic By Etymological Analysis of the Aceh-Chamic Lexicon]." In The ''Mon-Khmer Studies Journal'', 36: 187-206.</ref> *'''[[Acehnese language|Acehnese]] substratum''' (Sidwell 2006).<ref name="Sidwell2006"/> Acehnese has many basic words that are of Austroasiatic origin, suggesting that either Austronesian speakers may have absorbed earlier Austroasiatic residents in northern Sumatra, or that words may have been borrowed from Austroasiatic languages in southern Vietnam — or perhaps a combination of both. *'''[[Bornean languages|Bornean]] substrate languages''' (Blench 2010).<ref>Blench, Roger. 2010. "Was there an Austroasiatic Presence in Island Southeast Asia prior to the Austronesian Expansion?" In ''Bulletin of the Indo-Pacific Prehistory Association'', Vol. 30.</ref> Blench cites Austroasiatic-origin words in modern-day Bornean branches such as [[Land Dayak languages|Land Dayak]] ([[Bidayuh languages|Bidayuh]], [[Bakati’ language|Dayak Bakatiq]], etc.), [[Dusunic languages|Dusunic]] ([[Dusun language|Central Dusun]], [[Brunei Bisaya language|Visayan]], etc.), [[Kayan–Murik languages|Kayan]], and [[Kenyah languages|Kenyah]], noting especially resemblances with [[Aslian languages|Aslian]]. As further evidence for his proposal, Blench also cites ethnographic evidence such as musical instruments in Borneo shared in common with Austroasiatic-speaking groups in mainland Southeast Asia. *'''[[Lepcha language|Lepcha]] substratum''' ("'''''Rongic'''''").<ref>Blench, Roger. 2013. [https://www.academia.edu/5562335/Rongic_a_vanished_branch_of_Austroasiatic ''Rongic: a vanished branch of Austroasiatic'']. m.s.</ref> Many words of Austroasiatic origin have been noticed in Lepcha, suggesting a [[Sino-Tibetan languages|Sino-Tibetan]] superstrate laid over an Austroasiatic substrate. Blench (2013) calls this branch "''Rongic''" based on the Lepcha autonym ''Róng''. Other languages with proposed Austroasiatic substrata are: *'''[[Jiamao language|Jiamao]]''', based on evidence from the register system of Jiamao, a [[Hlai languages|Hlai]] language (Thurgood 1992). <ref>Thurgood, Graham. 1992. The aberrancy of the Jiamao dialect of Hlai: speculation on its origins and history. In Ratliff, Martha S. and Schiller, E. (eds.), Papers from the First Annual Meeting of the Southeast Asian Linguistics Society, 417-433. Arizona State University, Program for Southeast Asian Studies.</ref> Jiamao is known for its highly aberrant vocabulary. ===Gérard Diffloth (2005)=== [[Gérard Diffloth|Diffloth]] compares reconstructions of various clades, and attempts to classify them based on shared innovations, though like other classifications the evidence has not been published. As a schematic, we have: {{clade |label1=Austro-&nbsp;<br>Asiatic&nbsp; |1={{clade |label1=&nbsp;[[Munda languages|Munda]]&nbsp; |1={{clade |1={{clade |1=Remo |2=Savara }} |2={{clade |1=Kharian–Juang |2={{clade |1=[[Korku language|Korku]] |2=Kherwarian }} }} }} |label2=&nbsp;[[Khasi–Khmuic languages|Khasi–&nbsp;<br>&nbsp;Khmuic]]&nbsp; |2={{clade |2=[[Khasic languages|Khasian]] |1={{clade |1=[[Khmuic languages|Khmuic]] |2={{clade |1=[[Pakanic languages|Pakanic]] |2=[[Palaungic languages|Palaungic]] }} }} }} |label3=&nbsp;(Nuclear)&nbsp;<br>&nbsp;{{nowrap|Mon–Khmer}}&nbsp; |3={{clade |1={{clade |1={{clade |1=[[Vietic languages|Vietic]] |label2=?<ref name=VK/> |2=[[Katuic languages|Katuic]] }} |2={{clade |1=[[Bahnaric languages|Bahnaric]] |2={{clade |1=[[Khmer language|Khmer]] |2=[[Pearic languages|Pearic]] }} }} }} |2={{clade |1=[[Nicobarese languages|Nicobarese]] |2={{clade |1=[[Aslian languages|Aslian]] |2=[[Monic languages|Monic]] }} }} }} }} }} Or in more detail, * '''[[Munda languages]]''' (India) :* '''Koraput''': 7 languages :*Core Munda languages ::* '''Kharian–Juang''': 2 languages ::*North Munda languages ::: ''[[Korku language|Korku]]'' ::: '''Kherwarian''': 12 languages * [[Khasi–Khmuic languages]] (Northern Mon–Khmer) :* '''[[Khasic languages|Khasian]]''': 3 languages of eastern India and Bangladesh :*Palaungo-Khmuic languages ::* '''[[Khmuic languages|Khmuic]]''': 13 languages of Laos and Thailand ::*Palaungo-Pakanic languages ::: '''Pakanic''' or '''[[Pakanic languages|Palyu]]''': 4 or 5 languages of southern China and Vietnam ::: '''[[Palaungic languages|Palaungic]]''': 21 languages of Burma, southern China, and Thailand * Nuclear Mon–Khmer languages :* Khmero-Vietic languages (Eastern Mon–Khmer) ::* Vieto-Katuic languages ?<ref name=VK>Sidwell (2005) casts doubt on Diffloth's Vieto-Katuic hypothesis, saying that the evidence is ambiguous, and that it is not clear where Katuic belongs in the family.</ref> ::: '''[[Vietic languages|Vietic]]''': 10 languages of Vietnam and Laos, including the [[Vietnamese language]], which has the most speakers of any Austroasiatic language. These are the only Austroasiatic languages to have highly developed tone systems. ::: '''[[Katuic languages|Katuic]]''': 19 languages of Laos, Vietnam, and Thailand. ::* Khmero-Bahnaric languages :::* '''[[Bahnaric languages|Bahnaric]]''': 40 languages of Vietnam, Laos, and Cambodia. :::*Khmeric languages :::: The '''[[Khmer language|Khmer]]''' dialects of Cambodia, Thailand, and Vietnam. :::: '''[[Pearic languages|Pearic]]''': 6 languages of Cambodia. :* Nico-Monic languages (Southern Mon–Khmer) ::* '''[[Nicobarese languages|Nicobarese]]''': 6 languages of the [[Nicobar Islands]], a territory of India. ::* Asli-Monic languages ::: '''[[Aslian languages|Aslian]]''': 19 languages of peninsular Malaysia and Thailand. ::: '''[[Monic languages|Monic]]''': 2 languages, the [[Mon language]] of Burma and the [[Nyah Kur language|Nyahkur language]] of Thailand. This family tree is consistent with recent studies of migration of Y-Chromosomal [[Haplogroup O-M95 (Y-DNA)|haplogroup O2a1-M95]]. However, the dates obtained from by [[Zhivotovsky method]] DNA studies are several times older than that given by linguists.<ref name="Kumar">Kumar, Vikrant et al., Y-chromosome evidence suggests a common paternal heritage of Austroasiatic populations, BMC Evol Biol. 2007, 7: 47.</ref> The route map of the people with haplogroup O2a1-M95, speaking this language can be seen in this link.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.biomedcentral.com/1471-2148/7/47/figure/F1 |title=Figure |doi=10.1186/1471-2148-7-47 |publisher=www.biomedcentral.com |date= |accessdate=11 March 2012}}</ref> Other geneticists criticise the Zhivotovsky method. ===Ilia Peiros (2004)=== Peiros is a [[lexicostatistics|lexicostatistic]] classification, based on percentages of shared vocabulary. This means that a language may appear to be more distantly related than it actually is due to [[language contact]]. Indeed, when Sidwell (2009a) replicated Peiros's study with languages known well enough to account for loans, he did not find the internal (branching) structure below. [[File:AustroAsiatic tree Peiros2004.png|thumb|500px]] *'''[[Nicobarese languages|Nicobarese]]''' *Munda–Khmer **'''[[Munda languages|Munda]]''' **Mon–Khmer ***'''[[Khasi language|Khasi]]''' ***Nuclear Mon–Khmer ****[[Pakanic languages|Mangic]] ([[Mang language|Mang]] + [[Bolyu language|Palyu]]) (perhaps in Northern MK) ****'''[[Vietic languages|Vietic]]''' (perhaps in Northern MK) ****Northern Mon–Khmer *****'''[[Palaungic languages|Palaungic]]''' *****'''[[Khmuic languages|Khmuic]]''' ****Central Mon–Khmer *****'''[[Khmer language|Khmer]]''' dialects *****'''[[Pearic languages|Pearic]]''' *****Asli-Bahnaric ******'''[[Aslian languages|Aslian]]''' ******Mon–Bahnaric *******'''[[Monic languages|Monic]]''' *******Katu–Bahnaric ********'''[[Katuic languages|Katuic]]''' ********'''[[Bahnaric languages|Bahnaric]]''' {{Clear}} ===Diffloth (1974)=== [[Gérard Diffloth|Diffloth]]'s widely cited original classification, now abandoned by Diffloth himself, is used in ''[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]'' and—except for the breakup of Southern Mon–Khmer—in ''Ethnologue.'' *'''[[Munda languages|Munda]]''' **North Munda *** Korku ***'''Kherwarian''' **South Munda ***'''Kharia–Juang''' ***'''Koraput Munda''' *Mon–Khmer **Eastern Mon–Khmer ***'''[[Khmer language|Khmer]]''' (Cambodian) ***'''[[Pearic languages|Pearic]]''' ***'''[[Bahnaric languages|Bahnaric]]''' ***'''[[Katuic languages|Katuic]]''' ***'''[[Vietic languages|Vietic]]''' (includes Vietnamese) **Northern Mon–Khmer ***'''[[Khasi language|Khasi]]''' ([[Meghalaya]], India) ***'''[[Palaungic languages|Palaungic]]''' ***'''[[Khmuic languages|Khmuic]]''' **Southern Mon–Khmer ***'''[[Mon language|Mon]]''' ***'''[[Aslian languages|Aslian]]''' ([[Peninsular Malaysia|Malaya]]) ***'''[[Nicobarese languages|Nicobarese]]''' ([[Nicobar Islands]]) ==Writing systems== Other than Latin-based alphabets, many Austroasiatic languages are written with the ancient Khmer alphabet, [[Thai alphabet]] and [[Lao alphabet]]. Vietnamese divergently had an indigenous script based on Chinese logographic writing. This has since been supplanted by the Latin alphabet in the 20th century. The following are examples of past-used alphabets or current alphabets of Austroasiatic languages. *[[Chữ Nôm]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.omniglot.com/writing/chunom.htm |title=Vietnamese Chu Nom script |publisher=Omniglot.com |date= |accessdate=11 March 2012}}</ref> *[[Khmer alphabet]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.omniglot.com/writing/khmer.htm |title=Khmer/Cambodian alphabet, pronunciation and language |publisher=Omniglot.com |date= |accessdate=11 March 2012}}</ref> *[[Ol Chiki alphabet]] ([[Santali language|Santali]] alphabet)<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.omniglot.com/writing/santali.htm |title=Santali alphabet, pronunciation and language |publisher=Omniglot.com |date= |accessdate=11 March 2012}}</ref> *[[Sorang Sompeng alphabet]] ([[Sora language|Sora]] alphabet)<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.omniglot.com/writing/sorangsompeng.htm |title=Sorang Sompeng script |publisher=Omniglot.com |date=18 June 1936 |accessdate=11 March 2012}}</ref> *[[Varang Kshiti]] ([[Ho language|Ho]] alphabet)<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.omniglot.com/writing/varangkshiti.htm |title=Varang Kshiti alphabet and Ho language |publisher=Omniglot.com |date= |accessdate=11 March 2012}}</ref> *[[Khom script]] (used for a short period in the early 20th century for indigenous languages in Laos) ==Austroasiatic migrations== According to Chaubey et al. (2010), "AA speakers in India today are derived from dispersal from Southeast Asia, followed by extensive sex-specific admixture with local Indian populations."{{sfn|Chaubey|2010}}{{refn|group=note|See also:<br>* Dienekes Anthropology Blog, [http://dienekes.blogspot.nl/2010/10/origin-of-indian-austroasiatic-speakers.html ''Origin of Indian Austroasiatic speakers'']<br>* Razib Khan (2010), [http://blogs.discovermagazine.com/gnxp/2010/10/sons-of-the-conquerers-the-story-of-india/#.UQfBCVQR-Sp ''Sons of the conquerors: the story of India?'']<br>* Razib Khan (2013), [http://blogs.discovermagazine.com/gnxp/2013/01/phylogenetics-implies-austro-asiatic-are-intrusive-to-india/ ''Phylogenetics implies Austro-Asiatic are intrusive to India'']}} According to Riccio et al. (2011), the Munda people are likely descended from Austroasiatic migrants from southeast Asia.<ref>Riccio et al. (2011), [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21740156 ''The Austroasiatic Munda population from India and Its enigmatic origin: a HLA diversity study''].</ref><ref>The Language Gulper, [http://www.languagesgulper.com/eng/Austroasiatic.html ''Austroasiatic Languages'']</ref> According to Zhang et al. (2015), Austroasiatic (male) migrations from southeast Asia into India took place after the lates Glacial maximum, circa 10,000 years ago.{{sfn|Zhang|2015}} ==Notes== {{reflist|group=note}} ==See also== *[[Austric languages]] ==References== {{reflist|2}} ==Sources== {{More footnotes|date=December 2008}} {{refbegin}} * Adams, K. L. (1989). ''Systems of numeral classification in the Mon–Khmer, Nicobarese and Aslian subfamilies of Austroasiatic''. Canberra, A.C.T., Australia: Dept. of Linguistics, Research School of Pacific Studies, Australian National University. ISBN 0-85883-373-5 * Bradley, David (2012). "[https://www.academia.edu/1542763/Languages_and_Language_Families_in_China Languages and Language Families in China]", in Rint Sybesma (ed.), ''Encyclopedia of Chinese Language and Linguistics''. * [[Byomkes Chakrabarti|Chakrabarti, Byomkes]]. (1994). ''A Comparative Study of Santali and Bengali''. * {{Citation | last1 =Chaubey | display-authors =etal | year =2011 | title =Population Genetic Structure in Indian Austroasiatic Speakers: The Role of Landscape Barriers and Sex-Specific Admixture | journal =Mol Biol Evol (2011) 28 (2): 1013-1024 | doi =10.1093/molbev/msq288}} *Diffloth, Gérard (2005). "The contribution of linguistic palaeontology and Austro-Asiatic". in Laurent Sagart, Roger Blench and Alicia Sanchez-Mazas, eds. ''The Peopling of East Asia: Putting Together Archaeology, Linguistics and Genetics.'' 77–80. London: Routledge Curzon. ISBN 0-415-32242-1 * Filbeck, D. (1978). ''T'in: a historical study''. Pacific linguistics, no. 49. Canberra: Dept. of Linguistics, Research School of Pacific Studies, Australian National University. ISBN 0-85883-172-4 * Hemeling, K. (1907). ''Die Nanking Kuanhua''. (German language) * Jenny, Mathias and [[Paul Sidwell]], eds (2015). ''[http://www.brill.com/products/reference-work/handbook-austroasiatic-languages-2-vols The Handbook of Austroasiatic Languages]''. Leiden: Brill. * Peck, B. M., Comp. (1988). ''An Enumerative Bibliography of South Asian Language Dictionaries''. * Peiros, Ilia. 1998. ''Comparative Linguistics in Southeast Asia.'' Pacific Linguistics Series C, No. 142. Canberra: Australian National University. * Shorto, Harry L. edited by Sidwell, Paul, Cooper, Doug and Bauer, Christian (2006). ''[https://www.academia.edu/11344550/A_Mon-Khmer_comparative_dictionary A Mon–Khmer comparative dictionary]''. Canberra: Australian National University. Pacific Linguistics. ISBN 0-85883-570-3 * Shorto, H. L. ''Bibliographies of Mon–Khmer and Tai Linguistics''. London oriental bibliographies, v. 2. London: Oxford University Press, 1963. * Sidwell, Paul (2005). "[http://sealang.net/sala/archives/pdf8/sidwell2005proto.pdf Proto-Katuic Phonology and the Sub-grouping of Mon–Khmer Languages]". In Sidwell, ed., ''SEALSXV: papers from the 15th meeting of the Southeast Asian Linguistic Society.'' *Sidwell, Paul (2009a). [http://www.jolr.ru/files/%2851%29jlr2010-4%28117-134%29.pdf The Austroasiatic Central Riverine Hypothesis]. Keynote address, SEALS, XIX. * Sidwell, Paul (2009b). ''[https://www.academia.edu/1540105/Classifying_the_Austroasiatic_languages_history_and_state_of_the_art Classifying the Austroasiatic languages: history and state of the art]''. LINCOM studies in Asian linguistics, 76. Munich: Lincom Europa. * Zide, Norman H., and Milton E. Barker. (1966) ''Studies in Comparative Austroasiatic Linguistics'', The Hague: Mouton (Indo-Iranian monographs, v. 5.). * {{Citation | last1 =Zhang | display-authors =etal | year =2015 | title =Y-chromosome diversity suggests southern origin and Paleolithic backwave migration of Austro-Asiatic speakers from eastern Asia to the Indian subcontinent | journal =Nature Scientific Reports 5, Article number: 15486 (2015) | doi =10.1038/srep15486 | url =http://www.nature.com/articles/srep15486}} {{refend}} ==Further reading== Mann, Noel, Wendy Smith and Eva Ujlakyova. 2009. [http://li.payap.ac.th/images/stories/survey/Linguistic%20Clusters%20of%20Mainland%20Southeast%20Asia%20A%20Description%20of%20the%20Clusters.pdf Linguistic clusters of Mainland Southeast Asia: an overview of the language families.] Chiang Mai: Payap University. ==External links== {{Commons category|Austroasiatic languages}} *[[wikt:Appendix:Swadesh lists for Austro-Asiatic languages|Swadesh lists for Austro-Asiatic languages]] (from Wiktionary's [[wikt:Appendix:Swadesh lists Swadesh-list appendix]]) *[http://multitree.org/codes/ausa Austro-Asiatic] at the Linguist List MultiTree Project (not functional as of 2014): Genealogical trees attributed to Sebeok 1942, Pinnow 1959, Diffloth 2005, and Matisoff 2006 *[http://people.anu.edu.au/~u9907217/languages/languages.html Mon–Khmer.com: Lectures by Paul Sidwell] *[http://sealang.net/monkhmer/ Mon–Khmer Languages Project] at SEAlang *http://projekt.ht.lu.se/rwaai RWAAI (Repository and Workspace for Austroasiatic Intangible Heritage) *[[hdl:10050/00-0000-0000-0003-66A4-2@view|http://hdl.handle.net/10050/00-0000-0000-0003-66A4-2@view]] RWAAI Digital Archive {{Austroasiatic languages}} {{Language families}} {{Authority control}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Austroasiatic Languages}} [[Category:Agglutinative languages]] [[Category:Austroasiatic languages| ]] q2woxodf2pmn1xwxol348y4khphm754 0 598 308571517 290580328 2009-08-17T23:21:09Z DarknessBot 3145267 Fixing identified double redirect wikitext text/x-wiki #REDIRECT [[Afroasiatic languages]]{{R from other capitalisation}} ifsotpaksgotryhtzg34furdjgx8x48 0 599 716698817 715196500 2016-04-23T08:34:28Z Atvica 23376809 /* External links */ wikitext text/x-wiki {{Redirect|Afro-Asiatic}} {{Use dmy dates|date=June 2013}} {{Infobox language family |name=Afroasiatic |region=[[Horn of Africa]], [[North Africa]], [[Sahel]], Middle East<!-- Per [[Template:Infobox language]], this parameter is reserved for "geographic region in which it is mainly spoken". --> |familycolor=Afro-Asiatic |family=One of the world's primary [[Language family|language families]] |protoname=[[Proto-Afroasiatic language|Proto-Afroasiatic]] |child1=[[Berber languages|Berber]] |child2=[[Chadic languages|Chadic]] |child4=[[Cushitic languages|Cushitic]] |child5=[[Egyptian language|Egyptian]] |child6=[[Omotic languages|Omotic]]<ref name="Sands2009"/> |child7=[[Semitic languages|Semitic]] |iso2=afa |iso5=afa |glotto=afro1255 |glottorefname=Afro-Asiatic |map=Hamito-Semitic_languages.jpg |mapcaption= }} [[File:Interrelations between branches of Afro-Asiatic.svg|thumb|300px|Interrelations between branches of Afro-Asiatic]] '''Afroasiatic''' ('''Afro-Asiatic'''), also known as '''Afrasian''' and traditionally as '''Hamito-Semitic''' ('''Chamito-Semitic'''),<ref name="Nanjira">Daniel Don Nanjira, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=LZuxGsXVPoMC&pg=PA52#v=onepage&q&f=false African Foreign Policy and Diplomacy: From Antiquity to the 21st Century]'', (ABC-CLIO: 2010).</ref> is a large [[language family]] of several hundred related languages and dialects. It comprises about 300 or so living languages and dialects, according to the 2009 [[Ethnologue]] estimate.<ref name="ethnologue.com">[http://www.ethnologue.com/show_family.asp?subid=52-16 Ethnologue family tree for Afroasiatic languages]</ref> It includes languages spoken predominantly in the [[Middle East]], [[North Africa]], the [[Horn of Africa]], and parts of the [[Sahel]]. Afroasiatic languages have 350+ million native speakers, the fourth largest number of any language family.<ref>[http://www.ethnologue.com/statistics/family Summary by language family]</ref> It has six branches: [[Berber languages|Berber]], [[Chadic languages|Chadic]], [[Cushitic languages|Cushitic]], [[Egyptian language|Egyptian]], [[Omotic languages|Omotic]] and [[Semitic languages|Semitic]]. The most widely spoken Afroasiatic language is [[Arabic language|Arabic]], including literary Arabic and the spoken [[Varieties of Arabic|colloquial varieties]]. It has around 200 to 230 million native speakers concentrated primarily in the Middle East, North Africa, the Horn of Africa, and Malta.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=PxJrB_OKn04C&printsec=frontcover#PPA27,M1 Languages of the World]</ref> [[Central Atlas Tamazight|Tamazight]] and other Berber varieties are spoken in [[Morocco]], [[Algeria]], [[Libya]], [[Tunisia]], northern [[Mali]], and northern [[Niger]] by about 25 to 35 million people. Other widely spoken Afroasiatic languages include: * [[Hausa language|Hausa]], the dominant language of northern Nigeria and southern Niger, spoken as a first language by 25 million people and used as a ''[[lingua franca]]'' by another 20 million across West Africa and the [[Sahel]]<ref name="ethnologue-hau">[http://www.ethnologue.com/show_language.asp?code=hau Ethnologue - Hausa]</ref> * [[Oromo language|Oromo]] of [[Ethiopia]] and [[Kenya]], with about 33 million speakers total * [[Amharic language|Amharic]] of [[Ethiopia]], with over 25 million native speakers in addition to millions of other Ethiopians speaking it as a second language * [[Somali language|Somali]], spoken by 15.5 million people in [[Greater Somalia]] * [[Modern Hebrew]], spoken by around seven million people worldwide * [[Modern Aramaic]], spoken by about 550,000 people worldwide.<ref name="Nordhoff, Sebastian 2013">Nordhoff, Sebastian; Hammarström, Harald; Forkel, Robert; Haspelmath, Martin, eds. (2013). "Northeastern Neo-Aramaic". Glottolog 2.2. Leipzig: Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology.</ref> This is not just one language — It includes a number of [[variety (linguistics)|subdivisions]], with [[Assyrian Neo-Aramaic]] being the most spoken variety (232,300).<ref>Beyer, Klaus; John F. Healey (trans.) (1986). The Aramaic Language: its distribution and subdivisions. Göttingen: Vandenhoeck und Ruprecht. p. 44. ISBN 3-525-53573-2.</ref> In addition to languages spoken today, Afroasiatic includes several important ancient languages, such as [[Egyptian language|Ancient Egyptian]], [[Akkadian language|Akkadian]], [[Biblical Hebrew]], and [[Old Aramaic]]. It is uncertain when or where the original homeland of the Afroasiatic family existed. Proposed locations include North Africa, the Horn of Africa, the Eastern Sahara, and the Levant. ==Etymology== The Afroasiatic language family was originally referred to as "[[Ham (son of Noah)|Ham]]ito-[[Shem|Sem]]itic", a term introduced in the 1860s by the German scholar [[Karl Richard Lepsius]].<ref name=NEB>{{cite book|title=The New Encyclopædia Britannica, Volume 8; Volume 22|year=1998|publisher=Encyclopædia Britannica|isbn=0-85229-633-9|pages=722|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6-lMAQAAIAAJ}}</ref> The name was later popularized by [[Friedrich Müller (linguist)|Friedrich Müller]] in his ''Grundriss der Sprachwissenschaft'' (Vienna 1876-88).<ref>Friedrich Müller (1884) [https://books.google.com/books?id=RmgKAAAAIAAJ ''Grundriss der Sprachwissenschaft''], Vol. 3, Alfred Hölder, Vienna</ref><ref name="Lipiński">{{cite book|last=Lipiński|first=Edward|title=Semitic Languages: Outline of a Comparative Grammar|year=2001|publisher=Peeters Publishers|isbn=90-429-0815-7|pages=21–22|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IiXVqyEkPKcC&pg=PA21#v=onepage&q&f=false}}</ref> The term "Afroasiatic" (often now spelled as "Afro-Asiatic") was later coined by [[Maurice Delafosse]] (1914). However, it did not come into general use until [[Joseph Greenberg]] (1950) formally proposed its adoption. In doing so, Greenberg sought to emphasize the fact that Afroasiatic was represented transcontinentally, in both Africa and Asia.<ref name="Lipiński" /> Individual scholars have also called the family "Erythraean" (Tucker 1966) and "Lisramic" (Hodge 1972). In lieu of "Hamito-Semitic", the Russian linguist [[Igor Diakonoff]] later suggested the term "Afrasian", meaning "half African, half Asiatic", in reference to the geographic distribution of the family's constituent languages.<ref name=NEB/> The term "Hamito-Semitic" remains in use in the academic traditions of some European countries. ==Distribution and branches== [[Image:afroasiatic.svg|thumb|right|500px|Some linguists' proposals for grouping within Afroasiatic]] The Afroasiatic language family is usually considered to include the following branches: * [[Berber languages|Berber]] * [[Chadic languages|Chadic]] * [[Cushitic languages|Cushitic]] * [[Egyptian language|Egyptian]] * [[Omotic languages|Omotic]] * [[Semitic languages|Semitic]] Although there is general agreement on these six families, there are some points of disagreement among [[linguistics|linguists]] who study Afroasiatic. In particular: * The [[Omotic]] language branch is the most controversial member of Afroasiatic, because the grammatical formatives that most linguists have given greatest weight in classifying languages in the family "are either absent or distinctly wobbly" (Hayward 1995). Greenberg (1963) and others considered it a subgroup of Cushitic, whereas others have raised doubts about it being part of Afroasiatic at all (e.g. Theil 2006).<ref name="Sands2009">Sands, Bonny (2009). "Africa’s Linguistic Diversity". Language and Linguistics Compass 3/2 (2009): 559–580, 10.1111/j.1749-818x.2008.00124.x</ref> * The Afroasiatic identity of [[Ongota language|Ongota]] is also broadly questioned, as is its position within Afroasiatic among those who accept it, due to the "mixed" appearance of the language and a paucity of research and data. [[Harold C. Fleming|Harold Fleming]] (2006) proposes that Ongota constitutes a separate branch of Afroasiatic.<ref>[http://www.harrassowitz-verlag.de/pcgi/a.cgi?ausgabe=index&T=1235007315045{haupt_harrassowitz=http://www.harrassowitz-verlag.de/title_3277.ahtml?T=1235007315045} Harrassowitz Verlag - The Harrassowitz Publishing House<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> Bonny Sands (2009) believes the most convincing proposal is by Savà and Tosco (2003), namely that Ongota is an East Cushitic language with a [[Nilo-Saharan languages|Nilo-Saharan]] [[substratum]]. In other words, it would appear that the Ongota people once spoke a Nilo-Saharan language but then shifted to speaking a Cushitic language but retained some characteristics of their earlier Nilo-Saharan language.<ref name="Sands2009"/> * [[Beja language|Beja]] is sometimes listed as a separate branch of Afroasiatic but is more often included in the Cushitic branch, which has a high degree of internal diversity. * Whether the various branches of Cushitic actually form a language family is sometimes questioned, but not their inclusion in Afroasiatic itself. * There is no consensus on the interrelationships of the five non-Omotic branches of Afroasiatic (see "Subgrouping" below). This situation is not unusual, even among long-established language families: there are also many disagreements concerning the internal classification of the [[Indo-European languages]], for instance. * [[Meroitic language|Meroitic]] has been proposed as an unclassified Afroasiatic language, because it shares the [[phonotactics]] characteristic of the family, but there is not enough evidence to secure a classification. ==Classification history==<!-- This section is linked from [[Berber people]] --> In the 9th century, the Hebrew grammarian [[Judah ibn Kuraish|Judah ibn Quraysh]] of [[Tiaret]] in [[Algeria]] was the first to link two branches of Afroasiatic together; he perceived a relationship between Berber and Semitic. He knew of Semitic through his study of Arabic, Hebrew, and [[Aramaic]]. In the course of the 19th century, Europeans also began suggesting such relationships. In 1844, [[Theodor Benfey]] suggested a language family consisting of Semitic, Berber, and Cushitic (calling the latter "Ethiopic"). In the same year, T.N. Newman suggested a relationship between Semitic and Hausa, but this would long remain a topic of dispute and uncertainty. [[Friedrich Müller (linguist)|Friedrich Müller]] named the traditional "Hamito-Semitic" family in 1876 in his ''Grundriss der Sprachwissenschaft''. He defined it as consisting of a Semitic group plus a "Hamitic" group containing Egyptian, Berber, and Cushitic; he excluded the Chadic group. These classifications relied in part on non-linguistic anthropological and racial arguments that have largely been discredited (see [[Hamitic hypothesis]]). Leo Reinisch (1909) proposed linking Cushitic and Chadic, while urging a more distant affinity to Egyptian and Semitic, thus foreshadowing Greenberg, but his suggestion found little resonance. [[Marcel Cohen]] (1924) rejected the idea of a distinct Hamitic subgroup and included Hausa (a Chadic language) in his comparative Hamito-Semitic vocabulary. [[Joseph Greenberg]] (1950) strongly confirmed Cohen's rejection of "Hamitic", added (and sub-classified) the Chadic branch, and proposed the new name "Afroasiatic" for the family. Nearly all scholars have accepted Greenberg's classification. In 1969, [[Harold C. Fleming|Harold Fleming]] proposed that what had previously been known as Western Cushitic is an independent branch of Afroasiatic, suggesting for it the new name [[Omotic languages|Omotic]]. This proposal and name have met with widespread acceptance. Several scholars, including Harold Fleming and [[Robert Hetzron]], have since questioned the traditional inclusion of Beja in Cushitic. ''[[Glottolog]]'' does not accept that the inclusion or even unity of Omotic has been established, nor that of Ongota or the unclassified Kujarge, and so splits off the following groups as small families: :[[South Omotic languages|South Omotic]], [[Mao languages|Mao]], [[Dizoid languages|Dizoid]], [[Gonga–Gimojan languages|Gonga–Gimojan]] (North Omotic apart from the preceding), [[Ongota language|Ongota]], [[Kujarge language|Kujarge]]. ===Subgrouping=== {| class="wikitable" style="font-size:smaller; float:right;" |+ Proposed Afroasiatic sub-divisions |- ! Greenberg (1963) !! Newman (1980) !! Fleming (post-1981) !! Ehret (1995) |- style="vertical-align:top;" | * Semitic * Egyptian * Berber * Cushitic ** Northern Cushitic<br />(equals Beja) ** Central Cushitic ** Eastern Cushitic ** Western Cushitic<br />(equals Omotic) ** Southern Cushitic * Chadic | * Berber–Chadic * Egypto-Semitic * Cushitic (excludes Omotic) | * Omotic * Erythraean ** Cushitic ** Ongota ** Non-Ethiopian *** Chadic *** Berber *** Egyptian *** Semitic *** Beja | * Omotic ** North Omotic ** South Omotic * Erythrean ** Cushitic *** Beja *** Agaw *** East–South Cushitic **** Eastern Cushitic **** Southern Cushitic ** North Erythrean *** Chadic *** Boreafrasian **** Egyptian **** Berber **** Semitic |- ! Orel & Stobova (1995) !! Diakonoff (1996) !! Bender (1997) !! Militarev (2000) |- style="vertical-align:top;" | * Berber–Semitic * Chadic–Egyptian * Omotic * Beja * Agaw * Sidamic * East Lowlands * Rift | * East–West Afrasian ** Berber ** Cushitic ** Semitic * North–South Afrasian ** Chadic ** Egyptian (excludes Omotic) | * Omotic * Chadic * Macro-Cushitic ** Berber ** Cushitic ** Semitic | * North Afrasian ** African North Afrasian *** Chado-Berber *** Egyptian ** Semitic * South Afrasian ** Omotic ** Cushitic |} Little agreement exists on the [[subgrouping (linguistics)|subgrouping]] of the five or six branches of Afroasiatic: Semitic, Egyptian, Berber, Chadic, Cushitic, and Omotic. However, [[Christopher Ehret]] (1979), Harold Fleming (1981), and Joseph Greenberg (1981) all agree that the Omotic branch split from the rest first. Otherwise: * [[Paul Newman (linguist)|Paul Newman]] (1980) groups Berber with Chadic and Egyptian with Semitic, while questioning the inclusion of Omotic in Afroasiatic. Rolf Theil (2006) concurs with the exclusion of Omotic, but does not otherwise address the structure of the family.<ref>[http://www.uio.no/studier/emner/hf/iln/LING2110/v07/THEIL%20Is%20Omotic%20Afroasiatic.pdf Is Omotic Afroasiatic? (In Norwegian)]</ref> * Harold Fleming (1981) divides non-Omotic Afroasiatic, or "Erythraean", into three groups, Cushitic, Semitic, and Chadic-Berber-Egyptian. He later added Semitic and Beja to Chadic-Berber-Egyptian and tentatively proposed [[Ongota language|Ongota]] as a new third branch of Erythraean. He thus divided Afroasiatic into two major branches, Omotic and Erythraean, with Erythraean consisting of three sub-branches, Cushitic, Chadic-Berber-Egyptian-Semitic-Beja, and Ongota. * Like Harold Fleming, [[Christopher Ehret]] (1995: 490) divides Afroasiatic into two branches, Omotic and Erythrean. He divides Omotic into two branches, North Omotic and South Omotic. He divides Erythrean into Cushitic, comprising Beja, Agaw, and East-South Cushitic, and North Erythrean, comprising Chadic and "Boreafrasian." According to his classification, Boreafrasian consists of Egyptian, Berber, and Semitic. * [[Vladimir Orel]] and Olga Stolbova (1995) group Berber with Semitic and Chadic with Egyptian. They split up Cushitic into five or more independent branches of Afroasiatic, viewing Cushitic as a [[Sprachbund]] rather than a [[language family]]. * [[Igor M. Diakonoff]] (1996) subdivides Afroasiatic in two, grouping Berber, Cushitic, and Semitic together as East-West Afrasian (ESA), and Chadic with Egyptian as North-South Afrasian (NSA). He excludes Omotic from Afroasiatic. * [[Lionel Bender (linguist)|Lionel Bender]] (1997) groups Berber, Cushitic, and Semitic together as "Macro-Cushitic". He regards Chadic and Omotic as the branches of Afroasiatic most remote from the others. * Alexander Militarev (2000), on the basis of [[lexicostatistics]], groups Berber with Chadic and both more distantly with Semitic, as against Cushitic and Omotic. He places Ongota in South Omotic. ==Position among the world's languages== Afroasiatic is one of the four [[Languages of Africa|language families of Africa]] identified by Joseph Greenberg in his book ''[[The Languages of Africa]]'' (1963). It is the only one that extends outside of Africa, via the Semitic branch. There are no generally accepted relations between Afroasiatic and any other language family. However, several proposals grouping Afroasiatic with one or more other language families have been made. The best-known of these are the following: * [[Hermann Möller]] (1906) argued for a relation between [[Semitic languages|Semitic]] and the [[Indo-European languages]]. This proposal was accepted by a few linguists (e.g. [[Holger Pedersen (linguist)|Holger Pedersen]] and [[Louis Hjelmslev]]). (For a fuller account, see [[Indo-Semitic languages]].) However, the theory has little currency today, although most linguists do not deny the existence of grammatical similarities between both families (such as grammatical gender, noun-adjective agreement, three-way number distinction, and vowel alternation as a means of derivation). * Apparently influenced by Möller (a colleague of his at the [[University of Copenhagen]]), [[Holger Pedersen (linguist)|Holger Pedersen]] included Hamito-Semitic (the term replaced by Afroasiatic) in his proposed Nostratic macro-family (cf. Pedersen 1931:336–338), also included the Indo-European, [[Uralic languages|Uralic]], [[Altaic languages|Altaic]], [[Yukaghir languages]], and [[Dravidian Languages]]. This inclusion was retained by subsequent Nostraticists, starting with [[Vladislav Illich-Svitych]] and [[Aharon Dolgopolsky]]. * [[Joseph Greenberg]] (2000–2002) did not reject a relationship of Afroasiatic to these other languages, but he considered it more distantly related to them than they were to each other, grouping instead these other languages in a separate macro-family, which he called [[Eurasiatic languages|Eurasiatic]], and to which he added [[Chukotko-Kamchatkan languages|Chukotian]], [[Nivkh language|Gilyak]], [[Korean language|Korean]], [[Japonic languages|Japanese-Ryukyuan]], [[Eskimo–Aleut languages|Eskimo–Aleut]], and [[Ainu languages|Ainu]]. * Most recently, [[Sergei Anatolyevich Starostin|Sergei Starostin]]'s school has accepted Eurasiatic as a subgroup of Nostratic, with Afroasiatic, Dravidian and Kartvelian in Nostratic outside of Eurasiatic. The even larger Borean super-family contains Nostratic as well as [[Dené–Caucasian languages|Dené-Caucasian]] and [[Austric languages|Austric]]. ==Date of Afroasiatic== [[File:Assyriansample.ogg|thumb|right|180px|Speech sample in the Semitic [[Assyrian Neo-Aramaic|Neo-Aramaic]] language, a descendant of [[Old Aramaic]].]] The earliest written evidence of an Afroasiatic language is an [[Egyptian language|Ancient Egyptian]] inscription of c. 3400 BC (5,400 years ago).<ref>[http://www.archaeology.org/9903/newsbriefs/egypt.html Earliest Egyptian Glyphs<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> Symbols on [[Gerzeh culture|Gerzean]] pottery resembling [[Egyptian hieroglyphs#History and evolution|Egyptian hieroglyphs]] date back to c. 4000 BC, suggesting an earlier possible dating. This gives us a minimum date for the age of Afroasiatic. However, Ancient Egyptian is highly divergent from [[Proto-Afroasiatic language|Proto-Afroasiatic]] (Trombetti 1905: 1–2), and considerable time must have elapsed in between them. Estimates of the date at which the Proto-Afroasiatic language was spoken vary widely. They fall within a range between approximately 7,500 BC (9,500 years ago) and approximately 16,000 BC (18,000 years ago). According to [[Igor M. Diakonoff]] (1988: 33n), Proto-Afroasiatic was spoken [[circa|c.]] 10,000 BC. Christopher Ehret (2002: 35–36) asserts that Proto-Afroasiatic was spoken c. 11,000 BC at the latest, and possibly as early as c. 16,000 BC. These dates are older than those associated with most other [[proto-language]]s. ==Afroasiatic Urheimat== {{main|Afroasiatic Urheimat}} [[File:Expansion of Afroasiatic.svg|thumb|upright|Map showing one of the proposed Afroasiatic Urheimat.]] The term Afroasiatic Urheimat (''Urheimat'' meaning "original homeland" in German) refers to the 'hypothetical' place where [[Proto-Afroasiatic]] speakers lived in a single linguistic community, or complex of communities, before this original language dispersed geographically and divided into distinct languages. Afroasiatic languages are today primarily spoken in the Middle East, North Africa, the Horn of Africa, and parts of the Sahel. Their distribution seems to have been influenced by the [[Saharan pump theory|Saharan pump]] operating over the last 10,000 years. There is no agreement when or where the original homeland of this language family existed. Proposed locations include North Africa, the Horn of Africa, the Eastern Sahara,<ref name=blench2006>Blench R (2006) Archaeology, Language, and the African Past, Rowman Altamira, ISBN 0-7591-0466-2, ISBN 978-0-7591-0466-2, https://books.google.com/books?id=esFy3Po57A8C</ref><ref name=Ehret2004>Ehret C, Keita SOY, Newman P (2004) The Origins of Afroasiatic a response to Diamond and Bellwood (2003) in the Letters of SCIENCE 306, no. 5702, p. 1680 DOI: 10.1126/science.306.5702.1680c</ref><ref name=bernal1987>Bernal M (1987) Black Athena: the Afroasiatic roots of classical civilization, Rutgers University Press, ISBN 0-8135-3655-3, ISBN 978-0-8135-3655-2. https://books.google.com/books?id=yFLm_M_OdK4C</ref><ref name=bender1997>Bender ML (1997), Upside Down Afrasian, Afrikanistische Arbeitspapiere 50, pp. 19-34</ref><ref name=militarev2005>Militarev A (2005) [http://starling.rinet.ru/Texts/fleming.pdf Once more about glottochronology and comparative method: the Omotic-Afrasian case, Аспекты компаративистики - 1 (Aspects of comparative linguistics - 1)]. FS S. Starostin. Orientalia et Classica II (Moscow), p. 339-408.</ref> and the Levant.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.nl/books?id=5wKT-5SOAKQC&pg=PA73#v=onepage&q&f=false|title= Quantitative Approaches to Linguistic Diversity: Commemorating the Centenary of the Birth of Morris Swadesh|page= 73}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.nl/books?id=lyhvaJq2biEC&pg=PA27#v=onepage&q&f=false|title= Transition to Modernity: Essays on Power, Wealth and Belief|author= John A. Hall, I. C. Jarvie| page=27|year= 2005}}</ref> ==Similarities in grammar and syntax== {| class="wikitable" style="float:right; font-size:smaller;" |+ Verbal paradigms in several Afroasiatic languages: |- ! rowspan="3" | ↓ [[Number (grammar)|Number]] ! Language → ! [[Arabic]] !! [[Coptic language|Coptic]] !! [[Kabyle language|Kabyle]] !! [[Somali language|Somali]] !! [[Beja language|Beja]] !! [[Hausa language|Hausa]] |- ! Verb → | katab || mou || afeg || || || |- ! Meaning → | write || die || fly || come || eat || drink |- |rowspan="5"| singular|| 1 || ''ʼaktubu'' || ''timou'' || ''ttafgeɣ'' | ''imaadaa'' || ''tamáni'' || ''ina shan'' |- | 2f || ''taktubīna'' || ''temou'' ||rowspan="2"| ''tettafgeḍ'' |rowspan="3"| ''timaadaa'' | ''tamtínii'' || ''kina shan'' |- | 2m ||rowspan="2"| ''taktubu'' || ''kmou'' || ''tamtíniya'' || ''kana shan'' |- | 3f || ''smou'' || ''tettafeg'' | ''tamtíni'' || ''tana shan'' |- | 3m || ''yaktubu'' || ''fmou'' || ''yettafeg'' | ''yimaadaa'' || ''tamíni'' || ''yana shan'' |- |rowspan="3"| dual ||2 ||rowspan="2"| ''taktubāni'' ||colspan="5" rowspan="3"| |- | 3f |- | 3m || ''yaktubāni'' |- |rowspan="5"| plural|| 1 || ''naktubu'' || ''tənmou'' || ''nettafeg'' | ''nimaadnaa'' || ''támnay'' || ''muna shan'' |- | 2m || ''taktubūna'' ||rowspan="2"| ''tetənmou'' || ''tettafgem'' |rowspan="2"| ''timaadaan'' ||rowspan="2"| ''támteena'' ||rowspan="2"| ''kuna shan'' |- | 2f || ''taktubna'' || ''tettafgemt'' |- | 3m || ''yaktubūna'' ||rowspan="2"| ''semou'' || ''ttafgen'' |rowspan="2"| ''yimaadaan'' ||rowspan="2"| ''támeen'' ||rowspan="2"| ''suna shan'' |- | 3f || ''yaktubna'' || ''ttafgent'' |} Widespread (though not universal) features of the Afroasiatic languages include: * A set of [[emphatic consonant]]s, variously realized as glottalized, pharyngealized, or implosive. * [[Verb–subject–object|VSO]] [[linguistic typology|typology]] with [[subject–verb–object|SVO]] tendencies. * A two-[[grammatical gender|gender]] system in the singular, with the feminine marked by the sound /t/. * All Afroasiatic subfamilies show evidence of a [[causative]] affix ''s''. * Semitic, Berber, Cushitic (including Beja), and Chadic support [[possessive suffix]]es. * [[Morphology (linguistics)|Morphology]] in which words inflect by changes within the root (vowel changes or [[gemination]]) as well as with prefixes and suffixes. One of the most remarkable shared features among the Afroasiatic languages is the prefixing verb conjugation (see table above), with a distinctive pattern of prefixes beginning with /ʔ t n y/, and in particular a pattern whereby third-singular masculine /y-/ is opposed to third-singular feminine and second-singular /t-/. According to Ehret (1996), [[tonal language]]s appear in the Omotic and Chadic branches of Afroasiatic, as well as in certain Cushitic languages. The Semitic, Berber and Egyptian branches generally do not use tones [[phoneme|phonemically]]. ==Shared vocabulary== <!-- One sound sample per phylum - alphabetical --> [[File:Tamazightchelha.ogg|thumb|right|180px|Speech sample in [[Shilha language|Shilha]] ([[Berber languages|Berber]] branch).]] [[File:Shaxmednuradc1.ogg|thumb|right|180px|Speech sample in [[Somali language|Somali]] ([[Cushitic languages|Cushitic]] branch).]] [[File:Poem by Abu 'ala al-Ma'arri ("I no longer steal from nature") read in Arabic.ogg|thumb|right|180px|Speech sample in [[Arabic language|Arabic]] ([[Semitic languages|Semitic]] branch).]] The following are some examples of Afroasiatic [[cognate]]s, including ten [[pronoun]]s, three [[noun]]s, and three [[verb]]s. :''Source:'' Christopher Ehret, ''Reconstructing Proto-Afroasiatic'' (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1995). :''Note:'' Ehret does not make use of Berber in his etymologies, stating (1995: 12): "the kind of extensive reconstruction of proto-Berber lexicon that might help in sorting through alternative possible etymologies is not yet available." The Berber cognates here are taken from previous version of table in this article and need to be completed and referenced. :''Abbreviations:'' NOm = 'North Omotic', SOm = 'South Omotic'. MSA = 'Modern South Arabian', PSC = 'Proto-Southern Cushitic', PSom-II = 'Proto-Somali, stage 2'. masc. = 'masculine', fem. = 'feminine', sing. = 'singular', pl. = 'plural'. 1s. = 'first person singular', 2s. = 'second person singular'. :''Symbols:'' Following Ehret (1995: 70), a [[caron]] ˇ over a vowel indicates rising [[Tone (linguistics)|tone]], and a [[circumflex]] ^ over a vowel indicates falling tone. V indicates a [[vowel]] of unknown timbre. Ɂ indicates a [[glottal stop]]. * indicates [[Linguistic reconstruction|reconstructed forms]] based on [[Comparative method (linguistics)|comparison of related languages]]. {| class="wikitable" |- ! Proto-Afroasiatic !! Omotic !! Cushitic !! Chadic !! Egyptian !! Semitic !! Berber |- | '''*Ɂân-''' / '''*Ɂîn-''' or '''*ân-''' / '''*în-''' ‘I’ (independent pronoun) || *'''in-''' ‘I’ ([[Dizin language|Maji]] ([[North Omotic languages|NOm]])) || '''*Ɂâni''' ‘I’ || '''*nV''' ‘I’ || '''ink''' 'I' || '''*Ɂn''' ‘I’ || '''nek''' / '''nec''' "I, me" |- | '''*i''' or '''*yi''' ‘me, my’ ([[Bound variable pronoun|bound]]) || '''i''' ‘I, me, my’ ([[Aari language|Ari]] ([[South Omotic languages|SOm]])) || '''*i''' or '''*yi''' ‘my’ || '''*i''' ‘me, my’ ([[Bound variable pronoun|bound]]) || '''-i''' (1s. suffix) || '''*-i''' ‘me, my’ ||''' inu''' / '''nnu''' / '''iw''' "my" |- | '''*Ɂǎnn-''' / '''*Ɂǐnn-''' or '''*ǎnn-''' / '''*ǐnn-''' ‘we’ || '''*nona''' / '''*nuna''' / '''*nina''' (NOm) || '''*Ɂǎnn-''' / '''*Ɂǐnn-''' ‘we’ ||—|| '''inn''' ‘we’ || '''*Ɂnn''' ‘we’ || '''nekni''' / '''necnin''' / '''neccin''' "we" |- | '''*Ɂânt-''' / '''*Ɂînt-''' or '''*ânt-''' / '''*înt-''' ‘you’ (sing.) || '''*int-''' ‘you’ (sing.) || '''*Ɂânt-''' ‘you’ (sing.) ||—||''' ntt ''' IInd pers fem || '''*Ɂnt''' ‘you’ (sing.) || '''netta''' "he" ('''keyy''' / '''cek''' "you" (masc. sing.)) |- | '''*ku''', '''*ka''' ‘you’ (masc. sing., [[Bound variable pronoun|bound]]) ||—|| '''*ku''' ‘your’ (masc. sing.) ([[South Cushitic languages|PSC]]) || '''*ka''', '''*ku''' (masc. sing.) || '''-k''' (2s. masc. suffix) || '''-ka''' (2s. masc. suffix) ([[Arabic language|Arabic]]) || '''inek''' / '''nnek''' / '''-k''' "your" (masc. sing.) |- | '''*ki''' ‘you’ (fem. sing., [[Bound variable pronoun|bound]]) ||—|| '''*ki''' ‘your’ (fem. sing.) || '''*ki''' ‘you’ (fem. sing.) || '''-ṯ''' (fem. sing. suffix, < *''ki'') || '''-ki''' (2s. fem. sing. suffix) (Arabic) || '''-m''' / '''nnem''' / '''inem''' "your" (fem. sing.) |- | '''*kūna''' ‘you’ (plural, [[Bound variable pronoun|bound]]) ||—|| '''*kuna''' ‘your’ (pl.) (PSC) || '''*kun''' ‘you’ (pl.) || '''-ṯn''' ‘you’ (pl.) || '''*-kn''' ‘you, your’ (fem. pl.) || '''-kent''', '''kennint''' "you" (fem. pl.) |- | '''*si''', '''*isi''' ‘he, she, it’ || '''*is-''' ‘he’ || '''*Ɂusu''' ‘he’, '''*Ɂisi''' ‘she’ || '''*sV''' ‘he’ || '''sw''' ‘he, him’, '''sy''' ‘she, her’ || '''*-šɁ''' ‘he’, '''*-sɁ''' ‘she’ ([[Modern South Arabian languages|MSA]]) || '''-s''' / '''nnes''' / '''ines''' "his/her/its" |- | '''*ma''', '''*mi''' ‘what?’ || '''*ma-''' ‘what?’ (NOm) || '''*ma''', '''*mi''' (interr. root) || '''*mi''', '''*ma''' ‘what?’ || '''m''' ‘what?’, ‘who?’ || '''mā''' (Arabic) / '''mu?''' (Assyrian) ‘what?’ || '''ma?''' / '''mayen?''' / '''min?''' "what?" |- | '''*wa''', '''*wi''' ‘what?’ || '''*w-''' ‘what?’ || '''*wä''' / '''*wɨ''' ‘what?’ ([[Agaw languages|Agaw]]) || '''*wa''' ‘who?’ || '''wy''' ‘how ...!’ || || '''mamek?''' / '''mamec?''' / '''amek?''' "how? |- | '''*dîm-''' / '''*dâm-''' ‘blood’ || '''*dam-''' ‘blood’ ([[Gonga languages|Gonga]]) || '''*dîm-''' / '''*dâm-''' ‘red’ || '''*d-m-''' ‘blood’ ([[West Chadic languages|West Chadic]]) || '''i-dm-i''' ‘red linen’ || '''*dm''' / '''dǝma''' (Assyrian) ‘blood’ || '''idammen''' "bloods" |- | '''*îts''' ‘brother’ || '''*itsim-''' ‘brother’ || '''*itsan''' or '''*isan''' ‘brother’ || '''*sin''' ‘brother’ || '''sn''' ‘brother’ || '''ax''' "brother"|| '''uma''' / '''gʷma''' "brother" |- | '''*sǔm''' / '''*sǐm-''' ‘name’ || '''*sum'''('''ts''')'''-''' ‘name’ (NOm) || '''*sǔm''' / '''*sǐm-''' ‘name’ || '''*ṣǝm''' ‘name’ || '''smi''' ‘to report, announce’ || '''*ism''' (Arabic) / '''shǝma''' (Assyrian) ‘name’ || '''isen''' / '''isem''' "name" |- | '''*-lisʼ-''' ‘to lick’ || '''litsʼ-''' ‘to lick’ ([[Dime language|Dime]] (SOm)) ||—|| '''*alǝsi''' ‘tongue’ || '''ns''' ‘tongue’ || '''*lsn''' ‘tongue’ || '''iles''' "tongue" |- | '''*-maaw-''' ‘to die’ ||—|| '''*-umaaw-''' / '''*-am-w'''('''t''')'''-''' ‘to die’ ([[Somali language|PSom-II]]) || '''*mǝtǝ''' ‘to die’ || '''mwt''' ‘to die’ || '''*mwt''' / '''mawta''' (Assyrian) ‘to die’ || '''mmet''' "to die" |- | '''*-bǐn-''' ‘to build, to create; house’ || '''bin-''' ‘to build, create’ (Dime (SOm)) || '''*mǐn-''' / '''*mǎn-''' ‘house’; '''man-''' ‘to create’ ([[Beja language|Beja]]) || '''*bn''' ‘to build’; '''*bǝn-''' ‘house’ ||—|| '''*bnn''' / '''bani''' (Assyrian) ‘to build’ || '''*bn'''(?) ('''esk''' "to build") |- |} There are two etymological dictionaries of Afroasiatic, one by Christopher Ehret, and one by Vladimir Orel and Olga Stolbova. The two dictionaries disagree on almost everything. The following table contains the thirty roots or so (out of thousands) that represent a fragile consensus of present research: <!-- Present in tabular form 1 *ʔab ''Father ''Semitic, Berber, Chadic, Cushitic<br /> 2 (ʔa-)bVr ''Bull'' Semitic, Egyptian, Chadic, Cushitic<br /> 3 (ʔa-)dVm ''Red ; blood ''Semitic, Berber, Chadic, Cushitic<br /> 4 *(ʔa-)dVm ''Land, field, soil'' Semitic, Chadic. <br /> 5 ʔa-pay- ''mouth'' Semitic, Cushitic, Chadic <br /> 6 ʔigar/ *ḳʷar- ''house, enclosure'' Semitic, Berber, Chadic, Cushitic. <br /> 7 *ʔil- ''eye ''Berber, Chadic, Cushitic. <br /> 8 (ʔi-)sim-''name ''Semitic, Berber, Chadic. <br /> 9 *ʕayn- ''eye ''Semitic, Egyptian <br /> 10 *baʔ- ''go'' Semitic, Chadic Cushitic <br /> 11 *bar- ''son ''Semitic, Berber, Chadic <br /> 12 *gamm- ''Mane, beard ''Semitic, Chadic, Cushitic <br /> 13 *gVn ''Cheek, chin'' Semitic, Chadic <br /> 14 *gʷarʕ- ''throat ''Semitic, Chadic, Cushitic <br /> 15 *gʷinaʕ-''Hand ''Chadic, Cushitic <br /> 16 *kVn- ''Co-wife'' Semitic, Berber, Chadic <br /> 17 *kʷaly ''kidney ''Semitic Chadic, Cushitic, Omotic <br /> 18 *ḳa(wa)l-/ *qʷar- ''Say, call'' Semitic, Chadic <br /> 19 *ḳas- ''bone ''Berber, Egyptian, Chadic <br /> 20 *libb ''heart ''Semitic, Chadic, Cushitic <br /> 21 *lis- ''tongue ''Semitic, Berber, Chadic <br /> 22 *maʔ- ''water ''Semitic, Egyptian, Chadic and Berber "''aman''"<br /> 23 *mawVt- ''To die'' Semitic, Berber, Egyptian, Chadic <br /> 24 *sin- ''tooth ''Semitic, Berber, Chadic <br /> 25 *siwan- ''Know ''Berber, Egyptian, Chadic <br /> 26 *inn- ''I, we'' Semitic, Egyptian, Berber, Cushitic <br /> 27 *-k- ''thou ''Semitic, Berber, Chadic, Cushitic <br /> 28 *zwr ''seed ''Semitic, Cushitic <br /> 29 *ŝVr ''root ''Semitic, Chadic <br /> 30 *šun ''to sleep, dream'' Semitic, Chadic --> {| class="wikitable" |- ! Number !! Proto-Afroasiatic Form !! Meaning !! Berber !! Chadic !! Cushitic !! Egyptian !! Omotic !! Semitic |- | 1 || *ʔab || father || ✔ || ✔ || ✔ || || || ✔ |- | 2 || (ʔa-)bVr || bull || || ✔ || ✔ || ✔ || || ✔ |- | 3 || (ʔa-)dVm || red, blood || ✔ || ✔ || ✔ || || || ✔ |- | 4 || *(ʔa-)dVm || land, field, soil || || ✔ || || || || ✔ |- | 5 || ʔa-pay- || mouth || || ✔ || ✔ || || || ✔ |- | 6 || ʔigar/ *ḳʷar- || house, enclosure || ✔ || ✔ || ✔ || || || ✔ |- | 7 || *ʔil- || eye || ✔ || ✔ || ✔ || || || |- | 8 || (ʔi-)sim- || name || ✔ || ✔ || || || || ✔ |- | 9 || *ʕayn- || eye || || || || ✔ || || ✔ |- | 10 || *baʔ- || go || || ✔ || ✔ || || || ✔ |- | 11 || *bar- || son || ✔ || ✔ || || || || ✔ |- | 12 || *gamm- || mane, beard || || ✔ || ✔ || || || ✔ |- | 13 || *gVn || cheek, chin || || ✔ || || || || ✔ |- | 14 || *gʷarʕ- || throat || || ✔ || ✔ || || || ✔ |- | 15 || *gʷinaʕ- || hand || || ✔ || ✔ || || || |- | 16 || *kVn- || co-wife || ✔ || ✔ || || || || ✔ |- | 17 || *kʷaly || kidney || || ✔ || ✔ || || ✔ || ✔ |- | 18 || *ḳa(wa)l-/ *qʷar- || to say, call || || ✔ || || || || ✔ |- | 19 || *ḳas- || bone || ✔ || ✔ || || ✔ || || |- | 20 || *libb || heart || || ✔ || ✔ || || || ✔ |- | 21 || *lis- || tongue || ✔ || ✔ || || || || ✔ |- | 22 || *maʔ- || water || *aman || *aman || || ✔ || || ✔ |- | 23 || *mawVt- || to die || ✔ || ✔ || || ✔ || || ✔ |- | 24 || *sin- || tooth || ✔ || ✔ || || || || ✔ |- | 25 || *siwan- || know || ✔ || ✔ || || ✔ || || |- | 26 || *inn- || I, we || ✔ || || ✔ || ✔ || || ✔ |- | 27 || *-k- || thou || ✔ || ✔ || ✔ || || || ✔ |- | 28 || *zwr || seed || || || ✔ || || || ✔ |- | 29 || *ŝVr || root || || ✔ || || || || ✔ |- | 30 || *šun || to sleep, dream || || ✔ || || || || ✔ |- |} ===Etymological bibliography=== Some of the main sources for Afroasiatic etymologies include: * Cohen, Marcel. 1947. ''Essai comparatif sur le vocabulaire et la phonétique du chamito-sémitique.'' Paris: Champion. * Diakonoff, Igor M. et al. 1993–1997. "Historical-comparative vocabulary of Afrasian", ''St. Petersburg Journal of African Studies'' 2–6. * Ehret, Christopher. 1995. ''Reconstructing Proto-Afroasiatic (Proto-Afrasian): Vowels, Tone, Consonants, and Vocabulary'' (= ''University of California Publications in Linguistics'' 126). Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press. * Orel, Vladimir E. and Olga V. Stolbova. 1995. ''Hamito-Semitic Etymological Dictionary: Materials for a Reconstruction.'' Leiden: Brill. ISBN 90-04-10051-2. ==See also== * [[Borean languages]] * [[Indo-European languages]] * [[Indo-Semitic languages]] * [[Languages of Africa]] * [[Languages of Asia]] * [[Languages of Europe]] * [[Nostratic languages]] * [[Proto-Afroasiatic language]] ==References== {{Reflist|30em}} ==Bibliography== * Anthony, David. 2007. ''[[The Horse, the Wheel, and Language: How Bronze-Age Riders from the Eurasian Steppes Shaped the Modern World]].'' Princeton: Princeton University Press. * Barnett, William and John Hoopes (editors). 1995. ''The Emergence of Pottery.'' Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution Press. ISBN 1-56098-517-8 * Bender, Lionel et al. 2003. ''Selected Comparative-Historical Afro-Asiatic Studies in Memory of Igor M. Diakonoff.'' LINCOM. * Bomhard, Alan R. 1996. ''Indo-European and the Nostratic Hypothesis.'' Signum. * Diakonoff, Igor M. 1988. ''Afrasian Languages.'' Moscow: Nauka. * Diakonoff, Igor M. 1996. "Some reflections on the Afrasian linguistic macrofamily." ''Journal of Near Eastern Studies'' 55, 293. * Diakonoff, Igor M. 1998. "The earliest Semitic society: Linguistic data." ''Journal of Semitic Studies'' 43, 209. * Dimmendaal, Gerrit, and Erhard Voeltz. 2007. "Africa". In Christopher Moseley, ed., ''Encyclopedia of the world's endangered languages''. * Ehret, Christopher. 1995. ''Reconstructing Proto-Afroasiatic (Proto-Afrasian): Vowels, Tone, Consonants, and Vocabulary.'' Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press. * Ehret, Christopher. 1997. [http://oi.uchicago.edu/OI/DEPT/RA/ABZU/NACAL_1997.html Abstract] of "The lessons of deep-time historical-comparative reconstruction in Afroasiatic: reflections on ''Reconstructing Proto-Afroasiatic: Vowels, Tone, Consonants, and Vocabulary'' (U.C. Press, 1995)", paper delivered at the Twenty-fifth Annual Meeting of the North American Conference on Afro-Asiatic Linguistics, held in Miami, Florida on 21–23 March 1997. * Finnegan, Ruth H. 1970. "Afro-Asiatic languages West Africa". ''Oral Literature in Africa'', pg 558. * Fleming, Harold C. 2006. ''Ongota: A Decisive Language in African Prehistory.'' Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz. * Greenberg, Joseph H. 1950. [http://mc1litvip.jstor.org/pss/3628690 "Studies in African linguistic classification: IV. Hamito-Semitic."] ''Southwestern Journal of Anthropology'' 6, 47-63. * Greenberg, Joseph H. 1955. ''Studies in African Linguistic Classification.'' New Haven: Compass Publishing Company. (Photo-offset reprint of the ''SJA'' articles with minor corrections.) * Greenberg, Joseph H. 1963. ''The Languages of Africa''. Bloomington: Indiana University. (Heavily revised version of Greenberg 1955.) * Greenberg, Joseph H. 1966. ''The Languages of Africa'' (2nd ed. with additions and corrections). Bloomington: Indiana University. * Greenberg, Joseph H. 1981. "African linguistic classification." ''General History of Africa, Volume 1: Methodology and African Prehistory'', edited by Joseph Ki-Zerbo, 292–308. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press. * Greenberg, Joseph H. 2000–2002. ''Indo-European and Its Closest Relatives: The Eurasiatic Language Family, Volume 1: Grammar, Volume 2: Lexicon.'' Stanford: Stanford University Press. * Hayward, R. J. 1995. "The challenge of Omotic: an inaugural lecture delivered on 17 February 1994". London: School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London. * Heine, Bernd and Derek Nurse. 2000. ''African Languages'', Chapter 4. Cambridge University Press. * Hodge, Carleton T. (editor). 1971. ''Afroasiatic: A Survey.'' The Hague – Paris: Mouton. * Hodge, Carleton T. 1991. "Indo-European and Afro-Asiatic." In Sydney M. Lamb and E. Douglas Mitchell (editors), ''Sprung from Some Common Source: Investigations into the Prehistory of Languages'', Stanford, California: Stanford University Press, 141–165. * Huehnergard, John. 2004. "Afro-Asiatic." In R.D. Woodard (editor), ''The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the World’s Ancient Languages'', Cambridge – New York, 2004, 138–159. * Militarev, Alexander. "Towards the genetic affiliation of Ongota, a nearly-extinct language of Ethiopia," 60 pp.&nbsp;In ''Orientalia et Classica: Papers of the Institute of Oriental and Classical Studies'', Issue 5. Мoscow. (Forthcoming.) * Newman, Paul. 1980. ''The Classification of Chadic within Afroasiatic.'' Leiden: Universitaire Pers Leiden. * Ruhlen, Merritt. 1991. ''A Guide to the World's Languages.'' Stanford, California: Stanford University Press. * Sands, Bonny. 2009. "Africa’s linguistic diversity". In ''Language and Linguistics Compass'' 3.2, 559–580. * Theil, R. 2006. [http://www.uio.no/studier/emner/hf/iln/LING2110/v07/THEIL%20Is%20Omotic%20Afroasiatic.pdf Is Omotic Afro-Asiatic?] Proceedings from the David Dwyer retirement symposium, Michigan State University, East Lansing, 21 October 2006. * Trombetti, Alfredo. 1905. ''L'Unità d'origine del linguaggio.'' Bologna: Luigi Beltrami. ==External links== * [http://multitree.org/codes/afas Afro-Asiatic] at the Linguist List MultiTree Project (not functional as of 2014): Genealogical trees attributed to Delafosse 1914, Greenberg 1950–1955, Greenberg 1963, Fleming 1976, Hodge 1976, Orel & Stolbova 1995, Diakonoff 1996–1998, Ehret 1995–2000, Hayward 2000, Militarev 2005, Blench 2006, and Fleming 2006 * [http://community.livejournal.com/terra_linguarum/95880.html Afro-Asiatic and Semitic genealogical trees], presented by Alexander Militarev at his talk "Genealogical classification of Afro-Asiatic languages according to the latest data" at the conference on the 70th anniversary of [[V.M. Illich-Svitych]], Moscow, 2004; [http://community.livejournal.com/terra_linguarum/95627.html short annotations of the talks given there] {{ru icon}} * [http://starling.rinet.ru/Texts/afrfarm.pdf The prehistory of a dispersal: the Proto-Afrasian (Afroasiatic) farming lexicon], by Alexander Militarev in "Examining the Farming/Language Dispersal Hypothesis", eds. P. Bellwood & C. Renfrew. (McDonald Institute Monographs.) Cambridge: McDonald Institute for Archaeological Research, 2002, p.&nbsp;135-50. * [http://starling.rinet.ru/Texts/fleming.pdf Once More About Glottochronology And The Comparative Method: The Omotic-Afrasian case], by Alexander Militarev in "Aspects of Comparative Linguistics", v. 1. Moscow: RSUH Publishers, 2005, pp.&nbsp;339–408. * [http://starling.rinet.ru/Texts/semroot.pdf Root Extension And Root Formation In Semitic And Afrasian], by Alexander Militarev in "Proceedings of the Barcelona Symposium on comparative Semitic", 19-20/11/2004. Aula Orientalis 23/1-2, 2005, pp.&nbsp;83–129. * [http://starling.rinet.ru/Texts/akkegypt.pdf Akkadian-Egyptian lexical matches], by Alexander Militarev in "Papers on Semitic and Afroasiatic Linguistics in Honor of Gene B. Gragg." Ed. by Cynthia L. Miller. Studies in Ancient Oriental Civilization 60. Chicago: The Oriental Institute, 2007, p.&nbsp;139-145. * [http://www.tufs.ac.jp/ts/personal/ratcliffe/comp%20&%20method-Ratcliffe.pdf A comparison of Orel-Stolbova's and Ehret's Afro-Asiatic reconstructions] * [http://www.uio.no/studier/emner/hf/iln/LING2110/v07/THEIL%20Is%20Omotic%20Afroasiatic.pdf "Is Omotic Afro-Asiatic?"] by Rolf Theil (2006) * [http://www.nacal.org NACAL] The North American Conference on Afroasiatic Linguistics, now in its 35th year * [http://www.rogerblench.info/Language/Afroasiatic/AAOP.htm Afro-Asiatic webpage] of [[Roger Blench]] (with [http://rogerblench.info/Language/Afroasiatic/General/AALIST.pdf family tree]). {{Afro-Asiatic languages|state=collapse}} {{Language families}} {{Authority control}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Afroasiatic Languages}} [[Category:Afroasiatic languages| ]] [[Category:Afroasiatic peoples| ]] [[Category:Language families]] j3so6rxtz0li1xnch0cm9c6hx0bzt5g 0 600 716989112 716060626 2016-04-25T02:26:24Z TheAbstracted 24914754 /* Foreign relations, defence, and security */ wikitext text/x-wiki {{distinguish|Andora}} {{other uses}} {{Use dmy dates|date=June 2013}} {{Use British English|date=June 2013}} {{Coord|42|30|N|1|30|E|display=title}} {{Infobox country |conventional_long_name = Principality of Andorra |native_name = ''{{small|{{native name|ca|Principat d'Andorra}}}}'' |common_name = Andorra |image_flag = Flag of Andorra.svg |image_coat = Coat of arms of Andorra.svg |symbol_type = Coat of arms |national_motto = ''Virtus Unita Fortior''<br/>{{small|United virtue is stronger}} |national_anthem = ''[[El Gran Carlemany]]''<br/>{{small|The Great Charlemagne}} |image_map = Location Andorra Europe.png |map_caption = {{map caption |location_color=center of green circle |region=Europe |region_color=dark grey |legend=Location Andorra Europe.png}} |capital = [[Andorra la Vella]] |latd = 42 |latm = 30 |latNS = N |longd = 1 |longm = 31 |longEW = E |largest_city = capital |official_languages = [[Catalan language|Catalan]]<sup>a</sup> |recognised_languages = {{hlist|[[Spanish language|Spanish]]|[[French language|French]]|[[Portuguese language|Portuguese]]}} |ethnic_groups = 49% [[List of Andorrans|Andorran]]<br/>24.6% [[Spaniards|Spanish]]<br/>14.3% [[Portuguese people|Portuguese]]<br/>3.9% [[French people|French]]<br/>8.2% others |ethnic_groups_year = 2012<ref name="cia"/> |demonym = [[List of Andorrans|Andorran]] |government_type = {{nowrap|[[Unitary state|Unitary]] [[Parliamentary system|parliamentary]]}} [[diarchy]] |leader_title1 = [[Co-Princes of Andorra|Co-Princes]] |leader_name1 = [[Joan Enric Vives Sicília]]<br/>[[François Hollande]] |leader_title2 = [[Governor-General|Representative]] |leader_name2 = [[Josep Maria Mauri]]<br/>[[Thierry Lataste]] |leader_title3 = [[Head of Government of Andorra|Prime Minister]] |leader_name3 = [[Antoni Martí]] |legislature = [[General Council (Andorra)|General Council]] |sovereignty_type = Independence |established_event1 = from [[Crown of Aragon|Aragon]] |established_date1 = [[Paréage of Andorra 1278|1278]] |established_event2 = from the [[Sègre (department)|French Empire]] |established_date2 = 1814 |area_km2 = 467.63 |area_sq_mi = 180.55 |area_rank = 179th |percent_water = 0.26 (121.4 [[hectares|ha]]<!-- Not including areas of rivers -->)<sup>b</sup> |population_estimate = 85,470 |population_estimate_year = 2014 |population_census_year = 2014 |population_density_km2 = 179.8 |population_density_sq_mi = 465.7 |population_density_rank = 71st |GDP_nominal_year = 2008 |GDP_nominal = $4.510 billion<ref name="Departament d'estadística">{{cite web |url=http://www.estadistica.ad/serveiestudis/web/banc_dades4.asp?lang=1&codi_tema=3&codi_divisio=1098&codi_subtemes=155 |title=Andorra 2008, Departament d'estadística d'Andorra |publisher=Estadistica.ad |accessdate=26 August 2012}}</ref> |GDP_nominal_rank = 155th |GDP_nominal_per_capita = $53,383<ref name="andgdp">[http://www.creditandorra.ad/pdf/CreditXifres/2008/xifres_ANG_2008.pdf ] {{wayback |url=http://www.creditandorra.ad/pdf/CreditXifres/2008/xifres_ANG_2008.pdf |date=20110812101130}}</ref> |GDP_nominal_per_capita_rank = 9th |Gini_year = 2003 |Gini = 27.21 |Gini_ref = <sup>c</sup> |HDI_year = 2014<!-- Please use the year to which the data refers, not the publication year --> |HDI_change = increase<!-- increase/decrease/steady --> |HDI = 0.845<!-- number only --> |HDI_ref = <ref name="HDI">{{cite web |url=http://hdr.undp.org/sites/default/files/hdr_2015_statistical_annex.pdf|title=HUMAN DEVELOPMENT REPORT 2015 - Statistical annex|year=2015 |publisher=United Nations |deadurl=no |accessdate=14 December 2015}}</ref> |HDI_rank = 34th |currency = [[Euro]]<sup>d</sup> |currency_code = EUR |time_zone = [[Central European Time|CET]] |utc_offset = +1 |time_zone_DST = [[Central European Summer Time|CEST]] |utc_offset_DST = +2 |drives_on = right |calling_code = [[Telephone numbers in Andorra|+376]] |cctld = [[.ad]]<sup>e</sup> |footnote_a = [http://www.andorramania.com/constit_gb.htm Constitution of Andorra], Article 2.1. Spanish, French, and [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]] are also widely spoken and understood. ''(See [[Languages of Andorra]].)'' |footnote_b = {{fr icon}} Girard P & Gomez P (2009), [http://www.lacsdespyrenees.com/vallee-Andorre.html Lacs des Pyrénées: Andorre]. {{cite web |url=http://www.estadistica.ad/serveiestudis/publicacions/CD/Anuari/cat/pdf/xifres.PDF |title=Andorra en xifres 2007: Situació geogràfica, Departament d'Estadística, Govern d'Andorra |format=PDF |date= |accessdate=26 August 2012}} |footnote_c = {{cite web |url=http://www.estadistica.ad/serveiestudis/publicacions/Publicacions/Pobresa.pdf |title=Informe sobre l'estat de la pobresa i la desigualtat al Principal d'Andorra (2003) |publisher=Estadistica.ad |accessdate=25 November 2012}} |footnote_d = Before 1999, the [[French franc]] and [[Peseta|Spanish peseta]]; the coins and notes of both currencies, however, remained legal tender until 2002. Small amounts of [[Andorran diner]]s (divided into 100 centim) were minted after 1982. |footnote_e = Also [[.cat]], shared with [[Països Catalans|Catalan-speaking territories]]. }} '''Andorra''' ({{IPAc-en|audio=en-us-Andorra.ogg|æ|n|ˈ|d|ɔ:|r|ə}}; {{IPA-ca|ənˈdorə|lang}}, {{IPA-ca|anˈdɔra|local}}), officially the '''Principality of Andorra''' ({{lang-ca|Principat d'Andorra}}), also called the '''Principality of the Valleys of Andorra'''<ref>Funk and Wagnalls Encyclopedia, 1993</ref> ({{lang-ca|Principat de les Valls d'Andorra|links=no}}), is a sovereign [[landlocked country|landlocked]] [[microstate]] in [[Iberian Peninsula|Southwestern Europe]], located in the eastern [[Pyrenees]] mountains and bordered by [[Spain]] and [[France]]. Created under a charter in A.D. 988, the present Principality was formed in A.D. 1278. It is known as a [[principality]] as it is a [[coregency|monarchy]] headed by two [[Co-Princes of Andorra|Co-Princes]] – the Spanish/Roman Catholic [[Bishop of Urgell]] and the [[President of France]]. Andorra is the [[European microstates|sixth-smallest nation in Europe]], having an area of 468&nbsp;km<sup>2</sup> (181 sq mi) and a population of approximately 85,000.<ref name=cia /> Its capital [[Andorra la Vella]] is the highest capital city in Europe, at an elevation of 1,023 metres (3,356&nbsp;ft) [[above mean sea level|above sea level]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.fallingrain.com/world/AN/0/Andorra_la_Vella.html|title=Maps, Weather, and Airports for Andorra la Vella, Andorra |publisher=Fallingrain.com |date= |accessdate=26 August 2012}}</ref> The official language is [[Catalan language|Catalan]], although Spanish, Portuguese, and French are also commonly spoken.<ref name="cia"/><ref>{{cite web|title=Background Note: Andorra|url=http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/3164.htm|publisher=State.gov|accessdate=2015-05-14}}</ref> Andorra's [[Tourism in Andorra|tourism]] services an estimated 10.2&nbsp;million visitors annually.<ref name="es2">{{cite web|url=http://www.estadistica.ad/serveiestudis/web/exportar_banc_dades_csv.asp?formules=anualinici&any1=01/01/2008&any2=01/01/2008&codi_divisio=380&lang=1&codi_subtemes=59&codi_tema=10|title= HOTELERIA I TURISME|accessdate=14 May 2015 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150518082722/http://www.estadistica.ad/serveiestudis/web/exportar_banc_dades_csv.asp?formules=anualinici&any1=01/01/2008&any2=01/01/2008&codi_divisio=380&lang=1&codi_subtemes=59&codi_tema=10 |archivedate=18 May 2015 }}</ref> It is not a member of the [[European Union]], but the euro is the official currency. It has been a member of the [[United Nations]] since 1993.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.un.org/en/members/ |title=United Nations Member States |publisher=Un.org |date= |accessdate=2015-05-14}}</ref> In 2013, the people of Andorra had the highest life expectancy in the world at 81 years, according to ''[[The Lancet]]''.<ref>{{cite news|last1=Gautam|first1=Naik|title=Global Life Expectancy Increases by About Six Years|url=http://www.wsj.com/articles/global-life-expectancy-increases-by-about-six-years-1418861100|accessdate=25 December 2014|work=The Wall Street Journal|date=18 December 2014}}</ref> ==Etymology== The origin of the word ''Andorra'' is unknown, although several theories have been formulated. The oldest derivation of the word ''Andorra'' is from the Greek historian [[Polybius]] (''[[The Histories (Polybius)|The Histories]]'' III, 35, 1) who describes the ''Andosins'', an [[Iberians|Iberian]] [[Pre-Roman peoples of the Iberian Peninsula|Pre-Roman tribe]], as historically located in the valleys of Andorra and facing the [[Carthaginian]] army in its passage through the Pyrenees during the [[Punic Wars]]. The word ''Andosini'' or ''Andosins'' (Ἀνδοσίνους) may derive from the [[Basque language|Basque]] ''handia'' whose meaning is "big" or "giant".<ref name="Diccionari">''Diccionari d'Història de Catalunya''; ed. 62; Barcelona; 1998; ISBN 84-297-3521-6; p. 42; entrada "Andorra"</ref> The Andorran [[toponymy]] shows evidence of [[Basque language]] in the area. Another theory suggests that the word ''Andorra'' may derive from the old word ''Anorra'' that contains the Basque word ''ur'' (water).<ref>{{cite book|last=Font Rius |first=José María |title=Estudis sobre els drets i institucions locals en la Catalunya medieval |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JQL6rtB8VtQC&pg=PA743&dq=Anorra+andorra&hl=ca&sa=X&ei=DcwZT6_ALYzs-gaKmt3OCg&ved=0CFAQ6AEwAw#v=onepage&q=Anorra%20andorra&f=false |publisher=Edicions Universitat Barcelona |year=1985 |page=743 |isbn=8475281745 }}</ref> Another theory suggests that ''Andorra'' may derive from [[Arabic]] ''al-durra'', meaning "The pearl" (الدرة). When the [[Moors]] invaded the [[Iberian Peninsula]], the valleys of the Pyrenees were covered by large tracts of forest, and other regions and towns, also dominated by Muslims, received this designation.<ref>{{cite book|title=Andorra, the Hidden Republic: Its Origin and Institutions, and the Record of a Journey Thither|year=1912|page=9|last=Gaston|first=L. L.|publisher=McBridge, Nast & Co|location=New York, USA}}</ref> Other theories suggest that the term derives from the [[Navarro-Aragonese]] ''andurrial'', which means "land covered with bushes" or "scrubland".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=Andorra |title=Online Etymology Dictionary |publisher=Etymonline.com |date= |accessdate=2015-05-14}}</ref> The [[folk etymology]] holds that [[Charlemagne]] had named the region as a reference to the [[Biblical]] [[Cannan|Canaanite]] valley of ''[[Endor (village)|Endor]]'' or ''[[Endor (village)|Andor]]'' (where the [[Midianites]] had been defeated), a name also bestowed by their heir and son [[Louis le Debonnaire]] after defeating the Moors in the "wild valleys of Hell".<ref>{{cite book|title=Images of the Medieval Peasant|page=189|last=Freedman|first=Paul|publisher=Stanford University Press|location=CA, USA|year=1999|isbn=9780804733731}}</ref> ==History== {{main|History of Andorra}} [[File:Església de Sant Joan de Caselles - 10.jpg|left|thumb|Sant Joan de Caselles church, dating from the 11th century.]] Tradition holds that Charles the Great ([[Charlemagne]]) granted a charter to the Andorran people in return for fighting against the [[Moors]]. [[Feudalism|Overlordship]] of the territory was by the [[Count of Urgell]] and eventually by the bishop of the [[Diocese of Urgell]]. In 988, [[Borrell II, Count of Barcelona|Borrell II]], Count of Urgell, gave the Andorran valleys to the Diocese of Urgell in exchange for land in [[Cerdanya]].<ref name="histo1">{{Cite GREC|title=La formació d'Andorra|NDCHEC=0003864|en=1}}</ref> Since then the Bishop of Urgell, based in [[la Seu d'Urgell|Seu d'Urgell]], has owned Andorra.<ref name=elements>{{cite web |url=http://www.coprince-fr.ad/catala/elements.htm |title=Elements de la història del Principat d'Andorra |language=Catalan |archiveurl=//web.archive.org/web/20100209181327/http://www.coprince-fr.ad/catala/elements.htm |archivedate=9 February 2010}}</ref> Before 1095, Andorra did not have any type of military protection and the Bishop of Urgell, who knew that the Count of Urgell wanted to reclaim the Andorran valleys,<ref name=elements/> asked the [[Lord of Caboet]] for help and protection. In 1095 the Lord of Caboet and the Bishop of Urgell signed under oath a declaration of their co-sovereignty over Andorra. Arnalda, daughter of Arnau of Caboet, married the Viscount of Castellbò and both became Viscounts of Castellbò and Cerdanya. Years later their daughter, Ermessenda,<ref>{{Cite GREC|title=Ermessenda de Castellbò|NDCHEC=0024413|en=1}}</ref> married [[Roger-Bernard II, Count of Foix|Roger Bernat II]], the French [[Count of Foix]]. They became Roger Bernat II and Ermessenda I, Counts of Foix, Viscounts of Castellbò and Cerdanya, and co-sovereigns of Andorra (shared with the Bishop of Urgell). In the 13th century, a dispute arose between the Bishop of Urgell and the Count of Foix. The conflict was resolved in 1278 with the mediation of [[Kingdom of Aragon|Aragon]] by the signing of the first [[Paréage of Andorra 1278|paréage]] which provided that Andorra's sovereignty be shared between the count of Foix<ref name=elements/> (whose title would ultimately transfer to the French head of state) and the Bishop of Urgell, in [[Catalonia]]. This gave the [[principality]] its territory and political form. With the passage of time, the co-title to Andorra passed to the kings of [[Kingdom of Navarre|Navarre]]. After Henry of Navarre became King [[Henry IV of France]], he issued an edict in 1607 that established the head of the French state and the Bishop of Urgell as co-princes of Andorra. In 1812–13, the [[First French Empire]] annexed Catalonia and divided it in four [[département]]s, with Andorra being made part of the district of [[Puigcerdà]] (département of [[Sègre]]). ===17th to 19th centuries=== Andorra retained its medieval institutions and rural culture largely unchanged during this period. In 1866, a Council General of 24 members elected by suffrage limited to heads of family, replaced the aristocratic oligarchy previously ruling the state.<ref name="ReferenceA">Page 966, Volume 1, [[Encyclopædia Britannica]], Eleventh Edition 1910-1911</ref> ===20th century=== [[File:Borís Skósyrev.jpg|thumb|left|[[Boris Skossyreff]], briefly self-proclaimed "King of Andorra" in 1934.]] Andorra declared war on [[Imperial Germany]] during World War I, but did not actually take part in the fighting. It remained in an official state of [[belligerency]] until 1958 as it was not included in the [[Treaty of Versailles]].<ref name="DYKAndorra">{{cite news |title=World War I Ends in Andorra |newspaper=New York Times |date=25 September 1958 |page=66 |url=http://query.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=9D06E6DF1530E73BBC4D51DFBF668383649EDE }}</ref> In 1933, France occupied Andorra following social unrest which occurred before elections. On 12 July 1934, adventurer [[Boris Skossyreff]] issued a proclamation in Urgell, declaring himself "Boris I, King of Andorra", simultaneously declaring war on the Bishop of Urgell. He was arrested by the Spanish authorities on 20 July and ultimately expelled from Spain. From 1936 until 1940, a French military detachment was garrisoned in Andorra to secure the Principality against disruption from the [[Spanish Civil War]] and [[Francoist Spain]]. Francoist troops reached the Andorran border in the later stages of the war. During World War II, Andorra remained neutral and was an important smuggling route between [[Vichy France]] and Spain. Given its relative isolation, Andorra has existed outside the mainstream of European history, with few ties to countries other than France, Spain and Portugal. In recent times, however, its thriving tourist industry along with developments in transport and communications have removed the country from its isolation. Its political system was modernised in 1993, when it became a member of the [[United Nations]] and the [[Council of Europe]]. ==Politics== {{main|Politics of Andorra}}<!--Pls add new info to relevant articles of the series--> {{multiple image |align=left |image1=Obispo Vives Sicilia.jpg |caption1 = '''[[Joan Enric Vives i Sicília]]'''<br />current [[List of Co-Princes of Andorra|episcopal co-prince of Andorra]] since 12 May 2003. |width1 = 150 |image2=Meeting François Hollande 22 September 2011 N2.jpg |caption2='''[[François Hollande]]'''<br />current [[List of Co-Princes of Andorra|French co-prince of Andorra]] since 15 May 2012. |width2 = 150 }} Andorra is a parliamentary [[co-principality]] with the [[President of the French Republic|President of France]] and the [[Bishop of Urgell]] ([[Catalonia]], Spain) as [[List of Co-Princes of Andorra|co-princes]]. This peculiarity makes the President of France, in his capacity as [[Prince of Andorra]], an elected reigning monarch, although he is not elected by a popular vote of the Andorran people. The politics of Andorra take place in a framework of a [[parliamentary system|parliamentary]] [[representative democracy]], whereby the [[List of heads of government of Andorra|Head of Government]] is the [[head of government|chief executive]], and of a [[wiktionary:pluriform|pluriform]] multi-party system. The current Head of Government is [[Antoni Martí]] of the [[Democrats for Andorra]] (DA). [[Executive power]] is exercised by the government. Legislative power is vested in both government and parliament. The Parliament of Andorra is known as the General Council. The General Council consists of between 28 and 42 Councillors, as the members of the legislative branch are called. The Councillors serve for four-year terms and elections are held between the thirtieth and fortieth days following the dissolution of the previous Council. The Councillors can be elected on two equal constituencies. Half are elected in equal number from each of the seven administrative parishes and the other half of the Councillors are elected from a single national constituency. 15 days after the election, the Councillors hold their inauguration. During this session, the Syndic General, who is the head of the General Council, and the Subsyndic General, his assistant, are elected. Eight days later, the Council convenes once more. During this session the Head of Government is chosen from among the Councillors. [[File:Casa de la Vall - 18.jpg|thumb|Casa de la Vall, Andorran Parliament]] Candidates for the nomination can be proposed by a minimum of one-fifth of the Councillors. The Council then elects the candidate with the absolute majority of votes to be Head of Government. The Syndic General then notifies the Co-princes who in turn appoint the elected candidate as the Head of Government of Andorra. The General Council is also responsible for proposing and passing laws. Bills may be presented to the Council as Private Members' Bills by three of the Local Parish Councils jointly or by at least one tenth of the citizens of Andorra. The Council also approves the annual budget of the principality. The government must submit the proposed budget for parliamentary approval at least two months before the previous budget expires. If the budget is not approved by the first day of the next year, the previous budget is extended until a new one is approved. Once any bill is approved, the Syndic General is responsible for presenting it to the Co-princes so that they may sign and enact it. If the Head of Government is not satisfied with the Council, he may request that the Co-princes dissolve the Council and order new elections. In turn, the Councillors have the power to remove the Head of Government from office. After a motion of censure is approved by at least one-fifth of the Councillors, the Council will vote and if it receives the absolute majority of votes, the Head of Government is removed. ==Law and criminal justice== The judiciary is composed of the Magistrates Court, the Criminal Law Court, the High Court of Andorra, and the Constitutional Court. The High Court of Justice is composed of five judges: one appointed by the Head of Government, one each by the Co-princes, one by the Syndic General, and one by the Judges and Magistrates. It is presided over by the member appointed by the Syndic General and the judges hold office for six-year terms. The Magistrates and Judges are appointed by the High Court, as is the President of the Criminal Law Court. The High Court also appoints members of the Office of the Attorney General. The Constitutional Court is responsible for interpreting the Constitution and reviewing all appeals of unconstitutionality against laws and treaties. It is composed of four judges, one appointed by each of the Co-princes and two by the General Council. They serve eight-year terms. The Court is presided over by one of the Judges on a two-year rotation so that each judge at one point will preside over the Court. ==Foreign relations, defence, and security== {{main|Foreign relations of Andorra}} [[File:Bruxelles rue de la Montagne 10.jpg|thumb|The embassy of Andorra in [[Brussels]].]] Andorra does not have its own armed forces,<ref name="cia"/> although there is a small ceremonial Army. Responsibility for defending the nation rests primarily with France and Spain.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.boe.es/buscar/doc.php?id=BOE-A-1993-16868 |title=Documento BOE-A-1993-16868 |publisher=BOE.es |date=30 June 1993 |accessdate=26 August 2012}}</ref> However, in case of emergencies or natural disasters, the ''Sometent'' (an alarm) is called and all able-bodied men between 21 and 60 of Andorran nationality must serve.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://turisme.andorralavella.ad/?q=en/node/281 |title=El Sometent &#124; Tourism |publisher=Turisme.andorralavella.ad |date=17 May 2011 |accessdate=26 August 2012}}</ref><ref name="recarrega.net">{{cite web|url=http://recarrega.net/arxius/Decret%20veguers%20Sometent,%20del%2023%20d%27octubre%20de%201984.pdf |title=Decret veguers Sometent, del 23 d'octubre de 1984 |format=PDF |date= |accessdate=26 August 2012}}</ref> This is why all Andorrans, and especially the head of each house (usually the eldest able-bodied man of a house) should, by law, keep a rifle, even though the law also states that the police will offer a firearm in case of need.<ref name="recarrega.net"/> Andorra is a full member of the United Nations (UN), the [[Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe]] (OSCE), and has a special agreement with the European Union (EU). ===Military=== Andorra has a small army, which has historically been raised or reconstituted at various dates, but has never in modern times amounted to a standing army. The basic principle of Andorran defence is that all able-bodied men are available to fight if called upon by the sounding of the ''Sometent''. Being a [[landlocked country]], Andorra has no [[navy]]. Prior to World War I Andorra maintained an armed force of about 600 part-time militiamen. This body was not liable for service outside the Principality and was commanded by two officials (''viguiers'') appointed by France and the Bishop of Urgel.<ref name="ReferenceA"/> In the modern era, the army has consisted of a very small body of volunteers willing to undertake ceremonial duties. Uniforms were handed down from generation to generation within families and communities. Despite not being involved in any fighting, Andorra was technically the longest combatant in the First World War, as the country was left out of the [[Versailles Peace Conference]], and would have technically remained at war with Germany from 1914 until 1939.<ref name="DYKAndorra"/> This{{which|date=April 2016}} document brought peace to the Andorrans for the first time in 25 years and officially ended the first world war. The army's role in internal security was largely taken over by the formation of the [[Police Corps of Andorra]] in 1931. Brief civil disorder associated with the elections of 1933 led to assistance being sought from the French [[National Gendarmerie]],<!-- Reference removed, as site quoted is currently on WP blacklist --> with a detachment resident in Andorra for two months under the command of René-Jules Baulard.<ref>{{cite web|author=Ben Cahoon |url=http://www.worldstatesmen.org/Andorra.html |title=Andorra |publisher=Worldstatesmen.org |date= |accessdate=26 August 2012}}</ref> The Andorran Army was reformed in the following year, with eleven soldiers appointed to supervisory roles.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://trove.nla.gov.au/ndp/del/article/1157484 |title=Andorra's 'ARMY' – Eleven Permanent Troops! |work=The Times |date=5 January 1934 |accessdate=26 August 2012}}</ref> The force consisted of six [[Corporal]]s, one for each parish (although there are currently seven parishes, there were only six until 1978), plus four junior staff officers to co-ordinate action, and a commander with the rank of Major. It was the responsibility of the six corporals, each in his own parish, to be able to raise a fighting force from among the able-bodied men of the parish. Today a small, twelve-man ceremonial unit remains the only permanent section of the Andorran Army, but all able-bodied men remain technically available for military service,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/3164.htm |title=Andorra |publisher=State.gov |date=20 April 2012 |accessdate=26 August 2012}}</ref> with a requirement for each family to have access to a firearm. The army has not fought for more than 700 years, and its main responsibility is to present the [[flag of Andorra]] at official ceremonial functions.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.aire.ad/documents/10200707_BOP14073Reglament_atm.pdf |title=Bop14073 |format=PDF |date= |accessdate=26 August 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.andorramania.com/histoire_gb.htm |title=History of the Principality of Andorra |publisher=Andorramania.com |date=11 December 1997 |accessdate=26 August 2012}}</ref> According to [[Marc Forné Molné]], Andorra's military budget is strictly from voluntary donations, and the availability of full-time voluntaries.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.un.org/webcast/ga/58/statements/andoeng030925.htm |title=Andorra |publisher=Un.org |date=25 September 2003 |accessdate=26 August 2012}}</ref> The myth that all members of the Andorran Army are ranked as officers is popularly maintained in many works of reference.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/3164.htm |title=Andorra |publisher=State.gov |date=2013-09-13 |accessdate=2015-05-14}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nationsencyclopedia.com/economies/Europe/Andorra-POLITICS-GOVERNMENT-AND-TAXATION.html |title=Andorra Politics, government, and taxation, Information about Politics, government, and taxation in Andorra |publisher=Nationsencyclopedia.com |date= |accessdate=2015-05-14}}</ref> In reality, all those serving in the permanent ceremonial reserve hold ranks as [[Officer (armed forces)|officers]], or [[non-commissioned officer]]s, because the [[Enlisted rank|other ranks]] are considered to be the rest of the able-bodied male population, who may still be called upon by the ''Sometent'' to serve, although such a call has not been made in modern times. ===GIPA=== The ''Grup d'Intervenció Policia d'Andorra'' (GIPA) is a small special forces unit trained in [[counter-terrorism]], and [[Hostage negotiator|hostage recovery]] tasks. Although it is the closest in style to an active military force, it is part of the [[Police Corps of Andorra|Police Corps]], and not the [[Military of Andorra|Army]]. As terrorist and hostage situations are a rare threat to the nation, the GIPA is commonly assigned to prisoner escort duties, and at other times to routine policing.<ref>{{cite web|author=Carles Iglesias Carril |url=http://www.policia.ad/estructura.html |title=Cos de Policia - Estructura organitzativa |publisher=Policia.ad |date= |accessdate=2015-05-14}}</ref> === Police Corps === {{Main|Police Corps of Andorra}} Andorra maintains a small but modern and well-equipped internal police force, with around 240 police officers supported by civilian assistants. The principal services supplied by the Corps are uniformed community policing, criminal detection, border control, and traffic policing. There are also small specialist units including police dogs, mountain rescue, and a bomb disposal team.<ref>{{cite web|author=Carles Iglesias Carril |url=http://www.policia.ad/ |title=Andorran Police Service website |publisher=Policia.ad |date= |accessdate=26 August 2012}}</ref> ===Fire brigade=== The ''Andorran Fire Brigade'', with headquarters at [[Santa Coloma d'Andorra|Santa Coloma]], operates from four modern fire stations, and has a staff of around 120 firefighters. The service is equipped with 16 heavy appliances (fire tenders, turntable ladders, and specialist four-wheel drive vehicles), 4 light support vehicles (cars and vans), and 4 ambulances.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bombers.ad/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=80&Itemid=64 |title=Vehicle details with extensive photo gallery here |publisher=Bombers.ad |date= |accessdate=26 August 2012}}</ref> Historically, the families of the six ancient parishes of Andorra maintained local arrangements to assist each other in fighting fires. The first fire pump purchased by the government was acquired in 1943. The serious fires (which lasted for two days) in parts of the principality in December 1959 led to calls for a permanent fire service, and the ''Andorran Fire Brigade'' was formed on 21 April 1961.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bombers.ad/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=83&Itemid=44 |title=Fire Brigade history here (in Catalan) |publisher=Bombers.ad |date= |accessdate=26 August 2012}}</ref> The fire service maintains full-time cover with five fire crews on duty at any time – two at the brigade's headquarters in Santa Coloma, and one crew at each of the other three fire stations.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bombers.ad |title=Andorran Fire Service site |publisher=Bombers.ad |date=17 August 2012 |accessdate=26 August 2012}}</ref> ==Geography== [[File:Andorramap.png|thumb|right|Map of Andorra with its seven parishes labelled.]] {{main|Geography of Andorra|Geology of Andorra}} ===Parishes=== {{main|Parishes of Andorra}} Andorra consists of seven parishes: * [[Andorra la Vella]] * [[Canillo]] * [[Encamp]] * [[Escaldes-Engordany]] * [[La Massana]] * [[Ordino]] * [[Sant Julià de Lòria]] ===Physical geography=== [[File:Grandvalira ski resort, Andorra5.jpg|thumb|right|Scenery of Andorran mountains]] [[File:Andorra topographic map-en.svg|thumb|Topographic map of Andorra]] Due to its location in the eastern [[Pyrenees]] mountain range, Andorra consists predominantly of rugged mountains, the highest being the [[Coma Pedrosa]] at {{convert|2942|m|ft|0}}, and the average elevation of Andorra is {{convert|1996|m|ft|0}}.<ref>Atlas of Andorra (1991), Andorran Government. {{oclc|801960401}}. {{ca icon}}</ref> These are dissected by three narrow valleys in a Y shape that combine into one as the main stream, the [[Gran Valira]] river, leaves the country for Spain (at Andorra's lowest point of {{convert|840|m|ft|0|abbr=on|disp=or}}). Andorra's land area is {{convert|468|km2|sqmi|abbr=on|0}}. [[Phytogeography|Phytogeographically]], Andorra belongs to the Atlantic European province of the [[Circumboreal Region]] within the [[Boreal Kingdom]]. According to the [[World Wide Fund for Nature|WWF]], the territory of Andorra belongs to the [[ecoregion]] of Pyrenees conifer and mixed forests. ===Climate=== Andorra has an [[alpine climate]] and [[continental climate]]. Its higher elevation means there is, on average, more snow in winter, lower humidity, and it is slightly cooler in summer. There are, on average, 300&nbsp;days per year of sunshine. ==Economy== {{main|Economy of Andorra}} [[File:Tree map export 2009 Andorra.jpeg|thumb|Exports in 2009]] Tourism, the mainstay of Andorra's tiny, well-to-do economy, accounts for roughly 80% of GDP. An estimated 10.2&nbsp;million tourists visit annually,<ref name="es2"/> attracted by Andorra's duty-free status and by its summer and winter resorts. Andorra's relative advantage has recently{{When|date=June 2015}} eroded as the economies of adjoining France and Spain have been opened up, providing broader availability of goods and lower [[tariff]]s. One of the main sources of income in Andorra is tourism from ski resorts which total over {{convert|175|km|0|abbr=on}} of ski ground. The sport brings in over 7 million visitors and an estimated 340 million euros per year, sustaining 2000 direct and 10000 indirect jobs at present{{When|date=June 2015}}. The banking sector, with its [[tax haven]] status, also contributes substantially to the economy (the financial and insurance sector accounts for approximately 19% of GDP<ref name="fs2013">{{cite web|url=http://www.aba.ad/pub/publicaciones/financial_system_2013.pdf|format=PDF|title=Andorra and its financial system 2013|publisher=Aba.ad|accessdate=14 May 2015}}</ref>). The financial system comprises five banking groups,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://thebanks.eu/banks-by-country/Andorra |title=List of Banks in Andorra |publisher=Thebanks.eu |date= |accessdate=2015-05-14}}</ref> one specialised credit entity, 8 investment undertaking management entities, 3 asset management companies and 29 insurance companies, 14 of which are branches of foreign insurance companies authorised to operate in the principality.<ref name="fs2013"/> Agricultural production is limited—only 2% of the land is arable—and most food has to be imported. Some tobacco is grown locally. The principal livestock activity is domestic sheep raising. Manufacturing output consists mainly of cigarettes, cigars, and furniture. Andorra's natural resources include hydroelectric power, mineral water, timber, iron ore, and lead.<ref name="cia">{{cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/an.html |title=CIA World Factbook entry: Andorra |publisher=Cia.gov |date= |accessdate=26 August 2012}}</ref> Andorra is not a member of the European Union, but enjoys a [[Andorra – European Union relations|special relationship]] with it, such as being treated as an EU member for trade in manufactured goods (no tariffs) and as a non-EU member for agricultural products. Andorra lacked a currency of its own and used both the [[French franc]] and the [[Spanish peseta]] in banking transactions until 31 December 1999, when both currencies were replaced by the EU's single currency, the euro. Coins and notes of both the franc and the peseta remained legal tender in Andorra until 31 December 2002. Andorra negotiated to issue its own euro coins, beginning in 2014. Andorra has traditionally had one of the world's lowest unemployment rates. In 2009 it stood at 2.9%.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/rankorder/2129rank.html |title=CIA World Factbook: Andorra |deadurl=no |accessdate=5 June 2013}}</ref> Andorra has long benefited from its status as a tax haven, with revenues raised exclusively through import tariffs. However, during the [[European sovereign-debt crisis]] of the 21st century, its tourist economy suffered a decline, partly caused by a drop in the prices of goods in Spain, which undercut Andorran [[duty-free shop]]ping. This led to a growth in unemployment. On 1 January 2012, a business tax of 10% was introduced,<ref>{{cite web|title=Andorra gets a taste of taxation|url=http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2011/dec/27/andorra-financial-crisis-tax|work=The guardian|accessdate=30 March 2013|date=27 December 2011}}</ref> followed by a [[sales tax]] of 2% a year later, which raised just over 14 million euros in its first quarter.<ref>{{cite news|title=Andorra Unveils First Indirect Tax Revenue Figures|url=http://www.tax-news.com/news/Andorra_Unveils_First_Indirect_Tax_Revenue_Figures____60703.html|newspaper=Tax News|date=9 May 2013}}</ref> On 31 May 2013, it was announced that Andorra intended to legislate for the introduction of an [[income tax]] by the end of June, against a background of increasing dissatisfaction with the existence of tax havens among EU members.<ref>{{cite news|title=Andorra to introduce income tax for first time|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/business-22745895|newspaper=BBC News|date=2 June 2013}}</ref> The announcement was made following a meeting in Paris between the Head of Government [[Antoni Marti]] and the French President and Prince of Andorra, [[François Hollande]]. Hollande welcomed the move as part of a process of Andorra "bringing its taxation in line with international standards".<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.notretemps.com/argent/andorre-aligne-progressivement-sa,i29431|title=Andorre aligne progressivement sa fiscalité sur les standards internationaux (Elysée)|newspaper=Notre Temps|date=31 May 2011}}</ref> ==Demographics== [[File:Andorra Vall dels Cortals 05 JMM.JPG|thumb|The town of Encamp, Andorra, as seen from the Vall dels Cortals]] {{main|Demographics of Andorra}} ===Population=== The population of Andorra is estimated at 85,458 (2014).<ref name=cia /> The population has grown from 5,000 in 1900. Two-thirds of the population is made up of citizens without Andorran nationality, who do not have the right to vote (suffrage) in communal elections. Moreover, they are not allowed to be elected as president{{clarify|date=October 2014}} or to own more than 33% of the capital stock of a privately held company.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.elpais.com/articulo/internacional/ANDORRA/Parlamento/andorrano/facilita/hijos/residentes/adquisicion/nacionalidad/elpepiint/19850801elpepiint_23/Tes/ |title=El Parlamento andorrano facilita a los hijos de los residentes la adquisición de la nacionalidad &#124; Edición impresa &#124; EL PAÍS |publisher=Elpais.com |date= |accessdate=2015-05-14}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.elpais.com/articulo/internacional/ANDORRA/examen/ser/andorrano/elpepiint/19851027elpepiint_18/Tes/ |title=Un examen para ser andorrano &#124; Edición impresa &#124; EL PAÍS |publisher=Elpais.com |date=1985-10-27 |accessdate=2015-05-14}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.elpais.com/articulo/internacional/RIBAS/_oSCAR/MARTi_ALANiS/_JOAN_/ARZOBISPO_DE_URGELL/ANDORRA/Constitucion/Andorra/seguira/limitando/derechos/poblacion/elpepiint/19920509elpepiint_5/Tes/ |title=La Constitución de Andorra seguirá limitando los derechos del 70% de la población &#124; Edición impresa &#124; EL PAÍS |publisher=Elpais.com |date=1992-05-09 |accessdate=2015-05-14}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.elpais.com/articulo/sociedad/Andorra/solo/inmigrantes/sanos/elpporint/20060714elpepisoc_8/Tes/ |title=Andorra, sólo inmigrantes sanos &#124; Edición impresa &#124; EL PAÍS |publisher=Elpais.com |date=2006-07-14 |accessdate=2015-05-14}}</ref> ===Languages=== {{main|Languages of Andorra}} The historic and [[official language]] is [[Catalan language|Catalan]], a [[Romance language]]. The Andorran government encourages the use of Catalan. It funds a Commission for Catalan [[Toponymy]] in Andorra (Catalan: ''la Comissió de Toponímia d'Andorra''), and provides free Catalan classes to assist immigrants. Andorran television and radio stations use Catalan. Because of immigration, historical links, and close geographic proximity, [[Spanish language|Spanish]], [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]] and [[French language|French]] are also commonly spoken. Most Andorran residents can speak one or more of these, in addition to Catalan. English is less commonly spoken among the general population, though it is understood to varying degrees in the major tourist resorts. Andorra is one of only four European countries (together with France, Monaco, and Turkey)<ref>{{cite web|author= |url=http://www.coe.int/t/dghl/monitoring/minorities/default_en.asp |title=Framework Convention for the Protection of National Minorities (FCNM) : National Minorities, '&#39;Council of Europe'&#39;, 14 September 2010 |publisher=Coe.int |date= |accessdate=26 August 2012}}</ref> that have never signed the [[Framework Convention for the Protection of National Minorities|Council of Europe Framework Convention on National Minorities]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://conventions.coe.int/Treaty/Commun/ChercheSig.asp?NT=157&CM=&DF=&CL=ENG|title=Framework Convention for the Protection of National Minorities CETS No. 157 |publisher=Conventions.coe.int |accessdate=25 November 2012}}</ref> According to the ''Observatori Social d'Andorra'', the linguistic usage in Andorra is as follows:<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.iea.ad/cres/observatori/temes/llengua3trimestre2005.htm |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100529044524/http://www.iea.ad/cres/observatori/temes/llengua3trimestre2005.htm |archivedate=2010-05-29 |title=Observatori de l'Institut d'Estudis Andorrans|language=Catalan |deadurl=no |accessdate=5 June 2013}}</ref> {| border="0" style="border:1px solid #999; background:#fff;" |- style="text-align:center;" ! style="background:#ccc;"|Mother tongue || % |- style="text-align:center;" | style="background:#ccc;"|[[Catalan language|Catalan]] || 38.8% |- style="text-align:center;" | style="background:#ccc;"|Spanish || 35.4% |- style="text-align:center;" | style="background:#ccc;"|[[Portuguese language|Portuguese]] || 15% |- style="text-align:center;" | style="background:#ccc;"|French || 5.4% |- style="text-align:center;" | style="background:#ccc;"|Others || 5.5% |- style="text-align:center;" | colspan="2" |<small>[http://www.iea.ad/images/stories/Documents/CRES/Observatoris/2005/2005_3_PoliticaLinguistica.pdf 2005 3 PoliticaLinguistica.pdf]</small> |} ===Religion=== The population of Andorra is predominantly (88.2%) Roman Catholic.<ref>[http://www.pewforum.org/2011/12/19/table-christian-population-as-percentages-of-total-population-by-country/ PEW 2011]. Pewforum.org (2011-12-19). Retrieved on 2015-12-30.</ref> Their patron saint is [[Our Lady of Meritxell]]. Though it is not an official state religion, the constitution acknowledges a special relationship with the Catholic Church, offering some special privileges to that group{{clarify|date=August 2014}}. Other Christian denominations include the [[Anglican Church]], the [[Unification Church]], the [[New Apostolic Church]], and [[Jehovah's Witnesses]]. The [[Islam in Andorra|Muslim community]] is primarily made up of approximately a few{{clarify|date=March 2016}} North African immigrants. There is a small community of [[Hinduism|Hindus]] and [[Bahá'í Faith in Andorra|Bahá'ís]]<ref name="ARDA05">{{cite web| title = Andorra | work = International - Regions - Southern Europe | publisher = The Association of Religion Data Archives | year = 2005| url =http://www.thearda.com/internationalData/countries/Country_6_2.asp | accessdate = 4 July 2009}}</ref><ref name="Wolfram">{{Cite encyclopedia | title = Andorra: population, capital, cities, GDP, map, flag, currency, languages, ... | encyclopedia = [[Wolfram Alpha]] | volume = Online | publisher = Wolfram – Alpha (curated data) | date = 13 March 2010 | url =http://www.wolframalpha.com/entities/countries/andorra/xy/p0/k6/| archiveurl =https://web.archive.org/web/20120308145150/http://www.wolframalpha.com/entities/countries/andorra/xy/p0/k6/| archivedate =2012-03-08}}</ref> and roughly 100 Jews live in Andorra.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2005/51537.htm |title=US Dept of State information |publisher=State.gov |date=8 November 2005 |accessdate=9 August 2013}}</ref> (See [[History of the Jews in Andorra]].) ==Statistics== ===Largest cities=== {{main|List of cities in Andorra}} {{Largest cities of Andorra}} ==Education== ===Schools=== Children between the ages of 6 and 16 are required by law to have full-time education. Education up to secondary level is provided free of charge by the government. There are three systems of schools&nbsp;– Andorran, French, and Spanish&nbsp;– which use Catalan, French, and Spanish, respectively, as the main language of instruction. Parents may choose which system their children attend. All schools are built and maintained by Andorran authorities, but teachers in the French and Spanish schools are paid for the most part by France and Spain. About 50% of Andorran children attend the French primary schools, and the rest attend Spanish or Andorran schools. ===University of Andorra=== The [[Universitat d'Andorra]] (UdA) is the state public university and is the only university in Andorra. It was established in 1997. The University provides first-level degrees in nursing, computer science, business administration, and educational sciences, in addition to higher professional education courses. The only two graduate schools in Andorra are the Nursing School and the School of Computer Science, the latter having a PhD programme. ====Virtual Studies Centre==== The geographical complexity of the country as well as the small number of students prevents the University of Andorra from developing a full academic programme, and it serves principally as a centre for virtual studies, connected to Spanish and French universities. The Virtual Studies Centre (''Centre d’Estudis Virtuals'') at the University runs approximately twenty different academic degrees at both undergraduate and postgraduate levels in fields including tourism, law, Catalan philology, humanities, psychology, political sciences, audiovisual communication, telecommunications engineering, and East Asia studies. The Centre also runs various postgraduate programmes and continuing-education courses for professionals. ==Healthcare== Healthcare in Andorra is provided to all employed persons and their families by the government-run social security system, ''[[Caixa Andorrana de Seguretat Social]]'' (CASS), which is funded by employer and employee contributions in respect of salaries.<ref name="travenand">''Travailler en Andorre'' (May 2006), ''Govern d'Andorra, Servei d'Ocupació, p.30.'' {{fr icon}}</ref> The cost of healthcare is covered by CASS at rates of 75% for out-patient expenses such as medicines and hospital visits, 90% for hospitalisation, and 100% for work-related accidents. The remainder of the costs may be covered by private health insurance. Other residents and tourists require full private health insurance.<ref name="travenand"/> The main hospital, Meritxell, is in [[Escaldes-Engordany]].<ref name="cassps">{{cite web|url=http://online.cass.ad/web/lacass/professionalSalut/hospitals/Andorra |title=List of specialties with coverage by CASS at the ''Hospital Nostra Senyora de Meritxell'' (2009) |publisher=Online.cass.ad |date= |accessdate=26 August 2012}}</ref> There are also 12 primary health care centres in various locations around the Principality.<ref name="cassps"/> ==Transport== {{main|Transport in Andorra}} {{see also|Andorra–La Seu d'Urgell Airport}} [[File:Latour-de-Carol station - 2004-02-02.jpg|thumb|A train at [[Latour-de-Carol]] (''La Tor de Querol''), one of the two stations serving Andorra. Andorra has no railways, although the line connecting Latour-de-Carol and [[Toulouse]], which in turn connects to France's [[TGV]]s at Toulouse, runs within two kilometres of the Andorran border.]] Until the 20th century, Andorra had very limited transport links to the outside world, and development of the country was affected by its physical isolation. Even now, the nearest major airports at Toulouse and Barcelona are both three hours' drive from Andorra. Andorra has a road network of {{convert|279|km|0|abbr=on}}, of which {{convert|76|km|0|abbr=on}} is unpaved. The two main roads out of [[Andorra la Vella]] are the CG-1 to the Spanish border, and the CG-2 to the French border via the Envalira Tunnel near [[El Pas de la Casa]].<ref name="mobi">{{cite web|url=http://www.mobilitat.ad/CA/default.asp|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130922061748/http://www.mobilitat.ad/CA/default.asp|archivedate=2013-09-22|title=Agència de Mobilitat, Govern d'Andorra |publisher=Mobilitat.ad}}</ref> Bus services cover all metropolitan areas and many rural communities, with services on most major routes running half-hourly or more frequently during peak travel times. There are frequent long-distance bus services from Andorra to [[Barcelona]] and [[Toulouse]], plus a daily tour from the former city. Bus services are mostly run by private companies, but some local ones are operated by the government. There are no airports for fixed-wing aircraft within Andorra's borders but there are, however, heliports in [[La Massana]] (Camí Heliport), [[Arinsal]] and [[Escaldes-Engordany]] with commercial helicopter services<ref name="heliand">{{cite web|url=http://www.heliand.com/ |title=Inici - Heliand - Helicopters a Andorra |publisher=Heliand |date= |accessdate=2015-05-14}}</ref><ref name="helitrans">[http://www.helitrans.ad/] {{wayback|url=http://www.helitrans.ad/ |date=20090715233032 }}</ref> and an airport located in the neighbouring Spanish comarca of [[Alt Urgell]], {{convert|12|km|abbr=off}} south of the Andorran-Spanish border.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://web.gencat.cat/en/actualitat/detall/Aeroport-public-i-comercial-dAndorra-la-Seu-dUrgell-00002|title=Public and regional airport of Andorra-la Seu d’Urgell}}</ref> Since July 2015 [[Andorra–La Seu d'Urgell Airport]] has operated commercial flights to [[Adolfo Suárez Madrid–Barajas Airport|Madrid]] and [[Palma de Mallorca Airport|Palma de Mallorca]], and is the [[airline hub|main hub]] for [[Air Andorra]] and [[Andorra Airlines]]. Nearby airports located in Spain and France provide access to international flights for the Principality. The nearest airports are at [[Perpignan – Rivesaltes Airport|Perpignan]], France (156&nbsp;km from Andorra) and [[Lleida-Alguaire Airport|Lleida]], Spain (160&nbsp;km from Andorra). The largest nearby airports are at [[Toulouse]], France (165&nbsp;km from Andorra) and [[Barcelona Airport|Barcelona]], Spain (215&nbsp;km from Andorra). There are hourly bus services from both Barcelona and Toulouse airports to Andorra. The nearest railway station is [[L'Hospitalet-près-l'Andorre]] {{convert|10|km|0|abbr=on}} east of Andorra which is on the {{RailGauge|1435mm}}[[Standard gauge|-gauge]] line from [[Latour-de-Carol]], ({{convert|25|km|0|abbr=on|disp=or}}) southeast of Andorra, to [[Toulouse]] and on to Paris by the French [[TGV|high-speed trains]]. This line is operated by the [[SNCF]]. Latour-de-Carol has a scenic {{RailGauge|1000mm|allk=on}} [[Yellow Train|trainline]] to [[Villefranche-de-Conflent]], as well as the SNCF's {{RailGauge|1435mm|disp=1}} gauge line connecting to [[Perpignan]], and the [[RENFE|RENFE's]] {{RailGauge|1668mm}} [[Iberian gauge|-gauge]] line to [[Barcelona]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bueker.net/trainspotting/map.php?file=maps/french-network/french-network.gif|title=Sncf Map |language=de |publisher=Bueker.net |date= |accessdate=26 August 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.maplandia.com/france/languedoc-roussillon/pyrenees-orientales/prades/latour-de-carol/ |title=Google map |publisher=Maplandia.com |date= |accessdate=26 August 2012}}</ref> There are also direct [[Intercités#Night trains|Intercités de Nuit]] trains between L'Hospitalet-près-l'Andorre and Paris on certain dates.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.seat61.com/Andorra.htm|title=How to travel by train from London to Andorra}}</ref> ==Media and telecommunications== {{Main|Telecommunications in Andorra}} {{update|section|date=November 2015}} In Andorra, mobile and fixed telephone and internet services are operated exclusively by the Andorran national telecommunications company, SOM, also known as [[Andorra Telecom]] (STA). The same company also manages the technical infrastructure for national broadcasting of digital television and radio. By the end of 2010, it was planned that every home in the country would have fibre-to-the-home for internet access at a minimum speed of 100&nbsp;Mbit/s,<ref name="somfo">SOM Newsletter, March 2009.</ref> and the availability was complete in June 2012. There is only one Andorran television station, ''[[Ràdio i Televisió d'Andorra]]'' (RTVA). ''Radio Nacional d’Andorra'' operates two radio stations, ''[[Radio Andorra]]'' and ''Andorra Música''. There are three national newspapers, ''[[Diari d'Andorra]]'', ''[[El Periòdic d'Andorra]]'', and ''[[Bondia (newspaper)|Bondia]]'' as well as several local newspapers. There is also an [[amateur radio]] society.<ref>[http://www.ura.ad/ Unió de Radioaficionats Andorra]. Ura.ad. Retrieved on 2015-12-30.</ref> Additional TV and radio stations from Spain and France are available via digital terrestrial television and IPTV. {{See also|Andorra Telecom}} ==Culture== {{main|Culture of Andorra}} {{see also|Music of Andorra}} [[File:HPIM0309.JPG|thumb|right|Andorran flag on balcony, Ordino]] The official and historic language is Catalan. Thus the culture is Catalan, with its own specificity. Andorra is home to folk dances like the contrapàs and marratxa, which survive in [[Sant Julià de Lòria]] especially. Andorran folk music has similarities to the music of its neighbours, but is especially [[music of Catalonia|Catalan]] in character, especially in the presence of dances such as the [[sardana]]. Other Andorran folk dances include contrapàs in [[Andorra la Vella]] and Saint Anne's dance in Escaldes-Engordany. Andorra's national holiday is [[Our Lady of Meritxell]] Day, 8 September.<ref name="cia"/> American Folk Artist [[Malvina Reynolds]], intrigued by its defence budget of $4.90, wrote a song "Andorra". [[Pete Seeger]] added verses, and sang "Andorra" on his 1962 album ''The Bitter and the Sweet''. ==Sports== Andorra is famous for the practice of [[Winter Sports]]. Popular sports played in Andorra include [[Association football|football]], [[rugby union]], basketball and [[Roller hockey (quad)|roller hockey]]. In [[Roller hockey (quad)|roller hockey]] Andorra usually plays in [[CERH European Roller Hockey Championship|CERH Euro Cup]] and in [[FIRS Roller Hockey World Cup]]. In 2011, Andorra was the host country to the [[2011 European League Final Eight]]. [[File:Estadi Comunal Aixovall.jpg|thumb|[[Estadi Comunal d'Andorra la Vella]]]] The country is represented in association football by the [[Andorra national football team]]. However, the team has had little success internationally because of Andorra's small population.<ref name="fifa">{{cite web|url=http://www.fifa.com/associations/association=and/ranking/gender=m/index.html |title=FIFA Rankings – Andorra |publisher=Fifa.com |date= |accessdate=26 August 2012}}</ref> Football is ruled in Andorra by the [[Andorran Football Federation]] founded in 1994, it organizes the national competitions of association football ([[Primera Divisió]], [[Copa Constitució]] and [[Andorran Supercup|Supercopa]]) and [[futsal]]. [[FC Andorra]], a club based in [[Andorra la Vella]] founded in 1942, compete in the [[Spanish football league system]]. [[Rugby union|Rugby]] is a traditional sport in Andorra, mainly influenced by the popularity in southern France. The [[Andorra national rugby union team]], nicknamed "''Els Isards''", has impressed on the international stage in [[rugby union]] and [[rugby sevens]].<ref>[http://www.irb.com/rankings/sportid=1/news/newsid=2070876.html#usa+andorra+improve+rating+rankings ] {{wayback|url=http://www.irb.com/rankings/sportid=1/news/newsid=2070876.html#usa+andorra+improve+rating+rankings |date=20140522033240 }}</ref> [[VPC Andorra XV]] is a rugby team based in [[Andorra la Vella]] actually playing in the French championship. Basketball popularity has increased in the country since the 1990s when the Andorran team [[BC Andorra]] played in the top league of Spain ([[Liga ACB]]).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.marca.com/2012/11/13/baloncesto/basketfeb/1352828175.html |title=El BC Andorra quiere volver a la Liga más bella |publisher=MARCA.com |date= |accessdate=2015-05-14}}</ref> After 18 years the club returned to the top league in 2014.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.elmundo.es/deportes/2014/03/22/532e12b2e2704e1a3d8b457f.html |title=El River Andorra regresa a la ACB 18 años después &#124; Baloncesto &#124; EL MUNDO |publisher=Elmundo.es |date=2014-03-22 |accessdate=2015-05-14}}</ref> Other sports practised in Andorra include [[cycling]], volleyball, [[judo]], [[Australian Rules football]], [[handball]], swimming, gymnastics, tennis and [[motorsports]]. In 2012, Andorra raised its first national [[cricket]] team and played a home match against the Dutch Fellowship of Fairly Odd Places Cricket Club, the first match played in the history of Andorra at an altitude of {{convert|1300|m|sp=us}}.<ref>{{cite web|title=Netherlands Based FFOP CC Beats Andorra National Team|url=http://www.cricketworld.com/netherlands-based-ffop-cc-beats-andorra-xi/32216.htm|work=Cricket World|accessdate=18 December 2012|date=3 September 2012}}</ref> Andorra first participated at the [[Olympic Games]] in 1976. The country has also appeared in every [[Winter Olympic]] Games since 1976. Andorra competes in the [[Games of the Small States of Europe]] being twice the host country in [[1991 Games of the Small States of Europe|1991]] and [[2005 Games of the Small States of Europe|2005]]. === Major achievements === [[Ariadna Tudel Cuberes]] and [[Sophie Dusautoir Bertrand]] earned the bronze medal in the women's team competition at the [[2009 European Championship of Ski Mountaineering]]. [[Joan Verdu Sanchez]] earned a bronze medal in [[Alpine skiing at the 2012 Winter Youth Olympics|Alpine Skiing]] at the [[2012 Winter Youth Olympics]]. In 2015, [[Marc Oliveras]] earned a silver medal in [[Alpine skiing at the 2015 Winter Universiade|Alpine Skiing]] at the [[2015 Winter Universiade]], while [[Carmina Pallas]] earned a silver and a bronze medal in the same competition. ==See also== {{Wikipedia books|Andorra}} * [[Index of Andorra-related articles]] * [[Outline of Andorra]] * [[Andorra–European Union relations]] * [[Bibliography of Andorra]] * [[European microstates]] * [[List of Andorrans]] * [[List of Co-Princes of Andorra]] * [[Lists of ecoregions by country]] * [[Recognition of same-sex unions in Andorra]] * [[Scouts d'Andorra]] * [[Tourism in Andorra]] ==References== {{Reflist|colwidth=30em}} ==External links== {{Wikibooks|Wikijunior:Countries A-Z|voy=Andorra|Andorra}} {{Wikisource|Portal:Andorra|Andorra Portal}} {{Sister project links|voy=Andorra|d=Q228}} * [http://www.govern.ad/ Govern d'Andorra]&nbsp;– Official governmental site {{ca icon}} * {{CIA World Factbook link|an|Andorra}} * [http://www.loc.gov/rr/international/hispanic/andorra/andorra.html Portals to the World] from the United States [[Library of Congress]] * [http://ucblibraries.colorado.edu/govpubs/for/andorra.htm Andorra] from ''UCB Libraries GovPubs'' * {{dmoz|Regional/Europe/Andorra}} * [http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-17028050 Andorra] from the [[BBC News]] * [http://bloggordo.com/andorra-guia-turismo-y-de-viajes/ Andorra – Guía, turismo y de viajes] * [http://eudocs.lib.byu.edu/index.php/History_of_Andorra:_Primary_Documents History of Andorra: Primary Documents] from ''EuroDocs'' * [http://www.nytimes.com/slideshow/2010/08/27/business/global/28andorra-slideshow.html A New Path for Andorra] – slideshow by ''[[The New York Times]]'' * {{osmrelation-inline|9407|bullet=no}} * {{Wikiatlas|Andorra}} {{Geographic location | Centre = {{flag|Andorra}} | North = {{flag|France}} | Northeast = {{flag|France}} | East = {{flag|France}} | Southeast = {{flag|Spain}} | South = {{flag|Spain}} | Southwest = {{flag|Spain}} | West = {{flag|Spain}} | Northwest = {{flag|France}} }} {{Andorra topics}} {{Navboxes | title = Geographic locale | list = {{Countries of Europe}} }} {{Navboxes | title = International membership | list = {{Monarchies}} {{Council of Europe}} {{La Francophonie |state=collapsed}} }} {{Portal bar|Andorra|Catalan-speaking countries|France|Geography|Europe}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Andorra| ]] [[Category:Countries in Europe]] [[Category:Diarchies]] [[Category:French-speaking countries and territories]] [[Category:Iberian Peninsula]] [[Category:Landlocked countries]] [[Category:Liberal democracies]] [[Category:Member states of the Council of Europe]] [[Category:Member states of the Organisation internationale de la Francophonie]] [[Category:Member states of the United Nations]] [[Category:Monarchies of Europe]] [[Category:Països Catalans]] [[Category:Prince-Bishoprics]] [[Category:Principalities]] [[Category:Pyrenees]] [[Category:Romance countries and territories]] [[Category:Southern Europe]] [[Category:Southwestern Europe]] [[Category:Spanish-speaking countries and territories]] [[Category:States and territories established in 1278]] [[Category:Western Europe]] [[Category:1278 establishments in Europe]] i0bz693xo53p6n7vthqkahhny5p1qfb 0 609 629644389 312960707 2014-10-14T23:57:55Z Jdaloner 4460044 Changed "R from CamelCase" tag to "R from subpage". wikitext text/x-wiki #REDIRECT [[Foreign relations of Andorra]] {{R from subpage}} {{nahmc||Foreign relations of Andorra}} 8ig25xeq3r6dminlmpn0qdzi6xva10g 0 612 717931277 712749371 2016-04-30T15:38:43Z Maczkopeti 26240210 wikitext text/x-wiki {{broader|Mean}} {{refimprove|date=July 2013}} {{Use dmy dates|date=June 2013}} In [[mathematics]] and [[statistics]], the '''arithmetic mean''' ({{IPAc-en|ˌ|æ|r|ɪ|θ|ˈ|m|ɛ|t|ɪ|k|_|ˈ|m|iː|n}}), or simply the [[mean]] or '''average''' when the context is clear, is the sum of a collection of numbers divided by the number of numbers in the collection.<ref>{{cite book | last = Jacobs | first = Harold R. | title = Mathematics: A Human Endeavor | edition = Third | year = 1994 | publisher = [[W. H. Freeman]] | page = 547 | isbn = 0-7167-2426-X}}</ref> The collection is often a set of results of an [[experiment (probability theory)|experiment]], or a set of results from a [[Survey methodology|survey]]. The term "arithmetic mean" is preferred in some contexts in mathematics and statistics because it helps distinguish it from other [[average|mean]]s, such as the [[geometric mean]] and the [[harmonic mean]]. In addition to mathematics and statistics, the arithmetic mean is used frequently in fields such as economics, [[sociology]], and history, and it is used in almost every academic field to some extent. For example, [[per capita income]] is the arithmetic average income of a nation's population. While the arithmetic mean is often used to report [[central tendency|central tendencies]], it is not a [[robust statistic]], meaning that it is greatly influenced by [[outlier]]s (values that are very much larger or smaller than most of the values). Notably, for [[skewed distribution]]s, such as the [[distribution of income]] for which a few people's incomes are substantially greater than most people's, the arithmetic mean may not accord with one's notion of "middle", and robust statistics, such as the [[median]], may be a better description of central tendency. In a more obscure usage, any sequence of values that form an [[Arithmetic progression|arithmetic sequence]] between two numbers ''x'' and ''y'' can be called "arithmetic means between ''x'' and ''y''."<ref>{{cite book | last = Foerster | first = Paul A. | title = Algebra and Trigonometry: Functions and Applications, Teacher's Edition | edition = Classics | year = 2006 | publisher = [[Prentice Hall]] | location = Upper Saddle River, NJ | page = 573 | url = http://www.amazon.com/Algebra-Trigonometry-Functions-Applications-Prentice/dp/0131657100 | isbn = 0-13-165711-9}}</ref> ==Definition== The '''arithmetic mean''' (or '''mean''' or '''average''') is the most commonly used and readily understood measure of central tendency. In statistics, the term average refers to any of the measures of central tendency. The arithmetic mean is defined as being equal to the sum of the numerical values of each and every observation divided by the total number of observations. Symbolically, if we have a data set containing the values <math>a_1,\ldots,a_n.</math> The arithmetic mean <math>A</math> is defined by the formula :<math>A=\frac{1}{n}\sum_{i=1}^n a_i.</math> (See [[summation]] for an explanation of the summation operator). For example, let us consider the monthly salary of 10 employees of a firm: 2500, 2700, 2400, 2300, 2550, 2650, 2750, 2450, 2600, 2400. The arithmetic mean is : <math>\frac{ 2500+ 2700+ 2400+ 2300+ 2550+ 2650+ 2750+ 2450+ 2600+ 2400}{10}=2530.</math> If the data set is a [[statistical population]] (i.e., consists of every possible observation and not just a subset of them), then the mean of that population is called the '''population mean'''. If the data set is a [[sampling (statistics)|statistical sample]] (a subset of the population), we call the statistic resulting from this calculation a '''sample mean'''. The arithmetic mean of a variable is often denoted by a bar, for example as in <math>\bar{x}</math> (read <math>x</math> ''bar''), which is the mean of the <math>n</math> values <math>x_1,x_2,\ldots,x_n</math>.<ref name="JM">{{cite book| last = Medhi| first = Jyotiprasad| title = Statistical Methods: An Introductory Text| url = https://books.google.com/?id=bRUwgf_q5RsC| year = 1992| publisher = New Age International| isbn = 9788122404197| pages = 53–58 }}</ref> ==Motivating properties== The arithmetic mean has several properties that make it useful, especially as a measure of central tendency. These include: * If numbers <math>x_1,\dotsc,x_n</math> have mean <math>\bar{x}</math>, then <math>(x_1-\bar{x}) + \dotsb + (x_n-\bar{x}) = 0</math>. Since <math>x_i-\bar{x}</math> is the distance from a given number to the mean, one way to interpret this property is as saying that the numbers to the left of the mean are balanced by the numbers to the right of the mean. The mean is the only single number for which the [[errors and residuals in statistics|residuals]] (deviations from the estimate) sum to zero. * If it is required to use a single number as a "typical" value for a set of known numbers <math>x_1,\dotsc,x_n</math>, then the arithmetic mean of the numbers does this best, in the sense of minimizing the sum of squared deviations from the typical value: the sum of <math>(x_i-\bar{x})^2</math>. (It follows that the sample mean is also the best single predictor in the sense of having the lowest [[root mean squared error]].)<ref name="JM"/> If the arithmetic mean of a population of numbers is desired, then the estimate of it that is [[unbiased estimate|unbiased]] is the arithmetic mean of a sample drawn from the population. ==Contrast with median== The arithmetic mean may be contrasted with the median. The median is defined such that half the values are larger than, and half are smaller than, the median. If elements in the sample data [[arithmetic progression|increase arithmetically]], when placed in some order, then the median and arithmetic average are equal. For example, consider the data sample <math>{1,2,3,4}</math>. The average is <math>2.5</math>, as is the median. However, when we consider a sample that cannot be arranged so as to increase arithmetically, such as <math>{1,2,4,8,16}</math>, the median and arithmetic average can differ significantly. In this case, the arithmetic average is 6.2 and the median is 4. In general, the average value can vary significantly from most values in the sample, and can be larger or smaller than most of them. There are applications of this phenomenon in many fields. For example, since the 1980s, the median income in the United States has increased more slowly than the arithmetic average of income.<ref>Paul Krugman, [http://prospect.org/article/rich-right-and-facts-deconstructing-inequality-debate "The Rich, the Right, and the Facts: Deconstructing the Income Distribution Debate"], 'The American Prospect'</ref> ==Generalizations== ===Weighted average=== {{main|Weighted average}} A weighted average, or weighted mean, is an average in which some data points count more strongly than others, in that they are given more weight in the calculation. For example, the arithmetic mean of <math>3</math> and <math>5</math> is <math>\frac{(3+5)}{2} = 4</math>, or equivalently <math>\left( \frac{1}{2} \cdot 3\right) + \left( \frac{1}{2} \cdot 5\right) = 4</math>. In contrast, a ''weighted'' mean in which the first number receives, for example, twice as much weight as the second (perhaps because it is assumed to appear twice as often in the general population from which these numbers were sampled) would be calculated as <math>\left( \frac{2}{3} \cdot 3\right) + \left(\frac{1}{3} \cdot 5\right) = \frac{11}{3}</math>. Here the weights, which necessarily sum to the value one, are <math>(2/3)</math> and <math>(1/3)</math>, the former being twice the latter. Note that the arithmetic mean (sometimes called the "unweighted average" or "equally weighted average") can be interpreted as a special case of a weighted average in which all the weights are equal to each other (equal to <math>\frac{1}{2}</math> in the above example, and equal to <math>\frac{1}{n}</math> in a situation with <math>n</math> numbers being averaged). ===Continuous probability distributions=== [[File:Comparison mean median mode.svg|thumb|300px|Comparison of mean, [[median]] and [[mode (statistics)|mode]] of two [[log-normal distribution]]s with different [[skewness]].]] When a population of numbers, and any sample of data from it, could take on any of a continuous range of numbers, instead of for example just integers, then the [[probability]] of a number falling into one range of possible values could differ from the probability of falling into a different range of possible values, even if the lengths of both ranges are the same. In such a case, the set of probabilities can be described using a [[continuous probability distribution]]. The analog of a weighted average in this context, in which there are an infinitude of possibilities for the precise value of the variable, is called the ''mean of the probability distribution''. The most widely encountered probability distribution is called the [[normal distribution]]; it has the property that all measures of its central tendency, including not just the mean but also the aforementioned median and the [[Mode (statistics)|mode]], are equal to each other. This property does not hold however, in the cases of a great many probability distributions, such as the [[lognormal distribution]] illustrated here. ==Angles== {{Main|Mean of circular quantities}} Particular care must be taken when using cyclic data, such as phases or [[angle]]s. Naïvely taking the arithmetic mean of 1° and 359° yields a result of 180°. This is incorrect for two reasons: * Firstly, angle measurements are only defined up to an additive constant of [[degree (angle)|360°]] (or 2π, if measuring in [[radian]]s). Thus one could as easily call these 1° and −1°, or 361° and 719°, each of which gives a different average. * Secondly, in this situation, 0° (equivalently, 360°) is geometrically a better ''average'' value: there is lower [[statistical dispersion|dispersion]] about it (the points are both 1° from it, and 179° from 180°, the putative average). In general application, such an oversight will lead to the average value artificially moving towards the middle of the numerical range. A solution to this problem is to use the optimization formulation ([[viz.]], define the mean as the central point: the point about which one has the lowest dispersion), and redefine the difference as a modular distance (i.e., the distance on the circle: so the modular distance between 1° and 359° is 2°, not 358°). ==See also== * [[Average]] * [[Fréchet mean]] * [[Generalized mean]] * [[Geometric mean]] * [[Mode (statistics)|Mode]] * [[Sample mean and covariance]] * [[Standard error of the mean]] * [[Summary statistics]] ==References== {{reflist}} ==Further reading== * {{cite book| last = Huff| first = Darrell| title = How to Lie with Statistics| year = 1993| publisher = W. W. Norton| isbn = 978-0-393-31072-6 }} ==External links== * [http://www.sengpielaudio.com/calculator-geommean.htm Calculations and comparisons between arithmetic and geometric mean of two numbers] * {{MathWorld | urlname= ArithmeticMean | title= Arithmetic Mean}} * [http://www.fxsolver.com/browse/formulas/Arithmetic+Mean Calculate the arithmetic mean of a series of numbers on fxSolver] {{Statistics|descriptive}} {{Portal bar|Statistics}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Arithmetic Mean}} [[Category:Means]] tlo7spxlhqxgwv3s04gcx0tmt7puasc 0 615 714436335 714436209 2016-04-09T19:19:44Z 97.80.60.74 /* Current teams */ wikitext text/x-wiki {{refimprove|date=September 2014}} {{Use dmy dates|date=June 2013}} {{Infobox Sports conference | title = American Football Conference | league = [[National Football League]] | logo = American Football Conference logo.svg | caption = American Football Conference logo (2010–present) | pixels = 150 px | formerly = [[American Football League]] (AFL) | sport = [[American football]] | founded = 1970 | teams = 16 | champion = <!--NOTE: This lists AFC titles only, NOT Super Bowl titles-->[[Denver Broncos]] (8th title) | most_champs = Tied, <!--NOTE: This lists AFC titles only, NOT Super Bowl titles-->[[Pittsburgh Steelers]] (8 titles), [[New England Patriots]] (8 titles), <br>[[Denver Broncos]] (8 titles) }} The '''American Football Conference''' ('''AFC''') is one of the two [[Conference (sports)|conferences]] of the [[National Football League]] (NFL). This conference and its counterpart, the [[National Football Conference]] (NFC), currently contain 16 teams each, making up the 32 teams of the NFL. Both conferences were created as part of the [[AFL–NFL merger|1970 merger]] with the rival [[American Football League]] (AFL), with all ten of the former AFL teams and three NFL teams forming the AFC while the remaining thirteen NFL clubs forming the NFC. A series of league expansions and division realignments have occurred since the merger, thus making the current total 16 clubs per each conference. Since the 1970 AFL–NFL merger, the [[Denver Broncos]], the [[Pittsburgh Steelers]], and the [[New England Patriots]] are tied for the most AFC titles (8). The current AFC title holder is Denver. ==Current teams== Since 2002, the AFC has 16 teams, organized into four [[Division (sport)|divisions]] each with four teams: [[AFC East|East]], [[AFC North|North]], [[AFC South|South]] and [[AFC West|West]]. {| class="wikitable" style="width:100%; text-align:left" ! Division ! Team ! City/Town ! Stadium |- ! style=background:white rowspan=4 | [[AFC East|East]] | '''[[Buffalo Bills]]''' | [[Orchard Park (town), New York|Orchard Park]], [[New York|NY]] | [[Ralph Wilson Stadium]] |- | '''[[Miami Dolphins]]''' | [[Miami Gardens, Florida|Miami Gardens]], [[Florida|FL]] | [[New Miami Stadium]] |- | '''[[New England Patriots]]''' | [[Foxborough, Massachusetts|Foxborough]], [[Massachusetts|MA]] | [[Gillette Stadium]] |- | '''[[New York Jets]]''' | [[East Rutherford, New Jersey|East Rutherford]], [[New Jersey|NJ]] | [[MetLife Stadium]] |- ! style=background:white rowspan=4 | [[AFC North|North]] | '''[[Baltimore Ravens]]''' | [[Baltimore]], [[Maryland|MD]] | [[M&T Bank Stadium]] |- | '''[[Cincinnati Bengals]]''' | [[Cincinnati]], [[Ohio|OH]] | [[Paul Brown Stadium]] |- | '''[[Cleveland Browns]]''' | [[Cleveland]], [[Ohio|OH]] | [[FirstEnergy Stadium (Cleveland)|FirstEnergy Stadium]] |- | '''[[Pittsburgh Steelers]]''' | [[Pittsburgh]], [[Pennsylvania|PA]] | [[Heinz Field]] |- ! style=background:white rowspan=4 | [[AFC South|South]] | '''[[Houston Texans]]''' | [[Houston]], [[Texas|TX]] | [[NRG Stadium]] |- | '''[[Indianapolis Colts]]''' | [[Indianapolis]], [[Indiana|IN]] | [[Lucas Oil Stadium]] |- | '''[[Jacksonville Jaguars]]''' | [[Jacksonville, Florida|Jacksonville]], [[Florida|FL]] | [[EverBank Field]] |- | '''[[Tennessee Titans]]''' | [[Nashville, Tennessee|Nashville]], [[Tennessee|TN]] | [[Nissan Stadium]] |- ! style=background:white rowspan=4 | [[AFC West|West]] | '''[[Denver Broncos]]''' | [[Denver]], [[Colorado|CO]] | [[Sports Authority Field at Mile High]] |- | '''[[Kansas City Chiefs]]''' | [[Kansas City, Missouri|Kansas City]], [[Missouri|MO]] | [[Arrowhead Stadium]] |- | '''[[Oakland Raiders]]''' | [[Oakland, California|Oakland]], [[California|CA]] | [[Oakland Coliseum]] |- | '''[[San Diego Chargers]]''' | [[San Diego]], [[California|CA]] | [[Qualcomm Stadium]] |} ==Season structure== {{Unreferenced section|date=September 2014}} {{main|National Football League regular season|National Football League playoffs}} <div class="thumb tright"> <div class="thumbinner" style="width:350px;"> {| class="wikitable" |- ! {{tooltip|POS|Position}} !! AFC East !! AFC North !! AFC South !! AFC West |- | 1st || style="background-color:#ffaa00"| [[New England Patriots|Patriots]] || style="background-color:#ffaa00"| [[Cincinnati Bengals|Bengals]] || style="background-color:#ffff00"| [[Houston Texans|Texans]] || style="background-color:#00ff00"| [[Denver Broncos|Broncos]] |- | 2nd || [[New York Jets|Jets]] || [[Pittsburgh Steelers|Steelers]] || style="background-color:#ffff00"| [[Indianapolis Colts|Colts]] || style="background-color:#add8e6"| [[Kansas City Chiefs|Chiefs]] |- | 3rd || [[Buffalo Bills|Bills]] || [[Baltimore Ravens|Ravens]] || style="background-color:#ffff00"| [[Jacksonville Jaguars|Jaguars]] || style="background-color:#add8e6"| [[Oakland Raiders|Raiders]] |- | 4th || [[Miami Dolphins|Dolphins]] || [[Cleveland Browns|Browns]] || style="background-color:#ffff00"| [[Tennessee Titans|Titans]] || style="background-color:#add8e6"| [[San Diego Chargers|Chargers]] |- |colspan=5| |- ! {{tooltip|POS|Position}} !! NFC East !! NFC North !! NFC South !! NFC West |- | 1st || [[Washington Redskins|Redskins]] || [[Minnesota Vikings|Vikings]] || style="background-color:#ffff00"| [[Carolina Panthers|Panthers]] || [[Arizona Cardinals|Cardinals]] |- | 2nd || [[Philadelphia Eagles|Eagles]] || [[Green Bay Packers|Packers]] || style="background-color:#ffff00"| [[Atlanta Falcons|Falcons]] || [[Seattle Seahawks|Seahawks]] |- | 3rd || [[New York Giants|Giants]] || [[Detroit Lions|Lions]] || style="background-color:#ffff00"| [[New Orleans Saints|Saints]] || [[Los Angeles Rams|Rams]] |- | 4th || [[Dallas Cowboys|Cowboys]] || [[Chicago Bears|Bears]] || style="background-color:#ffff00"| [[Tampa Bay Buccaneers|Buccaneers]] || [[San Francisco 49ers|49ers]] |} <div class="thumbcaption"> This chart of the [[2015 NFL season#standings|2015 season standings]] displays an application of the NFL scheduling formula. The [[2015 Denver Broncos season|Broncos in 2015]] (highlighted in green) finished in first place in the [[AFC West]]. Thus, [[2016 Denver Broncos season|in 2016]], the Broncos will play two games against each of its division rivals (highlighted in light blue), one game against each team in the [[AFC South]] and [[NFC South]] (highlighted in yellow), and one game each against the first-place finishers in the [[AFC East]] and [[AFC North]] (highlighted in orange).</div> </div> </div> Currently, the thirteen opponents each team faces over the 16-game regular season schedule are set using a pre-determined formula:<ref>{{cite web|title=2012 Opponents Determined|url=http://nfllabor.files.wordpress.com/2012/01/2012-opponents-determined.pdf|publisher=[[National Football League|NFL]]|accessdate=January 23, 2012|date=January 2, 2012}}</ref> Each AFC team plays the other teams in their respective division twice (home and away) during the regular season, in addition to 10 other games assigned to their schedule by the NFL. Two of these games are assigned on the basis of a particular team's final divisional standing from the previous season. The remaining 8 games are split between the roster of two other NFL divisions. This assignment shifts each year and will follow a standard cycle. Using the 2012 regular season schedule as an example, each team in the AFC West plays against every team in the AFC North and NFC South. In this way, non-divisional competition will be mostly among common opponents - the exception being the two games assigned based on the team's prior-season divisional standing. At the end of each season, the top six teams in the conference proceeds into the [[NFL playoffs|playoff]]. These teams consist of the four division winners and the top two [[Wild card (sports)|wild card]] teams. The NFC playoffs culminate in the [[AFC Championship Game]] with the winner receiving the [[Lamar Hunt]] Trophy. The AFC Champion thens plays the [[National Football Conference|NFC]] Champion in the [[Super Bowl]]. ==History== {{refimprove section|date=September 2014}} [[File:Oldafclogo.JPG|thumb|right|150px|Original American Football Conference logo, based on the AFL logo with blue stars]] Both the AFC and the NFC were created after the NFL [[AFL-NFL Merger|merged]] with the [[American Football League]] (AFL) in 1970.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.worldalmanacforkids.com/WAKI-ViewArticle.aspx?pin=x-fo055624a&article_id=608&chapter_id=13&chapter_title=Sports&article_title=Pro_Football_History|title=Pro Football - History|accessdate=3 April 2009}}</ref> The AFL began play in 1960 with eight teams, and added two more expansion clubs (the [[Miami Dolphins]] in 1966 and the [[Cincinnati Bengals]] in 1968) before the merger. In order to equalize the number of teams in each conference, three NFL teams that predated the AFL's launch (the [[Cleveland Browns]], [[Pittsburgh Steelers]], and the then-[[Indianapolis Colts|Baltimore Colts]]) joined the ten former AFL teams to form the AFC. The two AFL divisions [[AFL East]] and [[AFL West]] were more or less intact, while the Century Division, in which the Browns and the Steelers had played since 1967, was moved from the NFL to become the new AFC Central. Since the merger, five expansion teams have joined the AFC and two have left, thus making the current total 16. When the [[Seattle Seahawks]] and the [[Tampa Bay Buccaneers]] joined the league in 1976, they were temporarily placed in the NFC and AFC respectively. This arrangement lasted for one season only before the two teams switched conferences. The Seahawks eventually returned to the NFC as a result of the [[2002 NFL season#Expansion and realignment|2002 realignment]]. The expansion [[Jacksonville Jaguars]] joined the AFC in 1995. Due to the [[Cleveland Browns relocation controversy|relocation controversy]] of the Cleveland Browns, a new AFC franchise called the [[Baltimore Ravens]] was officially established in 1996 while the Browns were reactivated in 1999. The [[Houston Texans]] were then added to the league in 2002, joining the AFC. Between 2000 and 2015, the AFC had sent either the [[Baltimore Ravens]] (2 times), the [[Denver Broncos]] (2 times), the [[Indianapolis Colts]] (2 times), the [[Oakland Raiders]] (1 time), the [[New England Patriots]] (6 times), and the [[Pittsburgh Steelers]] (3 times) to the [[Super Bowl]]. By contrast, the [[National Football Conference|NFC]] has sent 11 different teams during that same time frame. ==Logo== [[Image:American Football Conference logo old.svg|right|thumb|2nd American Football Conference logo used from 1970 to 2009|216x216px]] The merged league created a new logo for the AFC that took elements of the old AFL logo, specifically the "A" and the six stars surrounding it. The AFC logo basically remained unchanged from 1970 to 2009. The 2010 NFL season introduced an updated AFC logo, with the most notable revision being the removal of two stars (leaving four representing the four divisions of the AFC), and moving the stars inside the letter, similar to the NFC logo.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.uniwatchblog.com/2010/03/02/but-i-absolutely-refuse-to-write-about-the-draft-caps/|title=But I Absolutely Refuse to Write About the Draft Caps |author=Paul Lukas |publisher=Uni Watch blog |accessdate=16 April 2010| archiveurl= //web.archive.org/web/20100506134900/http://www.uniwatchblog.com/2010/03/02/but-i-absolutely-refuse-to-write-about-the-draft-caps/| archivedate= 6 May 2010 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}</ref> ==References== {{reflist}} {{NFL}} {{Navboxes|list= {{Buffalo Bills}} {{Miami Dolphins}} {{New England Patriots}} {{New York Jets}} {{Baltimore Ravens}} {{Cincinnati Bengals}} {{Cleveland Browns}} {{Pittsburgh Steelers}} {{Houston Texans}} {{Indianapolis Colts}} {{Jacksonville Jaguars}} {{Tennessee Titans}} {{Denver Broncos}} {{Kansas City Chiefs}} {{Oakland Raiders}} {{San Diego Chargers}} }} [[Category:National Football League]] [[Category:American Football League|Conference]] [[Category:Organizations established in 1970]] r5rfzjo57ggkfcskvd5vw754b9fe2zx 0 617 332508764 225728306 2009-12-18T16:08:55Z Robertgreer 2742851 wikitext text/x-wiki #redirect [[Al Gore]] {{R from full name}} pi6u41b8th224gffvbmv7ng52ocq6ec 0 618 427328657 160876025 2011-05-04T00:49:51Z Fuhghettaboutit 665998 Fix double redirect wikitext text/x-wiki #REDIRECT [[An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding]] {{R from CamelCase}} 5c9hlmfflor4ny584fg2bslw4l530aw 0 620 714987995 708976536 2016-04-13T01:12:01Z Ansh666 5305553 /* Significance and allegory */ ce wikitext text/x-wiki {{About|the novel by George Orwell}} {{Pp-semi-indef}} {{pp-move-indef}} {{Use dmy dates|date=June 2013}} {{Use British English|date=June 2011}} {{Infobox book | name = Animal Farm | title_orig = Animal Farm: A Fairy Story | image = Animal Farm - 1st edition.jpg | image_size = 200px | caption = First edition cover | author = [[George Orwell]] | illustrator = | cover_artist = | country = United Kingdom | language = English | genre = Political satire | published = 17 August 1945 ([[Secker and Warburg]], London, England) | media_type = Print (hardback & paperback) | pages = 112 (UK paperback edition) <!-- First edition page count preferred --> | isbn = 0-452-28424-4 | isbn_note = (2003 edition)<br>ISBN 978-0-452-28424-1 <!-- First released before ISBN system implemented --> | dewey = 823/.912 20 | congress = PR6029.R8 A63 2003b | oclc = 53163540 }} '''''Animal Farm''''' is an [[allegory|allegorical]] and [[dystopian novel|dystopian]] novella by [[George Orwell]], first published in England on 17 August 1945. According to Orwell, the book reflects events leading up to the [[Russian Revolution of 1917]] and then on into the [[History of the Soviet Union (1927–53)|Stalinist era]] of the [[Soviet Union]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/learningzone/clips/george-orwells-animal-farm-historical-context-pt-1-3/8177.html|title=BBC - GCSE English Literature - 'Animal Farm' - historical context (pt 1/3)|work=bbc.co.uk}}</ref> Orwell, a [[democratic socialism|democratic socialist]],<ref>Orwell, George. "[[Why I Write]]" (1936) (''The Collected Essays, Journalism and Letters of George Orwell Volume 1 – An Age Like This 1945–1950'' p.&nbsp;23 (Penguin))</ref> was a critic of [[Joseph Stalin]] and hostile to Moscow-directed [[Stalinism]], an attitude that was critically shaped by his experiences during the [[Spanish Civil War]].<ref>Gordon Bowker, ''Orwell'' p.&nbsp;224 ; Orwell, writing in his review of [[Franz Borkenau]]'s ''The Spanish Cockpit'' in ''[[Time and Tide (magazine)|Time and Tide]]'', 31 July 1937, and "Spilling the Spanish Beans", ''New English Weekly'', 29 July 1937</ref> The Soviet Union, he believed, had become a brutal [[dictatorship]], built upon a [[cult of personality]] and enforced by [[Great purge|a reign of terror]]. In a letter to Yvonne Davet, Orwell described ''Animal Farm'' as a [[satire|satirical]] tale against Stalin ("''un conte satirique contre Staline''"),{{sfn|Davison|2000|p=}} and in his essay "[[Why I Write]]" (1946), wrote that ''Animal Farm'' was the first book in which he tried, with full consciousness of what he was doing, "to fuse political purpose and artistic purpose into one whole". The original title was ''Animal Farm: A Fairy Story;'' U.S. publishers dropped the subtitle when it was published in 1946, and only one of the translations during Orwell's lifetime kept it. Other titular variations include subtitles like "''A Satire"'' and "''A Contemporary Satire"''.{{sfn|Davison|2000|p=}} Orwell suggested the title ''Union des républiques socialistes animales'' for the French translation, which abbreviates to URSA, the [[Latin]] for "bear", a [[Russian bear|symbol of Russia]], which also played on the French name of the Soviet Union, ''Union des républiques socialistes soviétiques''.{{sfn|Davison|2000|p=}} Orwell wrote the book between November 1943 and February 1944, when the UK was in its wartime alliance with the Soviet Union and the British people and intelligentsia held Stalin in high esteem, a phenomenon Orwell hated.<ref>[[Bradbury, Malcolm]], Introduction, p.&nbsp;vi, ''Animal Farm'', Penguin edition, 1989</ref> The manuscript was initially rejected by a number of British and American publishers,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.historytoday.com/robert-pearce/animal-farm-sixty-years|title=Animal Farm: Sixty Years On|work=historytoday.com}}</ref> including one of Orwell's own, [[Victor Gollancz]], which delayed its publication. It became a great commercial success when it did appear partly because international relations were transformed as the wartime alliance gave way to the [[Cold War]].<ref>Dickstein, Morris. ''Cambridge Companion to Orwell'', p.&nbsp;134</ref> ''Time'' magazine chose the book as one of the 100 best English-language novels (1923 to 2005);{{sfn|Grossman|Lacayo|2005|p=}} it also featured at number 31 on the [[Modern Library List of Best 20th-Century Novels]]. It won a Retrospective [[Hugo Award]] in 1996, and is also included in the [[Great Books of the Western World]] selection. ==Plot summary== [[Old Major]], the old boar on the Manor Farm, summons the animals on the farm together for a meeting, during which he refers to humans as "enemies" and teaches the animals a revolutionary song called ''[[Beasts of England]]''. When Major dies, two young pigs, [[Snowball (Animal Farm)|Snowball]] and [[Napoleon (Animal Farm)|Napoleon]], assume command and consider it a duty to prepare for the Rebellion. The animals revolt and drive the drunken and irresponsible farmer [[Jones (Animal Farm)|Mr. Jones]] from the farm, renaming it "Animal Farm". They adopt Seven Commandments of Animalism, the most important of which is, "All animals are equal." Snowball teaches the animals to read and write, while Napoleon educates young puppies on the principles of [[Animal Farm#Animalism|Animalism]]. Food is plentiful, and the farm runs smoothly. The pigs elevate themselves to positions of leadership and set aside special food items, ostensibly for their personal health. Some time later, several men attack Animal Farm. Jones and his men are making an attempt to recapture the farm, aided by several other farmers who are terrified of similar animal revolts. Snowball, who has been studying the battles of [[Julius Caesar]] in anticipation of such a fight, orders the animals to retreat, then attacks the men and beats them back. Snowball's popularity soars and this event is proclaimed "The Battle of the Cowshed" and celebrated annually with the firing of a gun along with the anniversary of the Revolution. Napoleon and Snowball struggle for preeminence. When Snowball announces his plans to build a [[windmill]], Napoleon has his dogs chase Snowball away and declares himself leader of Animal Farm. Napoleon enacts changes to the governance structure of the farm, replacing meetings with a committee of pigs who will run the farm. Through a young pig named [[Squealer (Animal Farm)|Squealer]], Napoleon claims credit for the windmill idea. The animals work harder with the promise of easier lives with the windmill. When the animals find the windmill collapsed after a violent storm, Napoleon and Squealer convince the animals that Snowball is trying to sabotage their project. Once Snowball becomes a [[scapegoat]], Napoleon begins to [[purge]] the farm with his dogs, killing animals he accuses of consorting with his old rival. When some animals recall the Battle of the Cowshed, Napoleon (who was nowhere to be found during the battle) frequently smears Snowball as a collaborator of Jones, while falsely representing himself as the hero of the battle. ''Beasts of England'' is replaced with an anthem glorifying Napoleon, who appears to be adopting the lifestyle of a man. The animals remain convinced that they are better off than they were under Mr. Jones. [[Frederick (Animal Farm)|Mr Frederick]], one of the neighbouring farmers, attacks the farm, using [[Explosive material|blasting powder]] to blow up the restored windmill. Though the animals win the battle, they do so [[Pyrrhic victory|at great cost]], as many, including [[Boxer (Animal Farm)|Boxer]] the workhorse, are wounded. Despite his injuries, Boxer continues working harder and harder, until he collapses while working on the windmill. Napoleon sends for a van to take Boxer to the veterinary surgeon, explaining that better care can be given there. Benjamin, the cynical donkey who "could read as well as any pig",<ref>Orwell, George (1946). ''Animal Farm''. London: Penguin Group. p.&nbsp;21.</ref> notices that the van belongs to a [[knacker]], and attempts a futile rescue. Squealer reports that the van was purchased by the hospital and the writing from the previous owner had not been repainted. Squealer also tells of how Boxer died peacefully, and the pigs hold a festival one day after Boxer's death to further praise the glories of Animal Farm and have the animals work harder by taking on Boxer's ways. But in reality, Napoleon has sold his most loyal and long-suffering worker for money to buy [[whisky]] for himself and the pigs. {{anchor|moreEqual}} Years pass, and the windmill is rebuilt along with construction of another windmill, which makes the farm a good amount of income. However, the concepts which Snowball discussed, of animal stalls with running water and lighting are forgotten, with Napoleon advocating that the happiest animals live simple lives. Besides Boxer, many of the animals who participated in the Revolution are dead, as well as Jones, who died in another part of England. The pigs start to resemble humans, as they walk upright, carry whips, and wear clothes. The Seven Commandments are abridged to a single phrase: "All animals are equal, but some animals are more equal than others". Napoleon holds a dinner party for the pigs and local farmers, with whom he celebrates a new alliance. He abolishes the practice of the revolutionary traditions and restores the name "The Manor Farm". As the animals look from pigs to humans, they realise they can no longer distinguish between the two. ==Characters== ===Pigs=== *'''[[Old Major]]''' – An aged prize [[Middle White|Middle White boar]] provides the inspiration that fuels the Rebellion in the book. He is an allegorical combination of [[Karl Marx]], one of the creators of communism, and [[Lenin]], the communist leader of the [[Russian Revolution]] and the early Soviet nation, in that he draws up the principles of the revolution. His skull being put on revered public display recalls Lenin, whose [[Lenin's Mausoleum|embalmed body was put on display]].<ref name=RoddenIntro/><ref name=Hitchens/> *'''[[Napoleon (Animal Farm)|Napoleon]]''' – "A large, rather fierce-looking [[Berkshire pig|Berkshire]] boar, the only Berkshire on the farm, not much of a talker, but with a reputation for getting his own way".{{sfn|Orwell|1979|loc=chapter II|p=15}} An allegory of [[Joseph Stalin]],<ref name=RoddenIntro/> Napoleon is the main villain of ''Animal Farm''. In the first French version of ''Animal Farm'', Napoleon is called ''{{lang|fr|César}}'', the French form of [[Caesar (title)|Caesar]],{{sfn|Davison|2000|p=}} although another translation has him as ''{{lang|fr|Napoléon}}''.<ref name=NapoleonInFrench/> *'''[[Snowball (Animal Farm)|Snowball]]''' – Napoleon's rival and original head of the farm after Jones' overthrow. He is mainly based on [[Leon Trotsky]],<ref name=RoddenIntro/> but also combines elements from Lenin.<ref name=Hitchens/> *'''[[Squealer (Animal Farm)|Squealer]]''' – A small, white, fat porker who serves as Napoleon's second-in-command and minister of propaganda, holding a position similar to that of [[Vyacheslav Molotov]].<ref name=RoddenIntro/> *'''Minimus''' – A poetic pig who writes the second and third national anthems of ''Animal Farm'' after the singing of "Beasts of England" is banned. *'''The piglets''' – Hinted to be the children of Napoleon and are the first generation of animals subjugated to his idea of animal inequality. *'''The young pigs''' – Four pigs who complain about Napoleon's takeover of the farm but are quickly silenced and later executed. Based on the [[Great Purge]] of [[Grigori Zinoviev]], [[Lev Kamenev]], [[Nikolai Bukharin]], and [[Alexei Rykov]]. *'''Pinkeye''' – A minor pig who is mentioned only once; he is the pig that tastes Napoleon's food to make sure it is not poisoned, in response to rumours about an assassination attempt on Napoleon. ===Humans=== *'''[[Jones (Animal Farm)|Mr Jones]]''' – The former owner of the farm, Jones is a very heavy drinker. The animals revolt against him after he drinks so much that he does not feed or take care of them. He is an allegory of Russian [[Tsar Nicholas II]],<ref>{{cite web | last= | first= | url=http://www.shmoop.com/animal-farm/fall-mister-jones-russian-revolution-1917-symbol.html | title= The Fall of Mister Jones and the Russian Revolution of 1917| publisher=Shmoop University | accessdate=13 May 2013}}</ref> who abdicated following the [[February Revolution]] of 1917 and was murdered, along with the rest of his family, by the [[Bolsheviks]] on 17 July 1918. *'''Mr Frederick''' – The tough owner of Pinchfield, a small but well-kept neighbouring farm, who briefly enters into an alliance with Napoleon. He is an allegory of [[Adolf Hitler]],<ref>{{cite web | last= | first= | url=http://www.sparknotes.com/lit/animalfarm/section8.rhtml | title=SparkNotes " Literature Study Guides " Animal Farm " Chapter VIII | publisher=SparkNotes LLC | accessdate=13 May 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | last= | first= | url=http://www.shmoop.com/animal-farm/scheming-frederick-how-hitler-broke-non-aggression-pact-symbol.html | title= The Scheming Frederick and how Hitler Broke the Non-Aggression Pact| publisher=Shmoop University | accessdate=13 May 2013}}</ref><ref name="Meyers, p. 141">Meyers, ''Readers Guide to Orwell'', p.&nbsp;141</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Bloom |first=Harold |authorlink=Harold Bloom |year=2009 |title=Bloom's Modern Critical Interpretations: Animal Farm - New Edition |edition=1st |url=http://books.google.de/books?id=V7C4bXGsrc8C&pg=PA70&dq=Mr+Frederick+allegory+hitler&hl=en&sa=X&ei=ICqRUdK7EcK14ASjkYGYDA&ved=0CEAQ6AEwAw#v=onepage&q=Mr%20Frederick%20allegory%20hitler&f=false |accessdate=13 May 2013 |publisher=Infobase Publishing |isbn=1604135824}}</ref> who enters into [[Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact|a neutrality pact with Joseph Stalin's USSR]] only to later break it by [[Operation Barbarossa|invading the Soviet Union]]. *'''[[Pilkington (Animal Farm)|Mr Pilkington]]''' – The easy-going but crafty and well-to-do owner of Foxwood, a large neighbouring farm overgrown with weeds. He is antithesis of Frederick, being wealthier and owning more land, but his farm is need of care as opposed to Frederick's smaller but more efficiently-run farm. Although on bad terms with Frederick, Pilkington is concerned about the animal revolution that deposed Jones, and worried a similar thing could happen to him, a concern shared by Frederick. *'''Mr Whymper''' – A man hired by Napoleon to act as the liaison between Animal Farm and human society. At first he is used to acquire goods needed for the farm, such as dog biscuits and paraffin, but later he procures luxuries like alcohol for the pigs. ===Horses and donkeys === *'''[[Boxer (Animal Farm)|Boxer]]''' – A loyal, kind, dedicated, hard working, and respectable cart-horse, although quite naive and gullible. Boxer does a large share of the physical labor on the farm, adhering to the simplistic belief that working harder will solve all the animals' problems. At one point when the animals complain, the dogs attack, however Boxer's strength repels the attack, worrying the pigs that their force can be challenged. Boxer has been compared to the [[Stakhanovite movement]]. He has been described as "faithful and strong";<ref>{{cite journal|jstor=30047391|pages=17–19|last1=Sutherland|first1=T.|title=Speaking My Mind: Orwell Farmed for Education|volume=95|issue=1|journal=The English Journal|year=2005}}</ref> he believes any problem can be solved if he works harder.<ref>{{cite journal|jstor=40176954|pages=11–63|last1=Roper|first1=D.|title=Viewpoint 2: The Boxer Mentality|volume=9|issue=11|journal=Change|year=1977|doi=10.1080/00091383.1977.10569271}}</ref> However, when Boxer is injured, Napoleon sells him to a local knacker to buy himself whisky. *'''Mollie''' – A self-centered, self-indulgent and vain young white mare who quickly leaves for another farm after the revolution. She is only once mentioned again, in a manner similar to those who left Russia after the fall of the Tsar. *'''Clover''' - A gentle, caring female horse, who shows concern especially for Boxer, who often pushes himself too hard. She seems to catch on to the sly tricks and schemes set up by Napoleon and Squealer. *'''[[Benjamin (Animal Farm)|Benjamin]]''' – A donkey, one of the oldest, wisest animals on the farm, and one of the few who can read properly. He is skeptical, temperamental and cynical: his most frequent remark is, "Life will go on as it has always gone on—that is, badly."<ref name="Orwell 1946 40" /> The academic Morris Dickstein has suggested there is "a touch of Orwell himself in this creature's timeless skepticism"<ref name=Dickstein141>''Cambridge Companion to Orwell'', p.&nbsp;141</ref> and indeed, friends called Orwell "Donkey George", "after his grumbling donkey Benjamin, in ''Animal Farm''."<ref>''The Lost Orwell'', p.&nbsp;236</ref> ===Other animals=== *'''Muriel''' – A wise old goat who is friends with all of the animals on the farm. She, like Benjamin and Snowball, is one of the few animals on the farm who can read. *'''The puppies''' – Offspring of Jessie and Bluebell, they were taken away at birth by Napoleon and reared by him to be his security force. *'''Moses''' – The raven, "Mr. Jones's especial pet, was a spy and a tale-bearer, but he was also a clever talker." Initially following Mrs. Jones into exile, he reappears several years later and resumes his role of talking but not working. He regales Animal Farm's denizens with tales of a wondrous place beyond the clouds called "Sugarcandy Mountain, that happy country where we poor animals shall rest forever from our labours!" Orwell portrays [[Religion and politics|established religion]] as "the black raven of priestcraft—promising pie in the sky when you die, and faithfully serving whoever happens to be in power." Napoleon brings the raven back (Ch. IX), as Stalin brought back the [[Russian Orthodox Church]].<ref name=Dickstein141/> *'''The sheep''' – They show limited understanding of the Animalism and the political atmosphere of the farm; yet nonetheless they blindly support Napoleon's ideals with vocal jingles during his speeches and meetings with Snowball. *'''The hens''' – The hens are among the first to rebel against Napoleon. *'''The cows''' – Their milk is stolen by the pigs, who learn to milk them. The milk is stirred into the pigs' mash every day, while the other animals are denied such luxuries. *'''The cat''' – Never seen to carry out any work, the cat is absent for long periods and is forgiven; because her excuses are so convincing and she "purred so affectionately that it was impossible not to believe in her good intentions."<ref name=autogenerated1/> She has no interest in the politics of the farm, and the only time she is recorded as having participated in an election, she is found to have actually "voted on both sides."<ref name=autogenerated1/> ==Composition and publication== ===Origin=== George Orwell wrote the manuscript in 1943 and 1944 subsequent to his experiences during the [[Spanish Civil War]], which he described in ''[[Homage to Catalonia]]'' (1938). In the preface of a 1947 Ukrainian edition of ''Animal Farm'', he explained how escaping the communist purges in Spain taught him "how easily totalitarian propaganda can control the opinion of enlightened people in democratic countries". This motivated Orwell to expose and strongly condemn what he saw as the [[Stalinist]] corruption of the original socialist ideals.{{sfn|Orwell|1947|p=}} Immediately prior to his writing, Orwell had quit the [[BBC]]. He was also upset about a booklet for propagandists the Ministry of Information had put out. The booklet included instructions on how to quell ideological fears of the Soviet Union, such as directions to claim that the Red Terror was a figment of Nazi imagination.<ref>[[Overy, Richard]], ''Why the Allies Won'', p.&nbsp;297 ISBN 0-393-03925-0</ref> In the preface, Orwell also described the source of the idea of setting the book on a farm:{{sfn|Orwell|1947|p=}} {{quote | ...I saw a little boy, perhaps ten years old, driving a huge carthorse along a narrow path, whipping it whenever it tried to turn. It struck me that if only such animals became aware of their strength we should have no power over them, and that men exploit animals in much the same way as the rich exploit the proletariat. }} ===Efforts to find a publisher=== Orwell initially encountered difficulty getting the manuscript published, largely due to fears that the book might upset the alliance between Britain, the United States, and the Soviet Union. Four publishers refused; one had initially accepted the work but declined it after consulting the [[Ministry of Information (United Kingdom)|Ministry of Information]].{{sfn|Dag|2004|p=}}<ref>[[#GOIT|Orwell 1976 page 25 ''La libertà di stampa'']]</ref> Eventually, [[Secker and Warburg]] published the first edition in 1945. During the [[World War II|Second World War]], it became clear to Orwell that anti-Soviet literature was not something which most major publishing houses would touch — including his regular publisher [[Victor Gollancz Ltd|Gollancz]]. He also submitted the manuscript to [[Faber and Faber]], where the poet [[T. S. Eliot]] (who was a director of the firm) rejected it; Eliot wrote back to Orwell praising the book's "good writing" and "fundamental integrity", but declared that they would only accept it for publication if they had some sympathy for the viewpoint "which I take to be generally [[Deformed workers' state|Trotskyite]]". Eliot said he found the view "not convincing", and contended that the pigs were made out to be the best to run the farm; he posited that someone might argue "what was needed.. was not more communism but more public-spirited pigs".<ref name=Eliot/><ref>{{cite news|url=http://archive.timesonline.co.uk/tol/viewArticle.arc?articleId=ARCHIVE-The_Times-1969-01-06-09-004&pageId=ARCHIVE-The_Times-1969-01-06-09|title=T.S. Eliot and Animal Farm: Reasons for Rejection|last=Eliot|first=Valery|date=6 January 1969|work=The Times |location=UK |accessdate=8 April 2009 }}</ref> Orwell let [[André Deutsch]], who was working for Nicholson & Watson in 1944, read the typescript, and Deutsch was convinced that Nicholson & Watson would want to publish it; however, they did not, and "lectured Orwell on what they perceived to be errors in ''Animal Farm''."<ref>Peter Davison, editorial note, Orwell, Collected Works, ''I Have Tried to Tell the Truth'',p.156</ref> In his ''London Letter'' on 17 April 1944 for ''[[Partisan Review]]'', Orwell wrote that it was "now next door to impossible to get anything overtly anti-Russian printed. Anti-Russian books do appear, but mostly from Catholic publishing firms and always from a religious or frankly reactionary angle." The publisher [[Jonathan Cape]], who had initially accepted ''Animal Farm'', subsequently rejected the book after an official at the British Ministry of Information warned him off<ref name=bbc/> — although the civil servant who it is assumed gave the order was later found to be a [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] spy.{{sfn|Taylor|2003|p=337}} Writing to [[Leonard Moore (literary agent)|Leonard Moore]], a partner in the literary agency of Christy & Moore, publisher Jonathan Cape explained that the decision had been taken on the advice of a senior official in the Ministry of Information. Such flagrant anti-Soviet bias was unacceptable, and the choice of pigs as the dominant class was thought to be especially offensive. It may reasonably be assumed that the 'important official' was a man named [[Peter Smollett]], who was later unmasked as a Soviet agent.<ref name="Orwell Subverted p.3">''Orwell Subverted'', Daniel J. Leab, Penn State Press, 2007 p.&nbsp;3</ref> Orwell was suspicious of Smollett/Smolka, and he would be one of the names Orwell [[Orwell's list|included in his list]] of Crypto-Communists and Fellow-Travellers sent to the Information Research Department in 1949. Born Hans Peter Smolka in Vienna in 1912, he came to Britain in 1933 as an [[NKVD]] agent with the codename 'Abo',<ref>''The Lost Orwell'', p.&nbsp;210; The Mitrokhin Archive, The KGB in Europe and the West, Christopher Andrew and Vasili Mitrokhin, p.&nbsp;158</ref> became a naturalised British subject in 1938, changed his name, and after the outbreak of World War II joined the Ministry of Information where he organised pro-Soviet propaganda, working with [[Kim Philby]] in 1943-45.<ref>[[Gordievsky, Oleg]]. ''KGB: The Inside Story'', 1991, p.&nbsp;325</ref> Smollett's family have rejected the accusation that he was a spy.<ref name="Orwell Subverted p.3"/> The publisher wrote to Orwell, saying:<ref name=bbc/> {{quote | If the fable were addressed generally to dictators and dictatorships at large then publication would be all right, but the fable does follow, as I see now, so completely the progress of the Russian Soviets and their two dictators [Lenin and Stalin], that it can apply only to Russia, to the exclusion of the other dictatorships. Another thing: it would be less offensive if the predominant caste in the fable were not pigs. I think the choice of pigs as the ruling caste will no doubt give offence to many people, and particularly to anyone who is a bit touchy, as undoubtedly the Russians are. }} [[Frederic Warburg]] also faced pressures against publication, even from people in his own office and from his wife Pamela, who felt that it was not the moment for ingratitude towards Stalin and the heroic [[Red Army]],<ref>''George Orwell, A Personal Memoir'', T. R. Fyvel, p.&nbsp;139</ref> which had played a major part in defeating Hitler. A Russian translation was printed in the paper ''Posev'', and in giving permission for a Russian translation of ''Animal Farm'', Orwell refused in advance all royalties. A translation in Ukrainian, which was produced in Germany, was confiscated in large part by the American wartime authorities and handed over to the Soviet repatriation commission.<ref>[[Struve, Gleb]]. ''Telling the Russians'', written for the Russian journal ''New Russian Wind'', reprinted in Remembering Orwell, p.260-261</ref> In October 1945, Orwell wrote to Frederic Warburg expressing interest in pursuing the possibility that the political cartoonist [[David Low (cartoonist)|David Low]] might illustrate ''Animal Farm''. Low had written a letter saying that he had had "a good time with ''ANIMAL FARM'' - an excellent bit of satire - it would illustrate perfectly." Nothing came of this, and a trial issue produced by Secker & Warburg in 1956 illustrated by John Driver was abandoned, but the [[Folio Society]] published an edition in 1984 illustrated by [[Quentin Blake]] and an edition illustrated by the cartoonist [[Ralph Steadman]] was published by Secker & Warburg in 1995 to celebrate the fiftieth anniversary of the first edition of ''Animal Farm''.<ref>Smothered Under Journalism, p.123 & I Belong to the Left, p.313-314</ref> ===Preface=== Orwell originally wrote a preface complaining about British [[self-censorship]] and how the British people were suppressing criticism of the USSR, their World War II ally: {{quote|The sinister fact about [[literary censorship]] in England is that it is largely voluntary.... Things are kept right out of the British press, not because the Government intervenes but because of a general tacit agreement that 'it wouldn't do' to mention that particular fact.}} Although the first edition allowed space for the preface, it was not included,{{sfn|Dag|2004|p=}} and as of June 2009 most editions of the book have not included it.<ref>[[#Ba|Bailey83221]] (Bailey83221 includes a preface and two cites: 26 August 1995 ''The Guardian'' page 28; 1995-08-26 ''New Statesman & Society'' 8 (366): 11. {{ISSN|0954-2361}})</ref> Secker and Warburg published the first edition of ''Animal Farm'' in 1945 without an introduction. However, the publisher had provided space for a preface in the author's proof composited from the manuscript. For reasons unknown, no preface was supplied, and the page numbers had to be renumbered at the last minute.<ref name=GOIT15/><ref name=TFOTP/> In 1972, [[Ian Angus (librarian)|Ian Angus]] found the original typescript titled "The Freedom of the Press", and [[Bernard Crick]] published it, together with his own introduction, in ''[[The Times Literary Supplement]]'' on 15{{nbsp}}September 1972<ref name=GOIT15/> as "How the essay came to be written".<ref name=TFOTP/> Orwell's essay criticised British self-censorship by the press, specifically the suppression of unflattering descriptions of Stalin and the Soviet government.<ref name=TFOTP/> The same essay also appeared in the Italian 1976 edition of ''Animal Farm'' with another introduction by Crick, claiming to be the first edition with the preface.<ref name=GOIT15/> Other publishers were still declining to publish it.{{Clarify|date=March 2010|reason=more details needed, were some actively refusing, unaware of the preface?}} ==Critical response== Contemporary reviews of the work were not universally positive. Writing in the American ''[[The New Republic|New Republic]]'' magazine, George Soule expressed his disappointment in the book, writing that it "puzzled and saddened me. It seemed on the whole dull. The allegory turned out to be a creaking machine for saying in a clumsy way things that have been said better directly." Soule believed that the animals were not consistent enough with their real world inspirations, and said, "It seems to me that the failure of this book (commercially it is already assured of tremendous success) arises from the fact that the satire deals not with something the author has experienced, but rather with stereotyped ideas about a country which he probably does not know very well".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.newrepublic.com/article/114852/1946-review-george-orwells-animal-farm|title=1946 Review of George Orwell's 'Animal Farm' - The New Republic|author=George Soule|work=The New Republic}}</ref> [[Tosco Fyvel]], writing in ''[[Tribune (magazine)|Tribune]]'', 24{{nbsp}}August 1945, called the book "a gentle satire on a certain State and on the illusions of an age which may already be behind us." [[Julian Symons]] responded, on 7{{nbsp}}September, "Should we not expect, in ''Tribune'' at least, acknowledgement of the fact that it is a satire not at all gentle upon a particular State - [[Soviet Russia]]? It seems to me that a reviewer should have the courage to identify Napoleon with Stalin, and Snowball with Trotsky, and express an opinion favourable or unfavourable to the author, upon a political ground. In a hundred years time perhaps, ''Animal Farm'' may be simply a fairy story, today it is a political satire with a good deal of point." ''Animal Farm'' has been subject to much comment in the decades since these early remarks.<ref>Orwell, ''Collected Works, I Belong to the Left'', p.253</ref> ==Analysis== ===Animalism=== {{redirect|Seven Commandments|the Noahide code|Seven Laws of Noah}} The pigs Snowball, Napoleon, and Squealer adapt Old Major's ideas into "a complete system of thought", which they formally name Animalism, an allegoric reference to [[Communism]]. Soon after, Napoleon and Squealer partake in activities associated with the humans (drinking alcohol, sleeping in beds, trading), which were explicitly prohibited by the Seven Commandments. Squealer is employed to alter the Seven Commandments to account for this humanisation, an [[allusion]] to the Soviet government's revising of history in order to exercise control of the people's beliefs about themselves and their society.<ref name=Rodden1999/> [[File:Animal Farm artwork.jpg|thumb|Squealer sprawls at the foot of the end wall of the big barn where the Seven Commandments were written (ch. viii)—preliminary artwork for a 1950 strip cartoon by [[Norman Pett]] and Donald Freeman]] The original commandments are: # Whatever goes upon two legs is an enemy. # Whatever goes upon four legs, or has wings, is a friend. # No animal shall wear clothes. # No animal shall sleep in a bed. # No animal shall drink alcohol. # No animal shall kill any other animal. # All animals are equal. These commandments are also distilled into the maxim "Four legs good, two legs '''bad!'''" which is primarily used by the sheep on the farm, often to disrupt discussions and disagreements between animals on the nature of Animalism. Later, Napoleon and his pigs secretly revise some commandments to clear themselves of accusations of law-breaking. The changed commandments are as follows, with the changes bolded: <ol start="4"> <li>No animal shall sleep in a bed '''with sheets.'''</li> <li>No animal shall drink alcohol '''to excess.'''</li> <li>No animal shall kill any other animal '''without cause.'''</li> </ol> Eventually, these are replaced with the maxims, "All animals are equal '''but some animals are more equal than others'''", and "Four legs good, two legs '''better!'''" as the pigs become more human. This is an [[Irony|ironic]] twist to the original purpose of the Seven Commandments, which were supposed to keep order within Animal Farm by uniting the animals together against the humans and preventing animals from following the humans' evil habits. Through the revision of the commandments, Orwell demonstrates how simply political [[dogma]] can be turned into malleable [[propaganda]].<ref name=Carr2010/> ===Significance and allegory=== [[File:Animalism flag.svg|thumb|left|The Horn and Hoof Flag described in the book appears to be based on the [[hammer and sickle]], the Communist symbol.]] In the [[Eastern Bloc]], both ''Animal Farm'' and later ''[[Nineteen Eighty-Four]]'' were on the list of forbidden books until the end of [[communism]] in 1989, and were only available via clandestine [[Samizdat]] networks.{{citation needed|date = August 2012}} Orwell biographer Jeffrey Meyers has written, "virtually every detail has political significance in this allegory." Orwell himself wrote in 1946, "Of course I intended it primarily as a satire on the Russian revolution..[and] ''that kind'' of revolution (violent conspiratorial revolution, led by unconsciously power hungry people) can only lead to a change of masters [-] revolutions only effect a radical improvement when the masses are alert."<ref name=OrwellLIL334/> In a preface for a 1947 Ukrainian edition, he stated, "...&nbsp;for the past ten years I have been convinced that the destruction of the Soviet myth was essential if we wanted a revival of the socialist movement. On my return from Spain [in 1937] I thought of exposing the Soviet myth in a story that could be easily understood by almost anyone and which could be easily translated into other languages."<ref>Crick, Bernard. ''Orwell, A Life'', p.&nbsp;450</ref> The revolt of the animals against Farmer Jones is Orwell's analogy with the [[October Revolution|October 1917 Bolshevik Revolution]]. The ''Battle of the Cowshed'' has been said to represent the allied invasion of [[Russian SFSR|Soviet Russia]] in 1918,<ref name="Peter Hobley Davison 1996" /> and the defeat of the [[White movement|White Russians]] in the [[Russian Civil War]].<ref name="Peter Edgerly Firchow 2008" /> The pigs' rise to pre-eminence mirrors the rise of a Stalinist bureaucracy in the USSR, just as Napoleon's emergence as the farm's sole leader reflects Stalin's emergence. The pigs' appropriation of milk and apples for their own use, "the turning point of the story" as Orwell termed it in a letter to [[Dwight Macdonald]],<ref name=OrwellLIL334>Orwell, George. ''A Life in Letters'', Penguin ISBN 978-0-141-19263-5 p.&nbsp;334</ref> stands as an analogy for the crushing of the left-wing 1921 [[Kronstadt rebellion|Kronstadt revolt]] against the Bolsheviks,<ref>Orwell, Letter to Dwight Macdonald, 5 December 1946, ''A Life in Letters'', p.334 Penguin 2011</ref> and the difficult efforts of the animals to build the windmill suggest the various [[Five-Year Plans for the National Economy of the Soviet Union|Five Year Plans]]. The puppies controlled by Napoleon parallel the nurture of the secret police in the Stalinist structure, and the pigs' treatment of the other animals on the farm recalls the internal terror faced by the populace in the 1930s.<ref>''Orwell Subverted'', 6–7 Daniel Leab, Penn State Press 2007</ref> In chapter seven, when the animals confess their nonexistent crimes and are killed, Orwell directly alludes to the purges, confessions and [[Moscow show trials|show trials]] of the late 1930s. These contributed to Orwell's conviction that the Bolshevik revolution had been corrupted and the Soviet system become rotten.<ref>Cambridge Companion to George Orwell, p.&nbsp;135, CUP 2007</ref> [[Peter Edgerly Firchow]] and [[Peter Davison (professor)|Peter Davison]] consider that the ''Battle of the Windmill'' represents the [[Great Patriotic War]] ([[World War II]]),<ref name="Peter Edgerly Firchow 2008" /> especially the [[Battle of Stalingrad]] and the [[Battle of Moscow]].<ref name="Peter Hobley Davison 1996" /> During the battle, Orwell first wrote, "All the animals, including Napoleon" took cover. Orwell had the publisher alter this to "All the animals except Napoleon" in recognition of Stalin's decision to remain in Moscow during the German advance.<ref>A Reader's Guide to George Orwell, Jeffrey Meyers, Thames & Hudson, p.&nbsp;142</ref> Orwell requested the change after he met Joseph Czapski in Paris in March 1945. Czapski, a survivor of the [[Katyn Massacre]] and an opponent of the Soviet regime, told Orwell, as Orwell wrote to [[Arthur Koestler]], that it had been "the character [and] greatness of Stalin" that saved Russia from the German invasion.<ref>A Note on the Text, Peter Davison, ''Animal Farm'', Penguin edition 1989, p.&nbsp;xx</ref> [[File:15th Congress of the All-Union Communist Party (Bolsheviks).jpg|thumb|Front row (left to right): [[Alexey Rykov|Rykov]], [[Mykola Skrypnyk|Skrypnyk]], and [[Joseph Stalin|Stalin]]—'When Snowball comes to the crucial points in his speeches he is drowned out by the sheep (Ch. V), just as in the [[15th Congress of the All-Union Communist Party (Bolsheviks)|party Congress in 1927]] [above], at Stalin's instigation 'pleas for the opposition were drowned in the continual, hysterically intolerant uproar from the floor'.<ref>[[Isaac Deutscher]], Stalin, p.&nbsp;311, Jeffrey Meyers, ''A Readers Guide to George Orwell'', p.&nbsp;138</ref>]] Other connections that writers have suggested illustrate Orwell's telescoping of Russian history from 1917 to 1943<ref>Jeffrey Meyers, ''A Readers Guide to George Orwell'', p.&nbsp;135. In the Preface to ''Animal Farm'' Orwell noted however, 'although various episodes are taken from the actual history of the Russian Revolution, they are dealt with schematically and their chronological order is changed.'</ref> include the wave of rebelliousness that ran through the countryside after the Rebellion, which stands for the abortive revolutions [[Hungarian Revolution of 1919|in Hungary]] and [[German Revolution of 1918–19|in Germany]] (Ch IV); the conflict between Napoleon and Snowball (Ch V), paralleling "the two rival and quasi-Messianic beliefs that seemed pitted against one another: [[Trotskyism]], with its faith in the [[Permanent revolution|revolutionary vocation]] of the proletariat of the West; and Stalinism with its glorification of [[socialism in one country|Russia's socialist destiny]]";<ref>Isaac Deutscher, quoted in Jeffrey Meyers, ''Readers Guide to George Orwell'', p.&nbsp;138</ref> Napoleon's dealings with Whymper and the Willingdon markets (Ch VI), paralleling the [[Treaty of Rapallo (1922)|Treaty of Rapallo]]; and Frederick's forged bank notes, paralleling the [[Treaty of Non-Aggression between Germany and the Soviet Union|Hitler-Stalin non-aggression pact of August 1939]], after which Frederick attacks Animal Farm without warning and destroys the windmill.<ref name="Meyers, p. 141"/> The book's close, with the pigs and men in a kind of [[rapprochement]], reflected Orwell's view of the 1943 [[Teheran Conference]]<ref>Preface to the Ukrainian edition of ''Animal Farm'',reprinted in Orwell:Collected Works, ''It Is What I Think'' p.89</ref> that seemed to display the establishment of "the best possible relations between the USSR and the West"—but in reality were destined, as Orwell presciently predicted, to continue to unravel.<ref>''Orwell Subverted'', p.&nbsp;7, Daniel J. Leab, Penn State Press 2007.</ref> The disagreement between the allies and the start of the [[Cold War]] is suggested when Napoleon and Pilkington, both suspicious, "played an ace of spades simultaneously".<ref>Jeffrey Meyers, ''A Reader's Guide to George Orwell'' p.&nbsp;142</ref> Similarly, the music in the novel, starting with ''Beasts of England'' and the later anthems, parallels ''[[The Internationale]]'' and its adoption and repudiation by the Soviet authorities as the Anthem of the USSR in the 1920s and 1930s. ==Adaptations== A BBC radio version, produced by [[Rayner Heppenstall]], was broadcast in January 1947. Orwell listened to the production at his home in Canonbury Square in London, with [[Hugh Gordon Porteus|Hugh Gordon Porteous]], amongst others. Orwell later wrote to Heppenstall that Porteous, "who had not read the book, grasped what was happening after a few minutes."<ref>''The Lost Orwell'', edited by Peter Davison, p.&nbsp;112</ref> A further radio production, again using Orwell's own dramatisation of the book, was broadcast in January 2013 on BBC [[Radio Four|Radio 4]]. [[Tamsin Greig]] narrated and the cast included [[Nicky Henson]] as Napoleon, [[Toby Jones]] as the propagandist Squealer, and [[Ralph Ineson]] as Boxer.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b01q7fzf|title=BBC Radio 4 - The Real George Orwell, Animal Farm|work=BBC}}</ref> ''Animal Farm'' has been adapted to film twice. The [[Animal Farm (1954 film)|1954 ''Animal Farm'' film]] was an animated feature and the [[Animal Farm (1999 film)|1999 ''Animal Farm'' film]] was a TV live action version. Both differ from the novel, and have been accused of taking significant liberties, including sanitising some aspects. In the 1954 version, Napoleon is apparently overthrown in a second revolution. The 1999 film shows Napoleon's regime collapsing in on itself, with the farm having new human owners, reflecting the collapse of Soviet communism, appropriating the new political reality to the story. In 2012, a HFR-3D version of ''Animal Farm'' potentially directed by [[Andy Serkis]] was announced.<ref>{{cite news |last=Giardina |first=Carolyn |title=Andy Serkis to Direct Adaptation of 'Animal Farm' |date=19 October 2012 |work=hollywoodreporter.com |publisher=The Hollywood Reporter |url=http://www.hollywoodreporter.com/news/andy-serkis-animal-farm-381314 |accessdate=26 August 2013}}</ref> In 1974 [[E. Howard Hunt]] revealed that he had been sent by the [[C.I.A.]]'s [[Psychological Warfare]] department to obtain the film rights from Orwell's widow, and that the resulting 1954 animation was funded by the agency.<ref>http://www.telegraph.co.uk/books/authors/how-cia-brought-animal-farm-to-the-screen/</ref> A theatrical version, with music by Richard Peaslee and lyrics by [[Adrian Mitchell]], was staged at the [[Royal National Theatre|National Theatre]] London on 25 April 1984, directed by [[Peter Hall (director)|Peter Hall]]. It toured nine cities in 1985.<ref>Orwell, ''A Life in Letters'', Penguin Books 2011, p.&nbsp;341</ref> A solo version, adapted and performed by Guy Masterson, premièred at the [[Traverse Theatre]] Edinburgh in January 1995 and has toured worldwide since.<ref>Lancashire Telegraph, 25 January 2013 [http://www.lancashiretelegraph.co.uk/leisure/whats_on/10187002.One_man_Animal_Farm_show_on_the_way_to_Darwen/] Theatre Tours International [http://www.theatretoursinternational.com/PastShows/PSDomestic/PSAFgm.html]</ref> ==Popular culture== ===Music=== * [[Pink Floyd]]'s 1977 record album ''[[Animals (Pink Floyd album)|Animals]]'' was partially inspired by ''Animal Farm''.<ref>Schaffner, Nicholas (1991), Saucerful of Secrets (1 ed.), London : Sidgwick & Jackson, ISBN 0-283-06127-8, p 199</ref> It categorises people as pigs, dogs, or sheep. * [[R.E.M.]]'s song "Disturbance at the Heron House" is based on Animal Farm.{{clarify|date=September 2011}}<ref>33 Revolutions Per Minute: A History of Protest Songs, from Billie Holiday to Green Day, Dorian Lynskey, HarperCollins, 2011, unpaginated</ref> *[[The Clash]] used an image from the 1954 animated movie ''[[Animal Farm (1954 film)|Animal Farm]]'' on their 45-RPM single "[[English Civil War (song)|English Civil War]]".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.endlessgroove.com/issue6/nwgal01.htm|title=NEW WAVE SINGLE SLEEVE GALLERY - 1|work=endlessgroove.com}}</ref> *Canadian-based band [[Boxer the Horse]] takes its name from a character in the novel.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://music.cbc.ca/#/blogs/2012/3/-QA-with-Boxer-the-Horse-5-PEI-artists-you-should-be-listening-to/ |title=Q&A with Boxer the Horse |publisher=cbcmusic.com |date=13 March 2012 |accessdate=22 October 2013}}</ref> *[[Dead prez]] based a song on their 2000 album ''[[Let's Get Free]]'' called "Animal in Man" based on the novella, putting emphasis on how the other animals should not trust the pigs during a revolution.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.songmeanings.net/songs/view/3530822107858616165/ |title=Lyrics &#124; Dead Prez – Animal in Man |publisher=SongMeanings |date= |accessdate=4 January 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://rapgenius.com/Dead-prez-animal-in-man-lyrics |title=Dead Prez – Animal in Man Lyrics |publisher=Rap Genius |date= |accessdate=4 January 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://monsterpiggymonkeybubble.com/animal-in-man-dead-prez/ |title=Animal in Man Dead Prez |publisher=monsterpiggymonkeybubble.com |date=11 July 2011 |accessdate=4 January 2012}}</ref> *The lyrics of the song ″Arthur's Farm″ from the [[Half Man Half Biscuit]] album ''[[Back Again in the DHSS]]'' tell the story of [[Douglas Bader]] and [[Arthur Askey]] visiting Animal Farm. The song features the line "Four legs good, but no legs best" in apparent tribute to the two famous amputees.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.chrisrand.com/hmhb/back-again-in-the-dhss/arthurs-farm/|title="Arthur’s Farm" - Lyrics and Videos|author=Chris Rand|work=The Half Man Half Biscuit Lyrics Project}}</ref> *[[Radiohead]]'s song "Optimistic" contains a lyric mentioning Animal Farm.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://rock.rapgenius.com/Radiohead-optimistic-lyrics#note-248844|title=Radiohead – Optimistic|work=Genius}}</ref> *The [[Boston Crusaders Drum and Bugle Corps]] 2014 show was titled Animal Farm, which was based on the novel.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.post-gazette.com/ae/music/2014/07/27/Phantom-Regiment-among-eight-drum-corps-to-perform-at-DCI-event-at-Baldwin/stories/201407270012 | title=Phantom Regiment among nine drum corps to perform at DCI event at Baldwin | publisher=PG Publishing Co., Inc. | date=27 July 2014 | accessdate=23 August 2014 | author=Mrazik, Ken}}</ref> *American [[metalcore]] band, [[Ice Nine Kills]]' song, ''The Nature of the Beast" is inspired by Animal Farm <ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=EKLSKaHKXe4|title=Ice Nine Kills - Nature of the Beast|accessdate= 4 February 2016}}</ref> ===Television=== * In [[The Daleks' Master Plan]], a 1966 episode of the long-running British science fiction show ''[[Doctor Who]],'' a character references the modified seventh commandment of Animal Farm, saying: "Though we are all equal partners with the Daleks on this great conquest, some of us are more equal than others."<ref>{{cite web |first=Dennis |last=Spooner, from an idea by Terry Nation |url=http://homepages.bw.edu/~jcurtis/Scripts/DMP/dmp11.html |title=The Daleks Master Plan – Episode 11 – The Abandoned Planet |work= The Doctor Who Scripts Project|date= 22 January 1966|accessdate= 30 March 2011}}</ref> * In the seventh episode of the [[List of Oz episodes#Season 2 (1998)|second season]] of the [[HBO]] series ''[[Oz (TV Series)|Oz]]'' was titled ''Animal Farm'', in reference to the conniving and manipulation of the characters vying for control, similar to the characters of the novella.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0668286 |title=Episode 7 of Season 2 of HBO's OZ (1997–2003)|accessdate=1 June 2011 |last= |first= |coauthors= |date=24 August 1998 |work= |publisher=[[Internet Movie Database]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|author=TV.com |url=http://www.tv.com/oz/animal-farm/episode/61328/summary.html?tag=ep_guide;summary |title=OZ: Animal Farm – Season 2, Episode 7 |publisher=TV.com |date=19 July 2006 |accessdate=4 January 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.hbo.com/#/schedule/detail/Oz+15%3A+Animal+Farm/78280|title=HBO|work=hbo.com}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.answers.com/topic/oz-animal-farm-tv-episode |title=Animal Farm: Oz (TV Episode): Information from |publisher=Answers.com |date= |accessdate=4 January 2012}}</ref> * In the third episode of the first season of the [[X-Men (TV Series)|X-Men]] animated series, "[[Enter Magneto]]," [[Beast (comics)|Beast]] is seen reading a copy of Animal Farm, and is mocked by the prison guards for "reading a picture book" and is asked if he "sees any relatives in there" because they assume he is an illiterate animal.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://persephonemagazine.com/2011/06/animated-ladyghosts-x-men-s1-night-of-the-sentinels-1 |title=Animated Ladyghosts: X-Men, S1, "Enter Magneto" |publisher=Persephone Magazine |date=9 June 2011 |accessdate=4 January 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|author=TV.com |url=http://www.tv.com/shows/xmen/enter-magneto-1-56106 |title=X-Men: Enter Magneto (1) – Season 1, Episode 3 |publisher=TV.com |date= |accessdate=4 January 2012}}</ref> * In the tenth episode of [[List of Johnny Bravo episodes#Season 2: 1999-2000|the second season]] of ''[[Johnny Bravo]]'', "Aunt Katie's Farm", Johnny, while dressed in a pig costume, yells, "Four feet good! Two feet bad!".<ref>{{cite web|author=TV.com |url=http://www.tv.com/shows/johnny-bravo/man-with-the-golden-gut-welcome-back-bravo-aunt-kates-farm-118154/ |title=Johnny Bravo: Man with The Golden Gut / Welcome Back, Bravo / Aunt Kate's Farm – Season 2, Episode 10 |publisher=TV.com |date= |accessdate=4 January 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|author=eeggs.com |url=http://www.eeggs.com/items/49638.html |title=Johnny Bravo Easter Egg – Animal Farm Reference |publisher=Eeggs.com |date=16 April 2007 |accessdate=4 January 2012}}</ref> * The ''[[Lost (TV series)|Lost]]'' episode [[Exposé (Lost)|"Exposé"]], in season three, involves flashbacks with Nikki and Paulo involving an argument with Kate about the handgun case. During this scene, Dr. Leslie Arzt yells at Kate that "The pigs are walking," a reference to ''Animal Farm'' where Napoleon and his generals begin to adapt human characteristics and change their oath from "Four legs good, two legs bad" to "Four legs good, two legs better."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://thelibrary.org/booklist/titles_jackets.cfm?catid=727 |title=LOST! Quoted Books (want more LOST? attend our LOST in the Library Program) |publisher=Thelibrary.org |date= |accessdate=4 January 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.losttvfans.com/page/Literary+Allusions |title=Literary Allusions – LOST |publisher=Losttvfans.com |date= |accessdate=4 January 2012}}</ref> *In the ninth episode of the [[List of Sex and the City episodes#Season 4: 2001–2002|fourth season]] of ''[[Sex and the City]]'', "Sex and the Country", Carrie goes with her new boyfriend Aidan to his cottage, and informs her friends that it reminds her of ''Animal Farm'', and would not be surprised to hear an outburst of "four legs good, two legs bad!"<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sexandthecityscripts.com/S04E09_Sex-and-the-Country.php |title=Sex and the City Scripts |publisher=Sex and the City Scripts |date= |accessdate=4 January 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.satctranscripts.com/2008/08/sex-and-city-season-4-episode-9.html |title=Sex and the City Season 4 Episode 9 &#124; Sex and the City Transcripts |publisher=Satctranscripts.com |date= |accessdate=4 January 2012}}</ref> ==Editions== * [http://lccn.loc.gov/46006290 LCCN 46006290] (hardcover, 1946, First American Edition) * ISBN 0-451-51679-6 (paperback, 1956, Signet Classic) * ISBN 0-582-02173-1 (paper text, 1989) * ISBN 0-15-107255-8 (hardcover, 1990) * ISBN 0-582-06010-9 (paper text, 1991) * ISBN 0-679-42039-8 (hardcover, 1993) * ISBN 0-606-00102-6 ([[prebound]], 1996) * ISBN 0-15-100217-7 (hardcover, 1996, Anniversary Edition) * ISBN 0-452-27750-7 (paperback, 1996, Anniversary Edition) * ISBN 0-451-52634-1 ([[mass market paperback]], 1996, Anniversary Edition) * ISBN 0-582-53008-3 (1996) * ISBN 1-56000-520-3 (cloth text, 1998, Large Type Edition) * ISBN 0-7910-4774-1 (hardcover, 1999) * ISBN 0-451-52536-1 (paperback, 1999) * ISBN 0-7641-0819-0 (paperback, 1999) * ISBN 0-8220-7009-X ([[e-book]], 1999) * ISBN 0-7587-7843-0 (hardcover, 2002) * ISBN 0-15-101026-9 (hardcover, 2003, with ''[[Nineteen Eighty-Four]]'') * ISBN 0-452-28424-4 (paperback, 2003, Centennial Edition) * ISBN 0-8488-0120-2 (hardcover) * ISBN 0-03-055434-9 (hardcover) Animal Farm with Connections * ISBN 0-395-79677-6 (hardcover) Animal Farm & Related Readings, 1997 * ISBN 0-582-43447-5 (hardcover, 2007) * ISBN 0-14-103349-5 (paperback, 2007) On 17 July 2009, [[Amazon.com]] withdrew certain [[Amazon Kindle]] titles, including ''Animal Farm'' and ''[[Nineteen Eighty-Four]]'' by [[George Orwell]], from sale, refunded buyers, and remotely deleted items from purchasers' devices after discovering that the publisher lacked rights to publish the titles in question.<ref>{{cite news|last=Pogue |first=David |url=http://pogue.blogs.nytimes.com/2009/07/17/some-e-books-are-more-equal-than-others/ |title=Some E-Books Are More Equal Than Others |publisher=Pogue.blogs.nytimes.com |date=17 July 2009 |accessdate=24 October 2010}}</ref> Notes and annotations for the books made by users on their devices were also deleted.<ref name=Stone/> After the move prompted outcry and comparisons to ''Nineteen Eighty-Four'' itself, Amazon spokesman Drew Herdener stated that the company is "[c]hanging our systems so that in the future we will not remove books from customers' devices in these circumstances."<ref name=statement/> ==See also== * [[History of Soviet Russia and the Soviet Union (1917–1927)]] * [[History of the Soviet Union (1927–1953)]] * [[New class]] * Polish [[Nobel laureate]] [[Władysław Reymont#Revolt|Władysław Reymont]], with his ''Revolt'', anticipated by two decades Orwell's ''Animal Farm''. '''Books:''' * ''[[Gulliver's Travels]]'', a favourite book of Orwell's—[[Jonathan Swift|Swift]] reverses the role of horses and human beings in the fourth book—Orwell brought also to ''Animal Farm'' "a dose of ''Swiftian misanthropy, looking ahead to a time 'when the human race had finally been overthrown.'"<ref>''Cambridge Companion to Orwell'', p.&nbsp;135</ref> * ''[[Władysław Reymont#Revolt|Bunt]]'' (Revolt), published in 1924, is a book by Polish [[Nobel laureate]] [[Władysław Reymont]] with a theme similar to ''Animal Farm'''s. * ''[[White Acre vs. Black Acre]]'', published in 1856 and written by William M. Burwell, is a satirical novel that features allegories for [[slavery in the United States]] similar to ''Animal Farm's'' portrayal of Soviet history. * George Orwell's own ''[[Nineteen Eighty-Four]]'', a classic [[dystopian novel]] about [[totalitarianism]]. ==Notes== {{reflist | colwidth = 30em | refs = <ref name=Rodden1999> {{cite book | last = Rodden | first = John | year = 1999 | title = Understanding Animal Farm: A Student Casebook to Issues, Sources, and Historical Documents | publisher = Greenwood Publishing Group | isbn = 978-0-313-30201-5 | pages = 48–49 | url = http://books.google.com/?id=TG-YpkczTjEC&pg=PA40 | accessdate = 9 June 2012 }} </ref><ref name=Carr2010> {{cite book | last = Carr | first = Craig L. | date = 14 October 2010 | title = Orwell, Politics, and Power | publisher = Continuum International Publishing Group | isbn = 978-1-4411-5854-3 | pages = 78–79 | url = http://books.google.com/?id=V1GCAqNSlYwC&pg=PA78 | accessdate = 9 June 2012 }} </ref><ref name=RoddenIntro> Rodden, John "Introduction", in: John Rodden (ed.), ''Understanding Animal Farm'', Westport/London (1999), p.&nbsp;5f. </ref><ref name=Hitchens> According to [[Christopher Hitchens]], "the persons of Lenin and Trotsky are combined into one [i.e., Snowball], or, it might even be [...] to say, there is no Lenin at all." (Hitchens, Christopher. ''Why Orwell Matters'', Basic Books (2002), p.&nbsp;186f). </ref><ref name=NapoleonInFrench> {{cite book | last = Quéval | first = Jean | year = 1981 | title = La ferme des animaux | language = French | publisher = Edition Gallimard | edition = Folio | isbn = 978-2-07-037516-5 }} </ref><ref name="Orwell 1946 40"> {{cite book | last = Orwell | first = George | authorlink = George Orwell | year = 1946 | title = Animal Farm | publisher = The New American Library | location = New York | page = 40 | isbn = 978-1-4193-6524-9 }} </ref><ref name=autogenerated1> p.&nbsp;47 of book </ref><ref name="Peter Edgerly Firchow 2008"> Peter Edgerly Firchow, ''Modern Utopian Fictions from H.G. Wells to Iris Murdoch'' (2008), 102. </ref><ref name="Peter Hobley Davison 1996"> Peter Hobley Davison, ''George Orwell'' (1996), 161. </ref><ref name=Eliot> Richard Brooks, "[http://entertainment.timesonline.co.uk/tol/arts_and_entertainment/books/article5993099.ece TS Eliot's snort of rejection for Animal Farm]", ''Sunday Times'', 29 March 2009. </ref><ref name=bbc> {{cite news | publisher = BBC News | date = 11 November 2008 | title = The whitewashing of Stalin | url = http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/magazine/7719633.stm }} </ref><ref name=GOIT15> [[#GOIT|Orwell page 15]]. introduction by Bernard Crick </ref><ref name=TFOTP>{{cite web |last=Orwell |first=George |title=The Freedom of the Press: Orwell's Proposed Preface to 'Animal Farm' |url=http://www.orwell.ru/library/novels/Animal_Farm/english/efp_go |accessdate=9 January 2013}} </ref><ref name=Stone> {{cite news | last = Stone | first = Brad | authorlink = Brad Stone (journalist) | date = 18 July 2009 | title = Amazon Erases Orwell Books From Kindle | newspaper = [[The New York Times]] | pages = B1 | url = http://www.nytimes.com/2009/07/18/technology/companies/18amazon.html?_r=1 }} </ref><ref name=statement> {{cite news | last = Fried | first = Ina | date = 17 July 2009 | title = Amazon says it won't repeat Kindle book recall | publisher = News.cnet.com | url = http://news.cnet.com/8301-13860_3-10290047-56.html | accessdate = 24 October 2010 }} </ref> }} ==References== <!-- in alphabetical order by last name or organisation name --> {{refbegin}} *{{cite journal | author = Bailey83221 | date = 12 May 2006 | title = Animal Farm suppression | journal = [[LiveJournal]] | url = http://bailey83221.livejournal.com/83481.html }} *{{cite book | title = Selected Writings | last = Bott | first = George | year = 1968 | origyear = 1958 | publisher = Heinemann Educational Books | location = London, Melbourne, Toronto, Singapore, Johannesburg, Hong Kong, Nairobi, Auckland, Ibadan | isbn = 978-0-435-13675-8 | pages = 13–14, 23 }} *{{cite web | last = Dag | first = O. | title = George Orwell: The Freedom of the Press | date = 19 December 2004 | work = orwell.ru | archiveurl = http://web.archive.org/web/20050306021634/http://orwell.ru/library/novels/Animal_Farm/english/efp_go | archivedate = 6 March 2005 | url = http://orwell.ru/library/novels/Animal_Farm/english/efp_go | accessdate = 31 July 2008 }} *{{cite web | title = George Orwell: Animal Farm: A Fairy Story: A Note on the Text | last = Davison | first = Peter | year = 2000 | publisher = [[Penguin Books]] | location = England | isbn = | url = http://www.orwell.ru/library/novels/Animal_Farm/english/eint_pd | archiveurl = http://web.archive.org/web/20061212041856/http://www.orwell.ru/library/novels/Animal_Farm/english/eint_pd | archivedate = 12 December 2006 }} *{{cite web |author=doollee.com |title=Wooldridge Ian - playwright |url=http://www.doollee.com/PlaywrightsW/WooldridgeIan.htm |accessdate=31 July 2008 |archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20080507231220/http://www.doollee.com/PlaywrightsW/WooldridgeIan.htm |archivedate=7 May 2008 }} *{{cite news | last1 = Grossman | first1 = Lev | authorlink1 = Lev Grossman | last2 = Lacayo | first2 = Richard |authorlink2 = Richard Lacayo | title = All-Time 100 Novels | publisher = TIME magazine | url = http://www.time.com/time/2005/100books/the_complete_list.html | accessdate = 31 August 2008 | archiveurl = http://web.archive.org/web/20080913100321/http://www.time.com/time/2005/100books/the_complete_list.html | archivedate = 13 September 2008 <!--DASHBot--> | deadurl = no | date=16 October 2005 }} *{{cite book | last = Hitchens | first = Christopher | authorlink = Christopher Hitchens | year = 2000 | page = 38 | title = Unacknowledged Legislation: Writers in the Public Sphere | publisher = Verso | isbn = 978-1-85984-786-2 | url = http://books.google.com/?id=RBGmrDnBs8UC | accessdate = 26 September 2008 }} *{{cite web |editor-last=Lowe |editor-first=Christian |title=Defense Tech: CIA, Movie Producer |date=10 March 2006 |url=http://defensetech.org/2006/03/10/cia-movie-producer/ |accessdate=31 July 2008 }} *{{cite book |title = Critical Essays: Animal Farm and the Russian Revolution |publisher = [[CliffsNotes]] |url = http://www.cliffsnotes.com/study_guide/literature/animal-farm/critical-essays/russian-revolution.html |accessdate = 9 January 2013 }} *{{cite book|author=Menchhofer, Robert W. |title=Animal Farm|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=GhvjsczkdBIC&pg=PA1|year=1990|publisher=Lorenz Educational Press|pages=1–8}} *{{cite web | last = Orwell | first = George | authorlink = George Orwell | title = Preface to the Ukrainian Edition of Animal Farm | date = March 1947 | url = http://www.netcharles.com/orwell/essays/ukrainian-af-pref.htm }} *{{cite book | last = Orwell | first = George | authorlink = George Orwell | year = 1979 | origyear = First published by Martin Secker & Warburg 1945; published in Penguin Books 1951 | title = Animal Farm | publisher = [[Penguin Books]] | location = England | isbn = 978-0-14-000838-8 }} *{{cite journal | first = George | last = Orwell | authorlink = George Orwell | others = Bruno Tasso (translator) |date=June 1976 | pages = 15, 20 | language = Italian | title = La fattoria degli animali | publisher = Oscar Mondadori | edition = 1st | location = Italy }} ([[Bernard Crick]]'s preface quotes Orwell writing to T. S. Eliot about Cape's suggestion to find another animal than pigs to represent the Bolsheviks) *{{cite book | last = Taylor | first = David John | authorlink = D. J. Taylor | year = 2003 | title = Orwell: The Life | page = 197 | publisher = H. Holt | isbn = 978-0-8050-7473-4 }} *{{cite web | last = Wooldridge | first = Ian | authorlink = Ian Wooldridge | title = Ian Wooldridge - Animal Farm | url = http://www.ian-wooldridge.com/animalfarm.php | accessdate = 31 July 2008 | archiveurl = http://web.archive.org/web/20080627113655/http://www.ian-wooldridge.com/animalfarm.php | archivedate = 27 June 2008 <!--DASHBot--> | deadurl = no }} {{refend}} ==External links== {{wikilivres|Animal Farm}} {{Wikiquote}} {{Commons category|Animal Farm}} *[http://ebooks.adelaide.edu.au/o/orwell/george/o79a/index.html ''Animal Farm'' full text at eBooks@Adelaide] *[http://www.archive.org/details/GeorgeOrwellsanimalFarmRadioAudio ''Animal Farm'' Audio Book] (web archive) *{{Gutenberg Australia |id=plusfifty-n-z.html#orwell |name=Animal Farm}} *[http://literapedia.wikispaces.com/Animal+Farm ''Animal Farm'' Book Notes from Literapedia] *[http://www.netcharles.com/orwell/essays/letters-agent-af.htm Excerpts from Orwell's letters to his agent concerning ''Animal Farm''] *[http://web.archive.org/web/20070108225314/http://www.antigonishreview.com/bi-111/111-pyle.html Literary Journal review] *[http://home.iprimus.com.au/korob/Orwell.html Orwell's original preface to the book] *[https://www.marxists.org/history/etol/writers/molyneux/1989/xx/orwell.html ''Animal Farm Revisited''] by [[John Molyneux]], ''International Socialism'', 44 (1989) {{Animal Farm}} {{George Orwell}} {{Hugo Award Best Novella}} {{Portal bar|England|Novels|Communism|Soviet Union}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:1945 novels]] [[Category:Allegory]] [[Category:Animal Farm|*]] [[Category:Dystopian novels]] [[Category:English novels]] [[Category:Hugo Award for Best Novella winning works]] [[Category:Prometheus Award winning works]] [[Category:Literature featuring anthropomorphic characters]] [[Category:British novellas]] [[Category:Novels by George Orwell]] [[Category:Political literature]] [[Category:Political novels]] [[Category:Roman à clef novels]] [[Category:Satirical novels]] [[Category:Novels about revolutionaries]] [[Category:Novels about totalitarianism]] [[Category:Novels about propaganda]] [[Category:British satirical novels]] [[Category:Novels about animals]] [[Category:Secker & Warburg books]] [[Category:Novels adapted into plays]] [[Category:Pigs in literature]] [[Category:Cows in literature]] [[Category:Cats in literature]] [[Category:Dogs in literature]] oer7xgzbimjp8wx5gqcwlokyx142wbf 0 621 717611888 717611861 2016-04-28T18:42:48Z ClueBot NG 13286072 Reverting possible vandalism by [[Special:Contribs/2601:191:8101:3289:9138:99C1:4572:BE9F|2601:191:8101:3289:9138:99C1:4572:BE9F]] to version by Materialscientist. [[WP:CBFP|Report False Positive?]] Thanks, [[WP:CBNG|ClueBot NG]]. (2638639) (Bot) wikitext text/x-wiki {{other uses|Amphibian (disambiguation)}} {{pp-move-indef}} {{Use mdy dates|date=June 2013}} {{automatic taxobox | name = Amphibians | fossil_range = [[Late Devonian]]–[[Holocene]], {{fossil range|370|0}} | image = Amphibians.png | image_width = 250px | image_caption = Clockwise from top right: ''[[Seymouria]]'', [[Mexican burrowing caecilian]], [[eastern newt]] and [[leaf green tree frog]] | image_alt = Collage of amphibians | taxon = Amphibia | authority = [[John Edward Gray|Gray]] 1825<ref name=BlackburnWake/> | subdivision_ranks = Subgroups | subdivision = : {{extinct}}Order [[Temnospondyli]]? : {{extinct}}Subclass [[Lepospondyli]] : Subclass [[Lissamphibia]] (modern amphibians) }} '''Amphibians''' are [[ectotherm]]ic, [[tetrapod]] [[vertebrate]]s of the [[Class (biology)|class]] '''Amphibia'''. Modern amphibians are all [[Lissamphibia]]. They inhabit a wide variety of [[habitat]]s, with most species living within [[terrestrial animal|terrestrial]], [[fossorial]], [[arboreal]] or freshwater [[Aquatic animal|aquatic]] [[ecosystem]]s. Amphibians typically start out as [[larva]]e living in water, but some species have developed behavioural adaptations to bypass this. The young generally undergo [[metamorphosis]] from larva with gills to an adult air-breathing form with lungs. Amphibians use their skin as a secondary respiratory surface and some small terrestrial [[salamander]]s and [[frog]]s lack lungs and rely entirely on their skin. They are superficially similar to [[reptile]]s but, along with mammals and birds, reptiles are [[amniote]]s and do not require water bodies in which to breed. With their complex reproductive needs and permeable skins, amphibians are often [[ecological indicator]]s; in recent decades there has been a dramatic [[decline in amphibian populations]] for many species around the globe. The earliest amphibians [[evolution of tetrapods|evolved]] in the [[Devonian]] period from [[sarcopterygian]] fish with lungs and bony-limbed fins, features that were helpful in adapting to dry land. They diversified and became dominant during the [[Carboniferous]] and [[Permian]] periods, but were later displaced by reptiles and other vertebrates. Over time, amphibians shrank in size and decreased in diversity, leaving only the modern subclass [[Lissamphibia]]. The three modern orders of amphibians are [[Anura (frog)|Anura]] (the frogs and toads), [[Urodela]] (the salamanders), and [[caecilian|Apoda]] (the caecilians). The number of known amphibian species is approximately 7,000, of which nearly 90% are frogs. The smallest amphibian (and vertebrate) in the world is a frog from [[New Guinea]] (''[[Paedophryne amauensis]]'') with a length of just {{convert|7.7|mm|in|abbr=on}}. The largest living amphibian is the {{convert|1.8|m|0|abbr=on}} [[Chinese giant salamander]] (''Andrias davidianus''), but this is dwarfed by the extinct {{convert|9|m|0|abbr=on}} ''[[Prionosuchus]]'' from the middle Permian of Brazil. The study of amphibians is called [[batrachology]], while the study of both reptiles and amphibians is called [[herpetology]]. == Classification == {{see also|List of amphibians}} [[File:Paratype of Paedophryne amauensis (LSUMZ 95004).png|thumb|alt=World's smallest vertebrate|The world's smallest known vertebrate, ''[[Paedophryne amauensis]]'', sitting on a [[Dime (United States coin)|U.S. dime]], which is 17.9&nbsp;mm in diameter, for scale]] The word "amphibian" is derived from the [[Ancient Greek]] term ἀμφίβιος (''amphíbios''), which means "both kinds of life", ''ἀμφί'' meaning "of both kinds" and ''βιος'' meaning "life". The term was initially used as a general adjective for animals that could live on land or in water, including seals and otters.<ref>{{cite book |title=A Concise Etymological Dictionary of the English Language |last=Skeat |first=Walter W. |year=1897 |publisher=Clarendon Press |page=39 }}</ref> Traditionally, the class Amphibia includes all tetrapod vertebrates that are not amniotes. Amphibia in its widest sense (''[[sensu lato]]'') was divided into three [[Class (biology)|subclasses]], two of which are extinct:<ref>{{cite journal |author=Baird, Donald |year=1965 |title=Paleozoic lepospondyl amphibians |journal=Integrative and Comparative Biology |volume=5 |issue=2 |pages=287–294 |doi=10.1093/icb/5.2.287 }}</ref> * Subclass [[Temnospondyli]]† (diverse Paleozoic and early Mesozoic grade) * Subclass [[Lepospondyli]]† (small Paleozoic group, which may actually be more closely related to amniotes than Lissamphibia) * Subclass [[Lissamphibia]] (all modern amphibians, including frogs, toads, salamanders, newts and caecilians) ** Salientia ([[frog]]s, [[toad]]s and relatives): Jurassic to present—6,200 current species in 53 families ** Caudata ([[salamander]]s, [[newt]]s and relatives): Jurassic to present—652 current species in 9 families ** Gymnophiona ([[caecilian]]s and relatives): Jurassic to present—192 current species in 10 families [[File:Triadobatrachus.jpg|thumb|alt=''Triadobatrachus massinoti''|''[[Triadobatrachus|Triadobatrachus massinoti]]'', a proto-frog from the Early Triassic of Madagascar]] The actual number of species in each group depends on the taxonomic classification followed. The two most common systems are the classification adopted by the website AmphibiaWeb, [[University of California, Berkeley]] and the classification by [[Herpetology|herpetologist]] [[Darrel Frost]] and the [[American Museum of Natural History]], available as the online reference database "Amphibian Species of the World".<ref>{{cite web |url=http://research.amnh.org/vz/herpetology/amphibia/ |title= American Museum of Natural History: Amphibian Species of the World 5.6, an Online Reference |author=Frost, Darrel |year=2013 |publisher=The American Museum of Natural History |accessdate=October 24, 2013}}</ref> The numbers of species cited above follows Frost and the total number of known amphibian species is over 7,000, of which nearly 90% are frogs.<ref name="species">{{cite journal |author=Crump, Martha L. |year=2009 |title=Amphibian diversity and life history |journal=Amphibian Ecology and Conservation. A Handbook of Techniques |pages=3–20 |url=http://fds.oup.com/www.oup.com/pdf/13/9780199541188_chapter1.pdf }}</ref> With the [[Phylogenetics|phylogenetic]] classification, the taxon [[Labyrinthodontia]] has been discarded as it is a [[Paraphyly|polyparaphyletic]] group without unique defining features apart from [[Cladistics#plesiomorphy|shared primitive characteristics]]. Classification varies according to the preferred phylogeny of the author and whether they use a [[Cladistics#Three definitions of clade|stem-based or a node-based]] classification. Traditionally, amphibians as a class are defined as all tetrapods with a larval stage, while the group that includes the common ancestors of all living amphibians (frogs, salamanders and caecilians) and all their descendants is called Lissamphibia. The phylogeny of Paleozoic amphibians is uncertain, and Lissamphibia may possibly fall within extinct groups, like the Temnospondyli (traditionally placed in the subclass Labyrinthodontia) or the Lepospondyli, and in some analyses even in the amniotes. This means that advocates of [[phylogenetic nomenclature]] have removed a large number of [[basal (phylogenetics)|basal]] Devonian and Carboniferous amphibian-type tetrapod groups that were formerly placed in Amphibia in [[Linnaean taxonomy]], and included them elsewhere under [[cladistic taxonomy]].<ref name=BlackburnWake>{{cite journal| author=Blackburn, D. C.; Wake, D. B. | title=Class Amphibia Gray, 1825. In: Zhang, Z.-Q. (Ed.) Animal biodiversity: An outline of higher-level classification and survey of taxonomic richness | journal=Zootaxa| volume=3148| year=2011| pages=39–55| url=http://mapress.com/zootaxa/2011/f/zt03148p055.pdf}}</ref> If the common ancestor of amphibians and amniotes is included in Amphibia, it becomes a paraphyletic group.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/vertebrates/tetrapods/amphibsy.html |title=Amphibia: Systematics |author=Speer, B. W.; Waggoner, Ben |year=1995 |publisher=University of California Museum of Paleontology |accessdate=December 13, 2012}}</ref> All modern amphibians are included in the subclass Lissamphibia, which is usually considered a [[clade]], a group of species that have evolved from a common ancestor. The three modern orders are Anura (the frogs and toads), Caudata (or Urodela, the salamanders), and Gymnophiona (or Apoda, the caecilians).{{sfn | Stebbins | Cohen | 1995 | p=3 }} It has been suggested that salamanders arose separately from a Temnospondyl-like ancestor, and even that caecilians are the sister group of the advanced [[reptiliomorpha|reptiliomorph]] amphibians, and thus of amniotes.<ref name="Anderson" /> Although the fossils of several older proto-frogs with primitive characteristics are known, the oldest "true frog" is ''[[Prosalirus bitis]]'', from the [[Early Jurassic]] [[Kayenta Formation]] of Arizona. It is anatomically very similar to modern frogs.<ref>{{cite book | title=Amphibian Biology: Paleontology: The Evolutionary History of Amphibians | editor1-last=Heatwole | editor1-first=H. | editor2-last=Carroll | editor2-first=R. L. | year=2000 | volume=4 | publisher=Surrey Beatty & Sons | isbn=978-0-949324-87-0 | chapter=14. Mesozoic Amphibians | last1=Roček | first1=Z. | pages=1295–1331 | url=http://rocek.gli.cas.cz/Reprints/AmphBiol3.pdf}}</ref> The oldest known caecilian is another Early Jurassic species, ''[[Eocaecilia micropodia]]'' and is also from Arizona.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Jenkins, Farish A. Jr.; Walsh, Denis M.; Carroll, Robert L. |year=2007 |title=Anatomy of ''Eocaecilia micropodia'', a limbed caecilian of the Early Jurassic |journal=Bulletin of the Museum of Comparative Zoology |volume=158 |issue=6 |pages=285–365 |doi=10.3099/0027-4100(2007)158[285:AOEMAL]2.0.CO;2 }}</ref> The earliest salamander is ''[[Beiyanerpeton jianpingensis]]'' from the [[Late Jurassic]] of northeastern China.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Gaoa, Ke-Qin; Shubin, Neil H. |year=2012 |title=Late Jurassic salamandroid from western Liaoning, China |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America |volume=109 |issue=15 |pages=5767–5772 |doi=10.1073/pnas.1009828109 |pmid=22411790 |pmc=3326464 |bibcode=2012PNAS..109.5767G }}</ref> Authorities disagree as to whether Salientia is a superorder that includes the order Anura, or whether Anura is a sub-order of the order Salientia. The Lissamphibia are traditionally divided into three [[Order (biology)|orders]], but an extinct salamander-like family, the [[Albanerpetontidae]], is now considered part of Lissamphibia alongside the superorder Salientia. Furthermore, Salientia includes all three recent orders plus the Triassic proto-frog, ''[[Triadobatrachus]]''.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://tolweb.org/Salientia/14938 |title=Salientia |author=Cannatella, David |year=2008 |work=Tree of Life Web Project |accessdate=August 31, 2012}}</ref> == Evolutionary history == {{Main|Evolution of tetrapods}} {{see also|List of prehistoric amphibians}} {{multiple image | align = right | direction = vertical | header = | width = 220 | image1 = Eusthenopteron BW.jpg | alt1 = | caption1 = | image2 = Tiktaalik BW.jpg | alt2 = | caption2 = '''Top:''' Restoration of ''Eusthenopteron'', a fully aquatic lobe-finned fish '''Bottom:''' Restoration of ''[[Tiktaalik]]'', an advanced tetrapodomorph fish }} The first major groups of amphibians developed in the [[Devonian]] period, around 370 million years ago, from [[Sarcopterygii|lobe-finned fish]] which were similar to the modern [[coelacanth]] and [[lungfish]].<ref name="evoamphib">{{cite web |url=http://sci.waikato.ac.nz/evolution/AnimalEvolution.shtml#evolutionofamphibian |title=Evolution of amphibians |publisher=University of Waikato: Plant and animal evolution |accessdate=September 30, 2012}}</ref> These ancient lobe-finned fish had evolved multi-jointed leg-like fins with digits that enabled them to crawl along the sea bottom. Some fish had developed primitive lungs to help them breathe air when the stagnant pools of the Devonian swamps were low in oxygen. They could also use their strong fins to hoist themselves out of the water and onto dry land if circumstances so required. Eventually, their bony fins would [[evolution|evolve]] into limbs and they would become the ancestors to all [[tetrapod]]s, including modern amphibians, reptiles, birds, and [[mammal]]s. Despite being able to crawl on land, many of these prehistoric [[tetrapodomorph]] fish still spent most of their time in the water. They had started to develop lungs, but still breathed predominantly with gills.<ref name="Carroll">{{cite book |title=Patterns of Evolution, as Illustrated by the Fossil Record |last=Carroll |first=Robert L. |author2=Hallam, Anthony (Ed.)|authorlink2= Anthony Hallam|year=1977 |publisher=Elsevier |isbn=978-0-444-41142-6 |pages=405–420 |url=https://books.google.com/?id=q7GjDIyyWegC&pg=PA405&dq=Amphibian+evolution#v=onepage&q=Amphibian%20evolution&f=false }}</ref> Many examples of species showing [[transitional fossil|transitional features]] have been discovered. ''[[Ichthyostega]]'' was one of the first primitive amphibians, with nostrils and more efficient lungs. It had four sturdy limbs, a neck, a tail with fins and a skull very similar to that of the lobe-finned fish, ''[[Eusthenopteron]]''.<ref name="evoamphib" /> Amphibians evolved adaptations that allowed them to stay out of the water for longer periods. Their lungs improved and their skeletons became heavier and stronger, better able to support the weight of their bodies on land.<!--'cope with the increased gravitational effect of life' - The gravitational force is effectively the same on the surface of the land as in the sea; however, in water, a body experiences a buoyancy force.-->. They developed "hands" and "feet" with five or more digits;<ref name="Ichthyostega" /> the skin became more capable of retaining body fluids and resisting desiccation.<ref name="Carroll" /> The fish's [[hyomandibula]] bone in the [[hyoid bone|hyoid]] region behind the gills diminished in size and became the [[stapes]] of the amphibian ear, an adaptation necessary for hearing on dry land.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Lombard, R. E.; Bolt, J. R. |year=1979 |title=Evolution of the tetrapod ear: an analysis and reinterpretation |journal=Biological Journal of the Linnean Society |volume=11 |issue=1 |pages=19–76 |doi=10.1111/j.1095-8312.1979.tb00027.x }}</ref> An affinity between the amphibians and the [[teleost]] fish is the multi-folded structure of the teeth and the paired [[Occipital bone|supra-occipital bones]] at the back of the head, neither of these features being found elsewhere in the animal kingdom.<ref name="Spoczynska" /> [[File:Diplocaulus vale21DB.jpg|thumb|left|upright|alt=''Diplocaulus''|The Permian lepospondyl ''[[Diplocaulus]]'' was largely aquatic]] At the end of the Devonian period (360 million years ago), the seas, rivers and lakes were teeming with life while the land was the realm of early plants and devoid of vertebrates,<ref name="Spoczynska"/> though some, such as ''Ichthyostega'', may have sometimes hauled themselves out of the water. It is thought they may have propelled themselves with their forelimbs, dragging their hindquarters in a similar manner to that used by the [[elephant seal]].<ref name="Ichthyostega">{{cite web |url=http://tolweb.org/Ichthyostega |title=''Ichthyostega'' |author=Clack, Jennifer A. |year=2006 |work=Tree of Life Web Project |accessdate=September 29, 2012}}</ref> In the early [[Carboniferous]] (360 to 345 million years ago), the climate became wet and warm. Extensive swamps developed with [[moss]]es, [[fern]]s, [[horsetail]]s and [[calamites]]. Air-breathing [[arthropod]]s evolved and invaded the land where they provided food for the [[Carnivore|carnivorous]] amphibians that began to adapt to the terrestrial environment. There were no other tetrapods on the land and the amphibians were at the top of the food chain, occupying the ecological position currently held by the crocodile. Though equipped with limbs and the ability to breathe air, most still had a long tapering body and strong tail.<ref name="Spoczynska">{{cite book |title=Fossils: A Study in Evolution |last=Spoczynska |first=J. O. I. |year=1971 |publisher=Frederick Muller Ltd |isbn=978-0-584-10093-8 |pages=120–125 }}</ref> They were the top land predators, sometimes reaching several metres in length, preying on the large insects of the period and the many types of fish in the water. They still needed to return to water to lay their shell-less eggs, and even most modern amphibians have a fully aquatic larval stage with gills like their fish ancestors. It was the development of the [[amniote|amniotic]] egg, which prevents the developing embryo from drying out, that enabled the reptiles to reproduce on land and which led to their [[Dominance (ecology)|dominance]] in the period that followed.<ref name="evoamphib"/> After the [[Carboniferous rainforest collapse]] amphibian dominance gave way to reptiles,<ref name="SahneyBentonFerry2010LinksDiversityVertebrates">{{cite journal | url=http://rsbl.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/6/4/544.full.pdf+html | author=Sahney, S., Benton, M.J. and Ferry, P.A. | year=2010 | title=Links between global taxonomic diversity, ecological diversity and the expansion of vertebrates on land | journal=Biology Letters | doi=10.1098/rsbl.2009.1024 | volume = 6 | pages = 544–547 |format=PDF | issue=4 | pmid=20106856 | pmc=2936204}}</ref> and amphibians were further devastated by the [[Permian–Triassic extinction event]].<ref name="SahneyBenton2008RecoveryFromProfoundExtinction">{{cite journal | url=http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/275/1636/759.full.pdf | author=Sahney, S. and Benton, M.J. | year=2008 | title=Recovery from the most profound mass extinction of all time | journal=Proceedings of the Royal Society: Biological | doi=10.1098/rspb.2007.1370 | volume = 275 | pages = 759–65|format=PDF | pmid=18198148 | issue=1636 | pmc=2596898}}</ref> During the [[Triassic|Triassic Period]] (250 to 200 million years ago), the reptiles continued to out-compete the amphibians, leading to a reduction in both the amphibians' size and their importance in the [[biosphere]]. According to the fossil record, [[Lissamphibia]], which includes all modern amphibians and is the only surviving lineage, may have branched off from the extinct groups [[Temnospondyli]] and [[Lepospondyli]] at some period between the Late Carboniferous and the Early Triassic. The relative scarcity of fossil evidence precludes precise dating,<ref name="Carroll" /> but the most recent molecular study, based on [[multilocus sequence typing]], suggests a Late Carboniferous/Early [[Permian]] origin for extant amphibians.<ref>{{cite journal|last=San Mauro|first=D. |year=2010|title=A multilocus timescale for the origin of extant amphibians|journal=Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution |volume=56 |pages=554–561 |doi=10.1016/j.ympev.2010.04.019 |pmid=20399871|issue=2}}</ref> [[File:Eryops - National Museum of Natural History - IMG 1974.JPG|thumb|alt=''Eryops''|The temnospondyl ''[[Eryops]]'' had sturdy limbs to support its body on land]] The origins and evolutionary relationships between the three main groups of amphibians is a matter of debate. A 2005 molecular phylogeny, based on [[Ribosomal DNA|rDNA]] analysis, suggests that salamanders and caecilians are more closely related to each other than they are to frogs. It also appears that the divergence of the three groups took place in the [[Paleozoic]] or early [[Mesozoic]] (around 250 million years ago), before the breakup of the supercontinent [[Pangaea]] and soon after their divergence from the lobe-finned fish. The briefness of this period, and the swiftness with which radiation took place, would help account for the relative scarcity of primitive amphibian fossils.<ref>{{cite journal |author=San Mauro, Diego; Vences, Miguel; Alcobendas, Marina; Zardoya, Rafael; Meyer, Axel |year=2005 |title=Initial diversification of living amphibians predated the breakup of Pangaea |journal=The American Naturalist |volume=165 |issue=5 |pages=590–599 |doi=10.1086/429523 |pmid=15795855 }}</ref> There are large gaps in the [[fossil record]], but the discovery of a proto-frog from the Early Permian in Texas in 2008 provided a missing link with many of the characteristics of modern frogs. [[Molecular phylogenetics|Molecular analysis]] suggests that the frog–salamander divergence took place considerably earlier than the [[Paleontology|palaeontological]] evidence indicates.<ref name="Anderson">{{cite journal |author=Anderson, J.; Reisz, R.; Scott, D.; Fröbisch, N.; Sumida, S. |year=2008 |title=A stem batrachian from the Early Permian of Texas and the origin of frogs and salamanders |journal=Nature |volume=453 |issue= 7194|pages=515–518 |doi=10.1038/nature06865 |pmid= 18497824 |bibcode = 2008Natur.453..515A }}</ref> As they evolved from lunged fish, amphibians had to make certain adaptations for living on land, including the need to develop new means of locomotion. In the water, the sideways thrusts of their tails had propelled them forward, but on land, quite different mechanisms were required. Their vertebral columns, limbs, limb girdles and musculature needed to be strong enough to raise them off the ground for locomotion and feeding. Terrestrial adults discarded their [[lateral line]] systems and adapted their sensory systems to receive stimuli via the medium of the air. They needed to develop new methods to regulate their body heat to cope with fluctuations in ambient temperature. They developed behaviours suitable for reproduction in a terrestrial environment. Their skins were exposed to harmful [[ultraviolet]] rays that had previously been absorbed by the water. The skin changed to become more protective and prevent excessive water loss.{{sfn | Dorit | Walker | Barnes | 1991 | pp=843–859 }} == Characteristics == The superclass [[Tetrapoda]] is divided into four classes of vertebrate animals with four limbs.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://tolweb.org/Terrestrial_Vertebrates/14952 |title=Terrestrial Vertebrates |author=Laurin, Michel |year=2011 |work=Tree of Life Web Project |accessdate=September 16, 2012}}</ref> Reptiles, birds and mammals are amniotes, the eggs of which are either laid or carried by the female and are surrounded by several membranes, some of which are impervious.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://tolweb.org/Amniota/14990 |title=Amniota |author=Laurin, Michel; Gauthier, Jacques A. |year=2012 |work=Tree of Life Web Project |accessdate=September 16, 2012}}</ref> Lacking these membranes, amphibians require water bodies for reproduction, although some species have developed various strategies for protecting or bypassing the vulnerable aquatic larval stage.{{sfn | Dorit | Walker | Barnes | 1991 | pp=843–859 }} They are not found in the sea with the exception of one or two frogs that live in [[brackish water]] in [[mangrove]] swamps.<ref>{{cite book |title=Introduction to the Biology of Marine Life |last=Sumich |first=James L. |author2= Morrissey, John F. |year=2004 |publisher=Jones & Bartlett Learning |isbn=978-0-7637-3313-1 |page=171 |url=https://books.google.com/?id=Y8vTCze3dHgC&dq=%22+amphibians+in+the+sea%3F%22&q=Amphibians#v=snippet&q=Amphibians&f=false }}</ref> On land, amphibians are restricted to moist habitats because of the need to keep their skin damp.{{sfn | Dorit | Walker | Barnes | 1991 | pp=843–859 }} The smallest amphibian (and vertebrate) in the world is a [[microhylid]] frog from [[New Guinea]] (''[[Paedophryne amauensis]]'') first discovered in 2012. It has an average length of {{convert|7.7|mm|in|abbr=on}} and is part of a genus that contains four of the world's ten smallest frog species.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Rittmeyer|first1=Eric N. |last2=Allison |first2=Allen |last3=Gründler |first3=Michael C. |last4=Thompson |first4=Derrick K. |last5=Austin |first5=Christopher C. |year=2012 |title=Ecological guild evolution and the discovery of the world's smallest vertebrate |journal=PLoS ONE |volume=7 |issue=1 |pages= e29797 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0029797 |pmid=22253785 |pmc=3256195|bibcode = 2012PLoSO...729797R }}</ref> The largest living amphibian is the {{convert|1.8|m|0|abbr=on}} [[Chinese giant salamander]] (''Andrias davidianus'')<ref name="Amphibianfacts">{{cite web|url=http://amphibiaweb.org/amphibian/facts.html|title=Amphibian Facts |author=Nguyen, Brent; Cavagnaro, John |date=July 2012 |publisher=AmphibiaWeb |accessdate=November 9, 2012}}</ref> but this is a great deal smaller than the largest amphibian that ever existed—the extinct {{convert|9|m|0|abbr=on}} ''[[Prionosuchus]]'', a crocodile-like temnospondyl dating to 270 million years ago from the middle Permian of Brazil.<ref>{{cite journal|author=Price, L. I.|year=1948 |title=Um anfibio Labirinthodonte da formacao Pedra de Fogo, Estado do Maranhao |journal=Boletim |volume=24 |pages=7–32 |publisher=Ministerio da Agricultura, Departamento Nacional da Producao ineral Divisao de Geologia e Mineralogia}}</ref> The largest frog is the African [[Goliath frog]] (''Conraua goliath''), which can reach {{convert|32|cm|0|abbr=on}} and weigh {{convert|3|kg|1|abbr=on}}.<ref name="Amphibianfacts" /> Amphibians are ectothermic (cold-blooded) vertebrates that do not maintain their body temperature through internal [[Physiology|physiological]] processes. Their [[Basal metabolic rate|metabolic rate]] is low and as a result, their food and energy requirements are limited. In the adult state, they have tear ducts and movable eyelids, and most species have ears that can detect airborne or ground vibrations. They have muscular tongues, which in many species can be protruded. Modern amphibians have fully [[Ossification|ossified]] vertebrae with [[articular processes]]. Their ribs are usually short and may be fused to the vertebrae. Their skulls are mostly broad and short, and are often incompletely ossified. Their skin contains little [[keratin]] and lacks scales, apart from a few fish-like scales in certain caecilians. The skin contains many [[mucous gland]]s and in some species, poison glands. The hearts of amphibians have three chambers, two [[atrium (heart)|atria]] and one [[ventricle (heart)|ventricle]]. They have a [[urinary bladder]] and nitrogenous waste products are excreted primarily as [[urea]]. Most amphibians lay their eggs in water and have aquatic larvae that undergo metamorphosis to become terrestrial adults. Amphibians breathe by means of a pump action in which air is first drawn into the [[Buccopharyngeal membrane|buccopharyngeal]] region through the nostrils. These are then closed and the air is forced into the lungs by contraction of the throat.{{sfn | Stebbins | Cohen | 1995 | pp=24–25 }} They supplement this with [[gas exchange]] through the skin.{{sfn | Dorit | Walker | Barnes | 1991 | pp=843–859 }} === Anura === [[File:Red eyed tree frog edit2.jpg|thumb|alt=Red-eyed tree frog|[[Agalychnis callidryas|Red-eyed tree frog]] (''Agalychnis callidryas'') with limbs and feet specialised for climbing]] The order [[Anura (frog)|Anura]] (from the Ancient Greek ''[[Privative a|a(n)-]]'' meaning "without" and ''oura'' meaning "tail") comprises the frogs and toads. They usually have long hind limbs that fold underneath them, shorter forelimbs, webbed toes with no claws, no tails, large eyes and glandular moist skin.{{sfn | Stebbins | Cohen | 1995 | p=3 }} Members of this order with smooth skins are commonly referred to as frogs, while those with [[wikt:warty|warty]] skins are known as toads. The difference is not a formal one taxonomically and there are numerous exceptions to this rule. Members of the family [[Bufonidae]] are known as the "true toads".<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.tolweb.org/Bufonidae |title=Bufonidae, True Toads |author=Cannatella, David; Graybeal, Anna |year=2008 |work=Tree of Life Web Project |accessdate=December 1, 2012}}</ref> Frogs range in size from the {{convert|30|cm}} [[goliath frog]] (''Conraua goliath'') of West Africa<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.amnh.org/exhibitions/past-exhibitions/frogs-a-chorus-of-colors/frog-fun-facts|title=Frog fun facts |date=January 12, 2010 |publisher=American Museum of Natural History |accessdate=August 29, 2012}}</ref> to the {{convert|7.7|mm}} ''[[Paedophryne amauensis]]'', first described in Papua New Guinea in 2012, which is also the smallest known vertebrate.<ref>{{cite news|title=World's smallest frog discovered in Papua New Guinea|author=Challenger, David |url=http://articles.cnn.com/2012-01-12/asia/world_asia_new-frogs_1_frog-papua-new-guinea-body-size?_s=PM:ASIA |newspaper=CNN |date=January 12, 2012 |accessdate=August 29, 2012}}</ref> Although most species are associated with water and damp habitats, some are specialised to live in trees or in deserts. They are found worldwide except for polar areas.<ref name="Collins">{{cite book |title=Reptiles and Amphibians of Britain and Europe |last1=Arnold |first1=Nicholas |last2=Ovenden |first2= Denys |year=2002 |publisher=Harper Collins Publishers |isbn=978-0-00-219318-4 |pages=13–18}}</ref> Anura is divided into three suborders that are broadly accepted by the scientific community, but the relationships between some families remain unclear. Future [[molecular genetics|molecular]] studies should provide further insights into their evolutionary relationships.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Faivovich| first=J.|author2=Haddad, C. F. B.|author3= Garcia, P. C. A.|author4= Frost, D. R.|author5= Campbell, J. A.|author6= Wheeler, W. C.| title=Systematic review of the frog family Hylidae, with special reference to Hylinae: Phylogenetic analysis and revision| journal=Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural History| volume=294| pages=1–240| doi=10.1206/0003-0090(2005)294[0001:SROTFF]2.0.CO;2| year=2005}}</ref> The suborder [[Archaeobatrachia]] contains four families of primitive frogs. These are [[Ascaphidae]], [[Bombinatoridae]], [[Discoglossidae]] and [[Leiopelmatidae]] which have few derived features and are probably paraphyletic with regard to other frog lineages.<ref name="Ford">{{cite journal|last=Ford| first=L. S.|author2=Cannatella, D. C.| year=1993| title=The major clades of frogs| journal=Herpetological Monographs| volume=7| pages=94–117| doi=10.2307/1466954| jstor=1466954}}</ref> The six families in the more evolutionarily advanced suborder [[Mesobatrachia]] are the [[fossorial]] [[Megophryidae]], [[Pelobatidae]], [[Pelodytidae]], [[Scaphiopodidae]] and [[Rhinophrynidae]] and the obligatorily aquatic [[Pipidae]]. These have certain characteristics that are intermediate between the two other suborders.<ref name="Ford" /> [[Neobatrachia]] is by far the largest suborder and includes the remaining families of modern frogs, including most common species. 96% of the over 5,000 extant species of frog are neobatrachians.<ref>{{cite journal | last=San Mauro | first=Diego | title=Initial diversification of living amphibians predated the breakup of Pangaea | journal=American Naturalist | volume=165 | pages=590–599 | year=2005 |author2=Vences, Miguel|author3= Alcobendas, Marina|author4= Zardoya, Rafael|author5= Meyer, Axel | doi=10.1086/429523 | issue=5 | pmid=15795855 }}</ref> === Caudata === [[File:Cryptobranchus japonicus.jpg|thumb|left|upright|alt=Japanese giant salamander|[[Japanese giant salamander]] <br>(''Andrias japonicus''), a primitive salamander]] The order [[Caudata]] (from the Latin ''cauda'' meaning "tail") consists of the salamanders—elongated, low-slung animals that mostly resemble lizards in form. This is a [[Symplesiomorphy|symplesiomorphic trait]] and they are no more closely related to lizards than they are to mammals.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.nature.com/scitable/topicpage/trait-evolution-on-a-phylogenetic-tree-relatedness-41936|title=Trait Evolution on a Phylogenetic Tree: Relatedness, Similarity, and the Myth of Evolutionary Advancement |author=Baum, David |year=2008 |publisher=Nature Education |accessdate=December 1, 2012}}</ref> Salamanders lack claws, have scale-free skins, either smooth or covered with [[tubercle]]s, and tails that are usually flattened from side to side and often finned. They range in size from the [[Chinese giant salamander]] (''Andrias davidianus''), which has been reported to grow to a length of {{convert|1.8|m}},<ref>{{cite web|url=http://amphibiaweb.org/cgi/amphib_query?where-genus=Andrias&where-species=davidianus|title=''Andrias davidianus'' Chinese giant salamander |author=Sparreboom, Max |date=February 7, 2000 |publisher=AmphibiaWeb |accessdate=December 1, 2012}}</ref> to the diminutive ''[[Thorius pennatulus]]'' from Mexico which seldom exceeds {{convert|20|mm|1|abbr=on}} in length.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://amphibiaweb.org/cgi/amphib_query?where-genus=Thorius&where-species=pennatulus|title=''Thorius pennatulus'' |author=Wake, David B. |date=November 8, 2000 |publisher=AmphibiaWeb |accessdate=August 25, 2012}}</ref> Salamanders have a mostly [[Laurasia]]n distribution, being present in much of the [[Holarctic]] region of the northern hemisphere. The family [[Plethodontidae]] is also found in Central America and South America north of the [[Amazon basin]];<ref name="Collins" /> South America was apparently invaded from Central America by about the start of the [[Miocene]], 23 million years ago.<ref name="Elmer2013">{{cite journal|last1=Elmer|first1=K. R.|last2=Bonett|first2=R. M.|last3=Wake|first3=D. B.|last4=Lougheed|first4=S. C.|title=Early Miocene origin and cryptic diversification of South American salamanders|journal=BMC Evolutionary Biology|volume= 13|issue=1|date= 2013-03-04|pages= 59|doi= 10.1186/1471-2148-13-59|pmid=23497060|pmc=3602097}}</ref> Urodela is a name sometimes used for all the [[extant taxon|extant]] species of salamanders.<ref name="larson">{{Cite journal| last=Larson | first=A. | last2=Dimmick | first2=W. | year=1993 | title=Phylogenetic relationships of the salamander families: an analysis of the congruence among morphological and molecular characters | journal=Herpetological Monographs | volume=7 | issue=7 | pages=77–93 | doi =10.2307/1466953 | jstor=1466953}}</ref> Members of several salamander families have become [[Neoteny|paedomorphic]] and either fail to complete their metamorphosis or retain some larval characteristics as adults.{{sfn | Dorit | Walker | Barnes | 1991 | p=852}} Most salamanders are under {{convert|15|cm|0|abbr=on}} long. They may be terrestrial or aquatic and many spend part of the year in each habitat. When on land, they mostly spend the day hidden under stones or logs or in dense vegetation, emerging in the evening and night to forage for worms, insects and other invertebrates.<ref name="Collins" /> [[File:Triturus dobrogicus dunai tarajosgőte.jpg|thumb|alt=Danube crested newt|[[Danube crested newt]] <br>(''Triturus dobrogicus''), an advanced salamander]] The suborder [[Cryptobranchoidea]] contains the primitive salamanders. A number of fossil cryptobranchids have been found, but there are only three living species, the Chinese giant salamander (''Andrias davidianus''), the [[Japanese giant salamander]] (''Andrias japonicus'') and the [[hellbender]] (''Cryptobranchus alleganiensis'') from North America. These large amphibians retain several larval characteristics in their adult state; gills slits are present and the eyes are unlidded. A unique feature is their ability to feed by suction, depressing either the left side of their lower jaw or the right.<ref name="ADWCrypto">{{cite web | url=http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Cryptobranchidae.html | title=Cryptobranchidae | author=Heying, Heather | year=2003 | work=Animal Diversity Web | publisher=University of Michigan | accessdate=August 25, 2012 }}</ref> The males excavate nests, persuade females to lay their egg strings inside them, and guard them. As well as breathing with lungs, they respire through the many folds in their thin skin, which has [[Capillary|capillaries]] close to the surface.<ref name="EHSAR">{{cite web | url=http://www.fws.gov/midwest/es/soc/amphibians/eahe-sa.pdf | title=Eastern Hellbender Status Assessment Report | author=Mayasich, J.; Grandmaison, D.; Phillips, C. | date=June 1, 2003 | publisher=U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service | accessdate=August 25, 2012 }}</ref> The suborder [[Salamandroidea]] contains the advanced salamanders. They differ from the cryptobranchids by having fused [[Mandible|prearticular bones]] in the lower jaw, and by using internal fertilisation. In salamandrids, the male deposits a bundle of sperm, the [[spermatophore]], and the female picks it up and inserts it into her cloaca where the sperm is stored until the eggs are laid.<ref name="BritCaudata">{{cite web |url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/100353/Caudata |title=Caudata |author=Wake, David B |work=Encyclopædia Britannica Online |publisher=Encyclopædia Britannica |accessdate=August 25, 2012}}</ref> The largest family in this group is Plethodontidae, the lungless salamanders, which includes 60% of all salamander species. The [[Family (biology)|family]] [[Salamandridae]] includes the true salamanders and the name "[[newt]]" is given to members of its subfamily [[Pleurodelinae]].{{sfn | Stebbins | Cohen | 1995 | p=3 }} The third suborder, [[Sirenoidea]], contains the four species of sirens, which are in a single family, [[Sirenidae]]. Members of this order are [[eel]]-like aquatic salamanders with much reduced forelimbs and no hind limbs. Some of their features are primitive while others are derived.<ref>{{cite book |author=Cogger, H. G.; Zweifel, R. G (Ed.) |year=1998 |title=Encyclopedia of Reptiles and Amphibians |publisher= Academic Press |pages= 69–70 |isbn=978-0-12-178560-4}}</ref> Fertilisation is likely to be external as sirenids lack the cloacal glands used by male salamandrids to produce spermatophores and the females lack [[spermatheca]]e for sperm storage. Despite this, the eggs are laid singly, a behaviour not conducive for external fertilisation.<ref name="BritCaudata" /> === Gymnophiona === [[File:Siphonops paulensis02.jpg|thumb|alt=''Siphonops paulensis''|The limbless South American caecilian ''[[Siphonops paulensis]]'']] The order [[Gymnophiona]] (from the Greek ''gymnos'' meaning "naked" and ''ophis'' meaning "serpent") or Apoda (from the Latin ''an-'' meaning "without" and the Greek ''poda'' meaning "legs") comprises the caecilians. These are long, cylindrical, limbless animals with a snake- or [[Annelid|worm-like]] form. The adults vary in length from 8 to 75 centimetres (3 to 30 inches) with the exception of [[Caecilia thompsoni|Thomson's caecilian]] (''Caecilia thompsoni''), which can reach {{convert|150|cm|ft|abbr=off}}. A caecilian's skin has a large number of transverse folds and in some species contains tiny embedded dermal scales. It has rudimentary eyes covered in skin, which are probably limited to discerning differences in light intensity. It also has a pair of short [[tentacle]]s near the eye that can be extended and which have [[Somatosensory system|tactile]] and [[Olfaction|olfactory]] functions. Most caecilians live underground in burrows in damp soil, in rotten wood and under plant debris, but some are aquatic.{{sfn| Stebbins| Cohen | 1995 | p=4}} Most species lay their eggs underground and when the larvae hatch, they make their way to adjacent bodies of water. Others brood their eggs and the larvae undergo metamorphosis before the eggs hatch. A few species give birth to live young, nourishing them with glandular secretions while they are in the oviduct.{{sfn | Dorit | Walker | Barnes | 1991 | p=858}} Caecilians have a mostly [[Gondwana]]n distribution, being found in tropical regions of Africa, Asia and Central and South America.<ref name="Britannica">{{cite web |url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/29797/Gymnophiona |title=Gymnophiona |author=Duellman, William E. |work=Encyclopædia Britannica Online |publisher=Encyclopædia Britannica |accessdate=September 30, 2012}}</ref> == Anatomy and physiology == === Skin === [[File:Tree frog congo.jpg|thumb|left|upright|alt=Common reed frog|The [[Aposematism|bright colours]] of the [[common reed frog]] (''Hyperolius viridiflavus'') are typical of a toxic species]] The [[Wikt:integument|integumentary]] structure contains some typical characteristics common to terrestrial vertebrates, such as the presence of highly [[Keratin#Cornification|cornified]] outer layers, renewed periodically through a moulting process controlled by the [[pituitary gland|pituitary]] and [[thyroid]] glands. Local thickenings (often called warts) are common, such as those found on toads. The outside of the skin is shed periodically more or less in one piece, in contrast to mammals and birds where it is shed in flakes. Amphibians often eat the sloughed skin.<ref name="Collins" /> Caecilians are unique among amphibians in having mineralized dermal scales embedded in the [[dermis]] between the furrows in the skin. The similarity of these to the scales of bony fish is largely superficial. [[Squamata|Lizards]] and some frogs have somewhat similar [[osteoderm]]s forming bony deposits in the dermis, but this is an example of [[convergent evolution]] with similar structures having arisen independently in diverse vertebrate lineages.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Zylberberg, Louise; Wake, Marvalee H. |year=1990 |title=Structure of the scales of ''Dermophis'' and ''Microcaecilia'' (Amphibia: Gymnophiona), and a comparison to dermal ossifications of other vertebrates |journal=Journal of Morphology |volume=206 |issue=1 |pages=25–43 |doi=10.1002/jmor.1052060104 }}</ref> [[File:FrogSkin.png|thumb||300px|Cross section of frog skin. A: Mucus gland, B: Chromatophore, C: Granular poison gland, D: [[Connective tissue]], E: [[Stratum corneum]], F: Transition zone, G: [[Epidermis]], H: [[Dermis]]]] Amphibian skin is permeable to water. Gas exchange can take place through the skin ([[cutaneous respiration]]) and this allows adult amphibians to respire without rising to the surface of water and to hibernate at the bottom of ponds.<ref name="Collins" /> To compensate for their thin and delicate skin, amphibians have evolved mucous glands, principally on their heads, backs and tails. The secretions produced by these help keep the skin moist. In addition, most species of amphibian have granular glands that secrete distasteful or poisonous substances. Some amphibian toxins can be lethal to humans while others have little effect.<ref name="amphibfacts">{{cite web|url=http://www.eoearth.org/article/Amphibian_morphology_and_reproduction |title=Amphibian morphology and reproduction |date=October 12, 2008 |author=Biodiversity Institute of Ontario; Hebert, Paul D. N. |work=Encyclopedia of Earth |accessdate=August 15, 2012}}</ref> The main poison-producing glands, the [[Parotoid gland|paratoids]], produce the neurotoxin [[bufotoxin]] and are located behind the ears of toads, along the backs of frogs, behind the eyes of salamanders and on the upper surface of caecilians.{{sfn | Stebbins | Cohen | 1995 | pp=10–11 }} The skin colour of amphibians is produced by three layers of pigment cells called [[chromatophore]]s. These three cell layers consist of the melanophores (occupying the deepest layer), the guanophores (forming an intermediate layer and containing many granules, producing a blue-green colour) and the lipophores (yellow, the most superficial layer). The colour change displayed by many species is initiated by [[hormone]]s secreted by the pituitary gland. Unlike bony fish, there is no direct control of the pigment cells by the nervous system, and this results in the colour change taking place more slowly than happens in fish. A vividly coloured skin usually indicates that the species is toxic and is a warning sign to predators.<ref>{{cite book |title=The Integument: A Textbook of Skin Biology |last=Spearman |first=R. I. C. |year=1973 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-20048-6 |page=81 |url=https://books.google.com/?id=F7A8AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA81&lpg=PA81&dq=Amphibian+%22skin+colour%22#v=onepage&q=Amphibian%20%22skin%20colour%22&f=false }}</ref> === Skeletal system and locomotion === Amphibians have a skeletal system that is structurally [[Homology (biology)|homologous]] to other tetrapods, though with a number of variations. They all have four limbs except for the legless caecilians and a few species of salamander with reduced or no limbs. The bones are hollow and lightweight. The musculoskeletal system is strong to enable it to support the head and body. The bones are fully [[ossification|ossified]] and the vertebrae interlock with each other by means of overlapping processes. The [[pectoral girdle]] is supported by muscle, and the well-developed [[pelvic girdle]] is attached to the backbone by a pair of sacral ribs. The [[ilium (bone)|ilium]] slopes forward and the body is held closer to the ground than is the case in mammals.{{sfn | Dorit | Walker | Barnes | 1991 | p=846 }} [[File:Ceratophrys cornuta skeleton front.jpg|thumb|alt=Frog skeleton|Skeleton of [[Surinam horned frog]]<br>(''Ceratophrys cornuta'')]] In most amphibians, there are four digits on the fore foot and five on the hind foot, but no claws on either. Some salamanders have fewer digits and the [[amphiuma]]s are eel-like in appearance with tiny, stubby legs. The sirens are aquatic salamanders with stumpy forelimbs and no hind limbs. The caecilians are limbless. They burrow in the manner of earthworms with zones of muscle contractions moving along the body. On the surface of the ground or in water they move by undulating their body from side to side.{{sfn | Stebbins | Cohen | 1995 | pp=26–36 }} In frogs, the hind legs are larger than the fore legs, especially so in those species that principally move by jumping or swimming. In the walkers and runners the hind limbs are not so large, and the burrowers mostly have short limbs and broad bodies. The feet have adaptations for the way of life, with webbing between the toes for swimming, broad adhesive toe pads for climbing, and keratinised tubercles on the hind feet for digging (frogs usually dig backwards into the soil). In most salamanders, the limbs are short and more or less the same length and project at right angles from the body. Locomotion on land is by walking and the tail often swings from side to side or is used as a prop, particularly when climbing. In their normal gait, only one leg is advanced at a time in the manner adopted by their ancestors, the lobe-finned fish.{{sfn | Dorit | Walker | Barnes | 1991 | p=846 }} Some salamanders in the genus ''[[Aneides]]'' and certain [[lungless salamander|plethodontids]] climb trees and have long limbs, large toepads and prehensile tails.<ref name="BritCaudata" /> In aquatic salamanders and in frog tadpoles, the tail has [[dorsal fin|dorsal]] and [[ventral fin|ventral]] fins and is moved from side to side as a means of propulsion. Adult frogs do not have tails and caecilians have only very short ones.{{sfn | Stebbins | Cohen | 1995 | pp=26–36 }} Salamanders use their tails in defence and some are prepared to jettison them to save their lives in a process known as [[autotomy]]. Certain species in the Plethodontidae have a weak zone at the base of the tail and use this strategy readily. The tail often continues to twitch after separation which may distract the attacker and allow the salamander to escape. Both tails and limbs can be regenerated.<ref>{{cite journal | author=Beneski, John T. Jr. | year=1989 | title=Adaptive significance of tail autotomy in the salamander, ''Ensatina'' | journal=Journal of Herpetology | volume=23 | issue=3 | pages=322–324 | doi=10.2307/1564465 | jstor=1564465 }}</ref> Adult frogs are unable to regrow limbs but tadpoles can do so.{{sfn | Stebbins | Cohen | 1995 | pp=26–36 }} === Circulatory system === [[File:Juvenile Amphibian Circulatory System.svg|thumb|Juvenile amphibian circulatory systems are single loop systems which resemble fish.<br> 1 – Internal gills where the blood is reoxygenated<br>2 – Point where the blood is depleted of oxygen and returns to the heart via veins<br>3 – Two chambered heart.<br>Red indicates oxygenated blood, and blue represents oxygen depleted blood.]] Amphibians have a juvenile stage and an adult stage, and the circulatory systems of the two are distinct. In the juvenile (or tadpole) stage, the circulation is similar to that of a fish; the two-chambered heart pumps the blood through the gills where it is oxygenated, and is spread around the body and back to the heart in a single loop. In the adult stage, amphibians (especially frogs) lose their gills and develop lungs. They have a heart that consists of a single ventricle and two atria. When the ventricle starts contracting, deoxygenated blood is pumped through the [[pulmonary artery]] to the lungs. Continued contraction then pumps oxygenated blood around the rest of the body. Mixing of the two bloodstreams is minimized by the anatomy of the chambers.{{sfn | Dorit | Walker | Barnes | 1991 | p=306 }} === Nervous and sensory systems === The [[nervous system]] is basically the same as in other vertebrates, with a central brain, a spinal cord, and nerves throughout the body. The amphibian brain is less well developed than that of reptiles, birds and mammals but is similar in morphology and function to that of a fish. It consists of equal parts [[cerebrum]], [[midbrain]] and [[cerebellum]]. Various parts of the cerebrum process sensory input, such as smell in the olfactory lobe and sight in the optic lobe, and it is additionally the centre of behaviour and learning. The cerebellum is the center of muscular coordination and the [[medulla oblongata]] controls some organ functions including heartbeat and respiration. The brain sends signals through the spinal cord and nerves to regulate activity in the rest of the body. The [[pineal body]], known to regulate sleep patterns in humans, is thought to produce the hormones involved in [[hibernation]] and [[aestivation]] in amphibians.{{sfn | Stebbins | Cohen | 1995 | p=100 }} Tadpoles retain the lateral line system of their ancestral fishes, but this is lost in terrestrial adult amphibians. Some caecilians possess [[Electroreception|electroreceptors]] that allow them to locate objects around them when submerged in water. The ears are well developed in frogs. There is no external ear, but the large circular [[Tympanum (anatomy)|eardrum]] lies on the surface of the head just behind the eye. This vibrates and sound is transmitted through a single bone, the [[stapes]], to the inner ear. Only high-frequency sounds like mating calls are heard in this way, but low-frequency noises can be detected through another mechanism.{{sfn | Dorit | Walker | Barnes | 1991 | p=846 }} There is a patch of specialized haircells, called ''papilla amphibiorum'', in the inner ear capable of detecting deeper sounds. Another feature, unique to frogs and salamanders, is the columella-operculum complex adjoining the auditory capsule which is involved in the transmission of both airborne and seismic signals.{{sfn | Stebbins | Cohen | 1995 | p=69 }} The ears of salamanders and caecilians are less highly developed than those of frogs as they do not normally communicate with each other through the medium of sound.<ref name="EBAmphibia" /> The eyes of tadpoles lack lids, but at metamorphosis, the [[cornea]] becomes more dome-shaped, the [[Lens (anatomy)|lens]] becomes flatter, and [[eyelid]]s and associated glands and ducts develop.{{sfn | Dorit | Walker | Barnes | 1991 | p=846 }} The adult eyes are an improvement on invertebrate eyes and were a first step in the development of more advanced vertebrate eyes. They allow colour vision and depth of focus. In the retinas are green rods, which are receptive to a wide range of wavelengths.<ref name="EBAmphibia">{{cite web |url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/21445/amphibian/ |title=Amphibian |author=Duellman, William E.; Zug, George R. |year=2012 |work=Encyclopædia Britannica Online |publisher=Encyclopædia Britannica |accessdate=March 27, 2012}}</ref> === Digestive and excretory systems === [[File:Frog anatomy tags.PNG|thumb|alt=Dissected frog|Dissected frog:1&nbsp;Right&nbsp;atrium, 2&nbsp;Liver, 3&nbsp;Aorta, 4&nbsp;Egg mass, 5&nbsp;Colon, 6&nbsp;Left&nbsp;atrium, 7&nbsp;Ventricle, 8&nbsp;Stomach, 9&nbsp;Left lung, 10&nbsp;Gallbladder, 11&nbsp;Small&nbsp;intestine, 12&nbsp;Cloaca]] Many amphibians catch their prey by flicking out an elongated tongue with a sticky tip and drawing it back into the mouth before seizing the item with their jaws. Some use inertial feeding to help them swallow the prey, repeatedly thrusting their head forward sharply causing the food to move backwards in their mouth by [[inertia]]. Most amphibians swallow their prey whole without much chewing so they possess voluminous stomachs. The short [[oesophagus]] is lined with [[cilia]] that help to move the food to the stomach and [[mucus]] produced by glands in the mouth and [[pharynx]] eases its passage. The enzyme [[chitinase]] produced in the stomach helps digest the [[chitin]]ous cuticle of arthropod prey.{{sfn | Dorit | Walker | Barnes | 1991 | p=847 }} Amphibians possess a [[pancreas]], [[liver]] and [[gall bladder]]. The liver is usually large with two lobes. Its size is determined by its function as a [[glycogen]] and fat storage unit, and may change with the seasons as these reserves are built or used up. [[Adipose tissue]] is another important means of storing energy and this occurs in the abdomen, under the skin and, in some salamanders, in the tail.{{sfn | Stebbins | Cohen | 1995 | p=66 }} <!--In aquatic amphibians, the liver plays only a small role in processing nitrogen for excretion, and [[ammonia]] is diffused mainly through the skin. The liver of terrestrial amphibians converts ammonia to urea, a less toxic, water-soluble nitrogenous compound, as a means of water conservation. In some species, urea is further converted into [[uric acid]]. [[Bile]] secretions from the liver collect in the gall bladder and flow into the small intestine. In the small intestine, enzymes digest carbohydrates, fats, and proteins. Salamanders lack a valve separating the small intestine from the large intestine. Salt and water absorption occur in the large intestine, as well as mucous secretion to aid in the transport of faecal matter, which is passed out through the [[cloaca]].<ref name="Anatomy" />---Omitting this until a more reliable source can be found.---> There are two [[kidney]]s located dorsally, near the roof of the body cavity. Their job is to filter the blood of metabolic waste and transport the urine via ureters to the urinary bladder where it is stored before being passed out periodically through the cloacal vent. Larvae and most aquatic adult amphibians excrete the nitrogen as ammonia in large quantities of dilute urine, while terrestrial species, with a greater need to conserve water, excrete the less toxic product urea. Some tree frogs with limited access to water excrete most of their metabolic waste as uric acid.{{sfn | Dorit | Walker | Barnes | 1991 | p=849 }} === Respiratory system === [[File:Axolotl ganz.jpg|thumb|left|alt=Axolotl|The [[axolotl]] (''Ambystoma mexicanum'') retains its larval form with gills into adulthood]] The lungs in amphibians are primitive compared to those of amniotes, possessing few internal [[alveolar septum|septa]] and large [[Pulmonary alveolus|alveoli]], and consequently having a comparatively slow diffusion rate for oxygen entering the blood. Ventilation is accomplished by [[buccal pumping]].<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Brainerd|first1=E. L. |title=New perspectives on the evolution of lung ventilation mechanisms in vertebrates |journal=Experimental Biology Online |year=1999 |volume=4 |issue=2 |pages=1–28 |doi=10.1007/s00898-999-0002-1 }}</ref> Most amphibians, however, are able to exchange gases with the water or air via their skin. To enable sufficient [[cutaneous respiration]], the surface of their highly vascularised skin must remain moist to allow the oxygen to diffuse at a sufficiently high rate.{{sfn | Dorit | Walker | Barnes | 1991 | p=847 }} Because oxygen concentration in the water increases at both low temperatures and high flow rates, aquatic amphibians in these situations can rely primarily on cutaneous respiration, as in the [[Telmatobius culeus|Titicaca water frog]] and the [[Cryptobranchus|hellbender salamander]]. In air, where oxygen is more concentrated, some small species can rely solely on cutaneous gas exchange, most famously the [[Plethodontidae|plethodontid salamanders]], which have neither lungs nor gills. Many aquatic salamanders and all tadpoles have gills in their larval stage, with some (such as the [[axolotl]]) retaining gills as aquatic adults.{{sfn | Dorit | Walker | Barnes | 1991 | p=847 }} == Reproduction == {{see also|Sexual selection in amphibians}} [[File:Litoria xanthomera amplexus.jpg|thumb|alt=Orange-thighed frogs in amplexus|Male [[orange-thighed frog]] (''Litoria xanthomera'') grasping the female during [[amplexus]]]] For the purpose of [[Biological reproduction|reproduction]] most amphibians require [[fresh water]] although some lay their eggs on land and have developed various means of keeping them moist. A few (e.g. ''[[Fejervarya raja]]'') can inhabit brackish water, but there are no true [[marine (ocean)|marine]] amphibians.<ref>{{cite journal | author = Hopkins Gareth R., Brodie Edmund D., Jr | year = 2015 | title = Occurrence of Amphibians in Saline Habitats: A Review and Evolutionary Perspective | url = http://www.bioone.org/doi/abs/10.1655/HERPMONOGRAPHS-D-14-00006 | journal = Herpetological Monographs | volume = 29 | issue = 1| pages = 1–27 | doi = 10.1655/HERPMONOGRAPHS-D-14-00006 }}</ref> There are reports, however, of particular amphibian populations unexpectedly invading marine waters. Such was the case with the [[Black Sea]] invasion of the natural hybrid ''[[Pelophylax esculentus]]'' reported in 2010.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Natchev, Nikolay; Tzankov, Nikolay; Geme, Richard |year=2011 |title=Green frog invasion in the Black Sea: habitat ecology of the ''Pelophylax esculentus'' complex (Anura, Amphibia) population in the region of Shablenska Тuzla lagoon in Bulgaria |journal=Herpetology Notes |volume=4 |pages=347–351 |url=http://www.herpetologynotes.seh-herpetology.org/Volume4_PDFs/Natchev_et_al_Herpetology_Notes_Volume4_pages347-351.pdf }}</ref> Several hundred frog species in [[adaptive radiation]]s (e.g., ''[[Eleutherodactylus]]'', the Pacific ''[[Platymantis]]'', the Australo-Papuan [[microhylid]]s, and many other tropical frogs), however, do not need any water for [[breeding in the wild]]. They reproduce via direct development, an ecological and evolutionary adaptation that has allowed them to be completely independent from free-standing water. Almost all of these frogs live in wet [[Tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests|tropical rainforests]] and their eggs hatch directly into miniature versions of the adult, passing through the [[tadpole]] stage within the egg. Reproductive success of many amphibians is dependent not only on the quantity of rainfall, but the seasonal timing.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.eoearth.org/article/Abiotic_factor?topic=49461 |title=Abiotic factor |author=Hogan, C. Michael |date=July 31, 2010 |work=Encyclopedia of Earth |publisher=National Council for Science and the Environment |accessdate=September 30, 2012}}</ref> In the tropics, many amphibians breed continuously or at any time of year. In temperate regions, breeding is mostly seasonal, usually in the spring, and is triggered by increasing day length, rising temperatures or rainfall. Experiments have shown the importance of temperature, but the trigger event, especially in arid regions, is often a storm. In anurans, males usually arrive at the breeding sites before females and the vocal chorus they produce may stimulate ovulation in females and the endocrine activity of males that are not yet reproductively active.{{sfn | Stebbins | Cohen | 1995 | pp=140–141 }} In caecilians, fertilisation is internal, the male extruding an [[intromittent organ]], the phallodeum, and inserting it into the female cloaca. The paired Müllerian glands inside the male cloaca secrete a fluid which resembles that produced by mammalian [[prostate]] glands and which may transport and nourish the sperm. Fertilisation probably takes place in the oviduct.<ref name="Duellman">{{cite book |title=Biology of Amphibians |last=Duellman|first=Willia E. |author2= Trueb, Linda |year=1994 |publisher=JHU Press |isbn=978-0-8018-4780-6 |pages=77–79 |url=https://books.google.com/?id=CzxVvKmrtIgC&pg=PA77&lpg=PA77&dq=phallodeum#v=onepage&q=phallodeum&f=false }}</ref> The majority of salamanders also engage in internal fertilisation. In most of these, the male deposits a spermatophore, a small packet of sperm on top of a gelatinous cone, on the [[Substrate (biology)|substrate]] either on land or in the water. The female takes up the sperm packet by grasping it with the lips of the cloaca and pushing it into the vent. The spermatozoa move to the spermatheca in the roof of the cloaca where they remain until ovulation which may be many months later. Courtship rituals and methods of transfer of the spermatophore vary between species. In some, the spermatophore may be placed directly into the female cloaca while in others, the female may be guided to the spermatophore or restrained with an embrace called [[amplexus]]. Certain primitive salamanders in the families Sirenidae, [[Hynobiidae]] and [[Cryptobranchidae]] practice external fertilisation in a similar manner to frogs, with the female laying the eggs in water and the male releasing sperm onto the egg mass.<ref name="Duellman" /> With a few exceptions, frogs use external fertilisation. The male grasps the female tightly with his forelimbs either behind the arms or in front of the back legs, or in the case of ''[[Epipedobates tricolor]]'', around the neck. They remain in amplexus with their cloacae positioned close together while the female lays the eggs and the male covers them with sperm. Roughened nuptial pads on the male's hands aid in retaining grip. Often the male collects and retains the egg mass, forming a sort of basket with the hind feet. An exception is the [[granular poison frog]] (''Oophaga granulifera'') where the male and female place their cloacae in close proximity while facing in opposite directions and then release eggs and sperm simultaneously. The [[tailed frog]] (''Ascaphus truei'') exhibits internal fertilisation. The "tail" is only possessed by the male and is an extension of the cloaca and used to inseminate the female. This frog lives in fast-flowing streams and internal fertilisation prevents the sperm from being washed away before fertilisation occurs.{{sfn | Stebbins | Cohen | 1995 | pp=154–162 }} The sperm may be retained in storage tubes attached to the [[oviduct]] until the following spring.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://amphibiaweb.org/cgi/amphib_query?where-genus=Ascaphus&where-species=truei |title=''Ascaphus truei'' |author=Adams, Michael J.; Pearl, Christopher A. |year=2005 |publisher=AmphibiaWeb |accessdate=November 23, 2012}}</ref> Most frogs can be classified as either prolonged or explosive breeders. Typically, prolonged breeders congregate at a breeding site, the males usually arriving first, calling and setting up territories. Other satellite males remain quietly nearby, waiting for their opportunity to take over a territory. The females arrive sporadically, mate selection takes place and eggs are laid. The females depart and territories may change hands. More females appear and in due course, the breeding season comes to an end. Explosive breeders on the other hand are found where temporary pools appear in dry regions after rainfall. These frogs are typically [[wikt:fossorial|fossorial]] species that emerge after heavy rains and congregate at a breeding site. They are attracted there by the calling of the first male to find a suitable place, perhaps a pool that forms in the same place each rainy season. The assembled frogs may call in unison and frenzied activity ensues, the males scrambling to mate with the usually smaller number of females.{{sfn | Stebbins | Cohen | 1995 | pp=154–162 }} [[File:Plethodon cinereus.jpg|right|thumb|240px|Sexual selection has been studied in the [[red back salamander]]]] <!--[[Sexual selection]] typically manifests as male-male competition where males will arrive at the waters edge first in large number, producing a wide range of vocalizations and other complex behaviours to attract mates, with the [[fitness (biology)|fittest]] males having the deepest croaks and the best territories. It also exists as [[mate choice]], with females known to choose a mate, at least partly based on the male's depth of croaking. This has led to [[sexual dimorphism]], with females being larger than males in 90% of species, males larger in 10% of species and males fighting for groups of females.--> There is a direct competition between males to win the attention of the females in salamanders and newts, with elaborate courtship displays to keep the females attention long enough to get her interested in choosing him to [[mating|mate]] with.<ref name=romano>{{cite journal|last=Romano|first=Antonio|author2=Bruni, Giacomo |title=Courtship behaviour, mating season and male sexual interference in ''Salamandrina perspicillata''|journal=Amphibia-Reptilia|year=2011|volume=32|issue=1|pages=63–76|doi=10.1163/017353710X541878}}</ref> Some species store [[sperm]] through long breeding seasons, as the extra time may allow for interactions with rival sperm.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Adams|first=Erika M.|author2=Jones, A. G. |author3=Arnold, S. J. |title=Multiple paternity in a natural population of a salamander with long-term sperm storage |journal=Molecular Ecology |year=2005 |volume=14 |issue=6 |pages=1803–1810 |doi=10.1111/j.1365-294X.2005.02539.x |pmid=15836651}}</ref> == Life cycle == Most amphibians go through [[metamorphosis]], a process of significant morphological change after birth. In typical amphibian development, eggs are laid in water and larvae are adapted to an aquatic lifestyle. Frogs, toads and salamanders all hatch from the egg as larvae with external gills. Metamorphosis in amphibians is regulated by [[thyroxine]] concentration in the blood, which stimulates metamorphosis, and [[prolactin]], which counteracts thyroxine's effect. Specific events are dependent on threshold values for different tissues.<ref>{{Cite book| last1 = Kikuyama | first1 = Sakae | last2 = Kawamura | first2 = Kousuke | last3 = Tanaka | first3 = Shigeyasu | last4 = Yamamoto | first4 = Kakutoshi | title = International Review of Cytology: A Survey of Cell Biology | chapter = Aspects of amphibian metamorphosis: Hormonal control | publisher = Academic Press | pages = 105–126 | year = 1993 | url = https://books.google.com/?id=wfSM70CuYqYC&pg=PA105&dq=amphibian+metamorphosis#v=onepage&q=amphibian%20metamorphosis&f=false | isbn = 978-0-12-364548-7 }}</ref> Because most embryonic development is outside the parental body, it is subject to many adaptations due to specific environmental circumstances. For this reason tadpoles can have horny ridges instead of teeth, whisker-like skin extensions or fins. They also make use of a sensory lateral line organ similar to that of fish. After metamorphosis, these organs become redundant and will be reabsorbed by controlled cell death, called [[apoptosis]]. The variety of adaptations to specific environmental circumstances among amphibians is wide, with many discoveries still being made.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Newman, Robert A. |year=1992 |title=Adaptive plasticity in amphibian metamorphosis |journal=BioScience |volume=42 |issue=9 |pages=671–678 |doi= 10.2307/1312173 |jstor=1312173}}</ref> === Eggs === [[File:Frogspawn closeup.jpg|thumb|alt=Frogspawn|Frogspawn, a mass of eggs surrounded by jelly]] [[File:Amphibian Egg Diagram.svg|thumb|Amphibian egg:<br> 1. Jelly capsule 2. Vitelline membrane <br> 3. Perivitelline fluid 4. [[Yolk plug]] <br> 5. Embryo]] The egg of an amphibian is typically surrounded by a transparent gelatinous covering secreted by the oviducts and containing [[mucoprotein]]s and [[mucopolysaccharide]]s. This capsule is permeable to water and gases, and swells considerably as it absorbs water. The ovum is at first rigidly held, but in fertilised eggs the innermost layer liquefies and allows the [[embryo]] to move freely. This also happens in salamander eggs, even when they are unfertilised. Eggs of some salamanders and frogs contain unicellular green algae. These penetrate the jelly envelope after the eggs are laid and may increase the supply of oxygen to the embryo through photosynthesis. They seem to both speed up the development of the larvae and reduce mortality.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Gilbert, Perry W. |year=1942 |title=Observations on the eggs of ''Ambystoma maculatum'' with especial reference to the green algae found within the egg envelopes |journal=Ecology |volume=23 |pages=215–227 |jstor=1931088 |doi=10.2307/1931088 |issue=2 }}</ref> Most eggs contain the pigment [[melanin]] which raises their temperature through the absorption of light and also protects them against [[ultraviolet radiation]]. Caecilians, some [[plethodontid]] salamanders and certain frogs lay eggs underground that are unpigmented. In the [[wood frog]] (''Rana sylvatica''), the interior of the globular egg cluster has been found to be up to {{convert|6|°C|°F|abbr=on}} warmer than its surroundings which is an advantage in its cool northern habitat.<ref>{{cite journal|author=Waldman, Bruce; Ryan, Michael J.|year=1983 |title=Thermal advantages of communal egg mass deposition in wood frogs (''Rana sylvatica'') |journal=Journal of Herpetology |volume=17 |issue=1 |pages=70–72 |jstor=1563783 |doi=10.2307/1563783}}</ref> The eggs may be deposited singly or in small groups, or may take the form of spherical egg masses, rafts or long strings. In terrestrial caecilians, the eggs are laid in grape-like clusters in burrows near streams. The amphibious salamander ''[[Ensatina]]'' attaches its similar clusters by stalks to underwater stems and roots. The [[Eleutherodactylus planirostris|greenhouse frog]] (''Eleutherodactylus planirostris'') lays eggs in small groups in the soil where they develop in about two weeks directly into juvenile frogs without an intervening larval stage.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://amphibiaweb.org/cgi-bin/amphib_query?query_src=aw_search_index&where-genus=Eleutherodactylus&where-species=planirostris |title=''Eleutherodactylus planirostris'' |author=Meshaka, Walter E. Jr |publisher=AmphibiaWeb |accessdate=December 12, 2012}}</ref> The [[tungara frog]] (''Physalaemus pustulosus'') builds a floating nest from foam to protect its eggs. First a raft is built, then eggs are laid in the centre, and finally a foam cap is overlaid. The foam has anti-microbial properties. It contains no [[detergent]]s but is created by whipping up [[protein]]s and [[lectin]]s secreted by the female.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Dalgetty, Laura; Kennedy, Malcolm W. |year=2010 |title=Building a home from foam: túngara frog foam nest architecture and three-phase construction process |journal=Biology Letters |volume=6 |issue=3 |pages=293–296 |doi=10.1098/rsbl.2009.0934 |pmid=20106853 |pmc=2880057 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.gla.ac.uk/schools/lifesciences/staff/malcolmkennedy/malcolmkennedy/proteinsoffrogfoamnests/ |title=Proteins of frog foam nests |publisher=School of Life Sciences, University of Glasgow |accessdate=August 24, 2012}}</ref> === Larvae === [[File:Frog spawn time-lapse.gif|thumb|left|alt=Frog spawn development|Early stages in the development of the embryos of the [[common frog]] (''Rana temporaria'')]] The eggs of amphibians are typically laid in water and hatch into free-living larvae that complete their development in water and later transform into either aquatic or terrestrial adults. In many species of frog and in most lungless salamanders (Plethodontidae), direct development takes place, the larvae growing within the eggs and emerging as miniature adults. Many caecilians and some other amphibians lay their eggs on land, and the newly hatched larvae wriggle or are transported to water bodies. Some caecilians, the [[alpine salamander]] (''Salamandra atra'') and some of the [[Nectophrynoides|African live-bearing toads]] (''Nectophrynoides spp.'') are [[Vivipary|viviparous]]. Their larvae feed on glandular secretions and develop within the female's oviduct, often for long periods. Other amphibians, but not caecilians, are [[Ovoviviparity|ovoviviparous]]. The eggs are retained in or on the parent's body, but the larvae subsist on the yolks of their eggs and receive no nourishment from the adult. The larvae emerge at varying stages of their growth, either before or after metamorphosis, according to their species.{{sfn | Stebbins | Cohen | 1995 | pp=6–9 }} The toad genus ''Nectophrynoides'' exhibits all of these developmental patterns among its dozen or so members.<ref name="species"/> ==== Frogs ==== Frog larvae are known as tadpoles and typically have oval bodies and long, vertically flattened tails with fins. The free-living larvae are normally fully aquatic, but the tadpoles of some species such as (''[[Nannophrys ceylonensis]]'') are semi-terrestrial and live among wet rocks.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://amphibiaweb.org/cgi-bin/amphib_query?query_src=aw_lists_genera_&table=amphib&where-genus=Nannophrys&where-species=ceylonensis |title=''Nannophrys ceylonensis'' |author=Janzen, Peter |date=May 10, 2005 |publisher=AmphibiaWeb |accessdate=July 20, 2012}}</ref> Tadpoles have cartilaginous skeletons, gills for respiration (external gills at first, internal gills later), [[lateral line system]]s and large tails that they use for swimming.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-40603/Anura |title=Anura: From tadpole to adult |author=Duellman, W. E.; Zug, G. R. |work=Encyclopædia Britannica Online |accessdate=July 13, 2012}}</ref> Newly hatched tadpoles soon develop gill pouches that cover the gills. The lungs develop early and are used as accessory breathing organs, the tadpoles rising to the water surface to gulp air. Some species complete their development inside the egg and hatch directly into small frogs. These larvae do not have gills but instead have specialised areas of skin through which respiration takes place. While tadpoles do not have true teeth, in most species, the jaws have long, parallel rows of small keratinized structures called keradonts surrounded by a horny beak.{{sfn | Stebbins | Cohen | 1995 | pp=179–181 }} Front legs are formed under the gill sac and hind legs become visible a few days later. [[File:Amphibian Metamorphosis.PNG|thumb|Amphibian Metamorphosis]] Iodine and T4 (over stimulate the spectacular [[apoptosis]] (programmed cell death) of the cells of the larval gills, tail and fins) also stimulate the [[evolution of nervous systems]] transforming the aquatic, vegetarian tadpole into the terrestrial, carnivorous frog with better neurological, visuospatial, olfactory and cognitive abilities for hunting.<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Venturi, Sebastiano|title=Evolutionary Significance of Iodine|journal=Current Chemical Biology-|volume=5 |pages=155–162|year=2011|issn=1872-3136|doi=10.2174/187231311796765012|issue=3}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|author=Venturi, Sebastiano|title=Iodine, PUFAs and Iodolipids in Health and Disease: An Evolutionary Perspective|journal=Human Evolution-|volume= 29 (1–3)|pages=185–205|year=2014|issn=0393-9375}}</ref> In fact, tadpoles developing in ponds and streams are typically [[herbivore|herbivorous]]. Pond tadpoles tend to have deep bodies, large caudal fins and small mouths; they swim in the quiet waters feeding on growing or loose fragments of vegetation. Stream dwellers mostly have larger mouths, shallow bodies and caudal fins; they attach themselves to plants and stones and feed on the surface films of [[algae]] and bacteria.<ref name="EBAnura"/> They also feed on [[diatom]]s, filtered from the water through the [[gill]]s, and stir up the sediment at bottom of the pond, ingesting edible fragments. They have a relatively long, spiral-shaped gut to enable them to digest this diet.<ref name="EBAnura">{{cite web |url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/29023/Anura |title=Anura |author=Duellman, William E.; Zug, George R. |year=2012 |work=Encyclopædia Britannica Online |publisher=Encyclopædia Britannica |accessdate=March 26, 2012}}</ref> Some species are carnivorous at the tadpole stage, eating insects, smaller tadpoles and fish. Young of the [[Cuban tree frog]] (''Osteopilus septentrionalis'') can occasionally be [[Cannibalism (zoology)|cannibalistic]], the younger tadpoles attacking a larger, more developed tadpole when it is undergoing metamorphosis.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Crump, Martha L. |year=1986 |title=Cannibalism by younger tadpoles: another hazard of metamorphosis |journal=Copeia |volume=4 |pages=1007–1009 |jstor=1445301 |doi=10.2307/1445301 |issue=4 }}</ref> {{wide image|Bufobufotadpoles.jpg|800px|alt=Metamorphosis|Successive stages in the development of [[common toad]] (''Bufo bufo'') tadpoles, finishing with metamorphosis}} At metamorphosis, rapid changes in the body take place as the lifestyle of the frog changes completely. The spiral‐shaped mouth with horny tooth ridges is reabsorbed together with the spiral gut. The animal develops a large jaw, and its gills disappear along with its gill sac. Eyes and legs grow quickly, and a tongue is formed. There are associated changes in the neural networks such as development of stereoscopic vision and loss of the lateral line system. All this can happen in about a day. A few days later, the tail is reabsorbed, due to the higher thyroxine concentration required for this to take place.<ref name="EBAnura" /> ==== Salamanders ==== [[File:Ambystoma macrodactylum 26597.JPG|thumb|alt=Larva of the long-toed salamander|Larva of the [[long-toed salamander]] <br>(''Ambystoma macrodactylum'')]] [[File:Mesotriton alpestris apuanus04.jpg|thumb|alt=Larvae of the alpine newt|Larvae of the [[alpine newt]] <br>(''Ichthyosaura alpestris'')]] At hatching, a typical salamander larva has eyes without lids, teeth in both upper and lower jaws, three pairs of feathery external gills, a somewhat laterally flattened body and a long tail with [[Anatomical terms of location#Dorsal and ventral|dorsal]] and [[Anatomical terms of location#Dorsal and ventral|ventral]] fins. The forelimbs may be partially developed and the hind limbs are rudimentary in pond-living species but may be rather more developed in species that reproduce in moving water. Pond-type larvae often have a pair of balancers, rod-like structures on either side of the head that may prevent the gills from becoming clogged up with sediment. Some members of the genera ''[[Ambystoma]]'' and ''[[Dicamptodon]]'' have larvae that never fully develop into the adult form, but this varies with species and with populations. The [[northwestern salamander]] (''Ambystoma gracile'') is one of these and, depending on environmental factors, either remains permanently in the larval state, a condition known as [[neoteny]], or transforms into an adult.<ref>{{cite journal | author=Valentine, Barry D.; Dennis, David M. | year=1964 | title=A comparison of the gill-arch system and fins of three genera of larval salamanders, ''Rhyacotriton'', ''Gyrinophilus'', and ''Ambystoma'' | journal=Copeia | volume=1964 | issue=1 | pages=196–201 | jstor=1440850 | doi=10.2307/1440850 }}</ref> Both of these are able to breed.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.amphibiaweb.org/cgi-bin/amphib_query?where-genus=Ambystoma&where-species=gracile |title=''Ambystoma gracile'' |author=Shaffer, H. Bradley |year=2005 |publisher=AmphibiaWeb |accessdate=November 21, 2012}}</ref> Neoteny occurs when the animal's growth rate is very low and is usually linked to adverse conditions such as low water temperatures that may change the response of the tissues to the hormone thyroxine.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://pages.uoregon.edu/titus/herp_old/neoteny.htm |title=Metamorphosis vs. neoteny (paedomorphosis) in salamanders (Caudata) |author=Kiyonaga, Robin R |accessdate=November 21, 2012}}</ref> Other factors that may inhibit metamorphosis include lack of food, lack of trace elements and competition from [[conspecific]]s. The [[tiger salamander]] (''Ambystoma tigrinum'') also sometimes behaves in this way and may grow particularly large in the process. The adult tiger salamander is terrestrial, but the larva is aquatic and able to breed while still in the larval state. When conditions are particularly inhospitable on land, larval breeding may allow continuation of a population that would otherwise die out. There are fifteen species of [[wikt:obligate|obligate]] neotenic salamanders, including species of ''[[Necturus]]'', ''[[Olm|Proteus]]'' and ''Amphiuma'', and many examples of [[wikt:facultative|facultative]] ones that adopt this strategy under appropriate environmental circumstances.<ref>{{cite book |title=Biology of Amphibians |last=Duellman |first=William E. |author2=Trueb, Linda |year=1994 |publisher=JHU Press |isbn=978-0-8018-4780-6 |pages=191–192 |url=https://books.google.com/?id=CzxVvKmrtIgC&pg=PA191&lpg=PA191&dq=salamander+obligate+neoteny#v=onepage&q=salamander%20obligate%20neoteny&f=false }}</ref> Lungless salamanders in the family Plethodontidae are terrestrial and lay a small number of unpigmented eggs in a cluster among damp leaf litter. Each egg has a large yolk sac and the larva feeds on this while it develops inside the egg, emerging fully formed as a juvenile salamander. The female salamander often broods the eggs. In the genus ''[[Ensatinas]]'', the female has been observed to coil around them and press her throat area against them, effectively massaging them with a mucous secretion.{{sfn | Stebbins | Cohen | 1995 | p=196 }} In newts and salamanders, metamorphosis is less dramatic than in frogs. This is because the larvae are already carnivorous and continue to feed as predators when they are adults so few changes are needed to their digestive systems. Their lungs are functional early, but the larvae don't make as much use of them as do tadpoles. Their gills are never covered by gill sacs and are reabsorbed just before the animals leave the water. Other changes include the reduction in size or loss of tail fins, the closure of gill slits, thickening of the skin, the development of eyelids, and certain changes in dentition and tongue structure. Salamanders are at their most vulnerable at metamorphosis as swimming speeds are reduced and transforming tails are encumbrances on land.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Shaffer, H. Bradley; Austin, C. C.; Huey, R. B. |year=1991 |title=The consequences of metamorphosis on salamander (''Ambystoma'') locomotor performance |journal=Physiological Zoology |volume=64 |issue=1 |pages=212–231 |jstor=30158520 }}</ref> Adult salamanders often have an aquatic phase in spring and summer, and a land phase in winter. For adaptation to a water phase, prolactin is the required hormone, and for adaptation to the land phase, thyroxine. External gills do not return in subsequent aquatic phases because these are completely absorbed upon leaving the water for the first time.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/100353/Caudata |title=Caudata |author=Wake, David B. |year=2012 |work=Encyclopædia Britannica Online |publisher=Encyclopædia Britannica |accessdate=March 26, 2012}}</ref> ==== Caecilians ==== [[File:CaecilianNHM.png|thumb|left|alt=''Ichthyophis glutinosus''|The caecilian ''Ichthyophis glutinosus'' with eggs and developing embryo]] Most terrestrial caecilians that lay eggs do so in burrows or moist places on land near bodies of water. The development of the young of ''[[Ichthyophis glutinosus]]'', a species from Sri Lanka, has been much studied. The eel-like larvae hatch out of the eggs and make their way to water. They have three pairs of external red feathery gills, a blunt head with two rudimentary eyes, a lateral line system and a short tail with fins. They swim by undulating their body from side to side. They are mostly active at night, soon lose their gills and make sorties onto land. Metamorphosis is gradual. By the age of about ten months they have developed a pointed head with sensory tentacles near the mouth and lost their eyes, lateral line systems and tails. The skin thickens, embedded scales develop and the body divides into segments. By this time, the caecilian has constructed a burrow and is living on land.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Breckenridge, W. R.; Nathanael, S.; Pereira, L. |year=1987 |title=Some aspects of the biology and development of ''Ichthyophis glutinosus'' |journal=Journal of Zoology |volume=211 |pages=437–449 }}</ref> [[File:Siphonops annulatus.jpg|thumb|alt=Ringed caecilian|The [[Siphonops annulatus|ringed caecilian]] (''Siphonops annulatus'') resembles an earthworm]] In the majority of species of caecilians, the young are produced by vivipary. ''[[Typhlonectes compressicauda]]'', a species from South America, is typical of these. Up to nine larvae can develop in the oviduct at any one time. They are elongated and have paired sac-like gills, small eyes and specialised scraping teeth. At first, they feed on the yolks of the eggs, but as this source of nourishment declines they begin to rasp at the ciliated epithelial cells that line the oviduct. This stimulates the secretion of fluids rich in [[lipid]]s and mucoproteins on which they feed along with scrapings from the oviduct wall. They may increase their length sixfold and be two-fifths as long as their mother before being born. By this time they have undergone metamorphosis, lost their eyes and gills, developed a thicker skin and mouth tentacles, and reabsorbed their teeth. A permanent set of teeth grow through soon after birth.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Wake, Marvalee H. |year=1977 |title=Fetal maintenance and its evolutionary significance in the Amphibia: Gymnophiona |journal=Journal of Herpetology |volume=11 |issue=4 |pages=379–386 |jstor=1562719 |doi=10.2307/1562719 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/29797/Gymnophiona |title=Gymnophiona |author=Duellman, William E. |year=2012 |work=Encyclopædia Britannica Online |publisher=Encyclopædia Britannica |accessdate=March 26, 2012}}</ref> The ringed caecilian (''[[Siphonops annulatus]]'') has developed a unique adaptation for the purposes of reproduction. The progeny feed on a skin layer that is specially developed by the adult in a phenomenon known as maternal dermatophagy. The brood feed as a batch for about seven minutes at intervals of approximately three days which gives the skin an opportunity to regenerate. Meanwhile, they have been observed to ingest fluid exuded from the maternal cloaca.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Wilkinson, Mark; Kupfer, Alexander; Marques-Porto, Rafael; Jeffkins, Hilary; Antoniazzi, Marta M.; Jared, Carlos |year=2008 |title= One hundred million years of skin feeding? Extended parental care in a Neotropical caecilian (Amphibia: Gymnophiona) |journal=[[Biology Letters]] |doi=10.1098/rsbl.2008.0217 |volume=4 |pages=358–361 |issue=4 |pmc=2610157 |pmid=18547909}}</ref> === Parental care === [[File:Panama Poison Dart Frog Colostethus panamensis with tadpoles.jpg|thumb|alt=Common rocket frog|Male [[common rocket frog]] (''Colostethus panamensis'') carrying tadpoles on his back]] The care of offspring among amphibians has been little studied but, in general, the larger the number of eggs in a batch, the less likely it is that any degree of parental care takes place. Nevertheless, it is estimated that in up to 20% of amphibian species, one or both adults play some role in the care of the young.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Crump| first=Martha L.| year=1996| title=Parental care among the Amphibia| journal=Advances in the Study of Behavior| volume=25| pages=109–144| doi=10.1016/S0065-3454(08)60331-9 | series=Advances in the Study of Behavior| isbn=978-0-12-004525-9}}</ref> Those species that breed in smaller water bodies or other specialised habitats tend to have complex patterns of behaviour in the care of their young.<ref name="Brown1">{{cite journal | doi=10.1086/650727 | last1=Brown | first1=J. L. | last2=Morales | first2=V. | last3=Summers | first3=K. | year=2010 | title=A key ecological trait drove the evolution of biparental care and monogamy in an amphibian | journal=American Naturalist | volume=175 | issue=4 | pages=436–446 | pmid=20180700 }}</ref> Many woodland salamanders lay clutches of eggs under dead logs or stones on land. The [[black mountain salamander]] (''Desmognathus welteri'') does this, the mother brooding the eggs and guarding them from predation as the embryos feed on the yolks of their eggs. When fully developed, they break their way out of the egg capsules and disperse as juvenile salamanders.{{sfn | Dorit | Walker | Barnes | 1991 | pp=853–854 }} The male hellbender, a primitive salamander, excavates an underwater nest and encourages females to lay there. The male then guards the site for the two or three months before the eggs hatch, using body undulations to fan the eggs and increase their supply of oxygen.<ref name="EHSAR" /> [[File:Alytes obstetricans almogavarii - male with eggs 2.jpg|thumb|left|Male [[common midwife toad]] (''Alytes obstetricans'') carrying eggs]] The male ''[[Colostethus subpunctatus]]'', a tiny frog, protects the egg cluster which is hidden under a stone or log. When the eggs hatch, the male transports the tadpoles on his back, stuck there by a mucous secretion, to a temporary pool where he dips himself into the water and the tadpoles drop off.<ref>{{cite journal |author= Fandiño, María Claudia; Lüddecke, Horst; Amézquita, Adolfo |year=1997 |title=Vocalisation and larval transportation of male ''Colostethus subpunctatus'' (Anura: Dendrobatidae) |journal=Amphibia-Reptilia |volume=18 |issue=1 |pages=39–48 |doi=10.1163/156853897X00297 }}</ref> The male [[Common midwife toad|midwife toad]] (''Alytes obstetricans'') winds egg strings round his thighs and carries the eggs around for up to eight weeks. He keeps them moist and when they are ready to hatch, he visits a pond or ditch and releases the tadpoles.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://amphibiaweb.org/cgi-bin/amphib_query?where-genus=Alytes&where-species=obstetricans |title=''Alytes obstetricans'' |author=van der Meijden, Arie |date=January 18, 2010 |publisher=AmphibiaWeb |accessdate=November 29, 2012}}</ref> The female [[gastric-brooding frog]] (''Rheobatrachus spp.'') reared larvae in her stomach after swallowing either the eggs or hatchlings; however, this stage was never observed before the species became extinct. The tadpoles secrete a hormone that inhibits digestion in the mother whilst they develop by consuming their very large yolk supply.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Rheobatrachus_silus.html |title=''Rheobatrachus silus'' |author=Semeyn, E. |year=2002 |work=Animal Diversity Web |publisher=University of Michigan Museum of Zoology |accessdate=August 5, 2012}}</ref> The [[pouched frog]] (''Assa darlingtoni'') lays eggs on the ground. When they hatch, the male carries the tadpoles around in brood pouches on his hind legs.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.iucnredlist.org/details/41130/0 |title=''Assa darlingtoni'' |author=Hero, Jean-Marc; Clarke, John; Meyer, Ed |year=2004 |work=IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Version 2012.2 |accessdate=November 20, 2012}}</ref> The aquatic [[Surinam toad]] (''Pipa pipa'') raises its young in pores on its back where they remain until metamorphosis.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.iucnredlist.org/details/58163/0 |title=''Pipa pipa'' (Suriname Toad) |author= La Marca, Enrique; Azevedo-Ramos, Claudia; Silvano, Débora; Coloma, Luis A.; Ron, Santiago; Hardy, Jerry; Beier, Manfred |year=2010 |work= IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Version 2012.1 |accessdate=August 24, 2012}}</ref> The granular poison frog (''Oophaga granulifera'') is typical of a number of tree frogs in the poison dart frog family [[Dendrobatidae]]. Its eggs are laid on the forest floor and when they hatch, the tadpoles are carried one by one on the back of an adult to a suitable water-filled crevice such as the [[wikt:axil|axil]] of a leaf or the [[Rosette (botany)|rosette]] of a [[Bromeliaceae|bromeliad]]. The female visits the nursery sites regularly and deposits unfertilised eggs in the water and these are consumed by the tadpoles.<ref>{{cite journal |author=van Wijngaarden, René; Bolaños, Federico |year=1992 |title=Parental care in ''Dendrobates granuliferus'' (Anura: Dendrobatidae), with a description of the tadpole |journal=Journal of Herpetology |volume=26 |issue=1 |pages=102–105 |jstor=1565037 |doi=10.2307/1565037 }}</ref> == Feeding and diet == [[File:Pacific brown salamander eating a worm.jpg|thumb|alt=Northwestern salamander|[[Northwestern salamander]] <br>(''Ambystoma gracile'') eating a worm]] With a few exceptions, adult amphibians are [[Predation|predators]], feeding on virtually anything that moves that they can swallow. The diet mostly consists of small prey that do not move too fast such as beetles, caterpillars, earthworms and spiders. The sirens (''[[Siren (genus)|Siren spp.]]'') often ingest aquatic plant material with the invertebrates on which they feed<ref>{{cite web |url=http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Siren_intermedia.html |title=''Siren intermedia'': Lesser Siren |author=Gabbard, Jesse |year=2000 |work=Animal Diversity Web |publisher=University of Michigan Museum of Zoology |accessdate=August 11, 2012}}</ref> and a Brazilian tree frog ''[[Xenohyla truncata]]'' includes a large quantity of fruit in its diet.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Da Silva, H. R.; De Britto-Pereira, M. C. |year=2006 |title=How much fruit do fruit-eating frogs eat? An investigation on the diet of ''Xenohyla truncata'' (Lissamphibia: Anura: Hylidae) |journal=Journal of Zoology |volume=270 |issue=4 |pages=692–698 |doi=10.1111/j.1469-7998.2006.00192.x }}</ref> The [[Mexican burrowing toad]] (''Rhinophrynus dorsalis'') has a specially adapted tongue for picking up ants and termites. It projects it with the tip foremost whereas other frogs flick out the rear part first, their tongues being hinged at the front.<ref>{{cite journal |author= Trueb, Linda; Gans, Carl |year=1983 |title=Feeding specializations of the Mexican burrowing toad, ''Rhinophrynus dorsalis'' (Anura: Rhinophrynidae) |journal=Journal of Zoology |volume=199 |issue=2 |pages=189–208 |doi=10.1111/j.1469-7998.1983.tb02090.x }}</ref> Food is mostly selected by sight, even in conditions of dim light. Movement of the prey triggers a feeding response. Frogs have been caught on fish hooks baited with red flannel and [[Rana clamitans|green frogs]] (''Rana clamitans'') have been found with stomachs full of elm seeds that they had seen floating past.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Hamilton, W. J. Jr. |year=1948 |title=The food and feeding behavior of the green frog, ''Rana clamitans'' Latreille, in New York State |journal=Copeia |volume=1948 |issue=3 |pages=203–207 |publisher=American Society of Ichthyologists and Herpetologists |jstor=1438455 |doi=10.2307/1438455 }}</ref> Toads, salamanders and caecilians also use smell to detect prey. This response is mostly secondary because salamanders have been observed to remain stationary near odoriferous prey but only feed if it moves. Cave-dwelling amphibians normally hunt by smell. Some salamanders seem to have learned to recognize immobile prey when it has no smell, even in complete darkness.{{sfn | Stebbins | Cohen | 1995 | p=56 }} Amphibians usually swallow food whole but may chew it lightly first to subdue it.<ref name="Collins" /> They typically have small hinged [[pedicellate teeth]], a feature unique to amphibians. The base and crown of these are composed of [[dentine]] separated by an [[Calcification|uncalcified]] layer and they are replaced at intervals. Salamanders, caecilians and some frogs have one or two rows of teeth in both jaws, but some frogs (''Rana spp.'') lack teeth in the lower jaw, and toads (''Bufo spp.'') have no teeth. In many amphibians there are also [[vomerine teeth]] attached to a facial bone in the roof of the mouth.{{sfn | Stebbins | Cohen | 1995 | pp=57–58 }} [[File:Teichfrosch isst teichfrosch.JPG|thumb|left|alt=Edible frog eating a fellow edible frog|[[Edible frog]] (''Pelophylax esculentus'') exhibiting [[Cannibalism (zoology)|cannibalism]]]] The [[tiger salamander]] (''Ambystoma tigrinum'') is typical of the frogs and salamanders that hide under cover ready to ambush unwary invertebrates. Others amphibians, such as the ''Bufo spp.'' toads, actively search for prey, while the [[Argentine horned frog]] (''Ceratophrys ornata'') lures inquisitive prey closer by raising its hind feet over its back and vibrating its yellow toes.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Radcliffe, Charles W.; Chiszar, David; Estep, Karen; Murphy, James B.; Smith, Hobart M. |year=1986 |title=Observations on pedal luring and pedal movements in Leptodactylid frogs |journal=Journal of Herpetology |volume=20 |issue=3 |pages=300–306 |jstor=1564496 |doi=10.2307/1564496 }}</ref> Among leaf litter frogs in Panama, frogs that actively hunt prey have narrow mouths and are slim, often brightly coloured and toxic, while ambushers have wide mouths and are broad and well-camouflaged.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Toft, Catherine A. |year=1981 |title=Feeding ecology of Panamanian litter anurans: patterns in diet and foraging mode |journal=Journal of Herpetology |volume=15 |issue=2 |pages=139–144 |jstor=1563372 |doi=10.2307/1563372 }}</ref> Caecilians do not flick their tongues, but catch their prey by grabbing it with their slightly backward-pointing teeth. The struggles of the prey and further jaw movements work it inwards and the caecilian usually retreats into its burrow. The subdued prey is gulped down whole.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Bemis, W. E.; Schwenk, K.; Wake, M. H. |year=1983 |title=Morphology and function of the feeding apparatus in ''Dermophis mexicanus'' (Amphibia: Gymnophiona) |journal=Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society |volume=77 |issue=1 |pages=75–96 |doi=10.1111/j.1096-3642.1983.tb01722.x }}</ref> When they are newly hatched, frog larvae feed on the yolk of the egg. When this is exhausted some move on to feed on bacteria, algal crusts, detritus and raspings from submerged plants. Water is drawn in through their mouths, which are usually at the bottom of their heads, and passes through branchial food traps between their mouths and their gills where fine particles are trapped in mucus and filtered out. Others have specialised mouthparts consisting of a horny beak edged by several rows of labial teeth. They scrape and bite food of many kinds as well as stirring up the bottom sediment, filtering out larger particles with the papillae around their mouths. Some, such as the spadefoot toads, have strong biting jaws and are carnivorous or even cannibalistic.{{sfn | Stebbins | Cohen | 1995 | pp=181–185 }} == Vocalization == [[File:Dendropsophus microcephalus - calling male (Cope, 1886).jpg|thumb|alt=Male treefrog calling|Male treefrog (''[[Dendropsophus microcephalus]]'') inflating his air sac as he calls]] The calls made by caecilians and salamanders are limited to occasional soft squeaks, grunts or hisses and have not been much studied. A clicking sound sometimes produced by caecilians may be a means of orientation, as in bats, or a form of communication. Most salamanders are considered voiceless, but the [[California giant salamander]] (''Dicamptodon ensatus'') has vocal cords and can produce a rattling or barking sound. Some species of salamander emit a quiet squeak or yelp if attacked.{{sfn | Stebbins | Cohen | 1995 | pp=76–77 }} [[File:American Toad singing.jpg|thumb|American toad, (''[[Anaxyrus americanus]]'') singing]] Frogs are much more vocal, especially during the breeding season when they use their voices to attract mates. The presence of a particular species in an area may be more easily discerned by its characteristic call than by a fleeting glimpse of the animal itself. In most species, the sound is produced by expelling air from the lungs over the vocal cords into an [[Gular skin|air sac]] or sacs in the throat or at the corner of the mouth. This may distend like a balloon and acts as a resonator, helping to transfer the sound to the atmosphere, or the water at times when the animal is submerged.{{sfn | Stebbins | Cohen | 1995 | pp=76–77 }} The main vocalisation is the male's loud advertisement call which seeks to both encourage a female to approach and discourage other males from intruding on its territory. This call is modified to a quieter courtship call on the approach of a female or to a more aggressive version if a male intruder draws near. Calling carries the risk of attracting predators and involves the expenditure of much energy.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Sullivan, Brian K. |year=1992 |title=Sexual selection and calling behavior in the American toad (''Bufo americanus'') |journal=Copeia |volume=1992 |issue=1 |pages=1–7 |jstor=1446530 |doi=10.2307/1446530 }}</ref> Other calls include those given by a female in response to the advertisement call and a release call given by a male or female during unwanted attempts at amplexus. When a frog is attacked, a distress or fright call is emitted, often resembling a scream.<ref>{{Cite thesis |chapter=Capitulo 4 |title=When frogs scream! A review of anuran defensive vocalizations |url=http://www.athena.biblioteca.unesp.br/exlibris/bd/brc/33004137003P3/2007/pereira_lftr_dr_rcla.pdf#page=110 |author=Toledo, L. F.; Haddad, C. F. B. |year=2007 |publisher=Instituto de Biociências, São Paulo }}</ref> The usually nocturnal Cuban tree frog (''Osteopilus septentrionalis'') produces a rain call when there is rainfall during daylight hours.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/uw259 |title=The Cuban Treefrog (''Osteopilus septentrionalis'') in Florida |author=Johnson, Steve A. |year=2010 |work=EDIS |publisher=University of Florida |accessdate=August 13, 2012}}</ref> == Territorial behaviour == Little is known of the territorial behaviour of caecilians, but some frogs and salamanders defend home ranges. These are usually feeding, breeding or sheltering sites. Males normally exhibit such behaviour though in some species, females and even juveniles are also involved. Although in many frog species, females are larger than males, this is not the case in most species where males are actively involved in territorial defence. Some of these have specific adaptations such as enlarged teeth for biting or spines on the chest, arms or thumbs.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Shine, Richard |year=1979 |title=Sexual selection and sexual dimorphism in the Amphibia |journal=Copeia |volume=1979 |issue=2 |pages=297–306 |jstor=1443418 |doi=10.2307/1443418 }}</ref> [[File:Redback salamander.jpg|thumb|left|alt=Red-backed salamander|The red back salamander (''[[Plethodon cinereus]]'') defends a territory against intruders.]] In salamanders, defence of a territory involves adopting an aggressive posture and if necessary attacking the intruder. This may involve snapping, chasing and sometimes biting, occasionally causing the loss of a tail. The behaviour of [[red back salamander]]s (''Plethodon cinereus'') has been much studied. 91% of marked individuals that were later recaptured were within a metre (yard) of their original daytime retreat under a log or rock.<ref name="Gergits">{{cite journal | author= Gergits, W. F.; Jaeger, R. G. | year=1990 | title=Site attachment by the red-backed salamander, ''Plethodon cinereus'' | journal=Journal of Herpetology | volume=24 | issue=1 | pages=91–93 | jstor=1564297 | doi=10.2307/1564297 }}</ref> A similar proportion, when moved experimentally a distance of {{convert|30|m}}, found their way back to their home base.<ref name="Gergits"/> The salamanders left odour marks around their territories which averaged {{convert|0.16|to|0.33|m2}} in size and were sometimes inhabited by a male and female pair.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://amphibiaweb.org/cgi-bin/amphib_query?query_src=aw_search_index&where-genus=Plethodon&where-species=cinereus&rel-genus=equals&rel-species=equals|title=''Plethodon cinereus'' |author=Casper, Gary S |publisher=AmphibiaWeb |accessdate=September 25, 2012}}</ref> These deterred the intrusion of others and delineated the boundaries between neighbouring areas. Much of their behaviour seemed stereotyped and did not involve any actual contact between individuals. An aggressive posture involved raising the body off the ground and glaring at the opponent who often turned away submissively. If the intruder persisted, a biting lunge was usually launched at either the tail region or the naso-labial grooves. Damage to either of these areas can reduce the fitness of the rival, either because of the need to regenerate tissue or because it impairs its ability to detect food.<ref name="Gergits" /> In frogs, male territorial behaviour is often observed at breeding locations; calling is both an announcement of ownership of part of this resource and an advertisement call to potential mates. In general, a deeper voice represents a heavier and more powerful individual, and this may be sufficient to prevent intrusion by smaller males. Much energy is used in the vocalization and it takes a toll on the territory holder who may be displaced by a fitter rival if he tires. There is a tendency for males to tolerate the holders of neighbouring territories while vigorously attacking unknown intruders. Holders of territories have a "home advantage" and usually come off better in an encounter between two similar-sized frogs. If threats are insufficient, chest to chest tussles may take place. Fighting methods include pushing and shoving, deflating the opponent's vocal sac, seizing him by the head, jumping on his back, biting, chasing, splashing, and ducking him under the water.<ref>{{cite journal | author=Wells, K. D. | year=1977 | title=Territoriality and male mating success in the green frog (''Rana clamitans'') | journal=Ecology | volume=58 | issue=4 | pages=750–762 | jstor=1936211 | doi=10.2307/1936211 }}</ref> == Defence mechanisms == [[File:Adult Cane toad.jpg|thumb|alt=Cane toad|[[Cane toad]] (''Bufo marinus'') with poison glands behind the eyes]] Amphibians have soft bodies with thin skins, and lack claws, defensive armour, or spines. Nevertheless, they have evolved various defence mechanisms to keep themselves alive. The first line of defence in salamanders and frogs is the mucous secretion that they produce. This keeps their skin moist and makes them slippery and difficult to grip. The secretion is often sticky and distasteful or toxic.<ref name="Barthalmus">{{cite journal |author=Barthalmus, G. T.; Zielinski W. J. |year=1988 |title=''Xenopus'' skin mucus induces oral dyskinesias that promote escape from snakes |journal=Pharmacology, Biochemistry Behavior |volume=30 |issue=4 |pages=957–959 |pmid=3227042 |doi=10.1016/0091-3057(88)90126-8 }}</ref> Snakes have been observed yawning and gaping when trying to swallow [[African clawed frog]]s (''Xenopus laevis''), which gives the frogs an opportunity to escape.<ref name="Barthalmus" /><ref>{{cite web | url=http://amphibiaweb.org/cgi/amphib_query?where-genus=Xenopus&where-species=laevis |title=Xenopus laevis | author = Crayon, John J | publisher=AmphibiaWeb | accessdate=October 8, 2012 }}</ref> Caecilians have been little studied in this respect, but the Cayenne caecilian (''Typhlonectes compressicauda'') produces toxic mucus that has killed predatory fish in a feeding experiment in Brazil.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Moodie, G. E. E. |year=1978 |title=Observations on the life history of the caecilian ''Typhlonectes compressicaudus'' (Dumeril and Bibron) in the Amazon basin |journal=Canadian Journal of Zoology |volume=56 |issue=4 |pages=1005–1008 |doi=10.1139/z78-141 }}</ref> In some salamanders, the skin is poisonous. The [[rough-skinned newt]] (''Taricha granulosa'') from North America and other members of its genus contain the neurotoxin [[tetrodotoxin]] (TTX), the most toxic non-protein substance known and almost identical to that produced by [[pufferfish]]. Handling the newts does not cause harm, but ingestion of even the most minute amounts of the skin is deadly. In feeding trials, fish, frogs, reptiles, birds and mammals were all found to be susceptible.<ref>{{cite journal |author= Brodie, Edmund D. Jr. |year=1968 |title=Investigations on the skin toxin of the adult rough-skinned newt, ''Taricha granulosa'' |journal=Copeia |volume=1968 |issue=2 |pages=307–313 |jstor=1441757 |doi= 10.2307/1441757 }}</ref><ref name=Hanifin>{{cite journal |author=Hanifin, Charles T.; Yotsu-Yamashita, Mari; Yasumoto, Takeshi; Brodie, Edmund D.; Brodie, Edmund D. Jr. |year=1999 |title=Toxicity of dangerous prey: variation of tetrodotoxin levels within and among populations of the newt ''Taricha granulosa'' |journal=Journal of Chemical Ecology |volume=25 |issue=9 |pages=2161–2175 |doi=10.1023/A:1021049125805 }}</ref> The only predators with some tolerance to the poison are certain populations of [[Common Garter Snake|common garter snake]] (''Thamnophis sirtalis''). In locations where both snake and salamander co-exist, the snakes have developed immunity through genetic changes and they feed on the amphibians with impunity.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Geffeney, Shana L.; Fujimoto, Esther; Brodie, Edmund D.; Brodie, Edmund D. Jr.; Ruben, Peter C. |year=2005 |title=Evolutionary diversification of TTX-resistant sodium channels in a predator–prey interaction |journal=Nature |volume=434 |pages=759–763 |doi=10.1038/nature03444 |issue=7034 |pmid=15815629 |bibcode=2005Natur.434..759G }}</ref> [[Coevolution]] occurs with the newt increasing its toxic capabilities at the same rate as the snake further develops its immunity.<ref name=Hanifin/> Some frogs and toads are toxic, the main poison glands being at the side of the neck and under the warts on the back. These regions are presented to the attacking animal and their secretions may be foul-tasting or cause various physical or neurological symptoms. Altogether, over 200 toxins have been isolated from the limited number of amphibian species that have been investigated.{{sfn | Stebbins | Cohen | 1995 | p=110 }} [[File:Salamander-olympus.jpg|thumb|left|alt=Fire salamander|The [[fire salamander]] (''Salamandra salamandra''), a toxic species, wears warning colours.]] [[File:Schrecklicherpfeilgiftfrosch-01.jpg|thumb|left|Perhaps the most poisonous animal in the world, the [[golden poison frog]] ''Phyllobates terribilis'' is endemic to [[Colombia]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Patocka |first1=Jiri |last2=Wulff |first2=Kräuff |last3=Palomeque |first3=MaríaVictoria |year=1999 |title=Dart Poison Frogs and Their Toxins |journal=ASA Newsletter |volume=5 |issue=75 |issn=1057-9419 |url=http://www.asanltr.com/ASANews-99/995frogs.htm |accessdate=January 29, 2013}}</ref>]] Poisonous species often use bright colouring to warn potential predators of their toxicity. These warning colours tend to be red or yellow combined with black, with the [[fire salamander]] (''Salamandra salamandra'') being an example. Once a predator has sampled one of these, it is likely to remember the colouration next time it encounters a similar animal. In some species, such as the [[fire-bellied toad]] (''Bombina spp.''), the warning colouration is on the belly and these animals adopt a defensive pose when attacked, exhibiting their bright colours to the predator. The frog ''[[Allobates zaparo]]'' is not poisonous, but [[Batesian mimicry|mimics]] the appearance of other toxic species in its locality, a strategy that may deceive predators.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Darst, Catherine R.; Cummings, Molly E. |year=2006 |title=Predator learning favours mimicry of a less-toxic model in poison frogs |journal=Nature |volume=440 |pages=208–211 |doi=10.1038/nature04297 |issue=7081 |pmid=16525472 |bibcode=2006Natur.440..208D }}</ref> Many amphibians are nocturnal and hide during the day, thereby avoiding diurnal predators that hunt by sight. Other amphibians use [[camouflage]] to avoid being detected. They have various colourings such as mottled browns, greys and olives to blend into the background. Some salamanders adopt defensive poses when faced by a potential predator such as the North American [[northern short-tailed shrew]] (''Blarina brevicauda''). Their bodies writhe and they raise and lash their tails which makes it difficult for the predator to avoid contact with their poison-producing granular glands.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Brodie, Edmund D. Jr.; Nowak, Robert T.; Harvey, William R. |year=1979 |title=Antipredator secretions and behavior of selected salamanders against shrews |journal=Copeia |volume=1979 |issue=2 |pages=270–274 |jstor=1443413 |doi=10.2307/1443413 }}</ref> A few salamanders will autotomise their tails when attacked, sacrificing this part of their anatomy to enable them to escape. The tail may have a constriction at its base to allow it to be easily detached. The tail is regenerated later, but the energy cost to the animal of replacing it is significant.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Beneski, John T. Jr. |year=1989 |title=Adaptive significance of tail autotomy in the Salamander, ''Ensatina'' |journal=Journal of Herpetology |volume=23 |issue=3 |pages=322–324 |jstor=156446 |doi=10.2307/1564465 }}</ref> Some frogs and toads inflate themselves to make themselves look large and fierce, and some spadefoot toads (''[[Pelobates]] spp'') scream and leap towards the attacker.<ref name="Collins" /> Giant salamanders of the genus ''[[Andrias]]'', as well as [[Ceratophryinae|Ceratophrine]] and ''[[Pyxicephalus]]'' frogs possess sharp teeth and are capable of drawing blood with a defensive bite. The [[blackbelly salamander]] (''Desmognathus quadramaculatus'') can bite an attacking common garter snake (''Thamnophis sirtalis'') two or three times its size on the head and often manages to escape.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Brodie, E. D. Jr. |year=1978 |title=Biting and vocalisation as antipredator mechanisms in terrestrial salamanders |journal=Copeia |volume=1978 |issue=1 |pages=127–129 |jstor=1443832 |doi=10.2307/1443832 }}</ref> == Cognition == In amphibians, there is evidence of [[habituation]], [[associative learning]] through both [[Classical conditioning|classical]] and [[instrumental learning]], and discrimination abilities.<ref>{{cite book|author=Hloch, A.|year=2010|title=What Does a Salamander Remember After Winter?|publisher=University of Vienna. Fakultät für Lebenswissenschaften|url=http://othes.univie.ac.at/11007/1/2010-09-03_0400713.pdf}}</ref> In one experiment, when offered live fruit flies (''[[Drosophila]] virilis''), salamanders choose the larger of 1 vs 2 and 2 vs 3. Frogs can distinguish between low numbers (1 vs 2, 2 vs 3, but not 3 vs 4) and large numbers (3 vs 6, 4 vs 8, but not 4 vs 6) of prey. This is irrespective of other characteristics, i.e. surface area, volume, weight and movement, although discrimination among large numbers may be based on surface area.<ref name="Stancher">{{cite journal|author=Stancher, G., Rugani, R., Regolin, L. and Vallortigara, G.|year=2015|title=Numerical discrimination by frogs (Bombina orientalis)|journal=Animal Cognition|volume=18|issue=1|pages=219–229|doi=10.1007/s10071-014-0791-7}}</ref> == Conservation == {{main|Decline in amphibian populations}} [[File:Bufo periglenes1.jpg|thumb|alt=Golden toad|The extinct [[golden toad]] (''Bufo periglenes''), last seen in 1989]] Dramatic declines in amphibian populations, including population crashes and mass localized [[extinction]], have been noted since the late 1980s from locations all over the world, and amphibian declines are thus perceived to be one of the most critical threats to global [[biodiversity]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=McCallum |first1= M. L. |year=2007 |title=Amphibian decline or extinction? Current declines dwarf background extinction rate |journal=Journal of Herpetology|volume=41 |issue=3 |pages=483–491 |doi= 10.1670/0022-1511(2007)41[483:ADOECD]2.0.CO;2 |url= https://www.herpconbio.org/~herpconb/McCallum/amphibian%20extinctions.pdf}}</ref> In 2004, the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) reported stating that currently birds,<ref>{{cite web|title=What does it mean to be human?|url=http://humanorigins.si.edu/human-characteristics/change|publisher=Smithsonian National Museum of Natural History|accessdate=November 19, 2013}}</ref> mammals, and amphibians extinction rates were at minimum 48 times greater than natural extinction rates—possibly 1,024 times higher. In 2006 there were believed to be 4,035 species of amphibians that depended on water at some stage during their life cycle. Of these, 1,356 (33.6%) were considered to be threatened and this figure is likely to be an underestimate because it excludes 1,427 species for which there was insufficient data to assess their status.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://app.databasin.org/app/pages/datasetPage.jsp?id=461e58214aa54ad79382066ab829c05f |title=Number of Globally Threatened Amphibian Species by Freshwater Ecoregion |author=Hoekstra, J. M.; Molnar, J. L.; Jennings, M.; Revenga, C.; Spalding, M. D.; Boucher, T. M.; Robertson, J. C.; Heibel, T. J.; Ellison, K. |year=2010 |work=The Atlas of Global Conservation: Changes, Challenges, and Opportunities to Make a Difference |publisher=The Nature Conservancy |accessdate=September 5, 2012}}</ref> A number of causes are believed to be involved, including [[habitat destruction]] and modification, [[over-exploitation]], pollution, [[introduced species]], [[climate change]], endocrine-disrupting pollutants, destruction of the [[ozone layer]] (ultraviolet radiation has shown to be especially damaging to the skin, eyes, and eggs of amphibians), and diseases like [[chytridiomycosis]]. However, many of the causes of amphibian declines are still poorly understood, and are a topic of ongoing discussion.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.amphibians.org/ |title=Amphibian Specialist Group |publisher=IUCN SSC Amphibian Specialist Group |accessdate=March 30, 2012}}</ref> [[File:Israel painted frog.JPG|thumb|left|alt=Hula painted frog|The [[Hula painted frog]] (''Discoglossus nigriventer'') was believed to be extinct but was rediscovered in 2011.]] With their complex reproductive needs and permeable skins, amphibians are often considered to be [[ecological indicator]]s.<ref name="Waddle">{{Cite thesis |type=Ph.D. |chapter= |title=Use of amphibians as ecosystem indicator species |url=http://etd.fcla.edu/UF/UFE0016760/waddle_j.pdf |last=Waddle |first=James Hardin |year=2006 |publisher=University of Florida }}</ref> In many terrestrial ecosystems, they constitute one of the largest parts of the vertebrate biomass. Any decline in amphibian numbers will have an impact on the patterns of predation. The loss of carnivorous species near the top of the food chain will upset the delicate ecosystem balance and may cause dramatic increases in opportunistic species. In the Middle East, a growing appetite for eating frog legs and the consequent gathering of them for food was linked to an increase in [[mosquito]]es.<ref>{{Cite book| last1 = Regier| first1 = Henry A. | last2 = Baskerville | first2 = Gordon, L. | title = Sustainable redevelopment of regional ecosystems degraded by exploitive development | chapter = Sustainability Issues for Resource Managers | publisher = DIANE Publishing | pages = 36–38 | year = 1996 | isbn = 978-0-7881-4699-2 | url = https://books.google.com/?id=e66hatcSAsUC&pg=PA21&dq=Sustainable+redevelopment+of+regional+ecosystems+degraded+by#v=onepage&q=Sustainable%20redevelopment%20of%20regional%20ecosystems%20degraded%20by&f=false }}</ref> Predators that feed on amphibians are affected by their decline. The [[western terrestrial garter snake]] (''Thamnophis elegans'') in California is largely aquatic and depends heavily on two species of frog that are diminishing in numbers, the [[Yosemite toad]] (''Bufo canorus'') and the [[mountain yellow-legged frog]] (''Rana muscosa''), putting the snake's future at risk. If the snake were to become scarce, this would affect birds of prey and other predators that feed on it.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Jennings, W. Bryan; Bradford, David F.; Johnson, Dale F. |year=1992 |title=Dependence of the garter snake ''Thamnophis elegans'' on amphibians in the Sierra Nevada of California |journal=Journal of Herpetology |volume=26 |issue=4 |pages=503–505 |jstor=1565132 |doi=10.2307/1565132 }}</ref> Meanwhile, in the ponds and lakes, fewer frogs means fewer tadpoles. These normally play an important role in controlling the growth of algae and also forage on [[detritus]] that accumulates as sediment on the bottom. A reduction in the number of tadpoles may lead to an overgrowth of algae, resulting in depletion of oxygen in the water when the algae later die and decompose. Aquatic invertebrates and fish might then die and there would be unpredictable ecological consequences.{{sfn | Stebbins | Cohen | 1995 | p=249 }} A [[global strategy]] to stem the crisis was released in 2005 in the form of the Amphibian Conservation Action Plan. Developed by over eighty leading experts in the field, this call to action details what would be required to curtail amphibian declines and extinctions over the following five years and how much this would cost. The Amphibian Specialist Group of the World Conservation Union ([[IUCN]]) is spearheading efforts to implement a comprehensive global strategy for amphibian conservation.<ref name="AmphibianArk">{{cite web |url=http://www.iucn.org/about/union/secretariat/offices/asia/regional_activities/asian_amphibian_crisis/taking_action/amphibian_conservation_action_plan/ |title=Amphibian Conservation Action Plan |work=IUCN |accessdate=March 30, 2012}}</ref> [[Amphibian Ark]] is an organization that was formed to implement the ex-situ conservation recommendations of this plan, and they have been working with zoos and aquaria around the world, encouraging them to create assurance colonies of threatened amphibians.<ref name="AmphibianArk" /> One such project is the Panama Amphibian Rescue and Conservation Project that built on existing conservation efforts in Panama to create a country-wide response to the threat of chytridiomycosis.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://amphibianrescue.org/?page_id=91 |title=Panama Amphibian Rescue and Conservation Project |publisher=Amphibian Ark |accessdate=March 30, 2012}}</ref> == See also == * [[List of amphibians]] * [[List of threatened reptiles and amphibians of the United States]] == References == {{Reflist|26em}} === Cited texts === * {{cite book |title=Zoology |last1=Dorit |first1=R. L. |last2=Walker |first2=W. F. |last3=Barnes |first3=R. D. |year=1991 |publisher=Saunders College Publishing |isbn=978-0-03-030504-7 |ref=harv }} * {{cite book |title=A Natural History of Amphibians |last1=Stebbins |first1=Robert C. |authorlink1=Robert C. Stebbins|last2=Cohen |first2=Nathan W. |year=1995 |publisher=Princeton University Press |isbn=978-0-691-03281-8 |url=https://books.google.com/?id=0v47ou53yVsC&pg=PR11&dq=Caudata+Urodela#v=onepage&q=Caudata%20Urodela&f=false |ref=harv }} == Further reading == * {{cite book | last = Carroll | first = Robert L. | title = Vertebrate Paleontology and Evolution | year = 1988 | publisher = W. H. Freeman | isbn = 978-0-7167-1822-2 }} * {{cite book | last = Carroll | first = Robert L. | title = The Rise of Amphibians: 365 Million Years of Evolution | year = 2009 | publisher = Johns Hopkins University Press | isbn = 978-0-8018-9140-3 }} * {{cite book | last = Duellman | first = William E. |author2=Linda Trueb | title = Biology of Amphibians | year = 1994 | publisher = Johns Hopkins University Press | isbn = 978-0-8018-4780-6 }} * {{cite journal | last1 = Frost | first1 = Darrel R. | title = The Amphibian Tree of Life | id = {{hdl|2246/5781}} | journal = Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural History | volume = 297 | pages = 1–291 | year = 2006 | last2 = Grant | first2 = Taran | last3 = Faivovich | first3 = Julián | last4 = Bain | first4 = Raoul H. | last5 = Haas | first5 = Alexander | last6 = Haddad |first6 = Célio F.B. | last7 = De Sá | first7 = Rafael O. | last8 = Channing | first8 = Alan | last9 = Wilkinson | first9 = Mark | last10 = Donnellan | first10 = Stephen C. | last11 = Raxworthy | first11 = Christopher J. | last12 = Campbell | first12 = Jonathan A. | last13 = Blotto | first13 = Boris L. | last14 = Moler | first14 = Paul | last15 = Drewes | first15 = Robert C. | last16 = Nussbaum |first16 = Ronald A. | last17 = Lynch | first17 = John D. | last18 = Green | first18 = David M. | last19 = Wheeler | first19 = Ward C. | doi = 10.1206/0003-0090(2006)297[0001:TATOL]2.0.CO;2 }} * {{cite journal | last1 = Pounds | first1 = J. Alan | title = Widespread amphibian extinctions from epidemic disease driven by global warming | journal = Nature | volume = 439 | issue = 7073 | pages = 161–167 | year = 2006 | pmid = 16407945 | doi = 10.1038/nature04246 | last2 = Bustamante | first2 = Martín R. | last3 = Coloma | first3 = Luis A. | last4 = Consuegra | first4 = Jamie A. | last5 = Fogden | first5 = Michael P. L. | last6 = Foster | first6 = Pru N. | last7 = La Marca | first7 = Enrique | last8 = Masters | first8 = Karen L. | last9 = Merino-Viteri | first9 = Andrés | last10 = Puschendorf | first10 = Robert | last11 = Ron | first11 = Santiago R. | last12 = Sánchez-Azofeifa | first12 = G. Arturo | last13 = Still | first13 = Christopher J. | last14 = Young | first14 = Bruce E. | bibcode = 2006Natur.439..161A }} * {{cite journal | last1 = Stuart | first1 = Simon N. | last2 = Chanson | first2 = Janice S. | last3 = Cox | first3 = Neil A. | last4 = Young | first4 = Bruce E. | last5 = Rodrigues | first5 = Ana S. L. | last6 = Fischman | first6 = Debra L. | last7 = Waller | first7 = Robert W. | title = Status and trends of amphibian declines and extinctions worldwide | journal = Science | volume = 306 | issue = 5702 | pages = 1783–1786 | year = 2004 | doi = 10.1126/science.1103538 | pmid = 15486254 | bibcode = 2004Sci...306.1783S }} * {{cite book | editors = Stuart, S. N.; Hoffmann, M.; Chanson, J. S.; Cox, N. A.; Berridge, R. J.; Ramani, P.; Young, B. E. | title = Threatened Amphibians of the World | publisher = Published by [[Lynx Edicions]], in association with [[IUCN-The World Conservation Union]], [[Conservation International]] and [[NatureServe]]. | year = 2008 | isbn = 978-84-96553-41-5 | url = http://www.amphibians.org/publications/threatened-amphibians-of-the-world/ }} == External links == {{Commons category|Amphibia}} {{Wikispecies|Amphibia}} {{Wikibooks|Dichotomous Key|Amphibia}} * [http://www.animalspot.net/category/amphibians Amphibians] – AnimalSpot.net * [http://photos.archeozoo.org/index/category/54-amphibiens_langen_amphibians_lang_langes_anfibios_lang_?lang=en_UK ArchéoZooThèque : Amphibians skeletons drawings] : available in vector, image and PDF formats * [http://www.amphibians.org/ Amphibian Specialist Group] * [http://www.amphibianark.org/ Amphibian Ark] * [http://www.amphibiaweb.org/ AmphibiaWeb] * [http://www.globalamphibians.org/ Global Amphibian Assessment] * [http://sounds.bl.uk/Browse.aspx?category=Environment&collection=Amphibians Amphibian vocalisations on Archival Sound Recordings] {{Amphibians}} {{Chordata}} {{Featured article}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Amphibians| ]] [[Category:Amphibious organisms]] <!-- [[Category:Animal classes]] moved to Latin name redirect --> [[Category:Extant Late Devonian first appearances]] snmx7wdh2o3hpvd3u0skvyn12gqak0g 0 622 474180759 179567488 2012-01-31T08:56:09Z 96.251.199.116 wikitext text/x-wiki #REDIRECT [[Al Gore]] fg41brd0hupt0bisglocp3dz06qqcfz 0 624 716097300 715775558 2016-04-19T21:42:01Z HolyT 1717800 Simplified and clarified awkward syntax in lede; made it sound like Russia has a border to the west. Write plainly, not fancy! wikitext text/x-wiki {{About|the U.S. state of Alaska}} {{Redirect|Alaskan}} {{pp-semi|small=yes}} {{pp-move-indef}} {{Use mdy dates|date=February 2015}} {{Coord|64|N|150|W|region:US-AK_type:adm1st_scale:10000000|display=title|notes=<ref>{{Cite gnis|1785533|State of Alaska}}</ref>}} {{Infobox U.S. state |Name = Alaska |Fullname = State of Alaska |Flag = Flag of Alaska.svg |Flaglink = [[Flag of Alaska|Flag]] |Seal = Alaska-StateSeal.svg |Former = Territory of Alaska |Map = Alaska in United States (US50).svg |Motto = North to the Future |Nickname = The Last Frontier |StateAnthem = [[Alaska's Flag]] |Demonym = [[List of demonyms for U.S. states|Alaskan]] |Capital = [[Juneau, Alaska|Juneau]] |OfficialLang = [[English language|English]], [[Inupiaq language|Inupiaq]], [[Central Siberian Yupik language|Siberian Yupik]], [[Central Alaskan Yup'ik language|Central Alaskan Yup'ik]], [[Alutiiq language|Alutiiq]], [[Aleut language|Unangan]], [[Dena'ina language|Dena'ina]], [[Deg Xinag language|Deg Xinag]], [[Holikachuk language|Holikachuk]], [[Koyukon language|Koyukon]], [[Upper Kuskokwim language|Upper Kuskokwim]], [[Gwich’in language|Gwich'in]], [[Lower Tanana language|Tanana]], [[Upper Tanana language|Upper Tanana]], [[Tanacross language|Tanacross]], [[Hän language|Hän]], [[Ahtna language|Ahtna]], [[Eyak language|Eyak]], [[Tlingit language|Tlingit]], [[Haida language|Haida]], [[Tsimshian language|Tsimshian]]<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.ktoo.org/2014/10/24/forbidden-alaskas-native-languages-now-official-state-languages/ | title=Once forbidden, Alaska's Native languages now official state languages | publisher=KTOO | date=October 24, 2014 | accessdate=October 25, 2014}}</ref> |Languages = [[English language|English]] 89.7%<br />Native ([[Eskimo–Aleut languages|Eskimo–Aleut]] and [[Na-Dene languages]]) 5.2%<br />[[Spanish language|Spanish]] 2.9% |LargestCity = [[Anchorage, Alaska|Anchorage]] |Governor = [[Bill Walker (American politician)|Bill Walker]] ([[Independent politician|I]]) |Lieutenant Governor = [[Byron Mallott]] ([[Democratic Party (United States)|D]]) |Legislature = [[Alaska Legislature]] |Upperhouse = [[Alaska Senate|Senate]] |Lowerhouse = [[Alaska House of Representatives|House of Representatives]] |Senators = [[Lisa Murkowski]] ([[Republican Party (United States)|R]])<br /> [[Dan Sullivan (U.S. Senator)|Dan Sullivan]] ([[Republican Party (United States)|R]]) |Representative = [[Don Young]] ([[Republican Party (United States)|R]]) ([[Alaska's at-large congressional district|at-large]]) |PostalAbbreviation = AK |AreaRank = 1st |TotalArea = 1,717,856 |TotalAreaUS = 663,268 |LandArea = 1,481,346 |LandAreaUS = 571,951 |WaterArea = 236,507 |WaterAreaUS = 91,316 |PCWater = 13.77 |PopRank = 48th |2010Pop = 738,432 (2015 est)<ref name=PopEstUS/> |DensityRank = 50th |2000Density = 0.49 |2000DensityUS = 1.26 |MedianHouseholdIncome = US$64,333 |IncomeRank = 4th |AdmittanceOrder = 49th |AdmittanceDate = January 3, 1959 |TimeZone = [[Alaska Time Zone|Alaska]]: [[Coordinated Universal Time|UTC]] [[Alaska Standard Time|-9]]/[[Alaska Daylight Time|-8]] |TZ1Where = east of 169° 30' |TimeZone2 = [[Hawaii-Aleutian Time Zone|Aleutian]]: [[Coordinated Universal Time|UTC]] [[Hawaii-Aleutian Standard Time|-10]]/[[Hawaii-Aleutian Daylight Time|-9]] |TZ2Where = west of 169° 30' |Latitude = 51°20'N to 71°50'N |Longitude = 130°W to 172°E |Width = 3,639 |WidthUS = 2,261 |Length = 2,285 |LengthUS = 1,420 |HighestPoint = [[Denali]] (Mount McKinley)<ref name=USGS>{{cite web|url=http://egsc.usgs.gov/isb/pubs/booklets/elvadist/elvadist.html|title=Elevations and Distances in the United States|publisher=[[United States Geological Survey]]|year=2001|accessdate=October 21, 2011}}</ref> |HighestElev = 6190.5 |HighestElevUS = 20,310 |MeanElev = 580 |MeanElevUS = 1900 |LowestPoint = |LowestElev = 0 |LowestElevUS = 0 |ISOCode = US-AK |Website = www.alaska.gov }} '''Alaska''' ({{IPAc-en|audio=en-us-Alaska.ogg|ə|ˈ|l|æ|s|k|ə}}) is a [[U.S. state]] situated in the northwest extremity of the [[Americas]]. The [[Provinces and territories of Canada|Canadian administrative divisions]] of [[British Columbia]] and [[Yukon]] border the state to the east; it has a maritime border with [[Russia]] to the west across the [[Bering Strait]]. To the north are the [[Chukchi Sea|Chukchi]] and [[Beaufort Sea]]s, the southern parts of the [[Arctic Ocean]]. The [[Pacific Ocean]] lies to the south and southwest. Alaska is the [[List of U.S. states and territories by area|largest state]] in the [[United States]] by area, the [[List of U.S. states and territories by population|3rd least populous]] and the [[List of U.S. states and territories by population density|least densely populated]] of the [[List of U.S. states|50 United States]]. Approximately half of Alaska's residents (the total estimated at 738,432 by the Census Bureau in 2015<ref name=PopEstUS/>) live within the [[Anchorage metropolitan area]]. Alaska's economy is dominated by the [[fishing]], [[natural gas]], and [[petroleum|oil]] industries, resources which it has in abundance. [[United States Armed Forces|Military]] bases and tourism are also a significant part of the [[Economy of Alaska|economy]]. The United States [[Alaska Purchase|purchased Alaska]] from the [[Russian Empire]] on March 30, 1867, for 7.2&nbsp;million U.S. dollars at approximately two cents per acre ($4.74/km<sup>2</sup>). The area went through several administrative changes before becoming organized as a [[Territories of the United States|territory]] on May 11, 1912. It was admitted as the 49th state of the U.S. on January 3, 1959.<ref>{{cite AV media| year =1959| title =Video: 49th Star. Alaska Statehood, New Flag, Official, 1959/01/05 (1959)| url =https://archive.org/details/1959-01-05_49th_Star_Alaska_Statehood| publisher =[[Universal Newsreel]]| accessdate =February 20, 2012}}</ref> ==Etymology== The name "Alaska" (Аляска) was introduced in the [[Russian America|Russian colonial period]] when it was used to refer to the [[Alaska Peninsula|peninsula]]. It was derived from an [[Aleut language|Aleut]], or [[Unangam]] [[idiom]], which figuratively refers to the mainland of Alaska. Literally, it means ''object to which the action of the sea is directed''.<ref name=Aleut>{{cite book|title=Aleut Dictionary: Unangam Tunudgusii|author=Bergsland, Knut (ed.)|publisher=Alaska Native Language Center|year=1994|isbn=1-55500-047-9}}, at pp. 49 (Alaxsxi-x = mainland Alaska), 50 (''alagu-x'' = ''sea''), 508 (''-gi'' = suffix, ''object of its action'').</ref><ref name=Bright>{{cite book|title=Native American Placenames in the United States|author=Bright, William|publisher=University of Oklahoma Press|year=2007|isbn=978-0806135984}}</ref><ref>Ransom, J. Ellis. 1940. "Derivation of the Word "Alaska", " ''American Anthropologist'' n.s., 42: pp. 550–551</ref> It is also known as ''Alyeska,'' the "great land", an Aleut word derived from the same root. ==Geography== {{Main|Geography of Alaska}} Alaska is the northernmost and westernmost state in the United States and has the most easterly longitude in the United States because the [[Aleutian Islands]] extend into the [[eastern hemisphere]]. Alaska is the only non-[[contiguous]] U.S. state on continental North America; about {{convert|500|mi|km|-1}} of [[British Columbia]] (Canada) separates Alaska from [[Washington (state)|Washington]]. It is technically part of the [[Continental United States|continental U.S.]], but is sometimes not included in colloquial use; Alaska is not part of the contiguous U.S., often called [[Outside (Alaska)|"the Lower 48"]]. The capital city, [[Juneau]], is situated on the mainland of the North American continent but is not connected by road to the rest of the North American highway system. The state is bordered by [[Yukon]] and [[British Columbia]] in Canada, to the east, the [[Gulf of Alaska]] and the Pacific Ocean to the south, the [[Bering Sea]], [[Bering Strait]], and [[Chukchi Sea]] to the west and the [[Arctic Ocean]] to the north. Alaska's territorial waters touch Russia's territorial waters in the Bering Strait, as the Russian [[Big Diomede Island]] and Alaskan [[Little Diomede Island]] are only {{convert|3|mi|km}} apart. Alaska has a longer coastline than all the other U.S. states combined.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.gi.alaska.edu/ScienceForum/ASF14/1404.html |title=Alaska's Size in Perspective |accessdate=November 19, 2007 |author=Benson, Carl|date=September 2, 1998 |publisher=[[Geophysical Institute]], [[University of Alaska Fairbanks]]| archiveurl= //web.archive.org/web/20071125211706/http://www.gi.alaska.edu/ScienceForum/ASF14/1404.html| archivedate=November 25, 2007| deadurl= no}}</ref> [[File:Alaska area compared to conterminous US.svg|thumb|Alaska's size compared with the [[contiguous United States|48 contiguous states]]. ([[Albers projection|Albers equal-area conic projection]])]] Alaska is the largest state in the United States in land area at {{convert|663,268|sqmi|km2|0}}, over twice the size of [[Texas]], the next largest state. Alaska is larger than all but 18 sovereign countries. Counting territorial waters, Alaska is larger than the combined area of the next three largest states: Texas, [[California]], and [[Montana]]. It is also larger than the combined area of the 22 smallest U.S. states. ===Regions=== There are no officially defined borders demarcating the various regions of Alaska, but there are six widely accepted regions: ====South Central==== {{main|South Central Alaska}} The most populous region of Alaska, containing [[Anchorage]], the [[Matanuska-Susitna Valley]] and the [[Kenai Peninsula]]. Rural, mostly unpopulated areas south of the [[Alaska Range]] and west of the [[Wrangell Mountains]] also fall within the definition of South Central, as do the [[Prince William Sound]] area and the communities of [[Cordova, Alaska|Cordova]] and [[Valdez, Alaska|Valdez]]. ====Southeast==== {{main|Southeast Alaska}} Also referred to as the Panhandle or Inside Passage, this is the region of Alaska closest to the rest of the United States. As such, this was where most of the initial non-indigenous settlement occurred in the years following the [[Alaska Purchase]]. The region is dominated by the [[Alexander Archipelago]] as well as the [[Tongass National Forest]], the largest national forest in the United States. It contains the state capital [[Juneau]], the former capital [[Sitka, Alaska|Sitka]], and [[Ketchikan]], at one time Alaska's largest city.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sitnews.us/Kiffer/Ketchikan/043007_ketchikan_1927.html |title= 1927: When Ketchikan was the Largest City in Alaska |work=Sitnews US |date=April 30, 2007 |accessdate=July 24, 2012}}</ref> The [[Alaska Marine Highway]] provides a vital surface transportation link throughout the area, as only three communities ([[Haines, Alaska|Haines]], [[Hyder, Alaska|Hyder]] and [[Skagway, Alaska|Skagway]]) enjoy direct connections to the contiguous North American road system. ====Interior==== {{main|Alaska Interior}} [[File:Denali Mt McKinley.jpg|thumb|[[Denali]] is the highest peak in North America.]] The Interior is the largest region of Alaska; much of it is uninhabited wilderness. [[Fairbanks, Alaska|Fairbanks]] is the only large city in the region. [[Denali National Park and Preserve]] is located here. ''[[Denali]]'' is the highest mountain in North America. ====Southwest==== {{main|Southwest Alaska}} [[File:Grizzly Bear Fishing Brooks Falls.jpg|thumb|right|upright|[[Grizzly bear]] fishing for [[salmon]] at [[Brooks Falls]], part of [[Katmai National Park and Preserve]].]] Southwest Alaska is a sparsely inhabited region stretching some {{convert|500|mi|km}} inland from the Bering Sea. Most of the population lives along the coast. [[Kodiak Island]] is also located in Southwest. The massive [[Yukon–Kuskokwim Delta]], one of the largest river deltas in the world, is here. Portions of the [[Alaska Peninsula]] are considered part of Southwest, with the remaining portions included with the Aleutian Islands (see below). ====North Slope==== {{main|Alaska North Slope}} The North Slope is mostly [[tundra]] peppered with small villages. The area is known for its massive reserves of crude oil, and contains both the [[National Petroleum Reserve–Alaska]] and the [[Prudhoe Bay Oil Field]].<ref>{{cite web|author=Alaska.com |url=http://www.alaska.com/regions/ |title=Alaska.com |publisher=Alaska.com |accessdate=June 2, 2010| archiveurl= //web.archive.org/web/20100603064023/http://www.alaska.com/regions/| archivedate=June 3, 2010| deadurl= no}}</ref> [[Barrow, Alaska|Barrow]], the northernmost city in the United States, is located here. The [[Northwest Arctic Borough, Alaska|Northwest Arctic area]], anchored by [[Kotzebue, Alaska|Kotzebue]] and also containing the [[Kobuk River]] valley, is often regarded as being part of this region. However, the respective [[Inupiat people|Inupiat]] of the North Slope and of the Northwest Arctic seldom consider themselves to be one people{{Citation needed|date=April 2016}}. ====Aleutian Islands==== {{main|Aleutian Islands}} More than 300 small volcanic islands make up this chain, which stretches over {{convert|1200|mi}} into the Pacific Ocean. Some of these islands fall in the Eastern Hemisphere, but the [[International Date Line]] was drawn west of [[180th meridian|180°]] to keep the whole state, and thus the entire North American continent, within the same legal day. Two of the islands, [[Attu Island|Attu]] and [[Kiska]], were occupied by Japanese forces during World War II. ===Natural features=== {{see also|Wildlife of Alaska}} [[File:Augustine Volcano Jan 12 2006 edited-1.jpg|thumb|[[Augustine Volcano]] erupting on January 12, 2006]] With its myriad islands, Alaska has nearly {{convert|34000|mi|km|-1}} of tidal shoreline. The [[Aleutian Islands]] chain extends west from the southern tip of the [[Alaska Peninsula]]. Many active [[volcano]]es are found in the Aleutians and in coastal regions. [[Unimak Island]], for example, is home to [[Mount Shishaldin]], which is an occasionally smoldering volcano that rises to {{convert|10000|ft|m|0}} above the North Pacific. It is the most perfect volcanic cone on Earth, even more symmetrical than Japan's [[Mount Fuji]]. The chain of volcanoes extends to [[Mount Spurr]], west of Anchorage on the mainland. Geologists have identified Alaska as part of [[Wrangellia]], a large region consisting of multiple states and Canadian provinces in the [[Pacific Northwest]], which is actively undergoing [[plate tectonics|continent building]]. One of the world's largest tides occurs in [[Turnagain Arm]], just south of Anchorage&nbsp;– tidal differences can be more than {{convert|35|ft|m|1}}.<ref>{{cite journal | author=Porco, Peter|date = June 23, 2003 | title = Long said to be second to Fundy, city tides aren't even close | journal=[[Anchorage Daily News]] | pages = A1}}</ref> {{main|List of lakes in Alaska}} Alaska has more than three million lakes.<ref>{{cite web | title=Alaska Hydrology Survey | publisher=Division of Mining, Land, and Water; [[Alaska Department of Natural Resources]] | url=http://dnr.alaska.gov/mlw/water/hydro/components/surface-water.cfm }}</ref> [[Marshland]]s and wetland [[permafrost]] cover {{convert|188320|sqmi|km2|0}} (mostly in northern, western and southwest flatlands). Glacier ice covers some {{convert|16000|sqmi|km2|-1}} of land and {{convert|1200|sqmi|km2|-1}} of tidal zone. The [[Bering Glacier]] complex near the southeastern border with Yukon covers {{convert|2250|sqmi|km2|0}} alone. With over 100,000 glaciers, Alaska has half of all in the world. ===Land ownership=== [[File:Public-Lands-Western-US.png|thumb|Alaska has more public land owned by the federal government than any other state.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.wildlandfire.com/docs/2007/western-states-data-public-land.htm |title=Western States Data Public Land Acreage |publisher=Wildlandfire.com |date=November 13, 2007 |accessdate=June 2, 2010}}</ref>]] According to an October 1998 report by the [[United States Bureau of Land Management]], approximately 65% of Alaska is owned and managed by the [[Federal government of the United States|U.S. federal government]] as public lands, including a multitude of [[United States National Forest|national forests]], national parks, and [[national wildlife refuge]]s.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://nrm.salrm.uaf.edu/~stodd/AlaskaPlanningDirectory/landOwnership.html |title=Alaska Land Ownership |accessdate=May 4, 2014}}</ref> Of these, the [[Bureau of Land Management]] manages {{convert|87|e6acre|e6ha|abbr=off}}, or 23.8% of the state. The [[Arctic National Wildlife Refuge]] is managed by the [[United States Fish and Wildlife Service]]. It is the world's largest wildlife refuge, comprising {{convert|16|e6acre|e6ha|abbr=off}}. Of the remaining land area, the state of Alaska owns {{convert|101|e6acre|e6ha|abbr=off}}, its entitlement under the [[Alaska Statehood Act]]. A portion of that acreage is occasionally ceded to organized boroughs, under the statutory provisions pertaining to newly formed boroughs. Smaller portions are set aside for rural subdivisions and other homesteading-related opportunities. These are not very popular due to the often remote and roadless locations. The [[University of Alaska]], as a [[land grant university]], also owns substantial acreage which it manages independently. Another {{convert|44|e6acre|e6ha|abbr=off}} are owned by 12 regional, and scores of local, Native corporations created under the [[Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act]] (ANCSA) of 1971. [[Alaska Native Regional Corporation|Regional Native corporation]] [[Doyon, Limited]] often promotes itself as the largest private landowner in Alaska in advertisements and other communications. Provisions of ANCSA allowing the corporations' land holdings to be sold on the open market starting in 1991 were repealed before they could take effect. Effectively, the corporations hold title (including subsurface title in many cases, a privilege denied to individual Alaskans) but cannot sell the land. [[Alaska Native Allotment Act|Individual Native allotments]] can be and are sold on the open market, however. Various private interests own the remaining land, totaling about one percent of the state. Alaska is, by a large margin, the state with the smallest percentage of private land ownership when Native corporation holdings are excluded. ===Climate=== {{Main|Climate of Alaska}} [[File:Alaska map of Köppen climate classification.svg|thumb|Alaska map of Köppen climate classification.]] [[File:Alaska climate regions USGS.gif|thumb|Map depicting the climate zones of Alaska.]] The climate in Southeast Alaska is a mid-latitude [[oceanic climate]] ([[Köppen climate classification]]: ''Cfb'') in the southern sections and a subarctic oceanic climate (Köppen ''Cfc'') in the northern parts. On an annual basis, Southeast is both the wettest and warmest part of Alaska with milder temperatures in the winter and high precipitation throughout the year. Juneau averages over {{convert|50|in|cm|abbr=on}} of precipitation a year, and [[Ketchikan, Alaska|Ketchikan]] averages over {{convert|150|in|cm|abbr=on}}.<ref>{{cite web | title = Monthly Climate Summary, Ketchikan, Alaska | publisher= Western Regional Climate Center | url = http://www.wrcc.dri.edu/cgi-bin/cliMAIN.pl?akketc | accessdate = February 7, 2013 }}</ref> This is also the only region in Alaska in which the average daytime high temperature is above freezing during the winter months. The climate of [[Anchorage, Alaska|Anchorage]] and south central Alaska is mild by Alaskan standards due to the region's proximity to the seacoast. While the area gets less rain than southeast Alaska, it gets more snow, and days tend to be clearer. On average, [[Anchorage, Alaska|Anchorage]] receives {{convert|16|in|cm|abbr=on}} of precipitation a year, with around {{convert|75|in|cm|abbr=on}} of snow, although there are areas in the south central which receive far more snow. It is a subarctic climate ([[Köppen climate classification#GROUP D: Continental/microthermal climate|Köppen: ''Dfc'']]) due to its brief, cool summers. The climate of [[Southwest Alaska|Western Alaska]] is determined in large part by the [[Bering Sea]] and the [[Gulf of Alaska]]. It is a subarctic oceanic climate in the southwest and a continental subarctic climate farther north. The temperature is somewhat moderate considering how far north the area is. This [[region]] has a tremendous amount of variety in precipitation. An area stretching from the northern side of the Seward Peninsula to the [[Kobuk River]] valley (i.&nbsp;e., the region around [[Kotzebue Sound]]) is technically a [[desert]], with portions receiving less than {{convert|10|in|cm|abbr=on}} of precipitation annually. On the other extreme, some locations between [[Dillingham, Alaska|Dillingham]] and [[Bethel, Alaska|Bethel]] average around {{convert|100|in|cm|abbr=on}} of precipitation.<ref name="AK-YK Precip">{{cite web|title=Mean Annual Precipitation, Alaska-Yukon|url=http://www.pitt.edu/~mabbott1/climate/mark/Images/AK-PPT-mm.gif|work=Spatial Climate Analysis Service|publisher=Oregon State University|accessdate=June 5, 2012|date=February 2000}}</ref> The climate of the interior of Alaska is subarctic. Some of the highest and lowest temperatures in Alaska occur around the area near [[Fairbanks, Alaska|Fairbanks]]. The summers may have temperatures reaching into the 90s °F (the low-to-mid 30s °C), while in the winter, the temperature can fall below {{convert|-60|°F}}. Precipitation is sparse in the Interior, often less than {{convert|10|in|cm|abbr=on}} a year, but what precipitation falls in the winter tends to stay the entire [[winter]]. The highest and lowest recorded temperatures in Alaska are both in the Interior. The highest is {{convert|100|°F}} in [[Fort Yukon, Alaska|Fort Yukon]] (which is just {{convert|8|mi|km|sp=us|disp=or|abbr=on}} inside the arctic circle) on June 27, 1915,<ref name="NOAA-All Hazards">{{cite web | title = NOAA Weather Radio All Hazards Information&nbsp;– Alaska Weather Interesting Facts and Records | publisher=[[National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration]] | format = PDF | url = http://www.arh.noaa.gov/docs/AKWXfacts.pdf | accessdate = January 3, 2007 }}</ref><ref name=DRI>{{cite web | title = State Extremes | publisher=Western Regional Climate Center, [[Desert Research Institute]] | url = http://www.wrcc.dri.edu/htmlfiles/state.extremes.html | accessdate = January 3, 2007 | archiveurl= //web.archive.org/web/20070105015744/http://www.wrcc.dri.edu/htmlfiles/state.extremes.html| archivedate=January 5, 2007| deadurl= no}}</ref> making Alaska tied with Hawaii as the state with the lowest high temperature in the United States.<ref>{{cite web | title = SD Weather History and Trivia for May: May 1 | publisher=[[National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration]] | url = http://www.crh.noaa.gov/fsd/?n=fsdtrivia05 | accessdate = January 3, 2007 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | title = FAQ ALASKA&nbsp;– Frequently Asked Questions About Alaska: Weather | publisher=Statewide Library Electronic Doorway, [[University of Alaska Fairbanks]] | date= January 17, 2005 | url=http://sled.alaska.edu/akfaq/aksuper.html#wea | accessdate = January 3, 2007 | archiveurl=//web.archive.org/web/20070102180919/http://sled.alaska.edu/akfaq/aksuper.html <!--Added by H3llBot--> | archivedate=January 2, 2007 }}</ref> The lowest official Alaska temperature is {{convert|−80|°F}} in [[Prospect Creek, Alaska|Prospect Creek]] on January 23, 1971,<ref name="NOAA-All Hazards"/><ref name=DRI/> one degree above the lowest temperature recorded in continental North America (in [[Snag, Yukon|Snag, Yukon, Canada]]).<ref>{{cite web | author=Ned Rozell | title = The Coldest Place in North America | publisher=Geophysical Institute of the [[University of Alaska Fairbanks]] | date= January 23, 2003 | url = http://www.gi.alaska.edu/ScienceForum/ASF16/1630.html | accessdate = January 3, 2007 | archiveurl= //web.archive.org/web/20070202040955/http://www.gi.alaska.edu/ScienceForum/ASF16/1630.html| archivedate=February 2, 2007| deadurl= no}}</ref> The climate in the extreme north of Alaska is [[polar climate|Arctic]] ([[Köppen climate classification#GROUP E: Polar climates|Köppen: ''ET'']]) with long, very cold winters and short, cool summers. Even in July, the average low temperature in [[Barrow, Alaska|Barrow]] is {{convert|34|°F}}.<ref>[http://www.wunderground.com/history/airport/PABR/2006/7/23/MonthlyHistory.html History for Barrow, Alaska. Monthly Summary for July 2006]. [[Weather Underground (weather service)|Weather Underground]]. Retrieved October 23, 2006.</ref> Precipitation is light in this part of Alaska, with many places averaging less than {{convert|10|in|cm|abbr=on}} per year, mostly as snow which stays on the ground almost the entire year. {| class="wikitable sortable" style="margin:auto;" |+Average daily maximum and minimum temperatures for selected locations in Alaska<ref name="Alaska climate averages">{{cite web|url=http://www.weatherbase.com/weather/city.php3?c=US&s=AK&statename=Alaska-United-States-of-America|title=Alaska climate averages|publisher=Weatherbase|accessdate=November 1, 2015}}</ref> |- !Location !July (°F) !July (°C) !January (°F) !January (°C) |- |[[Anchorage, Alaska|Anchorage]] || 65/51 || 18/10 || 22/11 || –5/–11 |- |[[Juneau, Alaska|Juneau]] || 64/50 || 17/11 || 32/23 || 0/–4 |- |[[Ketchikan, Alaska|Ketchikan]] || 64/51 || 17/11 || 38/28 || 3/–1 |- |[[Unalaska, Alaska|Unalaska]] || 57/46 || 14/8 || 36/28 || 2/–2 |- |[[Fairbanks, Alaska|Fairbanks]] || 72/53 || 22/11 || 1/–17 || –17/–27 |- |[[Fort Yukon, Alaska|Fort Yukon]] || 73/51 || 23/10 || –11/–27 || –23/–33 |- |[[Nome, Alaska|Nome]] || 58/46 || 14/8 || 13/–2 || –10/–19 |- |[[Barrow, Alaska|Barrow]] || 47/34 || 8/1 || –7/–19 || –21/–28 |} ==History== {{Main|Prehistory of Alaska|History of Alaska}} ===Alaska Natives=== {{main|Alaska Natives}} [[File:AlutiiqDancer.jpg|thumb|right|upright|A modern [[Alutiiq people|Alutiiq]] dancer in traditional festival garb.]] Numerous indigenous peoples occupied Alaska for thousands of years before the arrival of European peoples to the area. Linguistic and DNA studies done here have provided evidence for the settlement of North America by way of the [[Bering land bridge]].{{citation needed|date=May 2014}} The [[Tlingit people]] developed a society with a [[matrilineal]] kinship system of property inheritance and descent in what is today Southeast Alaska, along with parts of British Columbia and the Yukon. Also in Southeast were the [[Haida people|Haida]], now well known for their unique arts. The [[Tsimshian]] people came to Alaska from British Columbia in 1887, when President [[Grover Cleveland]], and later the U.S. Congress, granted them permission to settle on [[Annette Island]] and found the town of [[Metlakatla, Alaska|Metlakatla]]. All three of these peoples, as well as other [[indigenous peoples of the Pacific Northwest Coast]], experienced [[smallpox]] outbreaks from the late 18th through the mid-19th century, with the most devastating [[epidemics]] occurring in the 1830s and 1860s, resulting in high fatalities and social disruption.<ref>Brian C. Hosmer, ''American Indians in the Marketplace: Persistence and Innovation among the Menominees and Metlakatlans, 1870–1920'' (Lawrence, Kansas: University Press of Kansas, 1999), pp. 129–131, 200.</ref> The Aleutian Islands are still home to the [[Aleut people]]'s seafaring society, although they were the first Native Alaskans to be exploited by Russians. Western and Southwestern Alaska are home to the [[Yup'ik]], while their cousins the [[Alutiiq people|Alutiiq ~ Sugpiaq]] lived in what is now Southcentral Alaska. The [[Gwich'in people]] of the northern Interior region are [[Alaskan Athabaskans|Athabaskan]] and primarily known today for their dependence on the caribou within the much-contested [[Arctic National Wildlife Refuge]]. The North Slope and [[Little Diomede Island]] are occupied by the widespread [[Inupiat people]]. ===Colonization=== {{see also|Russian America}} Some researchers believe that the first Russian settlement in Alaska was established in the 17th century.<ref>Свердлов Л. М. Русское поселение на Аляске в XVII в.? "Природа". М., 1992. № 4. С.67–69.</ref> According to this hypothesis, in 1648 several [[Koch (boat)|koches]] of [[Semyon Dezhnyov]]'s expedition came ashore in Alaska by storm and founded this settlement. This hypothesis is based on the testimony of [[Chukchi people|Chukchi]] geographer [[Nikolai Daurkin]], who had visited Alaska in 1764–1765 and who had reported on a village on the [[Kheuveren]] River, populated by "bearded men" who "pray to the [[icons]]". Some modern researchers associate Kheuveren with [[Koyuk River]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.docstoc.com/docs/4877141/ALEXEI-V-POSTNIKOV-nautical-charts-compiled-by-these-promyshlenniki|title=Outline of the History of Russian Cartography|work=Regions: a Prism to View the Slavic Eurasian World|year=2000|first=Alexey V. |last=Postnikov|authorlink=Alexey Postnikov|accessdate=June 6, 2012}}</ref> [[File:Russian Sloop-of-War Neva.jpg|thumb|The Russian settlement of St. Paul's Harbor (present-day [[Kodiak, Alaska|Kodiak town]]), [[Kodiak Island]], 1814.]] The first European vessel to reach Alaska is generally held to be the ''St. Gabriel'' under the authority of the surveyor [[Mikhail Gvozdev|M. S. Gvozdev]] and assistant navigator [[Ivan Fyodorov (navigator)|I. Fyodorov]] on August 21, 1732 during an expedition of Siberian cossak [[Afanasiy Shestakov|A. F. Shestakov]] and Belorussian explorer [[Dmitry Pavlutsky]] (1729—1735).<ref>Аронов В. Н. Патриарх Камчатского мореходства. // "Вопросы истории рыбной промышленности Камчатки": Историко-краеведческий сб.&nbsp;– Вып. 3.&nbsp;– 2000. Вахрин С. Покорители великого океана. Петроп.-Камч.: Камштат, 1993.</ref> Another European contact with Alaska occurred in 1741, when [[Vitus Bering]] led an [[second Kamchatka expedition|expedition]] for the Russian Navy aboard the ''St. Peter''. After his crew returned to Russia with [[sea otter]] pelts judged to be the finest fur in the world, small associations of fur traders began to sail from the shores of Siberia toward the Aleutian Islands. The first permanent European settlement was founded in 1784. Between 1774 and 1800, [[Viceroyalty of New Spain|Spain]] sent several [[Spanish expeditions to the Pacific Northwest|expeditions to Alaska]] in order to assert its claim over the Pacific Northwest. In 1789 a Spanish settlement and [[Fort San Miguel|fort]] were built in [[Nootka Sound]]. These expeditions gave names to places such as [[Valdez, Alaska|Valdez]], [[Bucareli Sound]], and [[Cordova, Alaska|Cordova]]. Later, the [[Russian-American Company]] carried out an expanded colonization program during the early-to-mid-19th century. [[Sitka, Alaska|Sitka]], renamed [[New Archangel]] from 1804 to 1867, on [[Baranof Island]] in the [[Alexander Archipelago]] in what is now [[Southeast Alaska]], became the capital of [[Russian America]]. It remained the capital after the colony was transferred to the United States. The Russians never fully colonized Alaska, and the colony was never very profitable. Evidence of Russian settlement in names and churches survive throughout southeast Alaska. [[William H. Seward]], the [[United States Secretary of State]], negotiated the [[Alaska Purchase]] (also known as Seward's Folly) with the Russians in 1867 for $7.2&nbsp;million. Alaska was loosely governed by the military initially, and was administered as a [[District of Alaska|district]] starting in 1884, with a governor appointed by the [[President of the United States]]. A federal [[United States territorial court|district court]] was headquartered in Sitka. [[File:Miners climb Chilkoot.jpg|thumb|Miners and prospectors climb the [[Chilkoot Trail]] during the 1898 [[Klondike Gold Rush]].]] For most of Alaska's first decade under the United States flag, Sitka was the only community inhabited by American settlers. They organized a "provisional city government," which was Alaska's first municipal government, but not in a legal sense.<ref>{{cite book|last=Wheeler|first=Keith|chapter=Learning to cope with 'Seward's Icebox'|title=The Alaskans|year=1977|publisher=[[Time–Life Books]]|location=[[Alexandria, Virginia|Alexandria]]|isbn=0-8094-1506-2|pages=57–64}}</ref> Legislation allowing Alaskan communities to legally incorporate as cities did not come about until 1900, and [[Home rule#Home rule in the United States|home rule]] for cities was extremely limited or unavailable until statehood took effect in 1959. ===U.S. Territory=== {{see also|Territory of Alaska}} Starting in the 1890s and stretching in some places to the early 1910s, [[Alaska Gold Rush|gold rushes]] in Alaska and the nearby [[Yukon|Yukon Territory]] brought thousands of miners and settlers to Alaska. Alaska was officially incorporated as an organized territory in 1912. Alaska's capital, which had been in [[Sitka, Alaska|Sitka]] until 1906, was moved north to [[Juneau, Alaska|Juneau]]. Construction of the [[Alaska Governor's Mansion]] began that same year. European immigrants from Norway and Sweden also settled in southeast Alaska, where they entered the fishing and logging industries. [[File:US troops at the Battle of Attu.jpg|thumb|U.S. troops navigate snow and ice during the [[Battle of Attu]] in May 1943.]] During World War II, the [[Aleutian Islands Campaign]] focused on the three outer Aleutian Islands&nbsp;– [[Attu Island|Attu]], [[Agattu]] and [[Kiska Island|Kiska]]<ref>these three Aleutian outer islands are about {{convert|460|mi|km}} away from continental USSR, {{convert|920|mi|km}} from continental Alaska (U.S.), {{convert|950|mi|km}} from Japan.</ref>&nbsp;– that were invaded by Japanese troops and occupied between June 1942 and August 1943. [[Unalaska]]/[[Dutch Harbor]] became a significant base for the [[U.S. Army Air Forces]] and [[U.S. Navy|Navy]] [[submarine]]rs. The U.S. [[Lend-Lease]] program involved the flying of American warplanes through Canada to Fairbanks and thence Nome; Soviet pilots took possession of these aircraft, ferrying them to fight the German invasion of the Soviet Union. The construction of military bases contributed to the population growth of some Alaskan cities. ===Statehood=== {{see also|Alaska Statehood Act}} Statehood for Alaska was an important cause of [[James Wickersham]] early in his tenure as a congressional delegate. Decades later, the statehood movement gained its first real momentum following a territorial referendum in 1946. The Alaska Statehood Committee and Alaska's Constitutional Convention would soon follow. Statehood supporters also found themselves fighting major battles against political foes, mostly in the U.S. Congress but also within Alaska. Statehood was approved by Congress on July 7, 1958. Alaska was officially proclaimed a state on January 3, 1959. [[File:1964 Alaska Quake Kodiak Before and After.jpg|thumb|left|upright|Kodiak, before and after the [[tsunami]] which followed the [[Good Friday]] earthquake in 1964, destroying much of the townsite.]] In 1960, the Census Bureau reported Alaska's population as 77.2% White, 3% Black, and 18.8% American Indian and Alaska Native.<ref>{{cite web|title=Alaska – Race and Hispanic Origin: 1880 to 1990|publisher=U.S. Census Bureau|url=http://www.census.gov/population/www/documentation/twps0056/twps0056.html|accessdate=April 18, 2012}}</ref> On March 27, 1964, the massive [[1964 Alaska earthquake|Good Friday earthquake]] killed 133 people and destroyed several villages and portions of large coastal communities, mainly by the resultant [[tsunamis]] and landslides. It was the [[Largest earthquakes by magnitude|second-most-powerful earthquake]] in the recorded history of the world, with a [[moment magnitude scale|moment magnitude]] of 9.2. It was over one thousand times more powerful than the [[1989 Loma Prieta earthquake|1989 San Francisco earthquake]]. The time of day (5:36&nbsp;pm), time of year and location of the epicenter were all cited as factors in potentially sparing thousands of lives, particularly in Anchorage. The 1968 discovery of oil at [[Prudhoe Bay]] and the 1977 completion of the [[Trans-Alaska Pipeline System]] led to an oil boom. Royalty revenues from oil have funded large state budgets from 1980 onward. That same year, not coincidentally, Alaska repealed its state income tax. In 1989, the ''[[Exxon Valdez]]'' hit a reef in the [[Prince William Sound]], spilling over {{convert|11|MUSgal|Ml|lk=out|abbr=off|sp=us}} of crude oil over {{convert|1100|mi}} of coastline. Today, the battle between philosophies of development and conservation is seen in the contentious debate over oil drilling in the [[Arctic National Wildlife Refuge]] and the proposed [[Pebble Mine]]. ===Alaska Heritage Resources Survey=== The Alaska Heritage Resources Survey (AHRS) is a restricted [[inventory]] of all reported [[historic site|historic]] and [[prehistoric]] sites within the state of Alaska; it is maintained by the Office of History and Archaeology. The survey's inventory of cultural resources includes objects, structures, buildings, sites, districts, and travel ways, with a general provision that they are over 50 years old. As of January 31, 2012, over 35,000 sites have been reported.<ref>[http://dnr.alaska.gov/parks/oha/ahrs/ahrs.htm Alaska Heritage Resources Survey], Department of Natural Resources – Alaska.gov (retrieved May 9, 2014)</ref> ==Demographics== {{Main|Demographics of Alaska}} {{US Census population |1880= 33426 |1890= 32052 |1900= 63592 |1910= 64356 |1920= 55036 |1930= 59278 |1940= 72524 |1950= 128643 |1960= 226167 |1970= 300382 |1980= 401851 |1990= 550043 |2000= 626932 |2010= 710231 |estimate= 738432 |estyear= 2015 |align-fn=center |footnote=1930 and 1940 censuses taken in preceding autumn<br />Sources: 1910–2010, US Census Bureau<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.census.gov/population/cencounts/ak190090.txt|title=ALASKA Population of Counties by Decennial Census: 1900 to 1990|accessdate=May 18, 2014}}</ref><br />2015 Estimate<ref name=PopEstUS/> }} The [[United States Census Bureau]] estimates that the population of Alaska was 738,432 on July 1, 2015, a 3.97% increase since the [[2010 United States Census]].<ref name=PopEstUS>{{cite web|url=http://www.census.gov/popest/data/state/totals/2015/tables/NST-EST2015-01.csv|format=CSV|title=Table 1. Annual Estimates of the Resident Population for the United States, Regions, States, and Puerto Rico: April 1, 2010 to July 1, 2015|date=December 26, 2015|publisher=[[U.S. Census Bureau]]|accessdate=December 26, 2015}}</ref> In 2010, Alaska ranked as the 47th state by population, ahead of [[North Dakota]], [[Vermont]], and [[Wyoming]] (and [[Washington, D.C.]])<ref name=PopEstUS/> Alaska is the least densely populated state, and one of the most sparsely populated areas in the world, at {{convert|1.2|PD/sqmi}}, with the next state, Wyoming, at {{convert|5.8|PD/sqmi}}.<ref>{{cite web|title=Resident Population Data: Population Density|url=http://2010.census.gov/2010census/data/apportionment-dens-text.php|publisher=U.S. Census Bureau|accessdate=June 6, 2012|year=2010}}</ref> Alaska is the largest U.S. state by [[List of U.S. states and territories by area|area]], and the tenth wealthiest (per capita income).<ref>{{cite web|title=State Per Capita Income 2011|url=http://www.bea.gov/newsreleases/regional/spi/2012/pdf/spi0312pc_fax.pdf|publisher=Bureau of Economic Analysis, U.S. Department of Commerce|accessdate=June 6, 2012|date=March 28, 2012}}</ref> As of November 2014, the state's unemployment rate was 6.6%.<ref>{{cite web|title=Local Area Unemployment Statistics|url=http://www.bls.gov/lau/|publisher=U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics|accessdate=December 26, 2014|date=December 26, 2014}}</ref> ===Race and ancestry=== According to the [[2010 United States Census]], Alaska had a population of 710,231. In terms of race and ethnicity, the state was 66.7% [[White American|White]] (64.1% Non-Hispanic [[Non-Hispanic Whites|White]]), 14.8% [[Native Americans in the United States|American Indian]] and Alaska Native, 5.4% [[Asian American|Asian]], 3.3% [[African American|Black]] or African American, 1.0% Native Hawaiian and Other Pacific Islander, 1.6% from Some Other Race, and 7.3% from Two or More Races. [[Hispanic and Latino Americans|Hispanics]] or Latinos of any race made up 5.5% of the population.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://factfinder2.census.gov/faces/tableservices/jsf/pages/productview.xhtml?pid=DEC_10_PL_QTPL&prodType=table |title=American FactFinder |publisher=Factfinder2.census.gov |date=October 5, 2010 |accessdate=May 29, 2011| archiveurl= //web.archive.org/web/20110520164400/http://factfinder2.census.gov/faces/tableservices/jsf/pages/productview.xhtml?pid=DEC_10_PL_QTPL&prodType=table| archivedate=May 20, 2011| deadurl= no}}</ref> {{as of|2011}}, 50.7% of Alaska's population younger than one year of age belonged to minority groups (i.e., did not have two parents of non-Hispanic white ancestry).<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.cleveland.com/datacentral/index.ssf/2012/06/americas_under_age_1_populatio.html|title=Americans under age 1 now mostly minorities, but not in Ohio: Statistical Snapshot|last=Exner|first=Rich|date=June 3, 2012|work=[[The Plain Dealer]]}}</ref> {| class="wikitable sortable collapsible" style="font-size: 90%;" |+ '''Alaska Racial Breakdown of Population''' |- ! Racial composition !! 1970<ref name="census"/> !! 1990<ref name="census">{{cite web |url=http://www.census.gov/population/www/documentation/twps0056/twps0056.html |title=Historical Census Statistics on Population Totals By Race, 1790 to 1990, and By Hispanic Origin, 1970 to 1990, For The United States, Regions, Divisions, and States |author=Population Division, Laura K. Yax|publisher=|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20141224151538/http://www.census.gov/population/www/documentation/twps0056/twps0056.html |archivedate=December 24, 2014}}</ref> !! 2000<ref>{{cite web|url=http://censusviewer.com/state/AK|title=Population of Alaska - Census 2010 and 2000 Interactive Map, Demographics, Statistics, Quick Facts - CensusViewer|work=censusviewer.com}}</ref>!! 2010<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.census.gov/2010census/data/|title=2010 Census Data|author=Center for New Media and Promotions(C2PO)|work=census.gov}}</ref> |- | [[White American|White]] || 78.8% || 75.5% || 69.3% || 66.7% |- | [[Native Americans in the United States|Native]] || 16.9% || 15.6% || 15.6% || 14.8% |- | [[Asian American|Asian]] || 0.9% || 3.6% || 4.0% || 5.4% |- | [[African American|Black]] || 3.0% || 4.1% || 3.5% || 3.3% |- | [[Native Hawaiian]] and <br />[[Pacific Islander|other Pacific Islander]] || – || – || 0.5% || 1.0% |- | [[Race and ethnicity in the United States Census|Other race]] || 0.4% || 1.2% || 1.6% || 1.6% |- | [[Multiracial American|Two or more races]] || – || – || 5.5% || 7.3% |} ===Languages=== {{further|Alaska Native languages}} According to the 2011 [[American Community Survey]], 82.4% of people over the age of five speak only English at home. About 3.5% speak Spanish at home. About 2.2% speak another [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European language]] at home and about 4.3% speak an [[Languages of Asia|Asian language]] at home.{{citation needed|date=August 2014}} About 5.3% speak other languages at home.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://census.gov/content/dam/Census/library/publications/2013/acs/acs-22.pdf|title=Language use in the United States, 2011|accessdate=May 18, 2014}}</ref> The [[Alaska Native Language Center]] at the [[University of Alaska Fairbanks]] claims that at least 20 [[Alaska Native languages|Alaskan native languages]] exist and there are also some languages with different dialects.<ref name="uaf.edu">Languages, Alaska Native Language Center, http://www.uaf.edu/anlc/languages/</ref> Most of Alaska's native languages belong to either the [[Eskimo–Aleut languages|Eskimo–Aleut]] or [[Na-Dene languages|Na-Dene]] language families however some languages are thought to be [[Language isolate|isolates]] (e.g. [[Haida language|Haida]]) or have not yet been classified (e.g. [[Tsimshianic languages|Tsimshianic]]).<ref name="uaf.edu"/> {{as of|2014}} nearly all of Alaska's native languages were classified as either threatened, shifting, moribund, nearly extinct, or dormant languages.<ref>Languages, Alaska Native Language Center, [[Ethnologue]] (classifications), http://www.uaf.edu/anlc/languages/stats/</ref> A total of 5.2% of Alaskans speak one of the state's 20 [[Indigenous languages of the Americas|indigenous languages]],{{citation needed|date=August 2014}} known locally as "native languages". In October 2014, the governor of Alaska signed a bill declaring the state's 20 indigenous languages as official languages.<ref>[http://www.theguardian.com/us-news/2014/oct/24/alaskas-indigenous-languages-official "Alaska's indigenous languages attain official status"], Reuters.com, October 24, 2014. Retrieved October 30, 2014.</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.legis.state.ak.us/basis/get_bill.asp?bill=HB%20216&session=28|title=Bill History/Action for 28th Legislature HB 216|website=The Alaska State Legislature}}</ref> The 20 languages that included in the bill are: # [[Inupiat language|Inupiaq]] # [[Central Siberian Yupik language|Siberian Yupik]] # [[Central Alaskan Yup'ik language|Central Alaskan Yup’ik]] # [[Alutiiq language|Alutiiq]] # [[Aleut language|Unangax]] # [[Dena'ina language|Dena’ina]] # [[Deg Xinag language|Deg Xinag]] # [[Holikachuk language|Holikachuk]] # [[Koyukon language|Koyukon]] # [[Upper Kuskokwim]] # [[Gwich’in language|Gwich’in]] # [[Lower Tanana language|Tanana]] # [[Upper Tanana language|Upper Tanana]] # [[Tanacross language|Tanacross]] # [[Hän language|Hän]] # [[Ahtna language|Ahtna]] # [[Eyak language|Eyak]] # [[Tlingit language|Tlingit]] # [[Haida language|Haida]] # [[Tsimshianic languages|Tsimshian languages]] ===Religion=== [[File:Sitka - St. Michael's Russian Orthodox Cathedral.jpg|thumb|upright|[[St. Michael's Cathedral (Sitka, Alaska)|St. Michael's Russian Orthodox Cathedral]] in downtown [[Sitka, Alaska|Sitka]].]] According to statistics collected by the Association of Religion Data Archives from 2010, about 34% of Alaska residents were members of religious congregations. 100,960 people identified as [[Evangelical Protestant]]s, 50,866 as Roman Catholic, and 32,550 as mainline Protestants.<ref name="www.thearda.com">{{cite web|url=http://www.thearda.com/rcms2010/r/s/02/rcms2010_02_state_adh_2010.asp |title=The Association of Religion Data Archives &#124; State Membership Report |publisher=www.thearda.com |accessdate=November 15, 2013}}</ref> Roughly 4% are Mormon, 0.5% are Jewish, 1% are Muslim, 0.5% are Buddhist, and 0.5% are Hindu.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://religions.pewforum.org/maps|title=Religion in America: U.S. Religious Data, Demographics and Statistics - Pew Research Center|date=May 11, 2015|work=Pew Research Center's Religion & Public Life Project}}</ref> The largest religious denominations in Alaska {{as of|2010|lc=y}} were the [[Catholic Church]] with 50,866 adherents, non-denominational Evangelical Protestants with 38,070 adherents, [[The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints]] with 32,170 adherents, and the [[Southern Baptist Convention]] with 19,891 adherents.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.thearda.com/rcms2010/r/s/02/rcms2010_02_state_adh_2010.asp|title=The Association of Religion Data Archives - Maps & Reports|work=thearda.com}}</ref> Alaska has been identified, along with Pacific Northwest states Washington and Oregon, as being [[Unchurched Belt|the least religious states of the USA]], in terms of church membership.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.adherents.com/Na/Na_472.html |title=Adherents.com |publisher=Adherents.com |accessdate=June 2, 2010| archiveurl= //web.archive.org/web/20100505013647/http://www.adherents.com/Na/Na_472.html| archivedate=May 5, 2010| deadurl= no}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |archiveurl=//web.archive.org/web/20090116035021/http://www.adn.com/life/story/463303.html |archivedate=January 16, 2009 |url=http://www.adn.com/life/story/463303.html |title=Believe it or not, Alaska's one of nation's least religious states |publisher=Anchorage Daily News |date=July 13, 2008}}</ref> In 1795, the First [[Russian Orthodox Church]] was established in [[Kodiak Island Borough, Alaska|Kodiak]]. Intermarriage with Alaskan Natives helped the Russian immigrants integrate into society. As a result, an increasing number of Russian Orthodox churches gradually became established within Alaska.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://vilda.alaska.edu/u?/cdmg11,4904 |title=An early Russian Orthodox Church |publisher=Vilda.alaska.edu |accessdate=June 2, 2010}}</ref> Alaska also has the largest [[Quaker]] population (by percentage) of any state.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.thearda.com/mapsReports/maps/map.asp?state=101&variable=201 |title=Association of Religion Data Archive |publisher=Thearda.com |accessdate=June 2, 2010}}</ref> In 2009 there were 6,000 Jews in Alaska (for whom observance of [[halakha]] [[Jewish law in the polar regions|may pose special problems]]).<ref>[http://www.census.gov/compendia/statab/2011/tables/11s0077.pdf Table 76. Religious Bodies—Selected Data]. U.S. Census Bureau, Statistical Abstract of the United States: 2011.</ref> Alaskan Hindus often share venues and celebrations with members of other Asian religious communities, including [[Sikhism|Sikhs]] and [[Jainism|Jains]].<ref>{{cite web |archiveurl=//web.archive.org/web/20090201151519/http://caia.arctic.us/?Shri_Ganesha_Mandir_of_Alaska |archivedate=February 11, 2009 |url=http://www.caia.arctic.us/?Shri_Ganesha_Mandir_of_Alaska |title=Shri Ganesha Mandir of Alaska |publisher=Cultural Association of India Anchorage |last1=Kalyan |first1=Mala}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.hindumandir.us/west-coast.html#AK |title=Hindu Temples in USA&nbsp;– Hindu Mandirs in USA |publisher=Hindumandir.us |accessdate=June 2, 2010| archiveurl= //web.archive.org/web/20100616130334/http://www.hindumandir.us/west-coast.html| archivedate=June 16, 2010| deadurl= no}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |archiveurl=//web.archive.org/web/20090201151459/http://caia.arctic.us/?Holi_%2F_Baisakhi_Celebration%3A |archivedate=February 11, 2009 |url=http://www.caia.arctic.us/?Holi_%2F_Baisakhi_Celebration%3A |title=Holi & Baisakhi celebrated by Alaskan Hindus and Sikhs |publisher=Cultural Association of India Anchorage}}</ref> Estimates for the number of Muslims in Alaska range from 2,000 to 5,000.<ref>{{cite web |archiveurl=//web.archive.org/web/20090116035850/http://dwb.adn.com/news/alaska/ap_alaska/story/8656236p-8548061c.html |archivedate=January 16, 2009 |url=http://dwb.adn.com/news/alaska/ap_alaska/story/8656236p-8548061c.html |title=First Muslim cemetery opens in Alaska}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |archiveurl=//web.archive.org/web/20090215202834/http://engagingmuslims.alaskapacific.edu/ |archivedate=February 15, 2009 |url=http://engagingmuslims.alaskapacific.edu/ |title=Engaging Muslim: Religion, Culture, Politics}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.humanitynews.net/index.php/main/more/alaskan_muslims_avoid_conflict/ |title=Alaskan Muslims Avoid Conflict |publisher=Humanitynews.net |date=July 7, 2005 |accessdate=June 2, 2010 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/20090113085537/http://www.humanitynews.net:80/index.php/main/more/alaskan_muslims_avoid_conflict/ |archivedate=13 January 2009 }}</ref> The [[Islamic Community Center of Anchorage, Alaska|Islamic Community Center of Anchorage]] began efforts in the late 1990s to construct a mosque in Anchorage. They broke ground on a building in south Anchorage in 2010 and were nearing completion in late 2014. When completed, the mosque will be the first in the state and one of the northernmost mosques in the world.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://english.aljazeera.net/video/americas/2010/12/20101225111741183159.html |title=Mosque milestone for Alaska Muslims&nbsp;– Americas |publisher=Al Jazeera English |date=December 25, 2010 |accessdate=May 29, 2011}}</ref> {| class="wikitable sortable" font-size:80%;" |+ style="font-size:100%" | Religious affiliation in Alaska (2014)<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.pewforum.org/religious-landscape-study/state/alaska/|title=Adults in Alaska|date=May 11, 2015|work=Pew Research Center's Religion & Public Life Project}}</ref> |- ! Affiliation ! colspan="2"|% of population |- | [[Christianity|Christian]] |align=right| '''{{bartable|62||2||background:darkblue}} |- | style="text-align:left; text-indent:15px;"| [[Protestant]] |align=right| '''{{bartable|37||2||background:mediumblue}} |- | style="text-align:left; text-indent:30px;"| [[Evangelical Protestant]] |align=right| '''{{bartable|22||2||background:lightblue}} |- | style="text-align:left; text-indent:30px;"| [[Mainline Protestant]] |align=right| '''{{bartable|12||2||background:lightblue}} |- | style="text-align:left; text-indent:30px;"| [[Black church]] |align=right| '''{{bartable|3||2||background:lightblue}} |- | style="text-align:left; text-indent:15px;"| [[Catholic]] |align=right| '''{{bartable|16||2||background:mediumblue}} |- | style="text-align:left; text-indent:15px;"| [[Mormon]] |align=right| '''{{bartable|5||2||background:mediumblue}} |- | style="text-align:left; text-indent:15px;"| [[Jehovah's Witnesses]] |align=right| '''{{bartable|0.5||2||background:mediumblue}} |- | style="text-align:left; text-indent:15px;"| [[Eastern Orthodox]] |align=right| '''{{bartable|5||2||background:mediumblue}} |- | style="text-align:left; text-indent:15px;"| Other Christian |align=right| '''{{bartable|0.5||2||background:mediumblue}} |- | [[Irreligion|Unaffiliated]] |align=right| '''{{bartable|31||2||background:purple}} |- | style="text-align:left; text-indent:15px;"| Nothing in particular |align=right| '''{{bartable|20||2||background:#A020F0}} |- | style="text-align:left; text-indent:15px;"| [[Agnosticism|Agnostic]] |align=right| '''{{bartable|6||2||background:#A020F0}} |- | style="text-align:left; text-indent:15px;"| [[Atheism|Atheist]] |align=right| '''{{bartable|5||2||background:#A020F0}} |- | Non-Christian faiths |align=right| '''{{bartable|6||2||background:darkgreen}} |- | style="text-align:left; text-indent:15px;"| [[Jewish]] |align=right| '''{{bartable|0.5||2||background:lightgreen}} |- | style="text-align:left; text-indent:15px;"| [[Muslim]] |align=right| '''{{bartable|0.5||2||background:lightgreen}} |- | style="text-align:left; text-indent:15px;"| [[Buddhist]] |align=right| '''{{bartable|1||2||background:lightgreen}} |- | style="text-align:left; text-indent:15px;"| [[Hindu]] |align=right| '''{{bartable|0.5||2||background:lightgreen}} |- | style="text-align:left; text-indent:15px;"| Other Non-Christian faiths |align=right| '''{{bartable|4||2||background:lightgreen}} |- | Don't know/refused answer |align=right| '''{{bartable|1||2||background:#A020F0}} |- | '''Total''' || '''{{bartable|100||2||background:grey}}''' |} ==Economy== {{Main|Economy of Alaska}} {{See also|Alaska locations by per capita income}} [[File:Prudhoe Bay aerial FWS.jpg|thumb|Aerial view of infrastructure at the [[Prudhoe Bay Oil Field]].]] The 2007 [[gross state product]] was $44.9&nbsp;billion, 45th in the nation. Its [[List of U.S. states by GDP per capita (nominal)|per capita personal income]] for 2007 was $40,042, ranking 15th in the nation. According to a 2013 study by Phoenix Marketing International, Alaska had the fifth-largest number of millionaires per capita in the United States, with a ratio of 6.75 percent.<ref>{{cite web|last=Frank|first=Robert|title=Top states for millionaires per capita|url=http://www.cnbc.com/id/101338309|publisher=CNBC|accessdate=January 22, 2014}}</ref> The oil and gas industry dominates the Alaskan economy, with more than 80% of the state's revenues derived from petroleum extraction. Alaska's main export product (excluding oil and natural gas) is seafood, primarily salmon, cod, Pollock and crab. Agriculture represents a very small fraction of the Alaskan economy. Agricultural production is primarily for consumption within the state and includes nursery stock, dairy products, vegetables, and livestock. Manufacturing is limited, with most foodstuffs and general goods imported from elsewhere. Employment is primarily in government and industries such as natural resource extraction, shipping, and transportation. Military bases are a significant component of the economy in the Fairbanks North Star, Anchorage and Kodiak Island boroughs, as well as Kodiak. Federal subsidies are also an important part of the economy, allowing the state to keep taxes low. Its industrial outputs are crude petroleum, natural gas, coal, gold, precious metals, zinc and other mining, seafood processing, timber and wood products. There is also a growing service and tourism sector. Tourists have contributed to the economy by supporting local lodging. ===Energy=== {{See also|Natural gas in Alaska|Energy law#Alaska law}} [[File:Alaska Pipeline Closeup Underneath.jpg|thumb|upright|The [[Trans-Alaska Pipeline]] transports oil, Alaska's most financially important export, from the [[Alaska North Slope|North Slope]] to [[Valdez, Alaska|Valdez]]. Pertinent are the [[heat pipe]]s in the column mounts, which disperse heat upwards and prevent melting of [[permafrost]].]] Alaska has vast energy resources, although its oil reserves have been largely depleted. Major oil and gas reserves were found in the [[Alaska North Slope]] (ANS) and Cook Inlet basins, but according to the [[Energy Information Administration]], by February 2014 Alaska had fallen to fourth place in the nation in crude oil production after Texas, North Dakota, and California.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.eia.gov/state/?sid=ak |title=EIA State Energy Profiles: Alaska |publisher=U.S. Energy Information Administration |date=March 27, 2014 |accessdate=May 21, 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Rankings: Crude Oil Production, February 2013|url=http://www.eia.gov/state/rankings/?sid=US&CFID=11011948&CFTOKEN=1da5d5e517e7a485-37ABEB4E-25B3-1C83-549C71EE21A56018&jsessionid=84305d8fd0e59a4565705d1e106846494687#/series/46|publisher=United States Energy Information Administration|accessdate=May 19, 2014}}</ref> Prudhoe Bay on Alaska's North Slope is still the second highest-yielding oil field in the United States, typically producing about {{convert|400000|oilbbl/d|m3/d}}, although by early 2014 North Dakota's [[Bakken Formation]] was producing over {{convert|900000|oilbbl/d|m3/d}}.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.dmr.nd.gov/oilgas/stats/historicalbakkenoilstats.pdf | title=ND Monthly Bakken Oil Production Statistics | publisher=North Dakota Department of Mineral Resources | accessdate=May 21, 2014}}</ref> Prudhoe Bay was the largest [[conventional oil]] field ever discovered in North America, but was much smaller than Canada's enormous [[Athabasca oil sands]] field, which by 2014 was producing about {{convert | 1500000 | oilbbl/d | m3/d}} of [[unconventional oil]], and had hundreds of years of producible reserves at that rate.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.capp.ca/getdoc.aspx?DocId=227308 | title=Crude Oil Forecast, Markets and Transportation | publisher=Canadian Association of Petroleum Producers |date=June 2013 |accessdate=May 21, 2014}}</ref> The [[Trans-Alaska Pipeline]] can transport and pump up to {{convert|2.1|Moilbbl|m3}} of crude oil per day, more than any other crude oil pipeline in the United States. Additionally, substantial coal deposits are found in Alaska's bituminous, sub-bituminous, and lignite coal basins. The [[United States Geological Survey]] estimates that there are {{convert|85.4|Tcuft|km3}} of undiscovered, technically recoverable gas from natural gas hydrates on the Alaskan North Slope.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.usgs.gov/corecast/details.asp?ep=74 |title=Gas Hydrates on Alaska's North Slope |publisher=Usgs.gov |accessdate=June 2, 2010| archiveurl= //web.archive.org/web/20100601170523/http://www.usgs.gov/corecast/details.asp?ep=74| archivedate=June 1, 2010| deadurl= no}}</ref> Alaska also offers some of the highest hydroelectric power potential in the country from its numerous rivers. Large swaths of the Alaskan coastline offer wind and geothermal energy potential as well.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://tonto.eia.doe.gov/state/state_energy_profiles.cfm?sid=AK |title=EIA State Energy Profiles: Alaska |publisher=Tonto.eia.doe.gov |date=August 27, 2009 |accessdate=November 7, 2010| archiveurl= //web.archive.org/web/20101103203218/http://tonto.eia.doe.gov/state/state_energy_profiles.cfm?sid=AK| archivedate=November 3, 2010| deadurl= no}}</ref> {{double image|left|Alaska Crude Oil Reserves.PNG|190|Alaska Crude Oil Production.PNG|240|Alaska [[proven reserves|proven oil reserves]] peaked in 1978 and have declined more than 60% since then.|Alaska oil production peaked in 1988 and has declined more than 65% since then.}} Alaska's economy depends heavily on increasingly expensive diesel fuel for heating, transportation, electric power and light. Though wind and hydroelectric power are abundant and underdeveloped, proposals for statewide energy systems (e.g. with special [[single-wire earth return#Use in interties|low-cost electric interties]]) were judged uneconomical (at the time of the report, 2001) due to low (less than 50¢/gal) fuel prices, long distances and low population.<ref>{{cite web |archiveurl=//web.archive.org/web/20080216014031/http://www.dced.state.ak.us/dca/AEIS/PDF_Files/AIDEA_Energy_Screening.pdf |archivedate=February 16, 2008 |url=http://www.dced.state.ak.us/dca/AEIS/PDF_Files/AIDEA_Energy_Screening.pdf |title=Screening Report for Alaska Rural Energy Plan |date=April 2001}}</ref> The cost of a gallon of gas in urban Alaska today is usually 30–60¢ higher than the national average; prices in rural areas are generally significantly higher but vary widely depending on transportation costs, seasonal usage peaks, nearby petroleum development infrastructure and many other factors. ====Permanent Fund==== The [[Alaska Permanent Fund]] is a constitutionally authorized appropriation of oil revenues, established by voters in 1976 to manage a surplus in state petroleum revenues from oil, largely in anticipation of the then recently constructed [[Trans-Alaska Pipeline System]]. The fund was originally proposed by Governor [[Keith Harvey Miller|Keith Miller]] on the eve of the 1969 Prudhoe Bay lease sale, out of fear that the legislature would spend the entire proceeds of the sale (which amounted to $900 million) at once. It was later championed by Governor [[Jay Hammond]] and [[Kenai, Alaska|Kenai]] [[Alaska House of Representatives|state representative]] Hugh Malone. It has served as an attractive political prospect ever since, diverting revenues which would normally be deposited into the general fund. The [[Alaska Constitution]] was written so as to discourage dedicating state funds for a particular purpose. The Permanent Fund has become the rare exception to this, mostly due to the political climate of distrust existing during the time of its creation. From its initial principal of $734,000, the fund has grown to $50&nbsp;billion as a result of oil royalties and capital investment programs.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.apfc.org/|title=Alaska Permanent Fund Corporation|work=apfc.org}}</ref> Most if not all the principal is invested conservatively outside Alaska. This has led to frequent calls by Alaskan politicians for the Fund to make investments within Alaska, though such a stance has never gained momentum. Starting in 1982, dividends from the fund's annual growth have been paid out each year to eligible Alaskans, ranging from an initial $1,000 in 1982 (equal to three years' payout, as the distribution of payments was held up in a lawsuit over the distribution scheme) to $3,269 in 2008 (which included a one-time $1,200 "Resource Rebate"). Every year, the state legislature takes out 8% from the earnings, puts 3% back into the principal for inflation proofing, and the remaining 5% is distributed to all qualifying Alaskans. To qualify for the Permanent Fund Dividend, one must have lived in the state for a minimum of 12 months, maintain constant residency subject to allowable absences,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.pfd.state.ak.us/dividendamounts/index.aspx |title=State of Alaska Permanent Fund Division |publisher=Pfd.state.ak.us |accessdate=June 2, 2010| archiveurl= //web.archive.org/web/20100420014117/http://www.pfd.state.ak.us/dividendamounts/index.aspx| archivedate=April 20, 2010| deadurl= no}} {{dead link|date=May 2014}}</ref> and not be subject to court judgments or criminal convictions which fall under various disqualifying classifications or may subject the payment amount to civil garnishment. The Permanent Fund is often considered to be one of the leading examples of a "[[Basic income|Basic Income]]" policy in the world.<ref>{{cite web|title = Alaska's Citizens' Dividend Set To Be Near Highest Ever|url = http://www.basicincome.org/news/2015/08/alaska-usa-dividend-amount-estimated-to-be-near-highest-ever/|website = BIEN|accessdate = 2015-11-03}}</ref> ===Cost of living=== The cost of goods in Alaska has long been higher than in the contiguous 48 states. Federal government employees, particularly [[United States Postal Service]] (USPS) workers and active-duty military members, receive a Cost of Living Allowance usually set at 25% of base pay because, while the cost of living has gone down, it is still one of the highest in the country.{{citation needed|date=August 2014}} Rural Alaska suffers from extremely high prices for food and consumer goods compared to the rest of the country, due to the relatively limited transportation infrastructure.{{citation needed|date=August 2014}} ===Agriculture and fishing=== {{expand section | more information on fishing|date=February 2013}} [[File:Pacific Halibut Fileting.JPG|thumb|right|upright|[[Halibut]] is important to the state's economy as both a commercial and sport-caught fish.]] Due to the northern climate and short growing season, relatively little farming occurs in Alaska. Most farms are in either the [[Matanuska Valley]], about {{convert|40|mi|km}} northeast of [[Anchorage]], or on the [[Kenai Peninsula]], about {{convert|60|mi|km}} southwest of Anchorage. The short 100-day growing season limits the crops that can be grown, but the long sunny summer days make for productive growing seasons. The primary crops are potatoes, carrots, lettuce, and cabbage. The [[Tanana Valley]] is another notable agricultural locus, especially the [[Delta Junction, Alaska|Delta Junction]] area, about {{convert|100|mi|km}} southeast of Fairbanks, with a sizable concentration of farms growing agronomic crops; these farms mostly lie north and east of [[Fort Greely]]. This area was largely set aside and developed under a state program spearheaded by Hammond during his second term as governor. Delta-area crops consist predominately of barley and hay. West of Fairbanks lies another concentration of small farms catering to restaurants, the hotel and tourist industry, and [[community-supported agriculture]]. Alaskan agriculture has experienced a surge in growth of [[market gardener]]s, small farms and [[farmers' market]]s in recent years, with the highest percentage increase (46%) in the nation in growth in farmers' markets in 2011, compared to 17% nationwide.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.usda.gov/wps/portal/usda/usdamediafb?contentid=2011/08/0338.xml&printable=true&contentidonly=true |title=More than 1,000 New Farmers Markets Recorded Across Country as USDA Directory Reveals 17 Percent Growth &#124; USDA Newsroom |publisher=Usda.gov |date= August 5, 2011|accessdate=June 14, 2012}}</ref> The [[peony]] industry has also taken off, as the growing season allows farmers to harvest during a gap in supply elsewhere in the world, thereby filling a niche in the flower market.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://alaskapeonies.org/ |title=Welcome to The Alaska Peony Growers Association |publisher=Alaskapeonies.org|accessdate=June 14, 2012}}</ref> {{double image|left|Heavy-lift_melon.jpg|190|Monster vegetable display at the Tanana Valley State Fair 2010.jpg|200|Oversized vegetables on display at the [[Alaska State Fair]] (left) and the [[Tanana Valley State Fair]] (right).}} Alaska, with no counties, lacks county fairs. However, a small assortment of state and local fairs (with the [[Alaska State Fair]] in [[Palmer, Alaska|Palmer]] the largest), are held mostly in the late summer. The fairs are mostly located in communities with historic or current agricultural activity, and feature local farmers exhibiting produce in addition to more high-profile commercial activities such as carnival rides, concerts and food. "Alaska Grown" is used as an agricultural slogan. Alaska has an abundance of seafood, with the primary fisheries in the Bering Sea and the North Pacific. Seafood is one of the few food items that is often cheaper within the state than outside it. Many Alaskans take advantage of salmon seasons to harvest portions of their household diet while fishing for subsistence, as well as sport. This includes fish taken by hook, net or wheel.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.adfg.alaska.gov/index.cfm?adfg=fishingPersonalUse.main |title=Alaska Department of Fish and Game |publisher=Adfg.alaska.gov |accessdate=May 29, 2011| archiveurl= //web.archive.org/web/20110624202032/http://www.adfg.alaska.gov/index.cfm?adfg=fishingPersonalUse.main| archivedate=June 24, 2011| deadurl= no}}</ref> Hunting for subsistence, primarily [[caribou]], [[moose]], and [[Dall sheep]] is still common in the state, particularly in remote [[The Bush (Alaska)|Bush]] communities. An example of a traditional native food is [[Akutaq]], the Eskimo ice cream, which can consist of reindeer fat, seal oil, dried fish meat and local berries. Alaska's reindeer herding is concentrated on [[Seward Peninsula]], where wild caribou can be prevented from mingling and migrating with the domesticated reindeer.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://reindeer.salrm.uaf.edu/about_reindeer/seward_peninsula.php |title=Reindeer Herding |publisher=Reindeer.salrm.uaf.edu |accessdate=November 7, 2010}}</ref> Most food in Alaska is transported into the state from [[Outside (Alaska)|"Outside"]], and shipping costs make food in the cities relatively expensive. In rural areas, subsistence hunting and gathering is an essential activity because imported food is prohibitively expensive. Though most small towns and villages in Alaska lie along the coastline, the cost of importing food to remote villages can be high, because of the terrain and difficult road conditions, which change dramatically, due to varying climate and precipitation changes. The cost of transport can reach as high as 50¢ per pound ($1.10/kg) or more in some remote areas, during the most difficult times, if these locations can be reached at all during such inclement weather and terrain conditions. The cost of delivering a {{convert|1|USgal|L}} of milk is about $3.50 in many villages where per capita income can be $20,000 or less. Fuel cost per gallon is routinely 20–30¢ higher than the continental United States average, with only Hawaii having higher prices.<ref>{{cite web|title=Daily Fuel Gauge Report|url=http://fuelgaugereport.aaa.com/?redirectto=http://fuelgaugereport.opisnet.com/index.asp|publisher=Automobile Association of America|accessdate=May 18, 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Retail Fuel Pricing and News|url=http://www.opisnet.com/retail-fuel-prices.aspx|publisher=Oil Price Information Service|accessdate=May 18, 2013}}</ref> ==Transportation== [[File:Sterling Highway.jpg|thumb|The [[Sterling Highway]], near its intersection with the [[Seward Highway]].]] {{Main|Transportation in Alaska}} ===Roads=== {{See also|List of Alaska Routes}} [[File:Susitnabridge.JPG|thumb|left|The [[Susitna River]] bridge on the [[Denali Highway]] is {{convert|1036|ft}} long.]] [[File:Interstate Alaska map.png|thumb|[[Interstate Highways in Alaska|Alaska Interstate Highways]].]] Alaska has few road connections compared to the rest of the U.S. The state's road system covers a relatively small area of the state, linking the central population centers and the [[Alaska Highway]], the principal route out of the state through Canada. The state capital, Juneau, is not accessible by road, only a car ferry, which has spurred several debates over the decades about moving the capital to a city on the road system, or building a road connection from [[Haines, Alaska|Haines]]. The western part of Alaska has no road system connecting the communities with the rest of Alaska. One unique feature of the Alaska Highway system is the [[Anton Anderson Memorial Tunnel]], an active [[Alaska Railroad]] tunnel recently upgraded to provide a paved roadway link with the isolated community of [[Whittier, Alaska|Whittier]] on [[Prince William Sound]] to the [[Seward Highway]] about {{convert|50|mi|km}} southeast of Anchorage at [[Portage, Alaska|Portage]]. At {{convert|2.5|mi|km|1}}, the tunnel was the longest road tunnel in North America until 2007.<ref>completion of the {{convert|3.5|mi|km|adj=on|1}} [[Interstate 93]] tunnel as part of the "[[Big Dig]]" project in Boston, Massachusetts.</ref> The tunnel is the longest combination [[List of road-rail tunnels|road and rail tunnel]] in North America. ===Rail=== [[File:Alaska Railroad.jpg|thumb|An Alaska Railroad locomotive and tanker cars crossing the [[George Parks Highway]] in 1994.]] [[File:Skagway-Hoonah-Angoon Census Area, In to the Tunnel.jpg|thumb|The [[White Pass and Yukon Route]] traverses rugged terrain north of [[Skagway]] near the [[Canada–United States border|Canadian border]].]] Built around 1915, the [[Alaska Railroad]] (ARR) played a key role in the development of Alaska through the 20th century. It links north Pacific shipping through providing critical infrastructure with tracks that run from [[Seward, Alaska|Seward]] to [[Interior Alaska]] by way of [[South Central Alaska]], passing through Anchorage, [[Eklutna]], Wasilla, [[Talkeetna, Alaska|Talkeetna]], [[Denali]], and Fairbanks, with spurs to [[Whittier, Alaska|Whittier]], [[Palmer, Alaska|Palmer]] and [[North Pole, Alaska|North Pole]]. The cities, towns, villages, and region served by ARR tracks are known statewide as "The Railbelt". In recent years, the ever-improving paved highway system began to eclipse the railroad's importance in Alaska's economy. The railroad played a vital role in Alaska's development, moving freight into Alaska while transporting natural resources southward (i.e., coal from the Usibelli coal mine near [[Healy, Alaska|Healy]] to Seward and gravel from the Matanuska Valley to Anchorage). It is well known for its summertime tour passenger service. The Alaska Railroad was one of the last railroads in North America to use [[caboose]]s in regular service and still uses them on some gravel trains. It continues to offer one of the last [[Request stop|flag stop]] routes in the country. A stretch of about {{convert|60|mi|km|-1}} of track along an area north of Talkeetna remains inaccessible by road; the railroad provides the only transportation to rural homes and cabins in the area. Until construction of the Parks Highway in the 1970s, the railroad provided the only land access to most of the region along its entire route. In northern Southeast Alaska, the [[White Pass and Yukon Route]] also partly runs through the state from [[Skagway, Alaska|Skagway]] northwards into Canada (British Columbia and Yukon Territory), crossing the border at [[White Pass]] Summit. This line is now mainly used by tourists, often arriving by cruise liner at Skagway. It was featured in the 1983 [[BBC]] television series ''[[Great Little Railways]].'' The Alaska Rail network is not connected to Outside. In 2000, the U.S. Congress authorized $6&nbsp;million to study the feasibility of a rail link between Alaska, Canada, and the lower 48.<ref name="RailLink1">{{cite web | url= http://communities.canada.com/vancouversun/blogs/powerplay/archive/2010/12/13/transporting-oil-across-b-c.aspx | title=Alaska Oil / BC Tar sands via rail | author=Barbara Yaffe | date=January 2, 2011 | accessdate=January 2, 2011 }}</ref><ref name="RailLink2">{{cite news | url=http://www.reuters.com/article/idUSN2138860820070622| title= Economic study touts Alaska-Canada rail link| author=Allan Dowd | date=June 27, 2007 | accessdate=January 2, 2011 |agency=Reuters }}</ref><ref name="RailLink3">{{cite web | url=http://alaskacanadarail.com/index.html| title=Alaska Canada Rail Link | author=AlaskaCanadaRail.org | date=January 2, 2005 | accessdate=January 2, 2011 }}</ref> [[Alaska Rail Marine]] provides [[car float]] service between [[Whittier, Alaska|Whittier]] and [[Seattle]]. ===Marine transport=== Many cities, towns and villages in the state do not have road or highway access; the only modes of access involve travel by air, river, or the sea. [[File:Tustumena, Alaska Marine Highway.jpg|thumb|The {{MV|Tustumena}} (named after [[Tustumena Glacier]]) is one of the state's many ferries, providing service between the [[Kenai Peninsula]], [[Kodiak Island]] and the [[Aleutian Chain]].]] Alaska's well-developed state-owned ferry system (known as the [[Alaska Marine Highway]]) serves the cities of [[Southeast Alaska|southeast]], the Gulf Coast and the Alaska Peninsula. The ferries transport vehicles as well as passengers. The system also operates a ferry service from [[Bellingham, Washington]] and [[Prince Rupert, British Columbia]] in Canada through the [[Inside Passage]] to [[Skagway, Alaska|Skagway]]. The [[Inter-Island Ferry Authority]] also serves as an important marine link for many communities in the [[Prince of Wales Island (Alaska)|Prince of Wales Island]] region of Southeast and works in concert with the Alaska Marine Highway. In recent years, cruise lines have created a summertime tourism market, mainly connecting the Pacific Northwest to Southeast Alaska and, to a lesser degree, towns along Alaska's gulf coast. The population of [[Ketchikan, Alaska|Ketchikan]] may rise by over 10,000 people on many days during the summer, as up to four large cruise ships at a time can dock, debarking thousands of passengers. ===Air transport=== Cities not served by road, sea, or river can be reached only by air, foot, dogsled, or snowmachine, accounting for Alaska's extremely well developed [[Alaskan Bush|bush]] air services—an Alaskan novelty. Anchorage and, to a lesser extent Fairbanks, is served by [[Ted Stevens Anchorage International Airport#Airlines and destinations|many major airlines]]. Because of limited highway access, air travel remains the most efficient form of transportation in and out of the state. Anchorage recently completed extensive remodeling and construction at [[Ted Stevens Anchorage International Airport]] to help accommodate the upsurge in tourism (in 2012-2013, Alaska received almost 2 million visitors).<ref>State of Alaska Office of Economic Development. ''[http://commerce.alaska.gov/dnn/ded/DEV/TourismDevelopment/TourismResearch.aspx Economic Impact of Alaska's Visitor Industry]''. January 2014. Retrieved May 21, 2014.</ref> Regular flights to most villages and towns within the state that are commercially viable are challenging to provide, so they are heavily subsidized by the federal government through the [[Essential Air Service]] program. [[Alaska Airlines]] is the only major airline offering in-state travel with jet service (sometimes in combination cargo and passenger [[Boeing 737]]-400s) from Anchorage and Fairbanks to regional hubs like [[Bethel, Alaska|Bethel]], [[Nome, Alaska|Nome]], [[Kotzebue, Alaska|Kotzebue]], [[Dillingham, Alaska|Dillingham]], [[Kodiak, Alaska|Kodiak]], and other larger communities as well as to major Southeast and Alaska Peninsula communities. [[File:ERA Aviation prop plane landing at ANC (6194226738).jpg|thumb|A [[Bombardier Dash 8]], operated by [[Era Alaska]], on approach to [[Ted Stevens Anchorage International Airport]].]] The bulk of remaining commercial flight offerings come from small regional commuter airlines such as [[Ravn Alaska]], [[PenAir]], and [[Frontier Flying Service]]. The smallest towns and villages must rely on scheduled or chartered bush flying services using general aviation aircraft such as the [[Cessna Caravan]], the most popular aircraft in use in the state. Much of this service can be attributed to the Alaska bypass mail program which subsidizes bulk mail delivery to Alaskan rural communities. The program requires 70% of that subsidy to go to carriers who offer passenger service to the communities. Many communities have small air taxi services. These operations originated from the demand for customized transport to remote areas. Perhaps the most quintessentially Alaskan plane is the bush seaplane. The world's busiest seaplane base is [[Lake Hood Seaplane Base|Lake Hood]], located next to Ted Stevens Anchorage International Airport, where flights bound for remote villages without an airstrip carry passengers, cargo, and many items from stores and warehouse clubs. In 2006 Alaska had the highest number of pilots per capita of any U.S. state.<ref>Out of the estimated 663,661 residents, 8,550 were pilots, or about one in 78, Federal Aviation Administration. ''[http://www.faa.gov/data_research/aviation_data_statistics/civil_airmen_statistics/2005/ 2005 U.S. Civil Airman Statistics]''</ref> ===Other transport=== Another Alaskan transportation method is the [[dogsled]]. In modern times (that is, any time after the mid-late 1920s), dog [[mushing]] is more of a sport than a true means of transportation. Various races are held around the state, but the best known is the [[Iditarod Trail Sled Dog Race]], a {{convert|1150|mi|adj=on}} trail from Anchorage to Nome (although the distance varies from year to year, the official distance is set at {{convert|1049|mi|km|disp=or|abbr=out}}). The race commemorates the famous [[1925 serum run to Nome]] in which mushers and dogs like [[Togo (dog)|Togo]] and [[Balto]] took much-needed medicine to the [[diphtheria]]-stricken community of [[Nome, Alaska|Nome]] when all other means of transportation had failed. Mushers from all over the world come to Anchorage each March to compete for cash, prizes, and prestige. The "Serum Run" is another sled dog race that more accurately follows the route of the famous 1925 relay, leaving from the community of [[Nenana, Alaska|Nenana]] (southwest of Fairbanks) to Nome.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.serumrun.org/ |title=Norman Vaughan Serum Run |publisher=United Nations |date=April 15, 2010 |accessdate=June 2, 2010 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/20090303205023/http://serumrun.org:80/ |archivedate=3 March 2009 }}</ref> In areas not served by road or rail, primary transportation in summer is by [[all-terrain vehicle]] and in winter by [[snowmobile]] or "snow machine," as it is commonly referred to in Alaska. ===Data transport=== Alaska's internet and other data transport systems are provided largely through the two major telecommunications companies: [[GCI (company)|GCI]] and [[Alaska Communications]]. GCI owns and operates what it calls the Alaska United Fiber Optic system<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.alaskaunited.com/|title=Alaska United Fiber Optic System homepage |publisher=Alaskaunited.com |accessdate=July 24, 2012}}</ref> and as of late 2011 Alaska Communications advertised that it has "two fiber optic paths to the lower 48 and two more across Alaska.<ref>[http://www.alaskacommunications.com/Personal/Wireless/Coverage-Map.aspx Alaska Communications Coverage Map]. Alaska Communications.</ref> In January 2011, it was reported that a $1 billion project to run connect Asia and rural Alaska was being planned, aided in part by $350 million in stimulus from the federal government.<ref>[http://www.adn.com/2010/01/13/1091946/arctic-fiber-optic-cable-could.html Arctic fiber-optic cable could benefit far-flung Alaskans]. ''Anchorage Daily News''.</ref> ==Law and government== ===State government=== [[File:Juneau, Alaska Downtown.jpg|thumb|The center of state government in [[Juneau]]. The large buildings in the background are, from left to right: the Court Plaza Building (known colloquially as the "[[Spam (food)|Spam Can]]"), the State Office Building (behind), the Alaska Office Building, the [[List of Justices of the Alaska Supreme Court|John H. Dimond]] State Courthouse, and the [[Alaska State Capitol]]. Many of the smaller buildings in the foreground are also occupied by state government agencies.]] {{Main|Government of Alaska}} Like all other U.S. states, Alaska is governed as a republic, with three [[separation of powers|branches of government]]: an [[executive branch]] consisting of the [[Governor of Alaska]] and the other independently elected constitutional officers; a [[legislative branch]] consisting of the [[Alaska House of Representatives]] and [[Alaska Senate]]; and a [[judicial branch]] consisting of the [[Alaska Supreme Court]] and lower courts. The state of Alaska employs approximately 16,000 people statewide.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://doa.alaska.gov/dop/fileadmin/DOP_Home/pdf/dopannualreport.pdf |title=State of Alaska Workforce Profile Fiscal Year 2013 |publisher=Dop.state.ak.us |accessdate=May 25, 2014}}</ref> The [[Alaska Legislature]] consists of a 40-member [[Alaska House of Representatives|House of Representatives]] and a 20-member [[Alaska Senate|Senate]]. Senators serve four-year terms and House members two. The [[Governor of Alaska]] serves four-year terms. The [[List of Lieutenant Governors of Alaska|lieutenant governor]] runs separately from the governor in the [[Primary election|primaries]], but during the general election, the nominee for governor and nominee for lieutenant governor run together on the same ticket. Alaska's court system has four levels: the [[Alaska Supreme Court]], the [[Alaska Court of Appeals]], the superior courts and the district courts.<ref name="cts">{{cite web|url=http://www.state.ak.us/courts/ctinfo.htm |title=About the Alaska Court System |publisher=State.ak.us |accessdate=June 2, 2010| archiveurl= //web.archive.org/web/20100613094049/http://www.state.ak.us/courts/ctinfo.htm| archivedate=June 13, 2010| deadurl= no}}</ref> The superior and district courts are [[trial court]]s. Superior courts are courts of general jurisdiction, while district courts only hear certain types of cases, including misdemeanor criminal cases and civil cases valued up to $100,000.<ref name="cts"/> The Supreme Court and the Court of Appeals are [[appellate court]]s. The Court of Appeals is required to hear appeals from certain lower-court decisions, including those regarding criminal prosecutions, juvenile delinquency, and [[habeas corpus]].<ref name="cts"/> The Supreme Court hears civil appeals and may in its discretion hear criminal appeals.<ref name="cts"/> ===State politics=== {{main|Politics of Alaska}} {{further|Political party strength in Alaska|Alaska political corruption probe}} Although in its early years of statehood Alaska was a [[Democratic Party (United States)|Democratic]] state, since the early 1970s it has been characterized as [[Republican Party (United States)|Republican]]-leaning.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://election.nationaljournal.com/states/ak.htm |title=National Journal Alaska State Profile |publisher=Election.nationaljournal.com |accessdate=June 2, 2010 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/20100126095610/http://election.nationaljournal.com:80/states/ak.htm |archivedate=26 January 2010 }}</ref> Local political communities have often worked on issues related to land use development, fishing, tourism, and individual rights. [[Alaska Natives]], while organized in and around their communities, have been active within the [[Alaska Native Regional Corporations|Native corporations]]. These have been given ownership over large tracts of land, which require stewardship. Alaska was formerly the only state in which possession of one ounce or less of marijuana in one's home was completely legal under state law, though the federal law remains in force.<ref name=seattle_times>{{cite news |url=http://seattletimes.nwsource.com/html/localnews/2003118645_webpot10.html |title=Judge rules against Alaska marijuana law |accessdate=May 22, 2008 |last=Volz |first=Matt |date=July 11, 2006 |work=[[The Seattle Times]] |publisher=Frank A. Blethen| archiveurl= //web.archive.org/web/20080617044034/http://seattletimes.nwsource.com/html/localnews/2003118645_webpot10.html| archivedate=June 17, 2008| deadurl= no}}</ref> The state has an independence movement favoring a vote on secession from the United States, with the [[Alaskan Independence Party]].<ref name="AIPqa">{{cite web|url=http://www.akip.org/faqs.html|title=Questions And Answers&nbsp;– About Alaskan Independence |year=2006|publisher=Alaskan Independence Party}}</ref> Six [[Republican Party (United States)|Republicans]] and four [[Democratic Party (United States)|Democrats]] have served as governor of Alaska. In addition, Republican Governor [[Walter Joseph Hickel|Wally Hickel]] was elected to the office for a second term in 1990 after leaving the Republican party and briefly joining the Alaskan Independence Party ticket just long enough to be reelected. He subsequently officially rejoined the Republican party in 1994. Alaska's voter initiative making marijuana legal takes effect 24 February 2015, placing Alaska alongside Colorado and Washington as the three U.S. states where recreational marijuana is legal. The new law means people over age 21 can consume small amounts of pot — if they can find it. Commercial sales await implementation of [[Alaska Measure 2 (2014)]].<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.npr.org/blogs/thetwo-way/2015/02/24/388673136/marijuana-is-now-legal-in-alaska-the-third-u-s-state-to-ok-pot |title=Marijuana Is Now Legal In Alaska, The 3rd U.S. State With Legal Pot |accessdate=February 25, 2015 |last=Chappel |first=Bill |date=February 24, 2015}}</ref> ===Taxes=== To finance state government operations, Alaska depends primarily on petroleum revenues and federal subsidies. This allows it to have the lowest individual tax burden in the United States.<ref>CNN Money (2005). "How tax friendly is your state?" Retrieved from [http://money.cnn.com/pf/features/lists/taxesbystate2005/index.html CNN website].</ref> It is one of five states with no state [[sales tax]], one of seven states that do not levy an individual [[income tax]], and one of the two states that has neither. The Department of Revenue Tax Division<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.tax.state.ak.us/ |title=Department of Revenue Tax Division |publisher=Tax.state.ak.us |accessdate=June 2, 2010}}</ref> reports regularly on the state's revenue sources. The Department also issues an annual summary of its operations, including new state laws that directly affect the tax division. While Alaska has no state sales tax, 89 municipalities collect a local sales tax, from 1.0–7.5%, typically 3–5%. Other local taxes levied include raw fish taxes, hotel, motel, and bed-and-breakfast 'bed' taxes, [[severance tax]]es, liquor and tobacco taxes, gaming (pull tabs) taxes, tire taxes and fuel transfer taxes. A part of the revenue collected from certain state taxes and license fees (such as petroleum, aviation motor fuel, telephone cooperative) is shared with municipalities in Alaska. [[Fairbanks, Alaska|Fairbanks]] has one of the highest property taxes in the state as no sales or income taxes are assessed in the [[Fairbanks North Star Borough]] (FNSB). A sales tax for the FNSB has been voted on many times, but has yet to be approved, leading law makers to increase taxes dramatically on goods such as liquor and tobacco. In 2014 the [[Tax Foundation]] ranked Alaska as having the fourth most "business friendly" tax policy, behind only [[Wyoming]], [[South Dakota]], and [[Nevada]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://taxfoundation.org/blog/how-friendly-your-states-tax-system-tax-foundations-2014-state-business-tax-climate-index |title=How Friendly Is Your State's Tax System? The Tax Foundation's 2014 State Business Tax Climate Index |publisher=The Tax Foundation |accessdate=May 25, 2014| archiveurl= //web.archive.org/web/20100712120414/http://www.taxfoundation.org/research/topic/11.html| archivedate=July 12, 2010| deadurl= no}}</ref> ===Federal politics=== {{main|Politics of Alaska}} {{See also|Arctic Policy of the United States}} {| class="wikitable" style="float:right; font-size:76%; margin:10px" |+ '''Presidential election results 1960-2012''' |- style="background:lightgrey;" ! Year ! [[Republican Party (United States)|Republican]] ! [[Democratic Party (United States)|Democratic]] |- | style="text-align:center; background:#fff3f3;"|[[U.S. presidential election, 2012|2012]] | style="text-align:center; background:#fff3f3;"|'''54.80%''' ''164,676 | style="text-align:center; background:#f0f0ff;"|40.81% ''122,640 |- | style="text-align:center; background:#fff3f3;"|[[U.S. presidential election, 2008|2008]] | style="text-align:center; background:#fff3f3;"|'''59.42%''' ''193,841 | style="text-align:center; background:#f0f0ff;"|37.83% ''123,594 |- | style="text-align:center; background:#fff3f3;"|[[U.S. presidential election, 2004|2004]] | style="text-align:center; background:#fff3f3;"|'''61.07%''' ''190,889 | style="text-align:center; background:#f0f0ff;"|35.52% ''111,025 |- | style="text-align:center; background:#fff3f3;"|[[U.S. presidential election, 2000|2000]] | style="text-align:center; background:#fff3f3;"|'''58.62%''' ''167,398 | style="text-align:center; background:#f0f0ff;"|27.67% ''79,004 |- | style="text-align:center; background:#fff3f3;"|[[U.S. presidential election, 1996|1996]] | style="text-align:center; background:#fff3f3;"|'''50.80%''' ''122,746 | style="text-align:center; background:#f0f0ff;"|33.27% ''80,380 |- | style="text-align:center; background:#fff3f3;"|[[U.S. presidential election, 1992|1992]] | style="text-align:center; background:#fff3f3;"|'''39.46%''' ''102,000 | style="text-align:center; background:#f0f0ff;"|30.29% '' ''78,294 |- | style="text-align:center; background:#fff3f3;"|[[U.S. presidential election, 1988|1988]] | style="text-align:center; background:#fff3f3;"|'''59.59%''' ''119,251 | style="text-align:center; background:#f0f0ff;"|36.27% ''72,584 |- | style="text-align:center; background:#fff3f3;"|[[U.S. presidential election, 1984|1984]] | style="text-align:center; background:#fff3f3;"|'''66.65%''' ''138,377 | style="text-align:center; background:#f0f0ff;"|29.87% ''62,007 |- | style="text-align:center; background:#fff3f3;"|[[U.S. presidential election, 1980|1980]] | style="text-align:center; background:#fff3f3;"|'''54.35%''' ''86,112 | style="text-align:center; background:#f0f0ff;"|26.41% ''41,842 |- | style="text-align:center; background:#fff3f3;"|[[U.S. presidential election, 1976|1976]] | style="text-align:center; background:#fff3f3;"|'''57.90%''' ''71,555 | style="text-align:center; background:#f0f0ff;"|35.65% ''44,058 |- | style="text-align:center; background:#fff3f3;"|[[U.S. presidential election, 1972|1972]] | style="text-align:center; background:#fff3f3;"|'''58.13%''' ''55,349 | style="text-align:center; background:#f0f0ff;"|34.62% ''32,967 |- | style="text-align:center; background:#fff3f3;"|[[U.S. presidential election, 1968|1968]] | style="text-align:center; background:#fff3f3;"|'''45.28%''' ''37,600 | style="text-align:center; background:#f0f0ff;"|42.65% ''35,411 |- | style="text-align:center; background:#f0f0ff;"|[[U.S. presidential election, 1964|1964]] | style="text-align:center; background:#fff3f3;"|34.09% ''22,930 | style="text-align:center; background:#f0f0ff;"|'''65.91%''' ''44,329 |- | style="text-align:center; background:#fff3f3;"|[[U.S. presidential election, 1960|1960]] | style="text-align:center; background:#fff3f3;"|'''50.94%''' ''30,953 | style="text-align:center; background:#f0f0ff;"|49.06% ''29,809 |} Alaska regularly supports [[Republican Party (United States)|Republicans]] in presidential elections and has done so since statehood. Republicans have won the state's [[Electoral College (United States)|electoral college]] votes in all but one election that it has participated in ([[United States presidential election, 1964|1964]]). No state has voted for a Democratic presidential candidate fewer times. Alaska was carried by [[Democratic Party (United States)|Democratic]] nominee [[Lyndon B. Johnson]] during his landslide election in [[U.S. presidential election, 1964|1964]], while the [[U.S. presidential election, 1960|1960]] and [[U.S. presidential election, 1968|1968]] elections were close. Since [[U.S. presidential election, 1972|1972]], however, Republicans have carried the state by large margins. In [[U.S. presidential election, 2008|2008]], Republican [[John McCain]] defeated Democrat [[Barack Obama]] in Alaska, 59.49% to 37.83%. McCain's running mate was [[Sarah Palin]], the state's governor and the first Alaskan on a major party ticket. Obama lost Alaska again in [[U.S. presidential election, 2012|2012]], but he captured 40% of the state's vote in that election, making him the first Democrat to do so since 1968. The [[The Bush (Alaska)|Alaska Bush]], central Juneau, midtown and downtown Anchorage, and the areas surrounding the [[University of Alaska Fairbanks]] campus and Ester have been strongholds of the Democratic Party. The Matanuska-Susitna Borough, the majority of Fairbanks (including North Pole and the military base), and South Anchorage typically have the strongest Republican showing. {{as of|2004}}, well over half of all registered voters have chosen "Non-Partisan" or "Undeclared" as their affiliation,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.gov.state.ak.us/ltgov/elections/regbypty.htm|archiveurl=//web.archive.org/web/20080225223222/http://www.gov.state.ak.us/ltgov/elections/regbypty.htm|archivedate=February 25, 2008 |title=State of Alaska |publisher=Gov.state.ak.us |accessdate=June 2, 2010}}</ref> despite recent attempts to close primaries to unaffiliated voters. Because of its population relative to other U.S. states, Alaska has only one member in the [[United States House of Representatives|U.S. House of Representatives]]. This seat is held by Republican [[Don Young]], who was re-elected to his 21st consecutive term in 2012. [[Alaska's At-large congressional district]] is one of the largest parliamentary constituencies in the world. In 2008, Governor [[Sarah Palin]] became the first Republican woman to run on a national ticket when she became [[John McCain]]'s running mate. She continued to be a prominent national figure even after resigning from the governor's job in July 2009.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.washingtontimes.com/topics/sarah-palin/ |title= Topic - Sarah Palin |publisher=Washington Times |accessdate=May 25, 2014}}</ref> [[List of United States Senators from Alaska|Alaska's United States Senators]] belong to [[Classes of United States Senators|Class 2 and Class 3]]. In 2008, Democrat [[Mark Begich]], mayor of Anchorage, defeated long-time Republican senator [[Ted Stevens]]. Stevens had been convicted on seven felony counts of failing to report gifts on Senate financial discloser forms one week before the election. The conviction was set aside in April 2009 after evidence of prosecutorial misconduct emerged. Republican [[Frank Murkowski]] held the state's other senatorial position. After being elected governor in 2002, he resigned from the Senate and appointed his daughter, State Representative [[Lisa Murkowski]] as his successor. She won full six-year terms in 2004 and 2010. <gallery caption="Alaska's current statewide elected officials" widths="160px" heights="160px" perrow="5"> File:Bill Walker inauguration speech.jpg|[[Bill Walker (American politician)|Bill Walker]], [[List of Governors of Alaska|Governor]] File:Byron Mallott inaugural speech.jpg|[[Byron Mallott]], [[List of lieutenant governors of Alaska|Lieutenant Governor]] File:Lisa Murkowski.jpg|[[Lisa Murkowski]], senior [[List of United States Senators from Alaska|United States Senator]] File:Senator_Dan_Sullivan_official.jpg|[[Dan Sullivan (U.S. Senator)|Dan Sullivan]], junior United States Senator File:Don Young, official photo portrait, color, 2006.jpg|[[Don Young]], [[Alaska's at-large congressional district|at-large United States Representative]] </gallery> ==Cities, towns and boroughs== {{See also|List of cities in Alaska by population|Alaska locations by per capita income|List of boroughs and census areas in Alaska}} [[File:Anchorage1.jpg|thumb|180px|[[Anchorage, Alaska]], Alaska's largest city.]] [[File:Fairbanks05.jpg|thumb|180px|[[Fairbanks, Alaska|Fairbanks]], Alaska's second-largest city and by a significant margin the largest city in [[Alaska Interior|Alaska's interior]].]] [[File:Downtown Juneau with Mount Juneau rising in the background.jpg|thumb|180px|[[Juneau]], Alaska's third-largest city and [[List of capitals in the United States|its capital]].]] [[File:Bethel Alaska aerial view.jpg|thumb|180px|[[Bethel, Alaska|Bethel]], the largest city in the [[Unorganized Borough]] and in [[The Bush (Alaska)|rural Alaska]].]] [[File:Looking into the sun from over downtown onto the Homer Spit..jpg|thumb|180px|[[Homer, Alaska|Homer]], showing (from bottom to top) the edge of downtown, [[Homer Airport|its airport]] and [[Homer Spit|the Spit]].]] [[File:Barrow-Alaska-skyview.jpg|thumb|180px|[[Barrow, Alaska|Barrow]] (Browerville neighborhood near [[Eben Hopson]] Middle School shown), known colloquially for many years by the nickname "Top of the World", is the northernmost city in the United States.]] [[File:CordovaHillside.jpg|thumb|180px|[[Cordova, Alaska|Cordova]], built in the early 20th century to support the [[Kennecott Mines]] and the [[Copper River and Northwestern Railway]], has persevered as a fishing community since their closure.]] [[File:Downtown Talkeetna.jpg|thumb|180px|Main Street in [[Talkeetna]].]] Alaska is not divided into [[County (United States)|counties]], as most of the other U.S. states, but it is divided into ''[[List of boroughs and census areas in Alaska|boroughs]]''. Many of the more densely populated parts of the state are part of Alaska's 16 boroughs, which function somewhat similarly to counties in other states. However, unlike county-equivalents in the other 49 states, the boroughs do not cover the entire land area of the state. The area not part of any borough is referred to as the [[Unorganized Borough, Alaska|Unorganized Borough]]. The Unorganized Borough has no government of its own, but the [[U.S. Census Bureau]] in cooperation with the state divided the Unorganized Borough into 11 [[census area]]s solely for the purposes of statistical analysis and presentation. A ''recording district'' is a mechanism for administration of the [[public record]] in Alaska. The state is divided into 34 recording districts which are centrally administered under a State [[recorder of deeds|Recorder]]. All recording districts use the same acceptance criteria, fee schedule, etc., for accepting documents into the public record. Whereas many U.S. states use a three-tiered system of decentralization—state/county/township—most of Alaska uses only two tiers—state/borough. Owing to the low population density, most of the land is located in the [[Unorganized Borough]]. As the name implies, it has no intermediate borough government but is administered directly by the state government. In 2000, 57.71% of Alaska's area has this status, with 13.05% of the population. Anchorage merged the city government with the Greater Anchorage Area Borough in 1975 to form the Municipality of Anchorage, containing the city proper and the communities of Eagle River, Chugiak, Peters Creek, Girdwood, Bird, and Indian. Fairbanks has a separate borough (the [[Fairbanks North Star Borough]]) and municipality (the City of Fairbanks). The state's most populous city is [[Anchorage, Alaska|Anchorage]], home to 278,700 people in 2006, 225,744 of whom live in the urbanized area. The richest [[Alaska locations by per capita income|location in Alaska by per capita income]] is [[Halibut Cove, Alaska|Halibut Cove]] ($89,895). [[Yakutat City]], Sitka, Juneau, and Anchorage are the four [[List of U.S. cities by area|largest cities in the U.S. by area]]. ===Cities and census-designated places (by population)=== As reflected in the [[2010 United States Census]], Alaska has a total of 355 incorporated cities and [[census-designated place]]s (CDPs). The tally of cities includes four unified municipalities, essentially the equivalent of a [[consolidated city–county]]. The majority of these communities are located in the rural expanse of Alaska known as "[[The Bush (Alaska)|The Bush]]" and are unconnected to the contiguous North American road network. The table at the bottom of this section lists the 100 largest cities and census-designated places in Alaska, in population order. Of Alaska's 2010 Census population figure of 710,231, 20,429 people, or 2.88% of the population, did not live in an incorporated city or census-designated place. Approximately three-quarters of that figure were people who live in urban and suburban neighborhoods on the outskirts of the city limits of Ketchikan, Kodiak, Palmer and Wasilla. CDPs have not been established for these areas by the [[United States Census Bureau]], except that seven CDPs were established for the Ketchikan-area neighborhoods in the [[1980 United States Census|1980 Census]] (Clover Pass, Herring Cove, Ketchikan East, Mountain Point, North [[Tongass Highway]], [[Pennock Island]] and [[Saxman, Alaska|Saxman]] East), but have not been used since. The remaining population was scattered throughout Alaska, both within organized boroughs and in the [[Unorganized Borough]], in largely remote areas. {| | {| class="wikitable" |- ! № !! Community name !! Type !! [[2010 United States Census|2010]] Pop. |- | 1 || [[Anchorage, Alaska|Anchorage]] || City || style="text-align:right;"| 291,826 |- | 2 || [[Fairbanks, Alaska|Fairbanks]] || City || style="text-align:right;"| 31,535 |- | 3 || [[Juneau, Alaska|Juneau]] || City || style="text-align:right;"| 31,275 |- | 4 || [[Badger, Alaska|Badger]] || CDP || style="text-align:right;"| 19,482 |- | 5 || [[Knik-Fairview, Alaska|Knik-Fairview]] || CDP || style="text-align:right;"| 14,923 |- | 6 || [[College, Alaska|College]] || CDP || style="text-align:right;"| 12,964 |- | 7 || [[Sitka, Alaska|Sitka]] || City || style="text-align:right;"| 8,881 |- | 8 || [[Lakes, Alaska|Lakes]] || CDP || style="text-align:right;"| 8,364 |- | 9 || [[Tanaina, Alaska|Tanaina]] || CDP || style="text-align:right;"| 8,197 |- | 10 || [[Ketchikan, Alaska|Ketchikan]] || City || style="text-align:right;"| 8,050 |- | 11 || [[Kalifornsky, Alaska|Kalifornsky]] || CDP || style="text-align:right;"| 7,850 |- | 12 || [[Wasilla, Alaska|Wasilla]] || City || style="text-align:right;"| 7,831 |- | 13 || [[Meadow Lakes, Alaska|Meadow Lakes]] || CDP || style="text-align:right;"| 7,570 |- | 14 || [[Kenai, Alaska|Kenai]] || City || style="text-align:right;"| 7,100 |- | 15 || [[Steele Creek, Alaska|Steele Creek]] || CDP || style="text-align:right;"| 6,662 |- | 16 || [[Kodiak, Alaska|Kodiak]] || City || style="text-align:right;"| 6,130 |- | 17 || [[Bethel, Alaska|Bethel]] || City || style="text-align:right;"| 6,080 |- | 18 || [[Palmer, Alaska|Palmer]] || City || style="text-align:right;"| 5,937 |- | 19 || [[Chena Ridge, Alaska|Chena Ridge]] || CDP || style="text-align:right;"| 5,791 |- | 20 || [[Sterling, Alaska|Sterling]] || CDP || style="text-align:right;"| 5,617 |- | 21 || [[Gateway, Alaska|Gateway]] || CDP || style="text-align:right;"| 5,552 |- | 22 || [[Homer, Alaska|Homer]] || City || style="text-align:right;"| 5,003 |- | 23 || [[Farmers Loop, Alaska|Farmers Loop]] || CDP || style="text-align:right;"| 4,853 |- | 24 || [[Fishhook, Alaska|Fishhook]] || CDP || style="text-align:right;"| 4,679 |- | 25 || [[Nikiski, Alaska|Nikiski]] || CDP || style="text-align:right;"| 4,493 |- | 26 || [[Unalaska, Alaska|Unalaska]] || City || style="text-align:right;"| 4,376 |- | 27 || [[Barrow, Alaska|Barrow]] || City || style="text-align:right;"| 4,212 |- | 28 || [[Soldotna, Alaska|Soldotna]] || City || style="text-align:right;"| 4,163 |- | 29 || [[Valdez, Alaska|Valdez]] || City || style="text-align:right;"| 3,976 |- | 30 || [[Nome, Alaska|Nome]] || City || style="text-align:right;"| 3,598 |- | 31 || [[Goldstream, Alaska|Goldstream]] || CDP || style="text-align:right;"| 3,557 |- | 32 || [[Big Lake, Alaska|Big Lake]] || CDP || style="text-align:right;"| 3,350 |- | 33 || [[Butte, Alaska|Butte]] || CDP || style="text-align:right;"| 3,246 |- | 34 || [[Kotzebue, Alaska|Kotzebue]] || City || style="text-align:right;"| 3,201 |- | 35 || [[Petersburg, Alaska|Petersburg]] || City || style="text-align:right;"| 2,948 |- | 36 || [[Seward, Alaska|Seward]] || City || style="text-align:right;"| 2,693 |- | 37 || [[Eielson Air Force Base|Eielson AFB]] || CDP || style="text-align:right;"| 2,647 |- | 38 || [[Ester, Alaska|Ester]] || CDP || style="text-align:right;"| 2,422 |- | 39 || [[Wrangell, Alaska|Wrangell]] || City || style="text-align:right;"| 2,369 |- | 40 || [[Dillingham, Alaska|Dillingham]] || City || style="text-align:right;"| 2,329 |- | 41 || [[Deltana, Alaska|Deltana]] || CDP || style="text-align:right;"| 2,251 |- | 42 || [[Cordova, Alaska|Cordova]] || City || style="text-align:right;"| 2,239 |- | 43 || [[Prudhoe Bay, Alaska|Prudhoe Bay]] || CDP || style="text-align:right;"| 2,174 |- | 44 || [[North Pole, Alaska|North Pole]] || City || style="text-align:right;"| 2,117 |- | 45 || [[Willow, Alaska|Willow]] || CDP || style="text-align:right;"| 2,102 |- | 46 || [[Ridgeway, Alaska|Ridgeway]] || CDP || style="text-align:right;"| 2,022 |- | 47 || [[Bear Creek, Alaska|Bear Creek]] || CDP || style="text-align:right;"| 1,956 |- | 48 || [[Fritz Creek, Alaska|Fritz Creek]] || CDP || style="text-align:right;"| 1,932 |- | 49 || [[Anchor Point, Alaska|Anchor Point]] || CDP || style="text-align:right;"| 1,930 |- | 50 || [[Houston, Alaska|Houston]] || City || style="text-align:right;"| 1,912 |} | valign="top" | {| class="wikitable" |- ! № !! Community name !! Type !! [[2010 United States Census|2010]] Pop. |- | 51 || [[Haines, Alaska|Haines]] || CDP || style="text-align:right;"| 1,713 |- | 52 || [[Lazy Mountain, Alaska|Lazy Mountain]] || CDP || style="text-align:right;"| 1,479 |- | 53 || [[Sutton-Alpine, Alaska|Sutton-Alpine]] || CDP || style="text-align:right;"| 1,447 |- | 54 || [[Metlakatla, Alaska|Metlakatla]] || CDP || style="text-align:right;"| 1,405 |- | 55 || [[Cohoe, Alaska|Cohoe]] || CDP || style="text-align:right;"| 1,364 |- | 56 || [[Kodiak Station, Alaska|Kodiak Station]] || CDP || style="text-align:right;"| 1,301 |- | 57 || [[Susitna North, Alaska|Susitna North]] || CDP || style="text-align:right;"| 1,260 |- | 58 || [[Tok, Alaska|Tok]] || CDP || style="text-align:right;"| 1,258 |- | 59 || [[Craig, Alaska|Craig]] || City || style="text-align:right;"| 1,201 |- | 60 || [[Diamond Ridge, Alaska|Diamond Ridge]] || CDP || style="text-align:right;"| 1,156 |- | 61 || [[Salcha, Alaska|Salcha]] || CDP || style="text-align:right;"| 1,095 |- | 62 || [[Hooper Bay, Alaska|Hooper Bay]] || City || style="text-align:right;"| 1,093 |- | 63 || [[Farm Loop, Alaska|Farm Loop]] || CDP || style="text-align:right;"| 1,028 |- | 64 || [[Akutan, Alaska|Akutan]] || City || style="text-align:right;"| 1,027 |- | 65 || [[Healy, Alaska|Healy]] || CDP || style="text-align:right;"| 1,021 |- | 66 || [[Salamatof, Alaska|Salamatof]] || CDP || style="text-align:right;"| 980 |- | 67 || [[Sand Point, Alaska|Sand Point]] || City || style="text-align:right;"| 976 |- | 68 || [[Delta Junction, Alaska|Delta Junction]] || City || style="text-align:right;"| 958 |- | rowspan="2" | 69 || [[Chevak, Alaska|Chevak]] || City || style="text-align:right;" rowspan="2"| 938 |- | [[King Cove, Alaska|King Cove]] || City |- | 71 || [[Skagway, Alaska|Skagway]] || CDP || style="text-align:right;"| 920 |- | 72 || [[Ninilchik, Alaska|Ninilchik]] || CDP || style="text-align:right;"| 883 |- | 73 || [[Funny River, Alaska|Funny River]] || CDP || style="text-align:right;"| 877 |- | 74 || [[Talkeetna, Alaska|Talkeetna]] || CDP || style="text-align:right;"| 876 |- | 75 || [[Buffalo Soapstone, Alaska|Buffalo Soapstone]] || CDP || style="text-align:right;"| 855 |- | 76 || [[Selawik, Alaska|Selawik]] || City || style="text-align:right;"| 829 |- | 77 || [[Togiak, Alaska|Togiak]] || City || style="text-align:right;"| 817 |- | 78 || [[Mountain Village, Alaska|Mountain Village]] || City || style="text-align:right;"| 813 |- | 79 || [[Emmonak, Alaska|Emmonak]] || City || style="text-align:right;"| 762 |- | 80 || [[Hoonah, Alaska|Hoonah]] || City || style="text-align:right;"| 760 |- | 81 || [[Klawock, Alaska|Klawock]] || City || style="text-align:right;"| 755 |- | 82 || [[Moose Creek, Alaska|Moose Creek]] || CDP || style="text-align:right;"| 747 |- | 83 || [[Knik River, Alaska|Knik River]] || CDP || style="text-align:right;"| 744 |- | 84 || [[Pleasant Valley, Alaska|Pleasant Valley]] || CDP || style="text-align:right;"| 725 |- | 85 || [[Kwethluk, Alaska|Kwethluk]] || City || style="text-align:right;"| 721 |- | rowspan="2" |86 || [[Two Rivers, Alaska|Two Rivers]] || CDP || style="text-align:right;" rowspan="2"| 719 |- | [[Women's Bay, Alaska|Women's Bay]] || CDP |- | 88 || [[Unalakleet, Alaska|Unalakleet]] || City || style="text-align:right;"| 688 |- | 89 || [[Fox River, Alaska|Fox River]] || CDP || style="text-align:right;"| 685 |- | 90 || [[Gambell, Alaska|Gambell]] || City || style="text-align:right;"| 681 |- | 91 || [[Alakanuk, Alaska|Alakanuk]] || City || style="text-align:right;"| 677 |- | 92 || [[Point Hope, Alaska|Point Hope]] || City || style="text-align:right;"| 674 |- | 93 || [[Savoonga, Alaska|Savoonga]] || City || style="text-align:right;"| 671 |- | 94 || [[Quinhagak, Alaska|Quinhagak]] || City || style="text-align:right;"| 669 |- | 95 || [[Noorvik, Alaska|Noorvik]] || City || style="text-align:right;"| 668 |- | 96 || [[Yakutat, Alaska|Yakutat]] || CDP || style="text-align:right;"| 662 |- | 97 || [[Kipnuk, Alaska|Kipnuk]] || CDP || style="text-align:right;"| 639 |- | 98 || [[Akiachak, Alaska|Akiachak]] || CDP || style="text-align:right;"| 627 |- | 99 || [[Happy Valley, Alaska|Happy Valley]] || CDP || style="text-align:right;"| 593 |- | 100 || [[Big Delta, Alaska|Big Delta]] || CDP || style="text-align:right;"| 591 |} |} ==Education== [[File:Kachcampus.jpg|thumb|The [[Kachemak Bay Campus]] of the [[University of Alaska Anchorage]], located in downtown Homer.]] The [[Alaska Department of Education and Early Development]] administers many [[List of school districts in Alaska|school districts]] in Alaska. In addition, the state operates a boarding school, [[Mt. Edgecumbe High School]] in [[Sitka, Alaska|Sitka]], and provides partial funding for other boarding schools, including [[Nenana Student Living Center]] in [[Nenana, Alaska|Nenana]] and The Galena Interior Learning Academy in [[Galena, Alaska|Galena]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.alaskaice.org/material.php?matID=138 |title=Asset Building in Residence Life |publisher=Alaska ICE |date=April 4, 2009 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/20071009144551/http://www.alaskaice.org/material.php?matID=138 |archivedate=9 October 2007 }}</ref> There are more than a dozen [[List of colleges and universities in Alaska|colleges and universities in Alaska]]. Accredited universities in Alaska include the [[University of Alaska Anchorage]], [[University of Alaska Fairbanks]], [[University of Alaska Southeast]], and [[Alaska Pacific University]].<ref>These are the only three universities in the state ranked by [[U.S. News & World Report]]. [http://www.usnews.com/usnews/edu/college/rankings/rankindex_brief.php]</ref> Alaska is the only state that has no institutions that are part of the [[National Collegiate Athletic Association|NCAA]] [[Division I (NCAA)|Division I]]. The Alaska Department of Labor and Workforce Development operates AVTEC, Alaska's Institute of Technology.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://avtec.labor.state.ak.us/ |title=AVTEC – Home Page |publisher=Avtec.labor.state.ak.us|accessdate=September 7, 2012}}</ref> Campuses in Seward and Anchorage offer 1 week to 11-month training programs in areas as diverse as Information Technology, Welding, Nursing, and Mechanics. Alaska has had a problem with a "[[brain drain]]". Many of its young people, including most of the highest academic achievers, leave the state after high school graduation and do not return. {{as of|2013}}, Alaska did not have a [[Legal education in Alaska|law school]] or medical school.<ref>{{Citation |publication-date=February 5, 2013 |title=House Bill 43 "University Institutes of Law And Medicine" |work= States News Service |url= http://akdemocrats.org/?bill=hb43|accessdate=December 21, 2013}}</ref> The [[University of Alaska]] has attempted to combat this by offering partial four-year scholarships to the top 10% of Alaska high school graduates, via the Alaska Scholars Program.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.alaska.edu/scholars/faq.xml#scholars_award |archiveurl=//web.archive.org/web/20080309023826/http://www.alaska.edu/scholars/faq.xml |archivedate=March 9, 2008 |title=UA Scholars Program&nbsp;– Frequently Asked Questions |accessdate=December 28, 2009 }}</ref> ==Public health and public safety== {{See also|Dentistry in rural Alaska}} The [[Alaska State Troopers]] are Alaska's statewide police force. They have a long and storied history, but were not an official organization until 1941. Before the force was officially organized, law enforcement in Alaska was handled by various federal agencies. Larger towns usually have their own local police and some villages rely on "Public Safety Officers" who have police training but do not carry firearms. In much of the state, the troopers serve as the only police force available. In addition to enforcing traffic and criminal law, wildlife Troopers enforce hunting and fishing regulations. Due to the varied terrain and wide scope of the Troopers' duties, they employ a wide variety of land, air, and water patrol vehicles. Many rural communities in Alaska are considered "dry," having outlawed the importation of alcoholic beverages.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.dps.state.ak.us/AST/ABI/docs/SDEUreports/2003AnnualReport.pdf |title=Alaska State Troopers Alaska Bureau of Alcohol and Drug Enforcement Control Board |publisher=Dps.state.ak.us |accessdate=May 30, 2014| deadurl= no}}</ref> Suicide rates for rural residents are higher than urban.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.hss.state.ak.us/suicideprevention/statistics_pages_sspc/AKsuiciderate_rural_urban_90-00.htm |title=State of Alaska |publisher=Hss.state.ak.us |accessdate=June 2, 2010 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/20090925085430/http://hss.state.ak.us/suicideprevention/statistics_pages_sspc/AKsuiciderate_rural_urban_90-00.htm |archivedate=25 September 2009 }}</ref> [[Domestic abuse]] and other violent crimes are also at high levels in the state; this is in part linked to alcohol abuse.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.adn.com/2010/09/30/1480089/survey-finds-high-rates-of-sexual.html |title=Survey reveals higher rate of violence against Alaska women |accessdate=May 30, 2014}}</ref> Alaska has the highest rate of sexual assault in the nation, especially in rural areas. The average age of sexually assaulted victims is 16 years old. In four out of five cases, the suspects were relatives, friends or acquaintances.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.usatoday.com/news/nation/2008-01-29-alaska-sexualassaults_N.htm |title=Rural Alaska steeped in sexual violence |work=USA Today |date= January 30, 2008|accessdate=December 31, 2010 |first=Rachel |last=D'oro}}</ref> ==Culture== {{see also|List of artists and writers from Alaska}} [[File:Iditarod Ceremonial start in Anchorage, Alaska.jpg|thumb|A dog team in the [[Iditarod Trail Sled Dog Race]], arguably the most popular winter event in Alaska.]] Some of Alaska's popular annual events are the [[Iditarod Trail Sled Dog Race]] that starts in Anchorage and ends in Nome, World Ice Art Championships in Fairbanks, the Blueberry Festival and Alaska Hummingbird Festival in [[Ketchikan, Alaska|Ketchikan]], the [[Sitka Whale Fest]], and the Stikine River Garnet Fest in [[Wrangell, Alaska|Wrangell]]. The [[Stikine River]] attracts the largest springtime concentration of [[American bald eagle]]s in the world. The [[Alaska Native Heritage Center]] celebrates the rich heritage of Alaska's 11 cultural groups. Their purpose is to encourage cross-cultural exchanges among all people and enhance self-esteem among Native people. The [[Alaska Native Arts Foundation]] promotes and markets Native art from all regions and cultures in the State, using the internet.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.alaskanativearts.org|title=Alaska Native Arts Foundation|work=alaskanativearts.org}}</ref> ===Music=== {{Main|Music of Alaska}} Influences on music in Alaska include the traditional music of Alaska Natives as well as folk music brought by later immigrants from Russia and Europe. Prominent musicians from Alaska include singer [[Jewel (singer)|Jewel]], traditional Aleut flautist [[Mary Youngblood]], folk singer-songwriter [[Libby Roderick]], Christian music singer/songwriter [[Lincoln Brewster]], metal/post hardcore band [[36 Crazyfists]] and the groups [[Pamyua]] and [[Portugal. The Man]]. There are many established music festivals in Alaska, including the [[Alaska Folk Festival]], the [[Fairbanks Summer Arts Festival]], the [http://anchoragefolkfestival.org/ Anchorage Folk Festival], the [[Athabascan Old-Time Fiddling Festival]], the Sitka Jazz Festival, and the [[Sitka Summer Music Festival]]. The most prominent orchestra in Alaska is the [[Anchorage Symphony Orchestra]], though the [[Fairbanks Symphony Orchestra]] and [[Juneau Symphony]] are also notable. The [[Anchorage Opera]] is currently the state's only professional opera company, though there are several volunteer and semi-professional organizations in the state as well. The official [[List of U.S. state songs|state song]] of Alaska is "[[Alaska's Flag]]", which was adopted in 1955; it celebrates the [[flag of Alaska]]. ===Alaska in film and on television=== {{see also|List of films set in Alaska}} [[File:Bow bow.jpg|thumb|right|upright|Films featuring Alaskan wolves usually employ domesticated [[wolf-dog hybrid]]s to stand in for wild wolves.]] Alaska's first independent picture entirely made in Alaska was ''[[The Chechahcos]]'', produced by Alaskan businessman [[Austin E. Lathrop]] and filmed in and around Anchorage. Released in 1924 by the Alaska Moving Picture Corporation, it was the only film the company made. One of the most prominent movies filmed in Alaska is [[Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer|MGM]]'s ''[[Eskimo/Mala The Magnificent]]'', starring Alaska Native [[Ray Mala]]. In 1932 an expedition set out from [[MGM]]'s studios in Hollywood to Alaska to film what was then billed as "The Biggest Picture Ever Made." Upon arriving in Alaska, they set up "Camp Hollywood" in Northwest Alaska, where they lived during the duration of the filming. [[Louis B. Mayer]] spared no expense in spite of the remote location, going so far as to hire the chef from the [[Roosevelt Hotel (Hollywood)|Hotel Roosevelt]] in Hollywood to prepare meals. When ''Eskimo'' premiered at the [[Astor Theatre]] in New York City, the studio received the largest amount of feedback in its history to that point. ''Eskimo'' was critically acclaimed and released worldwide; as a result, Mala became an international movie star. ''Eskimo'' won the first Oscar for [[Academy Award for Best Film Editing|Best Film Editing]] at the Academy Awards, and showcased and preserved aspects of [[Inupiat people|Inupiat]] culture on film. The 1983 Disney movie ''[[Never Cry Wolf (film)|Never Cry Wolf]]'' was at least partially shot in Alaska. The 1991 film ''[[White Fang (1991 film)|White Fang]]'', based on [[Jack London]]'s novel and starring [[Ethan Hawke]], was filmed in and around [[Haines, Alaska|Haines]]. [[Steven Seagal]]'s 1994 ''[[On Deadly Ground]]'', starring [[Michael Caine]], was filmed in part at the [[Worthington Glacier]] near [[Valdez, Alaska|Valdez]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.filminamerica.com/Movies/OnDeadlyGround/ |title=On Deadly Ground |publisher=Filminamerica.com |accessdate=November 7, 2010}}</ref> The 1999 [[John Sayles]] film ''[[Limbo (1999 film)|Limbo]]'', starring [[David Strathairn]], [[Mary Elizabeth Mastrantonio]], and [[Kris Kristofferson]], was filmed in Juneau. The psychological thriller ''[[Insomnia (2002 film)|Insomnia]]'', starring [[Al Pacino]] and [[Robin Williams]], was shot in Canada, but was set in Alaska. The 2007 film directed by Sean Penn, ''[[Into the Wild (film)|Into The Wild]]'', was partially filmed and set in Alaska. The film, which is based on the novel of the same name, follows the adventures of [[Christopher McCandless]], who died in a remote abandoned bus along the [[Stampede Trail]] west of [[Healy, Alaska|Healy]] in 1992. Many films and television shows set in Alaska are not filmed there; for example, ''[[Northern Exposure]]'', set in the fictional town of Cicely, Alaska, was filmed in [[Roslyn, Washington]]. The 2007 horror feature ''[[30 Days of Night (film)|30 Days of Night]]'' is set in [[Barrow, Alaska|Barrow]], but was filmed in New Zealand. Many [[reality television]] shows are filmed in Alaska. In 2011 the ''Anchorage Daily News'' found ten set in the state.<ref name="hopkins20110214">{{cite news | url=http://www.adn.com/2011/02/14/1699528/alaska-based-shows-what-do-the.html | title=Rating the Alaska reality shows: The best and the worst | work=Anchorage Daily News | date=February 14, 2011 | accessdate=March 2, 2013 | author=Hopkins, Kyle}}</ref> ==State symbols== {{Main|List of Alaska state symbols}} [[File:2008-05-04 at 18-26-44-Forgetmenot-Flower.jpg|thumb|The [[forget-me-not]] is the state's official flower and bears the same blue and gold as the state flag.]] * State motto: North to the Future * Nicknames: "The Last Frontier" or "Land of the Midnight Sun" or "Seward's Icebox" * State bird: [[willow ptarmigan]], adopted by the Territorial Legislature in 1955. It is a small ({{convert|15|–|17|in|disp=or|abbr=on}}) Arctic grouse that lives among willows and on open tundra and muskeg. Plumage is brown in summer, changing to white in winter. The willow ptarmigan is common in much of Alaska. * State fish: [[Chinook salmon|king salmon]], adopted 1962. * State flower: wild/native [[forget-me-not]], adopted by the Territorial Legislature in 1917.<ref>{{cite web |archiveurl=//web.archive.org/web/20090225094636/http://akcf.org/_pages/about_ACF/about_alaska/state_symbols.php |archivedate=February 25, 2009 |url=http://www.akcf.org/_pages/about_ACF/about_alaska/state_symbols.php |title=Alaska Conservation Foundation&nbsp;– State Symbols}}</ref> It is a perennial that is found throughout Alaska, from Hyder to the Arctic Coast, and west to the Aleutians. * State fossil: [[woolly mammoth]], adopted 1986. * State gem: [[nephrite|jade]], adopted 1968. * State insect: [[Four-spotted chaser|four-spot skimmer]] dragonfly, adopted 1995. * State land mammal: [[moose]], adopted 1998. * State marine mammal: [[bowhead whale]], adopted 1983. * State mineral: [[gold]], adopted 1968. * State song: "[[Alaska's Flag]]" * State sport: [[Mushing|dog mushing]], adopted 1972. * State tree: [[Sitka spruce]], adopted 1962. * State dog: [[Alaskan Malamute]], adopted 2010.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://articles.ktuu.com/2010-05-13/malamute_24127975 |title=It's official: Malamute now Alaska's state dog|work=KTUU.com, Alaska's news and information source |date=May 13, 2010 |accessdate=June 2, 2010}}</ref> * State soil: [[Tanana (soil)|Tanana]],<ref>[ftp://ftp-fc.sc.egov.usda.gov/NSSC/StateSoil_Profiles/ak_soil.pdf TANANA&nbsp;– ALASKA STATE SOIL] U.S. Department of Agriculture</ref> adopted unknown. ==See also== {{Portal|Alaska|United States}} * [[Index of Alaska-related articles]] * [[Outline of Alaska]] – organized list of topics about Alaska * [[Sports in Alaska]] {{clear}} ==References== {{reflist|30em}} ==External links== {{Sister project links|voy=Alaska|Alaska}} <!-- Please do not add commercial links to this section—they will be removed, as per the external links policy. Thank you. --> * {{dmoz|Regional/North_America/United_States/Alaska}} * [http://vilda.alaska.edu/index.php Alaska's Digital Archives] * [http://www.aitc.org/ Alaska Inter-Tribal Council] * {{Internet Archive short film|id=gov.archives.arc.649115|name=Alaska (1967)}} * {{osmrelation-inline|1116270}} ; US federal government * [http://www.loc.gov/rr/program/bib/states/alaska/index.html Alaska State Guide from the Library of Congress] * [http://tonto.eia.doe.gov/state/state_energy_profiles.cfm?sid=AK Energy & Environmental Data for Alaska] * [http://www.usgs.gov/state/state.asp?State=AK USGS real-time, geographic, and other scientific resources of Alaska] * [http://quickfacts.census.gov/qfd/states/02000.html US Census Bureau] * [http://www.ers.usda.gov/data-products/state-fact-sheets/state-data.aspx?StateFIPS=02&StateName=Alaska#.U8NTsKhC_q1 Alaska State Facts] * [http://eisenhower.archives.gov/research/subject_guides/pdf/Alaska_Statehood.pdf Alaska Statehood Subject Guide from the Eisenhower Presidential Library] * [http://eisenhower.archives.gov/research/online_documents/alaska_statehood.html Alaska Statehood documents, Dwight D. Eisenhower Presidential Library] ; Alaska state government * [http://www.alaska.gov/ State of Alaska website] * [http://wikis.ala.org/godort/index.php/Alaska Alaska State Databases]&nbsp;– Annotated list of searchable databases produced by Alaska state agencies and compiled by the Government Documents Roundtable of the American Library Association. * [http://www.dnr.state.ak.us/ssd/recoff/terminology.cfm Alaska Department of Natural Resources, Recorder's Office] {{clear}} {{Geographic location |Centre = {{flag|Alaska}} |North = {{flag|Russia}} <br /> Arctic Ocean |Northeast = [[Beaufort Sea]] |East = {{flag|Canada}} <br /> {{flag|Yukon}} |Southeast = {{flag|Canada}} <br /> {{flag|British Columbia}} |South = Pacific Ocean <br /> {{flag|Hawaii}} |Southwest = [[Bering Sea]] <br /> Pacific Ocean <br /> {{flag|Japan}} |West = {{flag|Russia}} • [[Bering Strait]] <br /> [[Chukotka Autonomous Okrug|Chukotka]] |Northwest = [[Chukchi Sea]] }} {{s-start}} {{s-bef|before=[[Arizona]]}} {{s-ttl|title=[[List of U.S. states by date of admission to the Union]]|years=Admitted on January 3, 1959 (49th)}} {{s-aft|after=[[Hawaii]]}} {{s-end}} {{Alaska|expanded}} {{United States political divisions}} {{United States topics}} {{Languages of the United States}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Alaska| ]] [[Category:Arctic Ocean]] [[Category:Former Russian colonies]] [[Category:States and territories established in 1959]] [[Category:States of the United States]] [[Category:U.S. states with multiple time zones]] [[Category:1959 establishments in the United States]] k9697d0w0nwrrxiigusde5k0ov7sq1a 0 626 528637184 350362124 2012-12-18T14:04:49Z MZMcBride 212624 [[bugzilla:42616]] wikitext text/x-wiki #REDIRECT [[Auteur theory]] 6s9m9jhf3kzxj5c8ubigywuhzhpjj6h 0 627 717311447 717308738 2016-04-26T23:29:34Z Amccann421 24257907 Reverted 1 edit by [[Special:Contributions/68.37.169.174|68.37.169.174]] ([[User talk:68.37.169.174|talk]]) to last revision by Tommibg. ([[WP:TW|TW]]) wikitext text/x-wiki {{pp-pc1}} {{Use dmy dates|date=March 2016}} {{Use American English|date=March 2016}} {{Agriculture}} [[File:Chvojnica hills near Unin.jpg|260px|thumb|right|[[Field (agriculture)|Fields]] in [[Záhorie]] ([[Slovakia]]){{snds}}a typical Central European agricultural region]] [[File:Sheep and cow in South Africa.jpg|thumb|right|260px|[[Domestic sheep]] and a [[cow]] (heifer) pastured together in [[South Africa]]]] '''Agriculture''' is the cultivation of [[animal]]s, [[plant]]s and [[Fungus|fungi]] for [[food]], [[fiber]], [[biofuel]], [[medicinal]] and other products used to sustain and enhance human life.<ref name="Office1999">{{cite book |title=Safety and health in agriculture |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GtBa6XIW_aQC&pg=PA77 |year=1999 |publisher=International Labour Organization |isbn=978-92-2-111517-5 |pages=77– |accessdate=13 September 2010}}</ref> Agriculture was the key development in the rise of [[sedentism|sedentary]] [[human civilization]], whereby farming of [[domestication|domesticated]] species created food [[economic surplus|surpluses]] that nurtured the development of [[civilization]]. The study of agriculture is known as [[agricultural science]]. The [[history of agriculture]] dates back thousands of years, and its development has been driven and defined by greatly different [[climate]]s, [[culture]]s, and technologies. In the civilized world, [[industrial agriculture]] based on large-scale [[monoculture]] farming has become the dominant agricultural methodology. Modern [[agronomy]], [[plant breeding]], [[agrochemical]]s such as [[pesticide]]s and [[fertilizer]]s, and technological developments have in many cases sharply increased yields from cultivation, but at the same time have caused widespread ecological damage and negative human health effects. [[Selective breeding]] and modern practices in animal husbandry have similarly increased the output of meat, but have raised concerns about [[animal welfare]] and the health effects of the [[antibiotics]], [[growth hormone]]s, and other chemicals commonly used in industrial meat production. [[Genetically modified organism]]s are an increasing component of agriculture, although they are banned in several countries. Agricultural food production and water management are increasingly becoming global issues that are fostering debate on a number of fronts. Significant degradation of land and water resources, including the depletion of [[aquifer]]s, has been observed in recent decades, and the effects of global warming on agriculture and of agriculture on global warming are still not fully understood. The major agricultural products can be broadly grouped into foods, fibers, [[fuel]]s, and [[raw material]]s. Specific foods include [[cereal]]s (grains), [[vegetable]]s, [[fruit]]s, [[cooking oil|oils]], [[meat]]s and [[spice]]s. Fibers include [[cotton]], [[wool]], [[hemp]], [[silk]] and [[flax]]. Raw materials include [[lumber]] and [[bamboo]]. Other useful materials are produced by plants, such as [[resin]]s, [[natural dye|dyes]], [[drug]]s, [[perfume]]s, [[biofuel]]s and ornamental products such as [[Floriculture|cut flowers]] and [[nursery (horticulture)|nursery plants]]. Over one third of the world's workers are employed in agriculture, second only to the services' sector, although the percentages of agricultural workers in developed countries has decreased significantly over the past several centuries. == Etymology and terminology == The word ''agriculture'' is a late [[Middle English]] adaptation of Latin ''agricultūra'', from ''ager'', "field", and ''cultūra'', "[[Tillage|cultivation]]" or "growing".<ref>{{cite book|page=14|title=The Oxford Dictionary of Word Histories|editor=Chantrell, Glynnis|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2002|isbn=0-19-863121-9}}</ref> Agriculture usually refers to human activities, although it is also observed in certain species of [[ant]], [[termite]] and [[ambrosia beetle]].<ref>{{cite journal|url=http://www.annualreviews.org/doi/abs/10.1146/annurev.ecolsys.36.102003.152626|title=The Evolution of Agriculture in Insects|journal=Annual Review of Ecology, Evolution, and Systematics|volume=36|pages=563–595|date=December 2005|doi=10.1146/annurev.ecolsys.36.102003.152626|author=Ulrich G. Mueller, Nicole M. Gerardo, Duur K. Aanen, Diana L. Six, and Ted R. Schultz}}</ref> To practice agriculture means to use natural resources to "produce commodities which maintain life, including food, fiber, forest products, horticultural crops, and their related services."<ref name=Maine /> This definition includes [[arable farming]] or [[agronomy]], and [[horticulture]], all terms for the growing of plants, [[animal husbandry]] and [[forestry]].<ref name=Maine>{{cite web|url=http://www.maine.gov/education/aged/definition.html|title=Definition of Agriculture|publisher=State of Maine|accessdate=6 May 2013}}</ref> A distinction is sometimes made between forestry and agriculture, based on the former's longer management rotations, extensive versus intensive management practices and development mainly by nature, rather than by man. Even then, it is acknowledged that there is a large amount of knowledge transfer and overlap between [[silviculture]] (the management of forests) and agriculture.<ref>{{cite book|pages=15–16|url=https://books.google.com/?id=VMw9VcLT-FYC&pg=PA15&lpg=PA15&dq=differences+between+forestry+and+agriculture#v=onepage&q=differences%20between%20forestry%20and%20agriculture&f=false|title=Forestry Research: A Mandate for Change|author=Committee on Forestry Research, National Research Council|publisher=National Academies Press|year=1990|isbn=0-309-04248-8|accessdate=17 March 2016}}</ref> In traditional farming, the two are often combined even on small landholdings, leading to the term [[agroforestry]].<ref>{{cite book|url=http://archive.unu.edu/unupress/unupbooks/80364e/80364E04.htm#Agro-forestry%20and%20forest%20laws,%20policies,%20and%20customs|chapter=Applicability of agro-forestry systems|author=Budowski, Gerardo|publisher=United Nations University|title=Agro-forestry in the African Humid Tropics|editor=MacDonald, L.H.|year=1982|isbn=92-808-0364-6|accessdate=17 March 2016}}</ref> == History == {{Main|History of agriculture}} {{See also|Timeline of agriculture and food technology}} [[File:ClaySumerianSickle.jpg|thumb|upright=1.4|A [[Sumer]]ian harvester's sickle made from baked clay ({{circa|3000}}{{nbsp}}BC)]] [[File:Tilling with Hungarian Grey cattles.tif|thumb|Tilling with Hungarian Grey cattles]] [[File:Worldwide crops.png|thumb|upright=1.4|Worldwide crop production since 1960. Raw data from the United Nations <ref>http://faostat3.fao.org/download/Q/*/E</ref>]] {{:History of agriculture}} == Agriculture and civilization == Civilization was the product of the Agricultural [[Neolithic Revolution]]. In the course of history, civilization coincided in space with fertile areas ([[The Fertile Crescent]]) and most intensive state formation took place in circumscribed agricultural lands ([[Carneiro's circumscription theory]]). The [[Great Wall]] of China and the Roman [[limes]] demarcated the same northern frontier of the basic (cereal) agriculture. This cereal belt nourished the belt of great civilizations formed in the [[Axial Age]] and connected by the famous [[Silk Road]]. Ancient Egyptians, whose agriculture depended exclusively on Nile, deified the River, worshiped, and exalted in a great hymn.<ref>''Ancient Egyptian Literature: A Book of Readings'', (ed. Miriam Lichtheim, Berkeley & Los Angeles & London: University of California Press, 1975, vol I, p 205-209).</ref> The Chinese imperial court issued numerous edicts, stating: "Agriculture is the foundation of this Empire."<ref>''Han Agriculture: The Foundation of Early Chinese Agrarian Economy, 206 BC – AD 220'', (ed. Cho-yun Hsu, Seattle & London: University of Washington Press, p 169-170).</ref> Egyptian, Mesopotamian, Chinese, and Inca Emperors themselves plowed ceremonial fields in order to show personal example to everyone.<ref>[[Guan Zhong]], ''[[Guanzi (text)|Guanzi]]: Economic Dialogues in Ancient China'', (trs. Po-fu Tan, & Kuang-wen Wen, Connecticut: New Heaven, 1954, p 174); [[Samuel Noah Kramer]], ''History Begins at Sumer: Thirty-Nine Firsts in Man's Recorded History'', New York: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1953, p 96-97; Rafael Karsten, ''A Totalitarian State of the Past: The Civilization of the Inca Empire in Ancient Peru'', Helsingforce: Academic Bookstore, 1949, p 93, 181.</ref> Ancient strategists, Chinese [[Guan Zhong]]<ref>''[[Guanzi (text)|Guanzi]]: Economic Dialogues in Ancient China'', (trs. Po-fu Tan, & Kuang-wen Wen, Connecticut: New Heaven, 1954, p 94, 129-130, 156-157, 362).</ref> and [[Shang Yang]]<ref>''The Book of the Governor of the Shang Region'',( tr. L. S. Perelomov, Moscow: Nauka, 1993, p 153).</ref> and Indian [[Kautilya]],<ref>[[Arthashastra]], (tr. T. N. Ramaswamy, London: Asia Publishers, 1962, p 126, 128).</ref> drew doctrines linking agriculture with military power. Agriculture defined the limits on how large and for how long an army could be mobilized. Shang Yang called agriculture and war the ''One''.<ref>One chapter Shang Yang titled "Reflections on the One," ''The Book of the Governor of the Shang Region'', (p 150).</ref> In the vast human pantheon of agricultural deities<ref>Category:agricultural deities; Category:agricultural gods</ref> there are several deities who combined the functions of agriculture and war.<ref>The Mesopotamian [[Lahmu]]; the Hittite goddess of [[Arinna]], and the Roman [[Janus]]. From Lahmu derive two Hebrew words—warfare (lehima) and bread (lehem).</ref> As the Neolithic Agricultural Revolution produced civilization, the modern Agricultural Revolution, begun in Britain ([[British Agricultural Revolution]]), made possible the Industrial civilization. The first precondition for industry was greater yields by less manpower, resulting in greater percentage of manpower available for non-agricultural sectors.<ref>[[Barrington Moore]], ''Social Origins of Democracy and Dictatorship'', (London: Penguin Books, 1967, p 429; Shepard B. Clough & Richard T. Rapp, ''European Economic History: The Economic Development of Western Civilization'', (London & Sydney: McGraw-Hill, 1968, p 258).</ref> == Types of agriculture == {{unreferenced section|date=March 2016}} Nomadic farming refers to the practice of farming in which herdsmen move from one place to another with there families and livestock,in search of pasture, fodder, and water. This type of farming is practiced in arid and semi-arid regions of Sahara,Central Asia and some parts of India like Rajasthan and Jammu and Kashmir. In shifting cultivation, a small area of a forest is cleared by cutting down all the trees and the area is burned. Now that area is used for growing crops after some years when the area become less fertile then it is abundant. Again a patch is selected and this process is performed. This type of farming is practiced mainly area with abundant rainfall, so forest regenerate very quickly. They are practiced in North-East India, South-East Asia and the Amazon Basin. Subsistence farming is practiced by farmer to satisfy his family needs alone nothing is left over sale in other words it is non-commercial farming they use old method and new technology for high production. It is intensively practiced in Monsoon Asia and South-East Asia. Commercial farming cultivate the crops for commercial purpose i.e., for selling. The main motive of the farmer is to make profit. This type of farming is mainly practice in western countries like Canada and USA. Dairy farming is the rearing of the cattle on the large scale on the outskirts of the city to meet the demands of milk and animal products is called dairy farming. It is mainly practiced in Australia, New Zealand, Denmark and in Europe. == Contemporary agriculture == [[File:Precision Farming in Minnesota - Natural Colour.jpg|thumb|[[Satellite]] image of farming in [[Minnesota]]]] [[File:Precision Farming in Minnesota - False Colour.jpg|thumb|[[Infrared]] image of the above farms. Various colors indicate healthy crops (red), flooding (black) and unwanted pesticides (brown).]] In the past century, agriculture has been characterized by increased productivity, the substitution of synthetic fertilizers and pesticides for labor, [[water pollution]], and [[farm subsidies]]. In recent years there has been a backlash against the [[externality|external]] [[environmental awareness|environmental effects]] of conventional agriculture, resulting in the [[organic farming|organic]] and [[sustainable agriculture]] movements.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.motherjones.com/tom-philpott/2013/04/history-nitrogen-fertilizer-ammonium-nitrate|author=Philpott, Tom|title=A Brief History of Our Deadly Addiction to Nitrogen Fertilizer|date=19 April 2013|accessdate=7 May 2013|publisher=Mother Jones}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|publisher=The World Bank|year=1995|url=http://econ.worldbank.org/external/default/main?pagePK=64165259&theSitePK=469372&piPK=64165421&menuPK=64166093&entityID=000009265_3970311122936|title=Overcoming agricultural pollution of water: the challenge of integrating agricultural and environmental policies in the European Union, Volume 1|accessdate=15 April 2013|author=Scheierling, Susanne M.}}</ref> One of the major forces behind this movement has been the [[European Union]], which first certified [[organic food]] in 1991 and began reform of its [[Common Agricultural Policy]] (CAP) in 2005 to phase out commodity-linked farm subsidies,<ref>{{cite web|publisher=European Commission|year=2003|url=http://ec.europa.eu/agriculture/capreform/index_en.htm|title=CAP Reform|accessdate=15 April 2013}}</ref> also known as [[Decoupling and re-coupling|decoupling]]. The growth of organic farming has renewed research in alternative technologies such as [[integrated pest management]] and selective breeding. Recent mainstream technological developments include [[genetically modified food]]. In 2007, higher incentives for farmers to grow non-food biofuel crops<ref>{{cite journal|author=Smith, Kate; Edwards, Rob|date=8 March 2008|url=http://www.heraldscotland.com/2008-the-year-of-global-food-crisis-1.828546 |title=2008: The year of global food crisis|journal=The Herald|location=Glasgow}}</ref> combined with other factors, such as over development of former farm lands, rising transportation costs, [[climate change]], growing consumer demand in China and India, and [[population growth]],<ref>{{cite journal|url=http://www.csmonitor.com/2008/0118/p08s01-comv.html|title=The global grain bubble|journal=The Christian Science Monitor|date=18 January 2008|accessdate=26 September 2013}}</ref> caused [[food security|food shortages]] in Asia, the Middle East, Africa, and Mexico, as well as rising food prices around the globe.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/7284196.stm|title=The cost of food: Facts and figures|publisher=''BBC News Online''|date=16 October 2008|accessdate=26 September 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|author=Walt, Vivienne|date=27 February 2008|url=http://www.time.com/time/world/article/0,8599,1717572,00.html|title=The World's Growing Food-Price Crisis|journal=Time}}</ref> As of December 2007, 37 countries faced food crises, and 20 had imposed some sort of food-price controls. Some of these shortages resulted in [[2007-2008 world food price crisis|food riots]] and even deadly stampedes.<ref name="guardian.co.uk">Watts, Jonathan (4 December 2007). [http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2007/dec/04/china.business "Riots and hunger feared as demand for grain sends food costs soaring"], ''The Guardian'' (London).</ref><ref name="timesonline.co.uk">Mortished, Carl (7 March 2008).[http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/environment/article3500975.ece "Already we have riots, hoarding, panic: the sign of things to come?"], ''The Times'' (London).</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">Borger, Julian (26 February 2008). [http://www.guardian.co.uk/environment/2008/feb/26/food.unitednations "Feed the world? We are fighting a losing battle, UN admits"], ''The Guardian'' (London).</ref> The [[International Fund for Agricultural Development]] posits that an increase in [[smallholding|smallholder agriculture]] may be part of the solution to concerns about food prices and overall food security. They in part base this on the experience of Vietnam, which went from a food importer to large food exporter and saw a significant drop in poverty, due mainly to the development of smallholder agriculture in the country.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ifad.org/operations/food/farmer.htm|title=Food prices: smallholder farmers can be part of the solution|publisher=International Fund for Agricultural Development|accessdate=24 April 2013}}</ref> Disease and land degradation are two of the major concerns in agriculture today. For example, an epidemic of [[stem rust]] on wheat caused by the [[Ug99]] lineage is currently spreading across Africa and into Asia and is causing major concerns due to crop losses of 70% or more under some conditions.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.fao.org/agriculture/crops/rust/stem/rust-report/stem-ug99racettksk/en/|title=Wheat Stem Rust – UG99 (Race TTKSK)|publisher=FAO|accessdate=6 January 2014}}</ref> Approximately 40% of the world's agricultural land is seriously degraded.<ref>Sample, Ian (31 August 2007). [http://www.guardian.co.uk/environment/2007/aug/31/climatechange.food "Global food crisis looms as climate change and population growth strip fertile land"], ''The Guardian'' (London).</ref> In Africa, if current trends of soil degradation continue, the continent might be able to feed just 25% of its population by 2025, according to [[United Nations University|United Nations University's]] Ghana-based Institute for Natural Resources in Africa.<ref>[http://news.mongabay.com/2006/1214-unu.html "Africa may be able to feed only 25% of its population by 2025"] {{wayback|url=http://news.mongabay.com/2006/1214-unu.html |date=20111127175559 |df=y }}, ''mongabay.com'', 14 December 2006.</ref> Agrarian structure is a long-term structure in the [[Fernand Braudel|Braudelian]] understanding of the concept. On a larger scale the agrarian structure is more dependent on the regional, social, cultural and historical factors than on the state’s undertaken activities. Like in Poland, where despite running an intense agrarian policy for many years, the agrarian structure in 2002 has much in common with that found in 1921 soon after the [[History of Poland (1795–1918)|partitions period]].<ref>[http://www.agrojournal.org/20/05-03.pdf M. Pietrzak, D. Walczak. 2014. The Analysis of the Agrarian Structure in Poland with the Special Consideration of the Years 1921 and 2002, Bulgarian Journal of Agricultural Science, Vol 20, No 5, pp. 1025, 1038.]</ref> In 2009, the [[Agriculture in China|agricultural output of China]] was the largest in the world, followed by the European Union, India and the United States, according to the [[International Monetary Fund]] (''[[Agriculture#List of countries by agricultural output|see below]]''). Economists measure the [[total factor productivity]] of agriculture and by this measure agriculture in the United States is roughly 1.7 times more productive than it was in 1948.<ref>{{cite web|publisher=USDA Economic Research Service|url=http://www.ers.usda.gov/data/agproductivity/ |title=Agricultural Productivity in the United States|date=5 July 2012|accessdate=22 April 2013}}</ref> == Workforce == {{As of|2011}}, the [[International Labour Organization]] states that approximately one billion people, or over 1/3 of the available work force, are employed in the global agricultural sector. Agriculture constitutes approximately 70% of the global employment of children, and in many countries employs the largest percentage of women of any industry.<ref name=ILO /> The [[service sector]] only overtook the agricultural sector as the largest global employer in 2007. Between 1997 and 2007, the percentage of people employed in agriculture fell by over four percentage points, a trend that is expected to continue.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.financialexpress.com/news/story/191279|title=Services sector overtakes farming as world's biggest employer: ILO|agency=Associated Press|date=26 January 2007|accessdate=24 April 2013|publisher=''The Financial Express''}}</ref> The number of people employed in agriculture varies widely on a per-country basis, ranging from less than 2% in countries like the US and Canada to over 80% in many African nations.<ref name=LaborForce>{{cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2048.html|title=Labor Force – By Occupation|publisher=Central Intelligence Agency|work=The World Factbook|accessdate=4 May 2013}}</ref> In developed countries, these figures are significantly lower than in previous centuries. During the 16th century in Europe, for example, between 55 and 75 percent of the population was engaged in agriculture, depending on the country. By the 19th century in Europe, this had dropped to between 35 and 65 percent.<ref>{{cite journal|url=http://economics.ouls.ox.ac.uk/13621/1/uuid9ef3c3c6-512f-44b6-b74e-53266cc42ae2-ATTACHMENT01.pdf|format=PDF|title=Economic structure and agricultural productivity in Europe, 1300–1800|journal=European Review of Economic History|volume=3|pages=1–25|author=Allen, Robert C.}}</ref> In the same countries today, the figure is less than 10%.<ref name=LaborForce /> === Safety === [[File:Ford Tractor with ROPS bar fitted.JPG|right|thumb|[[Rollover protection system|Rollover protection bar]] on a [[Fordson tractor]]]] Agriculture, specifically [[farm]]ing, remains a hazardous industry, and farmers worldwide remain at high risk of work-related injuries, lung disease, [[noise-induced hearing loss]], skin diseases, as well as certain cancers related to chemical use and prolonged sun exposure. On [[industrial agriculture|industrialized farms]], injuries frequently involve the use of [[agricultural machinery]], and a common cause of fatal agricultural injuries in developed countries is tractor rollovers.<ref name="aginjury">{{cite web|url=http://www.cdc.gov/niosh/topics/aginjury/ |title=NIOSH Workplace Safety & Health Topic: Agricultural Injuries|publisher=Centers for Disease Control and Prevention|accessdate=16 April 2013}}</ref> Pesticides and other chemicals used in farming can also be hazardous to worker health, and workers exposed to pesticides may experience illness or have children with birth defects.<ref name=NIOSH_pest>{{cite web|url=http://www.cdc.gov/niosh/docs/2012-108/ |title=NIOSH Pesticide Poisoning Monitoring Program Protects Farmworkers|publisher=Centers for Disease Control and Prevention|accessdate=15 April 2013}}</ref> As an industry in which families commonly share in work and live on the farm itself, entire families can be at risk for injuries, illness, and death.<ref name="NIOSH Agri">{{cite web|url=http://www.cdc.gov/niosh/topics/agriculture/ |title=NIOSH Workplace Safety & Health Topic: Agriculture|publisher=Centers for Disease Control and Prevention|accessdate=16 April 2013}}</ref> Common causes of fatal injuries among young farm workers include drowning, machinery and motor vehicle-related accidents.<ref name="NIOSH Agri" /> The International Labour Organization considers agriculture "one of the most hazardous of all economic sectors."<ref name=ILO>{{cite web|url=http://www.ilo.org/safework/info/standards-and-instruments/codes/WCMS_161135/lang—en/index.htm|title=Safety and health in agriculture|publisher=International Labour Organization|accessdate=24 April 2013|date=21 March 2011}}</ref> It estimates that the annual work-related death toll among agricultural employees is at least 170,000, twice the average rate of other jobs. In addition, incidences of death, injury and illness related to agricultural activities often go unreported.<ref name=ILO2>{{cite web|url=http://www.ilo.org/safework/areasofwork/hazardous-work/WCMS_110188/lang—en/index.htm|title=Agriculture: A hazardous work|publisher=International Labour Organization|accessdate=24 April 2013|date=15 June 2009}}</ref> The organization has developed the [[Safety and Health in Agriculture Convention, 2001]], which covers the range of risks in the agriculture occupation, the prevention of these risks and the role that individuals and organizations engaged in agriculture should play.<ref name=ILO /> == Agricultural production systems == === Crop cultivation systems === [[File:Paddy fields in India.jpg|thumb|Rice cultivation at a paddy field in [[Bihar]] state of India]] [[File:Rice terraces.png|thumb|The [[Banaue Rice Terraces]] in [[Ifugao]], Philippines]] Cropping systems vary among farms depending on the available resources and constraints; geography and climate of the farm; government policy; economic, social and political pressures; and the philosophy and culture of the farmer.<ref name="FAO FS">{{cite web|publisher=Food and Agriculture Organization|url=http://www.fao.org/farmingsystems/description_en.htm|title=Analysis of farming systems|accessdate=22 May 2013}}</ref><ref name="PCP APS">Acquaah, G. 2002. Agricultural Production Systems. pp. 283 – 317 in "Principles of Crop Production, Theories, Techniques and Technology". Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River, NJ.</ref> [[Shifting cultivation]] (or [[slash and burn]]) is a system in which forests are burnt, releasing nutrients to support cultivation of annual and then [[perennial plant|perennial]] crops for a period of several years.<ref name="CS">Chrispeels, M.J.; Sadava, D.E. 1994. "Farming Systems: Development, Productivity, and Sustainability". pp. 25 – 57 in ''Plants, Genes, and Agriculture''. Jones and Bartlett, Boston, MA.</ref> Then the plot is left fallow to regrow forest, and the farmer moves to a new plot, returning after many more years (10 – 20). This fallow period is shortened if population density grows, requiring the input of nutrients (fertilizer or [[manure]]) and some manual [[pest control]]. Annual cultivation is the next phase of intensity in which there is no fallow period. This requires even greater nutrient and pest control inputs. Further industrialization led to the use of [[monoculture]]s, when one [[cultivar]] is planted on a large acreage. Because of the low [[biodiversity]], nutrient use is uniform and pests tend to build up, necessitating the greater use of [[pesticide]]s and fertilizers.<ref name="PCP APS" /> [[Multiple cropping]], in which several crops are grown sequentially in one year, and [[intercropping]], when several crops are grown at the same time, are other kinds of annual cropping systems known as [[polyculture]]s.<ref name="CS" /> In [[subtropics|subtropical]] and [[arid]] environments, the timing and extent of agriculture may be limited by rainfall, either not allowing multiple annual crops in a year, or requiring [[irrigation]]. In all of these environments perennial crops are grown (coffee, chocolate) and systems are practiced such as agroforestry. In [[Temperateness|temperate]] environments, where ecosystems were predominantly [[grassland]] or [[prairie]], highly productive annual farming is the dominant agricultural system.<ref name="CS" /> ==== Crop statistics ==== {{See also|List of most important agricultural crops worldwide}} Important categories of crops include [[cereal]]s and [[pseudocereals]], pulses (legumes), forage, and fruits and vegetables. Specific crops are cultivated in distinct [[growing region]]s throughout the world. In millions of metric tons, based on [[Food and Agriculture Organization|FAO]] estimate. <div class="center"> {| class="wikitable" style="float:left;" |- ! colspan=2|Top agricultural products, by crop types <br />(million tonnes) 2004 data |- | Cereals || style="text-align:right;"| 2,263 |- | Vegetables and melons || style="text-align:right;"| 866 |- | [[Root]]s and [[tuber]]s || style="text-align:right;"| 715 |- | Milk || style="text-align:right;"| 619 |- | Fruit || style="text-align:right;"| 503 |- | Meat || style="text-align:right;"| 259 |- | [[Vegetable oil|Oilcrops]] || style="text-align:right;"| 133 |- | Fish (2001 estimate) || style="text-align:right;"| 130 |- | [[Egg (food)|Eggs]] || style="text-align:right;"| 63 |- | [[Pulse (legume)|Pulses]] || style="text-align:right;"| 60 |- | [[Fiber crop|Vegetable fiber]] || style="text-align:right;"| 30 |- | colspan=2|''Source: <br />[[Food and Agriculture Organization]] (FAO)''<ref name="FAO">{{cite web |url=http://faostat.fao.org/ |title=Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAOSTAT) |accessdate=2 February 2013 | archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20130118190636/http://faostat.fao.org/| archivedate= 18 January 2013}}</ref> |} {| class="wikitable" style="float:left;" |- ! colspan=2|Top agricultural products, by individual crops <br />(million tonnes) 2011 data |- | Sugar cane || style="text-align:right;"| 1794 |- | Maize || style="text-align:right;"| 883 |- | Rice || style="text-align:right;"| 722 |- | Wheat || style="text-align:right;"| 704 |- | Potatoes || style="text-align:right;"| 374 |- | Sugar beet || style="text-align:right;"| 271 |- | Soybeans || style="text-align:right;"| 260 |- | Cassava || style="text-align:right;"| 252 |- | Tomatoes || style="text-align:right;"| 159 |- | Barley || style="text-align:right;"| 134 |- | colspan=2|''Source: <br />[[Food and Agriculture Organization]] (FAO)''<ref name="FAO" /> |} {{Clear}} </div> === Livestock production systems === {{Main|Livestock}} {{See also|List of domesticated animals}} [[File:KerbauJawa.jpg|thumb|right|Ploughing rice [[paddy field]]s with [[water buffalo]], in [[Indonesia]]]] Animals, including horses, [[mule]]s, [[ox]]en, [[water buffalo]], [[camel]]s, [[llama]]s, [[alpaca]]s, [[donkey]]s, and dogs, are often used to help cultivate fields, [[harvest]] crops, wrangle other animals, and transport farm products to buyers. Animal husbandry not only refers to the breeding and raising of animals for meat or to harvest animal products (like milk, [[egg (food)|eggs]], or [[wool]]) on a continual basis, but also to the breeding and care of species for work and companionship. [[File:Traditional Farming Methods and Equipments.jpg|thumb|Oxen driven ploughs in [[India]]]] Livestock production systems can be defined based on feed source, as grassland-based, mixed, and landless.<ref name="FAO lps">{{cite web|author=Sere, C.; Steinfeld, H.; Groeneweld, J.|year=1995|url=http://www.fao.org/WAIRDOCS/LEAD/X6101E/x6101e00.htm#Contents|title=Description of Systems in World Livestock Systems – Current status issues and trends|publisher=U.N. Food and Agriculture Organization|accessdate=8 September 2013}}</ref> {{as of|2010}}, 30% of Earth's ice- and water-free area was used for producing livestock, with the sector employing approximately 1.3 billion people. Between the 1960s and the 2000s, there was a significant increase in livestock production, both by numbers and by carcass weight, especially among beef, pigs and chickens, the latter of which had production increased by almost a factor of 10. Non-meat animals, such as milk cows and egg-producing chickens, also showed significant production increases. Global cattle, sheep and goat populations are expected to continue to increase sharply through 2050.<ref name=LP>{{cite journal|url=http://rstb.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/365/1554/2853.full|title=Livestock production: recent trends, future prospects|author=Thornton, Philip K.|doi=10.1098/rstb.2010.0134|journal=Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B|date=27 September 2010|volume=365|issue=1554|pages=2853}}</ref> [[Aquaculture]] or fish farming, the production of fish for human consumption in confined operations, is one of the fastest growing sectors of food production, growing at an average of 9% a year between 1975 and 2007.<ref>{{cite journal|url=http://content.time.com/time/health/article/0,8599,1663604,00.html|title=Fish Farming's Growing Dangers|journal=Time|author=Stier, Ken|date=19 September 2007}}</ref> During the second half of the 20th century, producers using [[selective breeding]] focused on creating livestock [[breed]]s and [[crossbreed]]s that increased production, while mostly disregarding the need to preserve [[genetic diversity]]. This trend has led to a significant decrease in genetic diversity and resources among livestock breeds, leading to a corresponding decrease in disease resistance and local adaptations previously found among traditional breeds.<ref>{{cite journal |title=A global view of livestock biodiversity and conservation – GLOBALDIV|author=P. Ajmone-Marsan|journal=Animal Genetics|date=May 2010|doi=10.1111/j.1365-2052.2010.02036.x|volume=41| issue = supplement S1|pages=1–5}}</ref> Grassland based livestock production relies upon plant material such as [[shrubland]], [[rangeland]], and [[managed intensive rotational grazing|pastures]] for feeding [[ruminant]] animals. Outside nutrient inputs may be used, however manure is returned directly to the grassland as a major nutrient source. This system is particularly important in areas where crop production is not feasible because of climate or soil, representing 30 – 40 million pastoralists.<ref name="CS" /> Mixed production systems use grassland, [[fodder]] crops and grain feed crops as feed for ruminant and monogastric (one stomach; mainly chickens and pigs) livestock. Manure is typically recycled in mixed systems as a fertilizer for crops.<ref name="FAO lps" /> Landless systems rely upon feed from outside the farm, representing the de-linking of crop and livestock production found more prevalently in [[Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development]](OECD) member countries. Synthetic fertilizers are more heavily relied upon for crop production and manure utilization becomes a challenge as well as a source for pollution.<ref name="FAO lps" /> Industrialized countries use these operations to produce much of the global supplies of poultry and pork. Scientists estimate that 75% of the growth in livestock production between 2003 and 2030 will be in [[confined animal feeding operations]], sometimes called [[factory farming]]. Much of this growth is happening in developing countries in Asia, with much smaller amounts of growth in Africa.<ref name=LP /> Some of the practices used in commercial livestock production, including the usage of [[growth hormone]]s, are controversial.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://europa.eu/rapid/press-release_IP-02-604_en.pdf |title=Growth Promoting Hormones Pose Health Risk to Consumers, Confirms EU Scientific Committee|date=23 April 2002|accessdate=6 April 2013|publisher=European Union}}</ref> == Production practices == [[File:Mt Uluguru and Sisal plantations.jpg|thumb|Road leading across the farm allows machinery access to the farm for production practices]] Farming is the practice of agriculture by specialized labor in an area primarily devoted to agricultural processes, in service of a dislocated population usually in a [[city]]. Tillage is the practice of plowing soil to prepare for planting or for nutrient incorporation or for pest control. Tillage varies in intensity from conventional to [[no-till farming|no-till]]. It may improve productivity by warming the soil, incorporating fertilizer and controlling weeds, but also renders soil more prone to erosion, triggers the decomposition of organic matter releasing CO<sub>2</sub>, and reduces the abundance and diversity of soil organisms.<ref name="Soil">Brady, N.C. and R.R. Weil. 2002. Elements of the Nature and Properties of Soils. Pearson Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River, NJ.</ref><ref name="PCP Tillage">Acquaah, G. 2002. "Land Preparation and Farm Energy" pp.318 – 338 in ''Principles of Crop Production, Theories, Techniques and Technology''. Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River, NJ.</ref> Pest control includes the management of weeds, [[insect]]s, [[mite]]s, and diseases. Chemical (pesticides), biological ([[biocontrol]]), mechanical (tillage), and cultural practices are used. Cultural practices include [[crop rotation]], [[culling]], [[cover crop]]s, intercropping, [[compost]]ing, avoidance, and [[Disease resistance in fruit and vegetables|resistance]]. Integrated pest management attempts to use all of these methods to keep pest populations below the number which would cause economic loss, and recommends pesticides as a last resort.<ref name="PCP Pest">Acquaah, G. 2002. "Pesticide Use in U.S. Crop Production" pp.240 – 282 in ''Principles of Crop Production, Theories, Techniques and Technology''. Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River, NJ.</ref> [[Nutrient management]] includes both the source of nutrient inputs for crop and livestock production, and the method of utilization of [[manure]] produced by livestock. Nutrient inputs can be chemical inorganic fertilizers, [[manure]], [[green manure]], compost and mined [[minerals]].<ref name="PCP Soil">Acquaah, G. 2002. "Soil and Land" pp.165 – 210 in ''Principles of Crop Production, Theories, Techniques and Technology''. Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River, NJ.</ref> Crop nutrient use may also be managed using cultural techniques such as crop rotation or a [[fallow]] period.<ref name="CS nutrient">Chrispeels, M.J.; Sadava, D.E. 1994. "Nutrition from the Soil" pp.187 – 218 in ''Plants, Genes, and Agriculture''. Jones and Bartlett, Boston, MA.</ref><ref name="Soil nutrient">Brady, N.C.; Weil, R.R. 2002. "Practical Nutrient Management" pp.472 – 515 in ''Elements of the Nature and Properties of Soils''. Pearson Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River, NJ.</ref> Manure is used either by holding livestock where the feed crop is growing, such as in managed intensive rotational grazing, or [[Manure spreader|by spreading]] either dry or liquid formulations of manure on cropland or [[pasture]]s. [[Water management]] is needed where rainfall is insufficient or variable, which occurs to some degree in most regions of the world.<ref name="CS" /> Some farmers use [[irrigation]] to supplement rainfall. In other areas such as the [[Great Plains]] in the U.S. and Canada, farmers use a fallow year to conserve soil moisture to use for growing a crop in the following year.<ref name="PCP Water">Acquaah, G. 2002. "Plants and Soil Water" pp.211 – 239 in ''Principles of Crop Production, Theories, Techniques and Technology''. Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River, NJ.</ref> Agriculture represents 70% of freshwater use worldwide.<ref name="Pimentel water">{{cite journal|author=Pimentel, D.; Berger, D.; Filberto, D.; Newton, M. |year=2004|title=Water Resources: Agricultural and Environmental Issues|journal=BioScience|volume=54|pages=909–918|doi=10.1641/0006-3568(2004)054[0909:WRAAEI]2.0.CO;2|issue=10|display-authors=etal}}</ref> According to a report by the [[International Food Policy Research Institute]], agricultural technologies will have the greatest impact on food production if adopted in combination with each other; using a model that assessed how eleven technologies could impact agricultural productivity, food security and trade by 2050, the International Food Policy Research Institute found that the number of people at risk from hunger could be reduced by as much as 40% and food prices could be reduced by almost half.<ref name=ifpri>{{cite web|url=http://www.ifpri.org/publication/food-security-world-natural-resource-scarcity|author=International Food Policy Research Institute|title=Food Security in a World of Growing Natural Resource Scarcity|year=2014|publisher=CropLife International|accessdate=1 July 2013}}</ref> "[[Payment for ecosystem services]] (PES) can further incentivise efforts to green the agriculture sector. This is an approach that verifies values and rewards the benefits of ecosystem services provided by green agricultural practices."<ref name="unep.org">UNEP, 2011, Towards a Green Economy: Pathways to Sustainable Development and Poverty Eradication, www.unep.org/greeneconomy</ref> "Innovative PES measures could include reforestation payments made by cities to upstream communities in rural areas of shared watersheds for improved quantities and quality of fresh water for municipal users. Ecoservice payments by farmers to upstream forest stewards for properly managing the flow of soil nutrients, and methods to monetise the carbon sequestration and emission reduction credit benefits of green agriculture practices in order to compensate farmers for their efforts to restore and build SOM and employ other practices."<ref name="unep.org" /> == Crop alteration and biotechnology == {{Main|Plant breeding}} [[File:Ueberladewagen (jha).jpg|thumb|[[Tractor]] and [[chaser bin]]]] Crop alteration has been practiced by humankind for thousands of years, since the beginning of civilization. Altering crops through breeding practices changes the genetic make-up of a plant to develop crops with more beneficial characteristics for humans, for example, larger fruits or seeds, drought-tolerance, or resistance to pests. Significant advances in plant breeding ensued after the work of geneticist [[Gregor Mendel]]. His work on [[dominant allele|dominant]] and [[recessive allele]]s, although initially largely ignored for almost 50 years, gave plant breeders a better understanding of genetics and breeding techniques. Crop breeding includes techniques such as plant selection with desirable traits, [[self-pollination]] and [[cross-pollination]], and molecular techniques that genetically modify the organism.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cls.casa.colostate.edu/TransgenicCrops/history.html |title=History of Plant Breeding|date=29 January 2004|publisher=Colorado State University|accessdate=11 May 2013}}</ref> Domestication of plants has, over the centuries increased yield, improved disease resistance and [[drought tolerance]], eased harvest and improved the taste and nutritional value of crop plants. Careful selection and breeding have had enormous effects on the characteristics of crop plants. Plant selection and breeding in the 1920s and 1930s improved pasture (grasses and clover) in [[New Zealand]]. Extensive X-ray and ultraviolet induced mutagenesis efforts (i.e. primitive genetic engineering) during the 1950s produced the modern commercial varieties of grains such as wheat, corn (maize) and barley.<ref>{{cite journal|last= Stadler |first= L. J. |authorlink= Lewis Stadler |author2= Sprague, G.F. |title= Genetic Effects of Ultra-Violet Radiation in Maize: I. Unfiltered Radiation |journal= Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America |volume= 22 |issue= 10 |pages= 572–578 |publisher= US Department of Agriculture and Missouri Agricultural Experiment Station |date= 15 October 1936|url= http://www.pnas.org/cgi/reprint/22/10/579.pdf |format= PDF |doi= 10.1073/pnas.22.10.572 |accessdate= 11 October 2007 |pmid= 16588111|pmc= 1076819 |archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20071024233407/http://www.pnas.org/cgi/reprint/22/10/579.pdf |archivedate= 24 October 2007| deadurl= no}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last= Berg |first= Paul |author2= Singer, Maxine |title= George Beadle: An Uncommon Farmer. The Emergence of Genetics in the 20th century |publisher= Cold Springs Harbor Laboratory Press |date= 15 August 2003 |isbn= 978-0-87969-688-7 }}</ref> The [[Green Revolution]] popularized the use of conventional [[Hybrid (biology)|hybridization]] to sharply increase yield by creating "high-yielding varieties". For example, average yields of corn (maize) in the USA have increased from around 2.5 tons per hectare (t/ha) (40 bushels per acre) in 1900 to about 9.4 t/ha (150 bushels per acre) in 2001. Similarly, worldwide average wheat yields have increased from less than 1 t/ha in 1900 to more than 2.5 t/ha in 1990. South American average wheat yields are around 2 t/ha, African under 1 t/ha, and Egypt and Arabia up to 3.5 to 4 t/ha with irrigation. In contrast, the average wheat yield in countries such as France is over 8 t/ha. Variations in yields are due mainly to variation in climate, genetics, and the level of intensive farming techniques (use of fertilizers, chemical pest control, growth control to avoid lodging).<ref>{{cite journal |last= Ruttan |first= Vernon W. |title= Biotechnology and Agriculture: A Skeptical Perspective |journal= AgBioForum |volume= 2 |issue= 1 |pages= 54–60 |date=December 1999 |url= http://www.agbioforum.org/v2n1/v2n1a10-ruttan.pdf|format=PDF}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last= Cassman |first= K. | title= Ecological intensification of cereal production systems: The Challenge of increasing crop yield potential and precision agriculture |journal= Proceedings of a National Academy of Sciences Colloquium, Irvine, California |publisher= University of Nebraska |date= 5 December 1998 |url= http://www.lsc.psu.edu/nas/Speakers/Cassman%20manuscript.html |accessdate= 11 October 2007 |archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20071024001804/http://www.lsc.psu.edu/nas/Speakers/Cassman%20manuscript.html |archivedate= 24 October 2007 | deadurl= no}}</ref><ref>Conversion note: 1 bushel of wheat = 60&nbsp;pounds (lb) ≈ 27.215&nbsp;kg. 1 bushel of maize = 56&nbsp;pounds ≈ 25.401&nbsp;kg</ref> === Genetic engineering === {{Main|Genetic engineering}} {{See also|Genetically modified food|Genetically modified crops|Regulation of the release of genetic modified organisms|Genetically modified food controversies}} [[Genetically modified organism]]s (GMO) are [[organism]]s whose [[Genetics|genetic]] material has been altered by genetic engineering techniques generally known as [[recombinant DNA technology]]. Genetic engineering has expanded the genes available to breeders to utilize in creating desired germlines for new crops. Increased durability, nutritional content, insect and virus resistance and herbicide tolerance are a few of the attributes bred into crops through genetic engineering.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.who.int/foodsafety/publications/biotech/20questions/en/index.html|title=20 Questions on Genetically Modified Foods|publisher=World Health Organization|accessdate=16 April 2013}}</ref> For some, GMO crops cause [[food safety]] and [[food labeling regulations|food labeling]] concerns. Numerous countries have placed restrictions on the production, import or use of GMO foods and crops, which have been put in place due to concerns over potential health issues, declining agricultural diversity and contamination of non-GMO crops.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://current.com/groups/news-blog/93975745_peru-bans-genetically-modified-foods-as-us-lags.htm |title=Peru bans genetically modified foods as US lags |date=28 November 2012 |publisher=Current TV |accessdate=7 May 2013 |author=Whiteside, Stephanie |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20130324013255/http://current.com/groups/news-blog/93975745_peru-bans-genetically-modified-foods-as-us-lags.htm |archivedate=24 March 2013 }}</ref> Currently a global treaty, the [[Biosafety Protocol]], regulates the trade of GMOs. There is ongoing discussion regarding the labeling of foods made from GMOs, and while the EU currently requires all GMO foods to be labeled, the US does not.<ref>{{cite book|author=Shiva, Vandana|title=Earth Democracy: Justice, Sustainability, and Peace|publisher=[[South End Press]]|location= Cambridge, MA|year=2005}}</ref> Herbicide-resistant seed has a gene implanted into its genome that allows the plants to tolerate exposure to herbicides, including [[glyphosate]]s. These seeds allow the farmer to grow a crop that can be sprayed with herbicides to control weeds without harming the resistant crop. Herbicide-tolerant crops are used by farmers worldwide.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.fao.org/docrep/006/y5031e/y5031e0i.htm|title=Benefits and risks of the use of herbicide-resistant crops|author=Kathrine Hauge Madsen and Jens Carl Streibig|publisher=FAO|accessdate=4 May 2013|work=Weed Management for Developing Countries}}</ref> With the increasing use of herbicide-tolerant crops, comes an increase in the use of glyphosate-based herbicide sprays. In some areas glyphosate resistant weeds have developed, causing farmers to switch to other herbicides.<ref name="Farmers Guide to GMOs">{{cite web|url=http://www.rafiusa.org/pubs/Farmers_Guide_to_GMOs.pdf |title=Farmers Guide to GMOs|publisher=Rural Advancement Foundation International|accessdate=16 April 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|url=http://www.businessweek.com/bwdaily/dnflash/content/feb2008/db20080212_435043.htm |title=Report Raises Alarm over 'Super-weeds'|journal=Bloomberg BusinessWeek|date=13 February 2008|author=Brian Hindo}}</ref> Some studies also link widespread glyphosate usage to iron deficiencies in some crops, which is both a crop production and a nutritional quality concern, with potential economic and health implications.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Ozturk | display-authors = etal | year = 2008 | title = Glyphosate inhibition of ferric reductase activity in iron deficient sunflower roots | url = | journal = New Phytologist | volume = 177 | issue = | pages = 899–906 | doi=10.1111/j.1469-8137.2007.02340.x}}</ref> Other GMO crops used by growers include insect-resistant crops, which have a gene from the soil bacterium ''[[Bacillus thuringiensis]]'' (Bt), which produces a toxin specific to insects. These crops protect plants from damage by insects.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.aces.uiuc.edu/vista/html_pubs/biotech/insect.htm|title=Insect-resistant Crops Through Genetic Engineering|publisher=University of Illinois|accessdate=4 May 2013}}</ref> Some believe that similar or better pest-resistance traits can be acquired through traditional breeding practices, and resistance to various pests can be gained through hybridization or cross-pollination with wild species. In some cases, wild species are the primary source of resistance traits; some tomato cultivars that have gained resistance to at least 19 diseases did so through crossing with wild populations of tomatoes.<ref>{{cite book|author=Kimbrell, A.|title=Fatal Harvest: The Tragedy of Industrial Agriculture|publisher=Island Press|location=Washington|year=2002}}</ref> == Environmental impact == {{Main|Environmental issues with agriculture}} [[File:Water pollution in the Wairarapa.JPG|right|thumb|[[Water pollution]] in a rural [[stream]] due to [[Agricultural pollution in New Zealand|runoff from farming activity in New Zealand]]]] Agriculture, as implemented through the method of farming, imposes external costs upon society through pesticides, nutrient runoff, excessive water usage, loss of natural environment and assorted other problems. A 2000 assessment of agriculture in the UK determined total external costs for 1996 of £2,343 million, or £208 per hectare.<ref name=Pretty2000>{{cite journal |last1= Pretty |year= 2000 |title= An assessment of the total external costs of UK agriculture |journal= Agricultural Systems |volume= 65 |issue= 2 |pages= 113–136 |doi= 10.1016/S0308-521X(00)00031-7 |first1= J |display-authors= 1 |last2= Brett |first2= C. |last3= Gee |first3= D. |last4= Hine |first4= R.E. |last5= Mason |first5= C.F. |last6= Morison |first6= J.I.L. |last7= Raven |first7= H. |last8= Rayment |first8= M.D. |last9= Van Der Bijl |first9= G.}}</ref> A 2005 analysis of these costs in the USA concluded that cropland imposes approximately $5 to 16 billion ($30 to $96 per hectare), while livestock production imposes $714 million.<ref name=Tegtmeier2005>{{cite journal |last1= Tegtmeier |first1= E.M. |last2= Duffy |first2= M. |year= 2005 |title= External Costs of Agricultural Production in the United States |journal= The Earthscan Reader in Sustainable Agriculture |url= http://www.organicvalley.coop/fileadmin/pdf/ag_costs_IJAS2004.pdf}}</ref> Both studies, which focused solely on the fiscal impacts, concluded that more should be done to internalize external costs. Neither included subsidies in their analysis, but they noted that subsidies also influence the cost of agriculture to society.<ref name=Pretty2000 /><ref name=Tegtmeier2005 /> In 2010, the [[International Resource Panel]] of the [[United Nations Environment Programme]] published a report assessing the environmental impacts of consumption and production. The study found that agriculture and food consumption are two of the most important drivers of environmental pressures, particularly habitat change, climate change, water use and toxic emissions.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.unep.org/resourcepanel/Publications/PriorityProducts/tabid/56053/Default.aspx |title=Priority products and materials: assessing the environmental impacts of consumption and production |author=International Resource Panel |publisher=United Nations Environment Programme |year=2010 |accessdate=7 May 2013 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20121224061455/http://www.unep.org/resourcepanel/Publications/PriorityProducts/tabid/56053/Default.aspx |archivedate=24 December 2012 }}</ref> The 2011 UNEP Green Economy report states that "[a]gricultural operations, excluding land use changes, produce approximately 13 per cent of anthropogenic global GHG emissions. This includes GHGs emitted by the use of inorganic fertilisers agro-chemical pesticides and herbicides; (GHG emissions resulting from production of these inputs are included in industrial emissions); and fossil fuel-energy inputs.<ref name="unep.org" /> "On average we find that the total amount of fresh residues from agricultural and forestry production for second- generation biofuel production amounts to 3.8 billion tonnes per year between 2011 and 2050 (with an average annual growth rate of 11 per cent throughout the period analysed, accounting for higher growth during early years, 48 per cent for 2011–2020 and an average 2 per cent annual expansion after 2020)."<ref name="unep.org" /> === Livestock issues === A senior UN official and co-author of a UN report detailing this problem, Henning Steinfeld, said "Livestock are one of the most significant contributors to today's most serious environmental problems".<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.fao.org/newsroom/en/news/2006/1000448/index.html |title=Livestock a major threat to environment |publisher=UN Food and Agriculture Organization |date=29 November 2006 |accessdate=24 April 2013|archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20080328062709/http%3A//www.fao.org/newsroom/en/news/2006/1000448/index.html |archivedate= 28 March 2008|deadurl=no}}</ref> Livestock production occupies 70% of all land used for agriculture, or 30% of the land surface of the planet. It is one of the largest sources of [[greenhouse gas]]es, responsible for 18% of the world's greenhouse gas emissions as measured in CO<sub>2</sub> equivalents. By comparison, all transportation emits 13.5% of the CO<sub>2</sub>. It produces 65% of human-related [[nitrous oxide]] (which has 296 times the global warming potential of CO<sub>2,</sub>) and 37% of all human-induced [[methane]] (which is 23 times as warming as CO<sub>2</sub>.) It also generates 64% of the [[ammonia]] emission. Livestock expansion is cited as a key factor driving [[deforestation]]; in the Amazon basin 70% of [[Deforestation of the Amazon Rainforest|previously forested area]] is now occupied by pastures and the remainder used for feedcrops.<ref name="LEAD">{{cite web |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080625012113/http://www.virtualcentre.org/en/library/key_pub/longshad/A0701E00.pdf |archivedate=25 June 2008 |last1=Steinfeld |first1=H. |last2=Gerber |first2=P. |last3=Wassenaar |first3=T. |last4=Castel |first4=V. |last5=Rosales |first5=M. |last6=de Haan |first6=C. |year=2006 |publisher=U.N. Food and Agriculture Organization |location=Rome |url=http://www.virtualcentre.org/en/library/key_pub/longshad/A0701E00.pdf |title=Livestock's Long Shadow – Environmental issues and options |accessdate=5 December 2008}}</ref> Through deforestation and [[land degradation]], livestock is also driving reductions in biodiversity. Furthermore, the UNEP states that "methane emissions from global livestock are projected to increase by 60 per cent by 2030 under current practices and consumption patterns."<ref name="unep.org" /> === Land and water issues === {{See also|Environmental impact of irrigation}} Land transformation, the use of land to yield goods and services, is the most substantial way humans alter the Earth's ecosystems, and is considered the driving force in the loss of biodiversity. Estimates of the amount of land transformed by humans vary from 39 to 50%.<ref name="Vitousek">{{cite journal|author=Vitousek, P.M.; Mooney, H.A.; Lubchenco, J.; Melillo, J.M.|year=1997|title=Human Domination of Earth's Ecosystems|journal=Science|volume=277|pages=494–499|doi=10.1126/science.277.5325.494|issue=5325}}</ref> Land degradation, the long-term decline in ecosystem function and productivity, is estimated to be occurring on 24% of land worldwide, with cropland overrepresented.<ref name="FAO GLADA">{{cite web|author=Bai, Z.G., D.L. Dent, L. Olsson, and M.E. Schaepman|date=November 2008|title=Global assessment of land degradation and improvement: 1. identification by remote sensing|publisher=FAO/ISRIC|url=http://www.isric.org/isric/webdocs/docs/Report%202008_01_GLADA%20international_REV_Nov%202008.pdf|format=PDF|accessdate=24 May 2013}}</ref> The UN-FAO report cites land management as the driving factor behind degradation and reports that 1.5 billion people rely upon the degrading land. Degradation can be deforestation, [[desertification]], [[soil erosion]], mineral depletion, or chemical degradation ([[soil acidification|acidification]] and [[salinization]]).<ref name="CS" /> [[Eutrophication]], excessive nutrients in [[aquatic ecosystem]]s resulting in [[algal bloom]]s and [[anoxic waters|anoxia]], leads to [[fish kill]]s, loss of biodiversity, and renders water unfit for drinking and other industrial uses. Excessive fertilization and manure application to cropland, as well as high livestock stocking densities cause nutrient (mainly [[nitrogen]] and [[phosphorus]]) [[surface runoff|runoff]] and [[leaching (agriculture)|leaching]] from agricultural land. These nutrients are major [[nonpoint source pollution|nonpoint pollutants]] contributing to eutrophication of aquatic ecosystems.<ref name="Eutr">{{cite journal|author=Carpenter, S.R., N.F. Caraco, D.L. Correll, R.W. Howarth, A.N. Sharpley, and V.H. Smith|year=1998|title=Nonpoint Pollution of Surface Waters with Phosphorus and Nitrogen|journal=Ecological Applications|volume=8|pages=559–568|doi=10.1890/1051-0761(1998)008[0559:NPOSWW]2.0.CO;2|issue=3}}</ref> Agriculture accounts for 70 percent of withdrawals of freshwater resources.<ref>{{cite web|editor=Molden, D.|url=http://www.iwmi.cgiar.org/About_IWMI/Strategic_Documents/Annual_Reports/2006_2007/pdf/IWMI%20Annual%20Report%202006-07.pdf|title=Findings of the Comprehensive Assessment of Water Management in Agriculture|work=Annual Report 2006/2007|publisher=International Water Management Institute|accessdate=6 January 2014|format=PDF}}</ref> Agriculture is a major draw on water from [[aquifer]]s, and currently draws from those underground water sources at an unsustainable rate. It is long known that aquifers in areas as diverse as northern China, the [[Ganges|Upper Ganges]] and the western US are being depleted, and new research extends these problems to aquifers in Iran, Mexico and Saudi Arabia.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://green.blogs.nytimes.com/2012/08/13/stressed-aquifers-around-the-globe/|title=Stressed Aquifers Around the Globe|author=Li, Sophia|date=13 August 2012|accessdate=7 May 2013|publisher=''New York Times''}}</ref> Increasing pressure is being placed on water resources by industry and urban areas, meaning that [[water scarcity]] is increasing and agriculture is facing the challenge of producing more food for the world's growing population with reduced water resources.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.fao.org/ag/magazine/0511sp2.htm |title=Water Use in Agriculture |date=November 2005 |publisher=FAO |accessdate=7 May 2013 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20130613011034/http://www.fao.org/ag/magazine/0511sp2.htm |archivedate=13 June 2013 }}</ref> [[Farm water|Agricultural water]] usage can also cause major environmental problems, including the destruction of natural wetlands, the spread of water-borne diseases, and land degradation through salinization and waterlogging, when irrigation is performed incorrectly.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.fao.org/ag/magazine/0303sp1.htm |title=Water Management: Towards 2030 |date=March 2003 |publisher=FAO |accessdate=7 May 2013 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20130510184315/http://www.fao.org/ag/magazine/0303sp1.htm |archivedate=10 May 2013 }}</ref> === Pesticides === {{Main|Environmental impact of pesticides}} Pesticide use has increased since 1950 to 2.5{{nbsp}}million short tons annually worldwide, yet crop loss from pests has remained relatively constant.<ref name="Pimentel pesticide">{{cite web|author=Pimentel, D. T.W. Culliney, and T. Bashore |year=1996 |url=http://ipmworld.umn.edu/chapters/pimentel.htm |title=Public health risks associated with pesticides and natural toxins in foods |work=Radcliffe's IPM World Textbook |accessdate=7 May 2013 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20130502115559/http://ipmworld.umn.edu/chapters/pimentel.htm |archivedate=2 May 2013 }}</ref> The World Health Organization estimated in 1992 that 3{{nbsp}}million pesticide poisonings occur annually, causing 220,000 deaths.<ref name="WHO">WHO. 1992. Our planet, our health: Report of the WHO commission on health and environment. Geneva: World Health Organization.</ref> Pesticides select for [[pesticide resistance]] in the pest population, leading to a condition termed the "pesticide treadmill" in which pest resistance warrants the development of a new pesticide.<ref name="CS Pest">Chrispeels, M.J. and D.E. Sadava. 1994. "Strategies for Pest Control" pp.355 – 383 in ''Plants, Genes, and Agriculture''. Jones and Bartlett, Boston, MA.</ref> An alternative argument is that the way to "save the environment" and prevent famine is by using pesticides and intensive high yield farming, a view exemplified by a quote heading the Center for Global Food Issues website: 'Growing more per acre leaves more land for nature'.<ref name="DAvery">{{cite book|author=Avery, D.T.|year=2000|title=Saving the Planet with Pesticides and Plastic: The Environmental Triumph of High-Yield Farming|publisher=Hudson Institute|location=Indianapolis, IN}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|publisher=Center for Global Food Issues|url=http://www.cgfi.org/ |title=Home|accessdate=24 May 2013}}</ref> However, critics argue that a trade-off between the environment and a need for food is not inevitable,<ref name="WH">Lappe, F.M., J. Collins, and P. Rosset. 1998. "Myth 4: Food vs. Our Environment" pp. 42 – 57 in ''World Hunger, Twelve Myths'', Grove Press, New York.</ref> and that pesticides simply replace [[good agricultural practices|good agronomic practices]] such as crop rotation.<ref name="CS Pest" /> The UNEP introduces the [[Push–pull agricultural pest management]] technique which involves intercropping that uses plant aromas to repel or push away pests while pulling in or attracting the right insects. "The implementation of push-pull in eastern Africa has significantly increased maize yields and the combined cultivation of N-fixing forage crops has enriched the soil and has also provided farmers with feed for livestock. With increased livestock operations, the farmers are able to produce meat, milk and other dairy products and they use the manure as organic fertiliser that returns nutrients to the fields."<ref name="unep.org" /> === Climate change === {{See also|Climate change and agriculture}} Climate change has the potential to affect agriculture through changes in temperature, rainfall (timing and quantity), [[carbon dioxide|CO<sub>2</sub>]], [[solar radiation]] and the interaction of these elements.<ref name="CS" /> Extreme events, such as droughts and floods, are forecast to increase as climate change takes hold.<ref>{{cite journal|author=Harvey, Fiona|date=18 November 2011|url=http://www.guardian.co.uk/environment/2011/nov/18/extreme-weather-climate-change-ipcc|title=Extreme weather will strike as climate change takes hold, IPCC warns|journal=The Guardian}}</ref> Agriculture is among sectors most vulnerable to the impacts of climate change; water supply for example, will be critical to sustain agricultural production and provide the increase in food output required to sustain the world's growing population. Fluctuations in the flow of rivers are likely to increase in the twenty-first century. Based on the experience of countries in the Nile river basin (Ethiopia, Kenya and Sudan) and other developing countries, depletion of water resources during seasons crucial for agriculture can lead to a decline in yield by up to 50%.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.strategicforesight.com/publication_pdf/11374Nile%20concise.pdf|title=Report: Blue Peace for the Nile|publisher=Strategic Foresight Group|accessdate=20 August 2013|format=PDF}}</ref> Transformational approaches will be needed to manage natural resources in the future.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://bs-agro.com/index.php/20152-pessimism-about-future-grows-in-agribusiness|title=World: Pessimism about future grows in agribusiness}}</ref> For example, policies, practices and tools promoting climate-smart agriculture will be important, as will better use of scientific information on climate for assessing risks and vulnerability. Planners and policy-makers will need to help create suitable policies that encourage funding for such agricultural transformation.<ref>{{cite web|publisher=[[Climate & Development Knowledge Network]]|url=http://cdkn.org/resource/srex-lessons-for-the-agricultural-sector/?loclang=en_gb|title=SREX: Lessons for the agricultural sector|accessdate=24 May 2013}}</ref> Agriculture in its many forms can both mitigate or worsen [[global warming]]. Some of the increase in CO<sub>2</sub> in the [[Earth's atmosphere|atmosphere]] comes from the [[decomposition]] of [[organic matter]] in the soil, and much of the methane emitted into the atmosphere is caused by the decomposition of organic matter in wet soils such as rice [[paddy field]]s,<ref name="Soils OM">Brady, N.C. and R.R. Weil. 2002. "Soil Organic Matter" pp. 353 – 385 in ''Elements of the Nature and Properties of Soils''. Pearson Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River, NJ.</ref> as well as the normal digestive activities of farm animals. Further, wet or [[Hypoxia (environmental)|anaerobic]] soils also lose nitrogen through [[denitrification]], releasing the greenhouse gases [[nitric oxide]] and nitrous oxide.<ref name="Soils N">Brady, N.C. and R.R. Weil. 2002. "Nitrogen and Sulfur Economy of Soils" pp. 386 – 421 in ''Elements of the Nature and Properties of Soils''. Pearson Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River, NJ.</ref> Changes in management can reduce the release of these greenhouse gases, and soil can further be used to [[carbon capture and storage|sequester]] some of the CO<sub>2</sub> in the atmosphere.<ref name="Soils OM" /> Informed by the UNEP, "[a]griculture also produces about 58 per cent of global nitrous oxide emissions and about 47 per cent of global methane emissions. Cattle and rice farms release methane, fertilized fields release nitrous oxide, and the cutting down of rainforests to grow crops or raise livestock releases carbon dioxide.<ref>{{Cite news|url=|title=A Five-Step Plan to Feed The World|last=Foley|first=Jonathan|date=May 2014|work=National Geographic|access-date=}}</ref> Both of these gases have a far greater global warming potential per tonne than CO2 (298 times and 25 times respectively)."<ref name="unep.org" /> There are several factors within the field of agriculture that contribute to the large amount of CO2 emissions. The diversity of the sources ranges from the production of farming tools to the transport of harvested produce. Approximately 8% of the national carbon footprint is due to agricultural sources. Of that, 75% is of the carbon emissions released from the production of crop assisting chemicals.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Hillier|first=Jonathon|author2=C. Hawes|author3=G. Squire|author4=A. Hilton|title=The carbon footprints of food crop production|journal=International Journal of Agricultural Sustainability|year=2009|volume=7|issue=2|pages=107–118|doi=10.3763/ijas.2009.0419}}</ref> Factories producing insecticides, herbicides, fungicides, and fertilizers are a major culprit of the greenhouse gas. Productivity on the farm itself and the use of machinery is another source of the carbon emission. Almost all the industrial machines used in modern farming are powered by fossil fuels. These instruments are burning fossil fuels from the beginning of the process to the end. Tractors are the root of this source. The tractor is going to burn fuel and release CO2 just to run. The amount of emissions from the machinery increase with the attachment of different units and need for more power. During the soil preparation stage tillers and plows will be used to disrupt the soil. During growth watering pumps and sprayers are used to keep the crops hydrated. And when the crops are ready for picking a forage or combine harvester is used. These types of machinery all require additional energy which leads to increased carbon dioxide emissions from the basic tractors.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Lal|first=Rattan|title=Carbon emission from farm operations|journal=Environmental International|year=2004|volume=30|issue=7|pages=981–990|doi=10.1016/j.envint.2004.03.005}}</ref> The final major contribution to CO2 emissions in agriculture is in the final transport of produce. Local farming suffered a decline over the past century due to large amounts of farm subsidies. The majority of crops are shipped hundreds of miles to various processing plants before ending up in the grocery store. These shipments are made using fossil fuel burning modes of transportation. Inevitably these transport adds to carbon dioxide emissions.<ref>{{cite journal|last=West|first=T.O.|author2=G. Marland|title=Net carbon flux from agricultural ecosystems: methodology for full carbon cycle analyses|journal=Environmental Pollution|year=2002|volume=116|issue=3|pages=439–444|doi=10.1016/s0269-7491(01)00221-4}}</ref> === Sustainability === {{See also|List of sustainable agriculture topics}} Some major organizations are hailing farming within [[agroecosystem]]s as the way forward for mainstream agriculture. Current farming methods have resulted in over-stretched water resources, high levels of erosion and reduced soil fertility. According to a report by the [[International Water Management Institute]] and [[UNEP]],<ref>{{cite web|author=Boelee, E. (Ed)|url=http://www.iwmi.cgiar.org/topics/ecosystems/|title=Ecosystems for water and food security|year=2011|publisher=IWMI/UNEP|accessdate=24 May 2013}}</ref> there is not enough water to continue farming using current practices; therefore how critical water, land, and [[ecosystem]] resources are used to boost crop yields must be reconsidered. The report suggested assigning value to ecosystems, recognizing environmental and livelihood tradeoffs, and balancing the rights of a variety of users and interests. Inequities that result when such measures are adopted would need to be addressed, such as the reallocation of water from poor to rich, the clearing of land to make way for more productive farmland, or the preservation of a wetland system that limits fishing rights.<ref>{{cite web|author=Molden, D.|url=http://www.iwmi.cgiar.org/news_room/pdf/The-scientist_com-Opinion_The%20Water_Deficit.pdf |title=Opinion: The Water Deficit|format=PDF|publisher=''The Scientist''|accessdate=23 August 2011}}</ref> Technological advancements help provide farmers with tools and resources to make farming more sustainable.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://croplife.intraspin.com/pesticides/paper.asp?id=461|author=Safefood Consulting, Inc.|title=Benefits of Crop Protection Technologies on Canadian Food Production, Nutrition, Economy and the Environment|year=2005|publisher=CropLife International|accessdate=24 May 2013}}</ref> New technologies have given rise to innovations like [[conservation tillage]], a farming process which helps prevent land loss to erosion, water pollution and enhances carbon sequestration.<ref>{{cite journal|author=Trewavas, Anthony|title=A critical assessment of organic farming-and-food assertions with particular respect to the UK and the potential environmental benefits of no-till agriculture|journal=Crop Protection |year=2004|pages=757–781|doi=10.1016/j.cropro.2004.01.009|volume=23|issue=9}}</ref> According to a report by the International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI),<ref name=ifpri /> agricultural technologies will have the greatest impact on food production if adopted in combination with each other; using a model that assessed how eleven technologies could impact agricultural productivity, food security and trade by 2050, IFPRI found that the number of people at risk from hunger could be reduced by as much as 40% and food prices could be reduced by almost half. == Agricultural economics == {{Main|Agricultural economics}} {{See also|Agricultural subsidy|Rural economics}} Agricultural economics refers to economics as it relates to the "production, distribution and consumption of [agricultural] goods and services".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.uidaho.edu/cals/aers/agriculturaleconomics |title=Agricultural Economics |publisher=University of Idaho |accessdate=16 April 2013 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20130401181613/http://www.uidaho.edu/cals/aers/agriculturaleconomics |archivedate=1 April 2013 }}</ref> Combining agricultural production with general theories of marketing and business as a discipline of study began in the late 1800s, and grew significantly through the 20th century.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://ageconsearch.umn.edu/bitstream/13649/1/wp06-01.pdf|format=PDF|page=4|title=Agricultural Economics: A Brief Intellectual History|author=Runge, C. Ford|date=June 2006|accessdate=16 September 2013|publisher=Center for International Food and Agriculture Policy}}</ref> Although the study of agricultural economics is relatively recent, major trends in agriculture have significantly affected national and international economies throughout history, ranging from [[tenant farmer]]s and [[sharecropping]] in the post-[[American Civil War]] [[Southern United States]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://digital.library.okstate.edu/encyclopedia/entries/t/te009.html|title=Tenant Farming and Sharecropping|work=Encyclopedia of Oklahoma History and Culture|publisher=Oklahoma Historical Society|author=Conrad, David E.|accessdate=16 September 2013}}</ref> to the European [[feudal]] system of [[manorialism]].<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_YjJc_c4BxsC&pg=PR43&lpg=PR43&dq=manorialism+agriculture&source=bl&ots=-MEgS0TLbp&sig=qlJ4jLjhHcvLhAmBhEp7-BvXqzA&hl=en&sa=X&ei=NLQ3UvquFIeOrgHQ0YHoCQ&ved=0CFwQ6AEwCTgK#v=onepage&q=manorialism%20agriculture&f=false|title=Medieval Castles|publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group|author=Stokstad, Marilyn|isbn=0-313-32525-1|year=2005|accessdate=17 March 2016}}</ref> In the United States, and elsewhere, food costs attributed to [[food processing]], distribution, and [[agricultural marketing]], sometimes referred to as the [[Agricultural value chain|value chain]], have risen while the costs attributed to farming have declined. This is related to the greater efficiency of farming, combined with the increased level of [[value added|value addition]] (e.g. more highly processed products) provided by the supply chain. [[Market concentration]] has increased in the sector as well, and although the total effect of the increased market concentration is likely increased efficiency, the changes redistribute [[economic surplus]] from producers (farmers) and consumers, and may have negative implications for rural communities.<ref name=Sexton2000>{{cite journal |author= Sexton, R.J. |year= 2000 |title= Industrialization and Consolidation in the US Food Sector: Implications for Competition and Welfare |journal= American Journal of Agricultural Economics |volume= 82 |issue= 5 |pages= 1087–1104 |doi= 10.1111/0002-9092.00106}}</ref> National government policies can significantly change the economic marketplace for agricultural products, in the form of taxation, [[subsidies]], [[tariffs]] and other measures.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/bitstream/handle/10986/4101/WPS4864.pdf?sequence=1|title=How Do Agricultural Policy Restrictions to Global Trade and Welfare Differ across Commodities?|author=Peter J. Lloyd, Johanna L. Croser, Kym Anderson|work=Policy Research Working Paper #4864|publisher=The World Bank|accessdate=16 April 2013|date=March 2009|pages=2–3}}</ref> Since at least the 1960s, a combination of import/export restrictions, [[exchange rate policy|exchange rate policies]] and subsidies have affected farmers in both the developing and developed world. In the 1980s, it was clear that non-subsidized farmers in developing countries were experiencing adverse effects from national policies that created artificially low global prices for farm products. Between the mid-1980s and the early 2000s, several international agreements were put into place that limited agricultural tariffs, subsidies and other trade restrictions.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/bitstream/handle/10986/8699/wps3901.pdf?sequence=1|title=Do Global Trade Distortions Still Harm Developing Country Farmers?|author=Kym Anderson and Ernesto Valenzuela|work=World Bank Policy Research Working Paper 3901|date=April 2006|publisher=World Bank|accessdate=16 April 2013|pages=1–2}}</ref> However, {{as of|2009|lc=y}}, there was still a significant amount of policy-driven distortion in global agricultural product prices. The three agricultural products with the greatest amount of trade distortion were sugar, milk and rice, mainly due to taxation. Among the [[oilseed]]s, sesame had the greatest amount of taxation, but overall, feed grains and oilseeds had much lower levels of taxation than livestock products. Since the 1980s, policy-driven distortions have seen a greater decrease among livestock products than crops during the worldwide reforms in agricultural policy.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/bitstream/handle/10986/4101/WPS4864.pdf?sequence=1|title=How Do Agricultural Policy Restrictions to Global Trade and Welfare Differ across Commodities?|author=Peter J. Lloyd, Johanna L. Croser, Kym Anderson|work=Policy Research Working Paper #4864|publisher=The World Bank|accessdate=16 April 2013|date=March 2009|page=21}}</ref> Despite this progress, certain crops, such as cotton, still see subsidies in developed countries artificially deflating global prices, causing hardship in developing countries with non-subsidized farmers.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.guardian.co.uk/global-development/poverty-matters/2011/may/24/american-cotton-subsidies-illegal-obama-must-act|title=America's $24bn subsidy damages developing world cotton farmers|author=Glenys Kinnock|date=24 May 2011|accessdate=16 April 2013|publisher=The Guardian}}</ref> Unprocessed commodities (i.e. corn, soybeans, cows) are generally graded to indicate quality. The quality affects the price the producer receives. Commodities are generally reported by production quantities, such as volume, number or weight.<ref>{{cite web|title=Agriculture's Bounty|url=http://www.ibrc.indiana.edu/studies/AgriculturesBounty.pdf|format=PDF|date=May 2013|accessdate=19 August 2013}}</ref> == Agricultural science == {{Main|Agricultural science}} {{:Agricultural science}} == List of countries by agricultural output == {{Main|List of countries by GDP sector composition}} {{See also|List of most important agricultural crops worldwide}} {{Bar chart|float=center | title = Largest countries by agricultural output according to [[IMF]] and [[CIA World Factbook]], 2015 | table_width = 70 | bar_width = 50 <!-- must be an unformatted number --> | data_max = 1,100<!-- Upper bound on the values in the data fields --> | label_type = Economy | data_type = {{center|Countries by agricultural output in 2015 (billions in [[USD]])}} | label1 = (01) '''{{CHN}}''' | data1 = 1,088 | label2 = (02) '''{{IND}}''' | data2 = 413 | label3 = (—) '''''{{EU}}''''' | data3 = 333 | label4 = (03) '''{{USA}}''' | data4 = 290 | label5 = (04) '''{{IDN}}''' | data5 = 127 | label6 = (05) '''{{BRA}}''' | data6 = 110 | label7 = (06) '''{{NGR}}''' | data7 = 106 | label8 = (07) '''{{PAK}}''' | data8 = 63 | label9 = (08) '''{{TUR}}''' | data9 = 62 | label10 = (09) '''{{ARG}}''' | data10 = 59 | label11 = (10) '''{{JPN}}''' | data11 = 51 | label12 = (11) '''{{EGY}}''' | data12 = 47 | label13 = (12) '''{{THA}}''' | data13 = 47 | label14 = (13) '''{{RUS}}''' | data14 = 47 | label15 = (14) '''{{AUS}}''' | data15 = 46 | label16 = (15) '''{{MEX}}''' | data16 = 43 | label17 = (16) '''{{FRA}}''' | data17 = 42 | label18 = (17) '''{{ITA}}''' | data18 = 41 | label19 = (18) '''{{ESP}}''' | data19 = 39 | label20 = (19) '''{{VNM}}''' | data20 = 37 | label21 = (20) '''{{IRN}}''' | data21 = 36 | caption = {{resize|88%|The twenty largest countries by agricultural output in 2015, according to the [[IMF]] and [[CIA World Factbook]].}} }} == Energy and agriculture == Since the 1940s, agricultural productivity has increased dramatically, due largely to the increased use of energy-intensive mechanization, fertilizers and pesticides. The vast majority of this energy input comes from [[fossil fuel]] sources.<ref>"[http://www.independent.co.uk/news/science/world-oil-supplies-are-set-to-run-out-faster-than-expected-warn-scientists-453068.html World oil supplies are set to run out faster than expected, warn scientists] {{wayback|url=http://www.independent.co.uk/news/science/world-oil-supplies-are-set-to-run-out-faster-than-expected-warn-scientists-453068.html |date=20101021233714 |df=y }}". ''The Independent''. 14 June 2007.</ref> Between the 1960–65 measuring cycle and the cycle from 1986 to 1990, the Green Revolution transformed agriculture around the globe, with world grain production increasing significantly (between 70% and 390% for wheat and 60% to 150% for rice, depending on geographic area)<ref>{{cite web|title=The Future of the Green Revolution: Implications for International Grain Markets|author=Robert W. Herdt|url=http://www.rockefellerfoundation.org/uploads/files/06132caf-3d72-49e4-817d-ae89e0249d18.pdf|publisher=The Rockefeller Foundation|date=30 May 1997|accessdate=16 April 2013|format=PDF|page=2}}</ref> as [[world population]] doubled. Modern agriculture's heavy reliance on [[petrochemicals]] and mechanization has raised concerns that oil shortages could increase costs and reduce agricultural output, causing food shortages.<ref name="ncseonline.org" /> {| class="wikitable" style="float:right; text-align:center;" |- ! colspan=4|Agriculture and food system share (%) of total energy<br />consumption by three industrialized nations |- ! Country ! Year ! Agriculture<br />(direct & indirect) ! Food<br />system |- | style="text-align:left;"| United Kingdom<ref>{{cite web|author=Rebecca White |year=2007 |title=Carbon governance from a systems perspective: an investigation of food production and consumption in the UK |publisher=Oxford University Center for the Environment |url=http://www.eci.ox.ac.uk/research/energy/downloads/eceee07/white.pdf |format=PDF |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20110719044949/http://www.eci.ox.ac.uk/research/energy/downloads/eceee07/white.pdf |archivedate=19 July 2011 }}</ref> | 2005 | 1.9 | 11 |- | style="text-align:left;"| United States<ref name="css.snre.umich.edu">{{cite web|author=Martin Heller and Gregory Keoleian|year=2000|title=Life Cycle-Based Sustainability Indicators for Assessment of the U.S. Food System|publisher=University of Michigan Center for Sustainable Food Systems|url=http://css.snre.umich.edu/css_doc/CSS00-04.pdf|format=PDF|accessdate=17 March 2016}}</ref> | 1996 | 2.1 | 10 |- | style="text-align:left;"| United States<ref name="ers.usda.gov">{{cite web|author=Patrick Canning, Ainsley Charles, Sonya Huang, Karen R. Polenske, and Arnold Waters|year=2010|title=Energy Use in the U.S. Food System|work=USDA Economic Research Service Report No. ERR-94|publisher=United States Department of Agriculture|url=http://www.ers.usda.gov/Publications/ERR94/}}</ref> | 2002 | 2.0 | 14 |- | style="text-align:left;"| Sweden<ref name="WallgrenHöjer2009">{{cite journal|last1=Wallgren|first1=Christine|last2=Höjer|first2=Mattias|title=Eating energy—Identifying possibilities for reduced energy use in the future food supply system|journal=Energy Policy|volume=37|issue=12|year=2009|pages=5803–5813|issn=0301-4215|doi=10.1016/j.enpol.2009.08.046}}</ref> | 2000 | 2.5 | 13 |} Modern or industrialized agriculture is dependent on fossil fuels in two fundamental ways: 1. direct consumption on the farm and 2. indirect consumption to manufacture inputs used on the farm. Direct consumption includes the use of lubricants and fuels to operate farm vehicles and machinery; and use of gasoline, liquid [[propane]], and electricity to power dryers, pumps, lights, heaters, and coolers. American farms directly consumed about 1.2 exajoules (1.1 quadrillion BTU) in 2002, or just over 1% of the nation's total energy.<ref name="ncseonline.org">{{cite web|author=Schnepf, Randy|date=19 November 2004|title=Energy use in Agriculture: Background and Issues|work=CRS Report for Congress|url=http://www.nationalaglawcenter.org/wp-content/uploads/assets/crs/RL32677.pdf|format=PDF|publisher=[[Congressional Research Service]]|accessdate=26 September 2013}}</ref> Indirect consumption is mainly oil and [[natural gas]] used to manufacture fertilizers and pesticides, which accounted for 0.6 exajoules (0.6 quadrillion BTU) in 2002.<ref name="ncseonline.org" /> The natural gas and coal consumed by the production of [[nitrogen fertilizer]] can account for over half of the agricultural energy usage. China utilizes mostly coal in the production of nitrogen fertilizer, while most of Europe uses large amounts of natural gas and small amounts of coal. According to a 2010 report published by [[The Royal Society]], agriculture is increasingly dependent on the direct and indirect input of fossil fuels. Overall, the fuels used in agriculture vary based on several factors, including crop, production system and location.<ref>{{cite journal|url=http://rstb.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/365/1554/2991.full|title=Energy and the food system|author=Jeremy Woods, Adrian Williams, John K. Hughes, Mairi Black and Richard Murphy|date=August 2010|doi=10.1098/rstb.2010.0172|journal=Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society|volume=365|pages=2991–3006|issue=1554}}</ref> The energy used to manufacture farm machinery is also a form of indirect agricultural energy consumption. Together, direct and indirect consumption by US farms accounts for about 2% of the nation's energy use. Direct and indirect energy consumption by U.S. farms peaked in 1979, and has gradually declined over the past 30 years.<ref name="ncseonline.org" /> [[Food systems]] encompass not just agricultural production, but also off-farm processing, packaging, transporting, marketing, consumption, and disposal of food and food-related items. Agriculture accounts for less than one-fifth of food system energy use in the US.<ref name="css.snre.umich.edu" /><ref name="ers.usda.gov" /> === Mitigation of effects of petroleum shortages === [[File:Hubbert peak oil plot.svg|right|thumb|[[M. King Hubbert|M. King Hubbert's]] prediction of world petroleum production rates. Modern agriculture is totally reliant on petroleum energy<ref>{{cite journal|url=http://www.independent.co.uk/news/science/world-oil-supplies-are-set-to-run-out-faster-than-expected-warn-scientists-6262621.html|title=World oil supplies are set to run out faster than expected, warn scientists|journal=The Independent|date=14 June 2007}}</ref>]] In the event of a petroleum shortage (see [[peak oil]] for global concerns), organic agriculture can be more attractive than conventional practices that use petroleum-based pesticides, herbicides, or fertilizers. Some studies using modern organic-farming methods have reported yields as high as those available from conventional farming.<ref name=UMinnSustainable>{{cite web|url=http://www.misa.umn.edu/Search_and_Ask/FAQ/FeedtheWorld/index.htm|title=Can Sustainable Agriculture Really Feed the World?|date=August 2010|publisher=University of Minnesota|accessdate=15 April 2013}}</ref> In the aftermath of the [[fall of the Soviet Union]], with shortages of conventional petroleum-based inputs, Cuba made use of mostly organic practices, including [[biopesticides]], plant-based pesticides and sustainable cropping practices, to feed its populace.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://chge.med.harvard.edu/resource/cuban-organic-farming-experiment|title=Cuban Organic Farming Experiment|publisher=Harvard School of Public Health|accessdate=15 April 2013}}</ref> However, organic farming may be more [[labour (economics)|labor]]-intensive and would require a shift of the workforce from urban to rural areas.<ref>{{cite web|author=Strochlic, R.; Sierra, L.|year=2007|url=http://ccwiki.pbworks.com/f/CAStudy-Barriers-Organic-CIRS-2007.pdf|title= Conventional, Mixed, and "Deregistered" Organic Farmers: Entry Barriers and Reasons for Exiting Organic Production in California|publisher=California Institute for Rural Studies|accessdate=15 April 2013}}</ref> The [[soil conditioner|reconditioning of soil]] to restore nutrients lost during the use of monoculture agriculture techniques also takes time.<ref name=UMinnSustainable /> It has been suggested that rural communities might obtain fuel from the [[biochar]] and [[synfuel]] process, which uses agricultural ''waste'' to provide charcoal fertilizer, some fuel ''and'' food, instead of the normal [[food vs. fuel]] debate. As the synfuel would be used on-site, the process would be more efficient and might just provide enough fuel for a new organic-agriculture fusion.<ref>{{cite journal|url=http://www.cosis.net/abstracts/EGU05/11082/EGU05-J-11082-2.pdf|author=P. Read|title=Carbon cycle management with increased photo-synthesis and long-term sinks|journal=Geophysical Research Abstracts|volume=7|page=11082|year=2005}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|author=Greene, Nathanael|date=December 2004|url=http://www.bio.org/articles/growing-energy-how-biofuels-can-help-end-america%E2%80%99s-oil-dependence|title= How biofuels can help end America's energy dependence|publisher=Biotechnology Industry Organization}}</ref> It has been suggested that some transgenic plants may some day be developed which would allow for maintaining or increasing yields while requiring fewer fossil-fuel-derived inputs than conventional crops.<ref>{{cite journal |publisher=The Electronic Journal of Environmental, Agricultural and Food Chemistry |volume=7 |date=June 2008 |author=Srinivas |title=Reviewing The Methodologies For Sustainable Living}}</ref> The possibility of success of these programs is questioned by ecologists and economists concerned with unsustainable GMO practices such as [[terminator seeds]].<ref name=Radel>{{cite journal |publisher=Journal of Economic Integration |volume= 19 |issue= 2 |date=June 2004 |author= R. Pillarisetti and Kylie Radel |title=Economic and Environmental Issues in International Trade and Production of Genetically Modified Foods and Crops and the WTO |url=http://www.e-jei.org/func/download.php?path=L2hvbWUvdmlydHVhbC9qZWkvam91cm5hbC91cGxvYWQvOEs0WEg4NFlHWUpENTUyOC5wZGY=&filename=OEs0WEg4NFlHWUpENTUyOC5wZGY=|pages=332–352 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |url=http://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol4/iss1/art2/#GeneticModificationAndTheSustainabilityOfTheFoodSystem |author=Conway, G. |year=2000 |title=Genetically modified crops: risks and promise |publisher=Conservation Ecology |volume=4(1): 2}}</ref> While there has been some research on sustainability using GMO crops, at least one prominent multi-year attempt by [[Monsanto Company]] has been unsuccessful, though during the same period traditional breeding techniques yielded a more sustainable variety of the same crop.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.newscientist.com/article/mg18124330.700-monsanto-failure.html |newspaper=[[New Scientist]] |location= London |date=7 February 2004 |title=Monsanto failure |accessdate=18 April 2008 |volume= 181 |issue= 2433 }}</ref> == Policy == {{Main|Agricultural policy}} [[File:United States farm subsidies (source Congressional Budget Office).svg|thumb|290px|From a [[Congressional Budget Office]] report]] [[Agricultural policy]] is the set of government decisions and actions relating to domestic agriculture and imports of foreign agricultural products. Governments usually implement agricultural policies with the goal of achieving a specific outcome in the domestic agricultural product markets. Some overarching themes include risk management and adjustment (including policies related to climate change, food safety and natural disasters), [[economic stability]] (including policies related to taxes), natural resources and [[environmental sustainability]] (especially [[water resource management|water policy]]), research and development, and market access for domestic commodities (including relations with global organizations and agreements with other countries).<ref>{{cite journal|page=13|title=Agricultural and food policy choices in Australia|journal=Sustainable agriculture and food policy in the 21st century: challenges and solutions|publisher=Australian Bureau of Agricultural and Resource Economics – Bureau of Rural Sciences|date=October 2010|accessdate=22 April 2013|author=Lindsay Hogan and Paul Morris|url=http://adl.brs.gov.au/data/warehouse/pe_abarebrs99001749/CP10.15_Agric_food_policy_CONFERENCE_PAPER.pdf|format=PDF}}</ref> Agricultural policy can also touch on [[food quality]], ensuring that the food supply is of a consistent and known quality, food security, ensuring that the food supply meets the population's needs, and [[Conservation biology|conservation]]. Policy programs can range from financial programs, such as subsidies, to encouraging producers to enroll in voluntary quality assurance programs.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://europa.eu/pol/agr/|title=Agriculture: Not Just Farming&nbsp;... |publisher=European Union|accessdate=22 April 2013}}</ref> There are many influences on the creation of agricultural policy, including consumers, agribusiness, trade lobbies and other groups. [[Agribusiness]] interests hold a large amount of influence over policy making, in the form of [[lobbying]] and [[campaign contribution]]s. Political action groups, including those interested in environmental issues and [[labor union]]s, also provide influence, as do lobbying organizations representing individual agricultural commodities.<ref>{{cite journal|url=http://web.missouri.edu/ikerdj/papers/SFT-Corporatization%20of%20Fm%20Pol%20%289-10%29.htm|title=Corporatization of Agricultural Policy|author=Ikerd, John|journal=Small Farm Today Magazine|year=2010}}</ref> The [[Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations]] (FAO) leads international efforts to defeat hunger and provides a forum for the negotiation of global agricultural regulations and agreements. Dr. Samuel Jutzi, director of FAO's animal production and health division, states that lobbying by large corporations has stopped reforms that would improve human health and the environment. For example, proposals in 2010 for a voluntary code of conduct for the livestock industry that would have provided incentives for improving standards for health, and environmental regulations, such as the number of animals an area of land can support without long-term damage, were successfully defeated due to large food company pressure.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.guardian.co.uk/environment/2010/sep/22/food-firms-lobbying-samuel-jutzi |title=Corporate Lobbying Is Blocking Food Reforms, Senior UN Official Warns: Farming Summit Told of Delaying Tactics by Large Agribusiness and Food Producers on Decisions that Would Improve Human Health and the Environment |location=London |first=Juliette |last=Jowit |date= 22 September 2010 |newspaper= The Guardian}}</ref> == See also == {{Main|Outline of agriculture}} {{div col|colwidth=30em}} * [[Aeroponics]] * [[Agricultural engineering]] * [[Agricultural value chain]] * [[Agroecology]] * [[Agroforestry]] * [[Building-integrated agriculture]] * [[Contract farming]] * [[Corporate farming]] * [[Crofting]] * [[Crop]] * [[Ecoagriculture]] * [[Feed additive]] * [[Food security]] * [[Hill farming]] * [[List of documentary films about agriculture]] * [[Pharming (genetics)]] * [[Remote sensing]] * [[Subsistence economy]] * [[Vertical farming]] {{div col end}} {{Portal bar|Agriculture and agronomy|Anthropology|Archaeology|Drink|Food}} == References == {{Reflist|30em}} == Further reading == * {{cite journal | last1 = Alvarez | first1 = Robert A | year = 2007 | title = The March of Empire: Mangos, Avocados, and the Politics of Transfer | url = http://caliber.ucpress.net/doi/pdf/10.1525/gfc.2007.7.3.28 | journal = Gastronomica | volume = 7 | issue = 3| pages = 28–33 | doi=10.1525/gfc.2007.7.3.28}} * Bolens, L. (1997). "Agriculture" in [[Helaine Selin|Selin, Helaine]] (ed.), ''Encyclopedia of the History of Science, Technology, and Medicine in Non-Western Cultures''. Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht/Boston/London, pp.&nbsp;20 – 22. * Collinson, M. (ed.) ''A History of Farming Systems Research''. CABI Publishing, 2000. ISBN 978-0-85199-405-5 * [[Jared Diamond]], ''[[Guns, Germs, and Steel|Guns, germs and steel. A short history of everybody for the last 13,000 years]]'', 1997. * Mazoyer, Marcel; Roudart, Laurence (2006). ''A history of world agriculture: from the Neolithic Age to the current crisis''. Monthly Review Press, New York. ISBN 978-1-58367-121-4 * Watson, A.M. (1983). ''Agricultural Innovation in the Early Islamic World'', Cambridge University Press. == External links == {{wikimedia|collapsible=true|v=Portal:Agriculture|d=Q11451|wikt=agriculture|voy=no|species=no|c=Category:Agriculture}} * [http://www.fao.org/home/en/ Official website] of the [[Food and Agriculture Organization]] (FAO) of the [[United Nations]] * [http://www.usda.gov/wps/portal/usda/usdahome Official website] of the [[United States Department of Agriculture]] (USDA) ** [http://www.ars.usda.gov/main/main.htm Official website] of the USDA's [[Agricultural Research Service]] * [http://ucblibraries.colorado.edu/govpubs/us/agritop.htm Agriculture Research Guide] from the Government Information Library of the University of Colorado, Boulder * [http://www.worldbank.org/en/topic/agriculture Agriculture] material from the [[World Bank Group]] * {{NYTtopic|subjects/a/agriculture}} * {{Guardian topic|science/agriculture}} {{Agriculture footer}} {{Horticulture and gardening}} {{authority control}} [[Category:Agriculture| ]] [[Category:Agronomy]] [[Category:Anthropology]] [[Category:Archaeology]] [[Category:Beverages]] [[Category:Food industry]] [[Category:Harvest]] [[Category:Ranchers]] 8pqeortzq2gpw6os0zugjm019w2dnvn 0 628 717582337 716939354 2016-04-28T15:25:16Z Bender235 88026 clean up; http->https (see [[WP:VPR/Archive 127#RfC: Should we convert existing Google and Internet Archive links to HTTPS?|this RfC]]) using [[Project:AWB|AWB]] wikitext text/x-wiki {{pp-protect|small=yes}} {{EngvarB|date=March 2014}} {{Use dmy dates|date=March 2014}} {{Infobox writer | name = Aldous Huxley | image = Aldous Huxley.gif | imagesize = 250px | alt = Monochrome portrait of Aldous Huxley sitting on a table, facing slightly downwards. | birth_name = Aldous Leonard Huxley | birth_date = {{birth date|df=yes|1894|7|26}} | birth_place = [[Godalming|Godalming, England]], UK | death_date = {{death date and age|df=yes|1963|11|22|1894|7|26}} | death_place = [[Los Angeles|Los Angeles, California]], US | resting_place = [[Compton, Guildford]], England | occupation = [[Writer]], [[Novelist]] | education = [[Eton College]] | alma_mater = [[Balliol College, Oxford]] | notableworks = {{Unbulleted list|class=nowrap |''[[Brave New World]]'' |''[[Island (Huxley novel)|Island]]'' |''[[Point Counter Point]]'' |''[[The Doors of Perception]]'' |''[[The Perennial Philosophy]]''}} | spouses = {{Unbulleted list|class=nowrap |{{marriage|Maria Nys|()=smaller|1919|1955}} |{{marriage|[[Laura Huxley]]|()=smaller|1956|1963}}}} | signature = Aldous Huxley signature.svg }} '''Aldous Leonard Huxley''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|ɔː|l|d|ə|s|_|ˈ|h|ʌ|k|s|l|i}}; 26 July 1894 – 22 November 1963) was an English writer, novelist, philosopher,<ref> {{cite book | title = Aldous Huxley | editor-last = Watt | editor-first = Donald | publisher = Routledge | date = 1975 | isbn = 0-415-15915-6 | page = 366 | quote = Inge's agreement with Huxley on several essential points indicates the respect Huxley's position commanded from some important philosophers ... And now we have a book by Aldous Huxley, duly labelled ''The Perennial Philosophy''. ... He is now quite definitely a mystical philosopher. | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=8PHKq723vpUC&pg=PA366&dq=aldous+huxley+philosopher&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjI3_XanIPMAhVM2WMKHXFiCGAQ6AEILjAD#v=onepage&q=aldous%20huxley%20philosopher&f=false | accessdate = April 10, 2016 }} </ref><ref> {{cite book | title = Aldous Huxley and the Search for Meaning: A Study of the Eleven Novels | last = Sion | first = Ronald T. | date = 2010 | publisher = McFarland & Company, Inc. | isbn = 978-0-7864-4746-6 | page = 2 | quote = Aldous Huxley, as a writer of fiction in the 20th century, willingly assumes the role of a modern philosopher-king or literary prophet by examining the essence of what it means to be human in the modern age. ... Huxley was a prolific genius who was always searching throughout his life for an understanding of self and one's place within the universe. | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=77ithOrxlgMC&pg=PA2&dq=aldous+huxley+philosopher&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwigr5r-nIPMAhVHOxoKHQWfBw4Q6AEINDAE#v=onepage&q=aldous%20huxley%20philosopher&f=false | accessdate = April 10, 2016 }} </ref><ref> {{ cite book | title = Aldous Huxley: Brave New World | last = Reiff | first = Raychel Haugrud | date = 2010 | publisher = Marshall Cavendish Corporation | isbn = 978-0-7614-4278-3 | page = 7 | quote = He was also a philosopher, mystic, social prophet, political thinker, and world traveler who had a detailed knowledge of music, medicine, science, technology, history, literature and Eastern religions. }}</ref><ref> {{ cite book | title = Aldous Huxley: A Biography | last = Sawyer | first = Dana | publisher = The Crossroad Publishing Company | date = 2002 | isbn = 978-0824519872 | page = 187 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=_uIdAQAAIAAJ&q=aldous+huxley+philosopher&dq=aldous+huxley+philosopher&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjo8s3EnoPMAhUEz2MKHdjQB2E4HhDoAQgbMAA | accessdate = April 10, 2016 | quote = Huxley was a philosopher but his viewpoint was not determined by the intellect alone. He believed the rational mind could only speculate about truth and never find it directly. }}</ref> and prominent member of the [[Huxley family]]. He graduated from [[Balliol College, Oxford]] with a [[British undergraduate degree classification#First Class Honours|first]] in English literature. He was best known for his novels including ''[[Brave New World]]'', set in a [[dystopia]]n London, and for non-fiction books, such as ''[[The Doors of Perception]]'', which recalls experiences when taking a [[psychedelic drug]], and a wide-ranging output of essays. Early in his career Huxley edited the magazine ''[[Oxford Poetry]]'', and published short stories and poetry. Mid career and later, he published travel writing, film stories, and scripts. He spent the later part of his life in the U.S., living in Los Angeles from 1937 until his death. In 1962, a year before his death, he was elected Companion of Literature by the [[Royal Society of Literature]].<ref>[http://rslit.org/companions-of-literature "Companions of Literature"]. Royal Society of Literature. Retrieved 5 January 2015</ref> Huxley was a [[Humanism|humanist]], [[Pacifism|pacifist]], and [[Satire|satirist]]. He later became interested in spiritual subjects such as [[parapsychology]] and philosophical [[mysticism]],<ref>{{cite book |last=Thody |first=Philipe |title=Huxley: A Biographical Introduction |year=1973 |publisher=Scribner |isbn=978-0-289-70188-1}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author=David K. Dunaway |title=Aldous Huxley Recollected: An Oral History |url=https://books.google.com/?id=UFasAs0EHU8C&pg=PA90 |year=1995 |publisher=Rowman Altamira |isbn=978-0-7619-9065-9 |page=90}}</ref> in particular [[Universalism]].{{sfn|Roy|2003}} By the end of his life, Huxley was widely acknowledged as one of the pre-eminent intellectuals of his time.<ref>Thody, Philipe (1973)</ref> He was nominated for the [[Nobel Prize in Literature]] in seven different years.<ref>[http://www.nobelprize.org/nomination/archive/show_people.php?id=4397 "Nomination Database: Aldous Huxley"]. Nobel Prize.org. Retrieved 19 March 2015</ref> ==Early life== {{See also|Huxley family}} Aldous Huxley was born in [[Godalming]], Surrey, England, in 1894. He was the third son of the writer and schoolmaster [[Leonard Huxley (writer)|Leonard Huxley,]] who edited ''[[Cornhill Magazine]]'',<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://digital.nls.uk/jma/topics/publishing/cornhill.html|title=Cornhill Magazine - The John Murray Archive - National Library of Scotland|website=digital.nls.uk|access-date=2016-04-24}}</ref> and his first wife, Julia Arnold, who founded [[Prior's Field School]]. Julia was the niece of poet and critic [[Matthew Arnold]] and the sister of [[Mary Augusta Ward|Mrs. Humphrey Ward]]. Aldous was the grandson of [[Thomas Henry Huxley]], the [[Zoology|zoologist]], agnostic, and controversialist ("Darwin's Bulldog"). His brother [[Julian Huxley]] and half-brother [[Andrew Huxley]] also became outstanding biologists. Aldous had another brother, Noel Trevelyan Huxley (1891–1914), who committed suicide after a period of [[Major depressive disorder|clinical depression]].<ref>Holmes, Charles Mason (1978) ''Aldous Huxley and the Way to Reality.'' Greenwood Press, 1978, p. 5</ref> As a child, Huxley's nickname was "Ogie," short for "Ogre."<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|title=Aldous Huxley|last=Bedford|first=Sybille|publisher=Alfred A. Knopf / Harper & Row|year=1974|isbn=|location=|pages=}}</ref> He was described by his brother, Julian, as someone who frequently "[contemplated] the strangeness of things."<ref name=":0" /> According to his cousin and contemporary, Gervas Huxley, he had an early interest in drawing.<ref name=":0" /> Huxley's education began in his father's well-equipped botanical laboratory, after which he enrolled at [[Hillside School, Malvern]]. He was taught there by his own mother for several years until she became terminally ill. After Hillside, he went on to [[Eton College]]. Huxley's mother died in 1908 when he was 14. In 1911, he contracted an eye disease ([[Keratitis|keratitis punctata]]) which "left [him] practically blind for two to three years".<ref>{{cite book| last = Huxley | first=Aldous |year=1939 |chapter=Biography and bibliography (appendix) |title=After Many A Summer Dies The Swan | series = 1st Perennial Classic |page=243 |publisher=Harper & Row}}</ref> This "ended his early dreams of becoming a doctor."<ref name=":1">{{Cite book|title=Brave New World|last=Huxley|first=Aldous|publisher=Harper Perennial Modern Classics / HarperCollins Publishers|year=2006|isbn=|location=|pages=|chapter=Aldous Huxley: A Life of the Mind}}</ref> In October 1913, Huxley went up to [[Balliol College, Oxford]], where he read English Literature.<ref name="Reiff" /> In January 1916 he volunteered to join the [[British Army]] in the [[World War I|Great War]], but was rejected on health grounds, being half-blind in one eye.<ref name="Reiff">Raychel Haugrud Reiff (2009). "Aldous Huxley: Brave New World". p. 112. Marshall Cavendish</ref> His eyesight later partly recovered. In 1916 he edited ''[[Oxford Poetry]]'' and in June of that year graduated [[Bachelor of Arts|BA]] with [[British undergraduate degree classification#First Class Honours|First Class honours]].<ref name="Reiff" /> His brother Julian wrote: {{Quote | I believe his blindness was a blessing in disguise. For one thing, it put paid to his idea of taking up medicine as a career&nbsp;... His uniqueness lay in his universalism. He was able to take all knowledge for his province.<ref>Julian Huxley 1965. ''Aldous Huxley 1894–1963: a Memorial Volume''. Chatto & Windus, London. p. 22</ref>}} Following his years at Balliol, Huxley, being financially indebted to his father, decided to find employment. From April to July 1917, he was in charge of ordering supplies at the [[Air Ministry]] for the [[Royal Air Force]].<ref>Nicholas Murray (2009). "Aldous Huxley: An English Intellectual". Chapter 7. p. 4. Hachette</ref> He taught French for a year at [[Eton College|Eton]], where Eric Blair (who was to take the pen name [[George Orwell]]) and [[Steven Runciman]] were among his pupils. He was mainly remembered as being an incompetent schoolmaster unable to keep order in class. Nevertheless, Blair and others spoke highly of his brilliant command of language.<ref name= "Crick">{{cite book |last= Crick |first= Bernard | title = George Orwell: A Life |year=1992 |publisher=Penguin Books | location =London |isbn=978-0-14-014563-2}}</ref> Significantly, Huxley also worked for a time during the 1920s at [[Tata Chemicals Europe|Brunner and Mond]], a high-tech chemical plant in [[Billingham]], North East England. According to the introduction to the latest edition of his great science fiction novel ''[[Brave New World]]'' (1932), the experience he had there of "an ordered universe in a world of planless incoherence" was an important source for the novel.<ref>{{cite book | last =Baggini |first= Julian |title=Atheism |url= https://books.google.com/?id=DUal7eYmEnEC&pg=PA86 |year=2009 |publisher = Sterling |isbn = 978-1-4027-6882-8 |page= 86}}</ref> ==Career== Huxley completed his first (unpublished) novel at the age of 17 and began writing seriously in his early 20s, establishing himself as a successful writer and social satirist. His first published novels were social satires, ''[[Crome Yellow]]'' (1921), ''[[Antic Hay]]'' (1923), ''[[Those Barren Leaves]]'' (1925), and ''[[Point Counter Point]]'' (1928). ''Brave New World'' was Huxley's fifth novel and first dystopian work. In the 1920s he was also a contributor to ''[[Vanity Fair (American magazine 1913-1936)|Vanity Fair]]'' and [[Vogue (British magazine)|British ''Vogue'']] magazines.<ref>Aldous Huxley: Selected Letters". p. 144. Ivan R. Dee, 2007</ref> ===Bloomsbury Set=== [[File:SomeBloomsburymembers.jpg|thumb|right|Left to right: [[Bloomsbury Group]] members – [[Lady Ottoline Morrell]], Maria Nys, [[Lytton Strachey]], [[Duncan Grant]], and [[Vanessa Bell]] ]] During World War I, Huxley spent much of his time at [[Garsington Manor]] near Oxford, home of [[Lady Ottoline Morrell]], working as a farm labourer. There he met several [[Bloomsbury Group|Bloomsbury]] figures, including [[Bertrand Russell]], [[Alfred North Whitehead]],<ref>{{Citation | last = Weber | first = Michel | author-link = Michel Weber | url = https://www.academia.edu/3268912/_On_Religiousness_and_Religion._Huxleys_Reading_of_Whiteheads_Religion_in_the_Making_in_the_Light_of_James_Varieties_of_Religious_Experience_2005_ | title = On Religiousness and Religion. Huxley's Reading of Whitehead's Religion in the Making in the Light of James' Varieties of Religious Experience | editor1-first = Jerome | editor1-last = Meckier | editor2-first = Bernfried | editor2-last = Nugel | newspaper = Aldous Huxley Annual. A Journal of Twentieth-Century Thought and Beyond | volume = 5 | place = Münster | publisher = LIT | date = March 2005 | pages = 117–32}}.</ref> and [[Clive Bell]]. Later, in ''[[Crome Yellow]]'' (1921) he caricatured the Garsington lifestyle. Jobs were very scarce, but in 1919 [[John Middleton Murry]] was reorganising the ''[[Athenaeum (British magazine)|Athenaeum]]'' and invited Huxley to join the staff. He accepted immediately, and quickly married the Belgian refugee Maria Nys, also at Garsington.<ref>{{Citation | title = The Huxleys | first = Ronald W | last = Clark | publisher = William Heinemann | place = London | year = 1968}}.</ref> They lived with their young son in Italy part of the time during the 1920s, where Huxley would visit his friend [[D. H. Lawrence]]. Following Lawrence's death in 1930, Huxley edited Lawrence's letters (1932).<ref>{{Citation | first = George | last = Woodcock | year = 2007 | title = Dawn and the Darkest Hour: A Study of Aldous Huxley | page = 240 | publisher=Black Rose Books}}.</ref> Works of this period included important novels on the dehumanising aspects of scientific progress, most famously ''[[Brave New World]]'', and on pacifist themes (for example, ''[[Eyeless in Gaza (novel)|Eyeless in Gaza]]''). In ''Brave New World'', set in a [[dystopia]]n London, Huxley portrays a society operating on the principles of mass production and [[Classical conditioning|Pavlovian conditioning]]. Huxley was strongly influenced by [[F. Matthias Alexander]] and included him as a character in ''Eyeless in Gaza''. Starting from this period, Huxley began to write and edit non-fiction works on pacifist issues, including ''[[Ends and Means]]'', ''An Encyclopedia of Pacifism'', and ''Pacifism and Philosophy'', and was an active member of the [[Peace Pledge Union]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ppu.org.uk/people/huxley.html |publisher=Peace Pledge Union |title=Aldous Huxley |accessdate=15 May 2011 |archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20110606072731/http://www.ppu.org.uk/people/huxley.html |archivedate= 6 June 2011 |deadurl= no}}</ref> ===United States=== In 1937, Huxley moved to Hollywood with his wife Maria, son Matthew, and friend [[Gerald Heard]]. He lived in the US, mainly in southern California, until his death, but also for a time in [[Taos, New Mexico]], where he wrote ''[[Ends and Means]]'' (published in 1937). The book contains illuminating tracts on war, religion, nationalism and ethics. Heard introduced Huxley to [[Vedanta]] ([[Upanishads|Upanishad-centered philosophy]]), meditation, and vegetarianism through the principle of [[ahimsa]]. In 1938, Huxley befriended [[Jiddu Krishnamurti]], whose teachings he greatly admired. He also became a Vedantist in the circle of Hindu [[Swami Prabhavananda]], and introduced [[Christopher Isherwood]] to this circle. Not long after, Huxley wrote his book on widely held spiritual values and ideas, ''[[The Perennial Philosophy]]'', which discussed the teachings of renowned mystics of the world. Huxley's book affirmed a sensibility that insists there are realities beyond the generally accepted "five senses" and that there is genuine meaning for humans beyond both sensual satisfactions and sentimentalities. Huxley became a close friend of Remsen Bird, president of [[Occidental College]]. He spent much time at the college, which is in the [[Eagle Rock, Los Angeles|Eagle Rock]] neighbourhood of Los Angeles. The college appears as "Tarzana College" in his satirical novel ''[[After Many a Summer]]'' (1939). The novel won Huxley a British literary award, the 1939 [[James Tait Black Memorial Prize]] for fiction.<ref>Haugrud Reiff, Raychel (2003) ''Aldous Huxley: Brave New World'' p. 103. Marshall Cavendish, 2009</ref> Huxley also incorporated Bird into the novel. During this period, Huxley earned a substantial income as a Hollywood screenwriter; [[Christopher Isherwood]], in his autobiography ''My Guru and His Disciple'', states that Huxley earned more than $3,000 per week (an enormous sum in those days) as a screenwriter, and that he used much of it to transport Jewish and left-wing writer and artist refugees from Hitler's Germany to the U.S. In March 1938, his friend [[Anita Loos]], a novelist and screenwriter, put him in touch with [[Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer]] who hired Huxley for ''[[Madame Curie (film)|Madame Curie]]'', which was originally to star [[Greta Garbo]] and be directed by [[George Cukor]]. (Eventually, the film was completed by MGM in 1943 with a different director and cast.) Huxley received screen credit for ''[[Pride and Prejudice (1940 film)|Pride and Prejudice]]'' (1940) and was paid for his work on a number of other films, including ''[[Jane Eyre (1943 film)|Jane Eyre]]'' (1944). Huxley was commissioned by Walt Disney in 1945 to write a script based on ''Alice's Adventures in Wonderland'' and the biography of the story's author, Lewis Carroll. The script was not used, however.<ref>[http://www.salon.com/2010/04/15/mcsweeneys_intellectual_screenplays/ Salon]</ref> Huxley wrote an introduction to the posthumous publication of J. D. Unwin's 1940 book ''Hopousia or The Sexual and Economic Foundations of a New Society''.<ref>{{Citation | first = JD | last = Unwin | title = Hopousia or The Sexual and Economic Foundations of a New Society | year = 1940 | publisher = Oscar Piest | place = NY}}.</ref> On 21 October 1949, Huxley wrote to [[George Orwell]], author of ''[[Nineteen Eighty-Four]]'', congratulating him on "how fine and how profoundly important the book is". In his letter to Orwell, he predicted: {{Quote | Within the next generation I believe that the world's leaders will discover that infant conditioning and narco-hypnosis are more efficient, as instruments of government, than clubs and prisons, and that the lust for power can be just as completely satisfied by suggesting people into loving their servitude as by flogging them and kicking them into obedience.<ref name= "Smith">{{cite book |last = Huxley | first=Aldous |editor=Grover Smith |title=Letters of Aldous Huxley |year=1969 |publisher=Chatto & Windus |location=London |isbn = 978-0-7011-1312-4}}</ref>}} Huxley had deeply felt apprehensions about the future the developed world might make for itself. From these, he made some warnings in his writings and talks. In a 1958 televised interview conducted by journalist [[Mike Wallace]], Huxley outlined several major concerns: the difficulties and dangers of world overpopulation; the tendency toward distinctly hierarchical social organisation; the crucial importance of evaluating the use of technology in mass societies susceptible to wily persuasion; the tendency to promote modern politicians, to a naive public, as well-marketed commodities.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1ePNGa0m3XA |title=The Mike Wallace Interview: Aldous Huxley (18 May 1958) |publisher=YouTube |date=25 July 2011 |accessdate=8 March 2013}}</ref> ===Post World War II=== After World War II, Huxley applied for [[Citizenship in the United States|United States citizenship]]. His application was continuously deferred on the grounds that he would not say he would take up arms to defend the U.S. He claimed a philosophical, rather than a religious objection, and therefore was not exempt under the [[McCarran Internal Security Act|McCarran Act]].<ref>{{cite journal | format = [[Portable document format|PDF]] | url= http://www.charlestonvt.com/Holly/BCL/MCV%20Aldous%20Huxley/Originals/Derbyshire_WhatHappened.ORG.pdf | title = What Happened to Aldous Huxley? | first =J | last = Derbyshire | publisher = The New Criterion |year=2003}}</ref> He withdrew his application. Nevertheless, he remained in the country; and in 1959 he turned down an offer of a [[Knight Bachelor]] by the [[Harold Macmillan#Prime Minister (1957–1963)|Macmillan government]]. ==Association with Vedanta== Beginning in 1939 and continuing until his death in 1963, Huxley had an extensive association with the [[Vedanta Society of Southern California]], founded and headed by [[Swami Prabhavananda]]. Together with [[Gerald Heard]], [[Christopher Isherwood]], and other followers he was initiated by the Swami and was taught meditation and spiritual practices.{{sfn|Roy|2003}} In 1944, Huxley wrote the introduction to the "Bhagavad Gita: The Song of God",<ref name="IsherwoodSwami Prabhavananda1987">{{cite book |last1=Isherwood |first1=Christopher |last2=Swami Prabhavananda |last3=Aldous |first3=Huxley |title=Bhagavad Gita: The Song of God |year=1987 |publisher=Vedanta Press |location=Hollywood, Calif |isbn=978-0-87481-043-1}}</ref> translated by Swami Prabhavanada and Christopher Isherwood, which was published by The Vedanta Society of Southern California. From 1941 until 1960, Huxley contributed 48 articles to ''Vedanta and the West'', published by the society. He also served on the editorial board with Isherwood, Heard, and playwright John van Druten from 1951 through 1962. Huxley also occasionally lectured at the Hollywood and Santa Barbara Vedanta temples. Two of those lectures have been released on CD: ''[[Knowledge and Understanding]]'' and ''[[Who Are We? (album)|Who Are We?]]'' from 1955. Nonetheless, Huxley's agnosticism, together with his speculative propensity, made it difficult for him to fully embrace any form of institutionalized religion.<ref>[[Michel Weber]], " [https://www.academia.edu/1564486/_Perennial_Truth_and_Perpetual_Perishing._A._Huxleys_Worldview_in_the_Light_of_A._N._Whiteheads_Process_Philosophy_of_Time_2007_ Perennial Truth and Perpetual Perishing. A. Huxley’s Worldview in the Light of A. N. Whitehead’s Process Philosophy of Time] ", in Bernfried Nugel, Uwe Rasch and Gerhard Wagner (eds.), ''Aldous Huxley, Man of Letters: Thinker, Critic and Artist, Proceedings of the Third International Aldous Huxley Symposium Riga 2004'', Münster, LIT, “Human Potentialities”, Band 9, 2007, pp. 31–45.</ref> In spring of 1953, Huxley had his first, supervised, experience with [[psychedelic drug]]s (in this case, [[mescaline]]). After the publication of ''[[The Doors of Perception]]'', in which he recounted this experience, Huxley and Swami Prabhavanada disagreed about the meaning and importance of the psychedelic drug experience, which may have caused the relationship to cool, but Huxley continued to write articles for the society's journal, lecture at the temple, and attend social functions. ==Eyesight== There are differing accounts about the details of the quality of Huxley's eyesight at specific points in his life. About 1939, Huxley encountered the [[Bates method]] for better eyesight, and a teacher, [[Margaret Darst Corbett]], who was able to teach the method to him. In 1940, Huxley relocated from Hollywood to a {{convert|40|acre|ha| adj =on}} ''ranchito'' in the high desert hamlet of [[Llano, California]], in northernmost Los Angeles County. Huxley then said that his sight improved dramatically with the Bates Method and the extreme and pure natural lighting of the southwestern American desert. He reported that, for the first time in more than 25 years, he was able to read without glasses and without strain. He even tried driving a car along the dirt road beside the ranch. He wrote a book about his successes with the Bates Method, ''[[The Art of Seeing]]'', which was published in 1942 (U.S.), 1943 (UK). The book contained some generally disputed theories, and its publication created a growing degree of popular controversy about Huxley's eyesight.<ref>{{Cite book|title = Aldous Huxley Annual|url = https://books.google.com/books?id=ZYFcahCQm4wC&pg=PA109&dq=The+Art+of+Seeing+huxley&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiQ9K27y6zKAhUHKx4KHZ84DjAQuwUIVDAH#v=onepage&q=The%20Art%20of%20Seeing%20huxley&f=false|publisher = LIT Verlag Münster|date = 2011-02-28|isbn = 9783643104502|language = en|first = Bernfried|last = Nugel|first2 = Jerome|last2 = Meckier|page = 111|chapter = A New Look at The Art of Seeing}}</ref> It was, and is, widely believed that Huxley was nearly blind since the illness in his teens, despite the partial recovery that had enabled him to study at Oxford. For example, some ten years after publication of ''The Art of Seeing'', in 1952, [[Bennett Cerf]] was present when Huxley spoke at a Hollywood banquet, wearing no glasses and apparently reading his paper from the lectern without difficulty: "Then suddenly he faltered — and the disturbing truth became obvious. He wasn't reading his address at all. He had learned it by heart. To refresh his memory he brought the paper closer and closer to his eyes. When it was only an inch or so away he still couldn't read it, and had to fish for a magnifying glass in his pocket to make the typing visible to him. It was an agonising moment."<ref name="Gardner">Cerf, Bennett (12 April 1952), ''The Saturday Review'' (column), quoted in {{cite book |last=Gardner |first=Martin | authorlink =Martin Gardner |title=[[Fads and Fallacies in the Name of Science]] |year=1957 |publisher=Dover Publications |isbn = 978-0-486-20394-2}}</ref> On the other hand, Huxley's second wife, [[Laura Huxley|Laura Archera Huxley]], would later emphasise in her biographical account, ''This Timeless Moment'': "One of the great achievements of his life: that of having regained his sight." After revealing a letter she wrote to the ''Los Angeles Times'' disclaiming the label of Huxley as a "poor fellow who can hardly see" by [[Walter C. Alvarez]], she tempered this: "Although I feel it was an injustice to treat Aldous as though he were blind, it is true there were many indications of his impaired vision. For instance, although Aldous did not wear glasses, he would quite often use a magnifying lens."<ref name = "Huxley">{{cite book |last=Huxley |first=Laura |title=This Timeless Moment |year=1968 |publisher= Farrar, Straus & Giroux |location= New York |isbn= 978-0-89087-968-9}}</ref> Laura Huxley proceeded to elaborate a few nuances of inconsistency peculiar to Huxley's vision. Her account, in this respect, is discernibly congruent with the following sample of Huxley's own words from ''The Art of Seeing'': "The most characteristic fact about the functioning of the total organism, or any part of the organism, is that it is not constant, but highly variable." Nevertheless, the topic of Huxley's eyesight continues to endure similar, significant controversy, regardless of how trivial a subject matter it might initially appear.<ref>Rolfe, Lionel (1981) ''Literary LA'' p. 50. Chronicle Books, 1981. University of California.</ref> American [[popular science]] author [[Steven Johnson (author)|Steven Johnson]], in his book ''Mind Wide Open'', quotes Huxley about his difficulties with [[Encoding (memory)#Visual encoding|visual encoding]]: "I am and, for as long as I can remember, I have always been a poor visualizer. Words, even the pregnant words of poets, do not evoke pictures in my mind. No hypnagogic visions greet me on the verge of sleep. When I recall something, the memory does not present itself to me as a vividly seen event or object. By an effort of the will, I can evoke a not very vivid image of what happened yesterday afternoon&nbsp;..."<ref>Huxley, ''The Doors of Perception and Heaven and Hell'', Harper Perennial, 1963, p. 15.</ref><ref>{{cite book | last = Johnson |first=Steven |authorlink=Steven Johnson (author) |title = Mind Wide Open: Your Brain and the Neuroscience of Everyday Life | location =New York |publisher=Scribner |year=2004 |page=235 |ISBN = 978-0-7432-4165-6}}</ref> ==Personal life== Huxley married Maria Nys (10 September 1899 – 12 February 1955), a Belgian he met at [[Garsington]], Oxfordshire, in 1919. They had one child, [[Matthew Huxley]] (19 April 1920 – 10 February 2005), who had a career as an author, anthropologist, and prominent [[epidemiology|epidemiologist]].<ref>[http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/articles/A31009-2005Feb16.html "Author, NIMH Epidemiologist Matthew Huxley Dies at 84".] 17 February 2005 ''[[The Washington Post]]''</ref> In 1955, Maria died of cancer.<ref name=":1" /> In 1956, Huxley married [[Laura Huxley|Laura Archera]] (1911–2007), also an author as well as a violinist and psychotherapist.<ref name=":1" /> She wrote ''This Timeless Moment'', a biography of Huxley. Laura felt inspired to illuminate the story of their marriage through Mary Ann Braubach's 2010 documentary, "Huxley on Huxley".<ref>{{cite web |url=http://huxleyonhuxley.com/about/synopsis/ |title=Huxley on Huxley. |others=Dir. Mary Ann Braubach. Cinedigm, 2010. DVD.}}</ref> In 1960, Huxley was diagnosed with [[laryngeal cancer]] and, in the years that followed, with his health deteriorating, he wrote the Utopian novel ''[[Island (Huxley novel)|Island]]'',<ref>Peter Bowering ''Aldous Huxley: A Study of the Major Novels'', p. 197, Oxford University Press, 1969</ref> and gave lectures on "Human Potentialities" both at the [[University of California]]'s San Francisco Medical Center and at the [[Esalen Institute]]. These lectures were fundamental to the beginning of the [[Human Potential Movement]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Kripal |first=Jeffrey |title=Esalen America and the Religion of No Religion |publisher=University of Chicago Press |year=2007}}[http://www.press.uchicago.edu/Misc/Chicago/453699.html excerpt].</ref> Huxley was a close friend of [[Jiddu Krishnamurti]] and [[Rosalind Rajagopal]] and was involved in the creation of the Happy Valley School (now [[Besant Hill School]] of Happy Valley) in [[Ojai, California]]. The most substantial collection of Huxley's few remaining papers (following the destruction of most in a fire) is at the Library of the University of California, Los Angeles.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.oac.cdlib.org/findaid/ark:/13030/kt1489q14s/ |title=Finding Aid for the Aldous and Laura Huxley papers, 1925–2007 |publisher=Special Collections, [[Charles E. Young Research Library]], UCLA |accessdate=4 October 2012}}</ref> Some are also at the [[Stanford University Libraries]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://findingaids.stanford.edu/xtf/view?docId=ead/mss/m0107.xml |title=Guide to the Aldous Huxley Collection, 1922–1934 |publisher=Dept. of Special Collections and University Archives |accessdate=4 October 2012}}</ref> On 9 April 1962, Huxley was informed he was elected Companion of Literature by the [[Royal Society of Literature]], the senior literary organisation in Britain, and he accepted the title via letter on 28 April 1962.<ref name="Society">Peter Edgerly Firchow, Hermann Josef Real (2005). "The Perennial Satirist: Essays in Honour of Bernfried Nugel, Presented on the Occasion of His 65th Birthday", p. 1. LIT Verlag Münster</ref> The correspondence between Huxley and the society are kept at the [[Cambridge University Library]].<ref name="Society"/> The society invited Huxley to appear at a banquet and give a lecture at [[Somerset House]], London in June 1963. Huxley wrote a draft of the speech he intended to give at the society; however, his deteriorating health meant he would not be able to attend.<ref name="Society"/> == Death == On his deathbed, unable to speak due to advanced [[laryngeal cancer]], Huxley made a written request to his wife Laura for "LSD, 100 [[Microgram|µg]], [[Intramuscular injection|intramuscular]]". According to her account of his death,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.lettersofnote.com/2010/03/most-beautiful-death.html |title=Account of Huxley's death on Letters of Note |publisher=Lettersofnote.com |date=25 March 2010 |accessdate=19 December 2011}}</ref> in ''This Timeless Moment'', she obliged with an injection at 11:20&nbsp;a.m. and a second dose an hour later; Huxley died aged 69, at 5:20&nbsp;p.m. (Los Angeles time), on 22 November 1963.<ref>Raychel Haugrud Reiff (2009). "Aldous Huxley: Brave New World". p. 35. Marshall Cavendish</ref> Media coverage of Huxley's passing — as with that of the author [[C. S. Lewis]] – was overshadowed by the [[Assassination of John F. Kennedy|assassination of U.S. President John F. Kennedy]] on the same day.<ref>Nicholas Ruddick (1993). "Ultimate Island: On the Nature of British Science Fiction". p. 28. Greenwood Press</ref> This coincidence served as the basis for [[Peter Kreeft]]'s book ''[[Between Heaven and Hell (novel)|Between Heaven and Hell: A Dialog Somewhere Beyond Death with John F. Kennedy, C. S. Lewis, & Aldous Huxley]]'', which imagines a conversation among the three men taking place in Purgatory following their deaths.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Kreeft|first1=Peter|title=Between Heaven and Hell: A Dialog Somewhere Beyond Death with John F. Kennedy, C. S. Lewis & Aldous Huxley|date=1982|publisher=InterVarsity Press|location=Downers Grove, IL|isbn=9780877843894|page=back cover|url=http://www.amazon.com/Between-Heaven-Hell-Somewhere-Kennedy/dp/0877843899|accessdate=2 May 2015|quote="On November 22, 1963, three great men died within hours of each other: C. S. Lewis, John F. Kennedy and Aldous Huxley. All three believed, in different ways, that death is not the end of human life. Suppose they were right, and suppose they met after death. How might the conversation go?"}}</ref> Huxley's memorial service took place in London in December 1963 which was led by his older brother [[Julian Huxley|Julian]], and his ashes were interred in the family grave at the Watts Cemetery, home of the [[Watts Mortuary Chapel]] in Compton, a village near [[Guildford]], Surrey, England.<ref>{{Find a Grave|8707127}}</ref> Huxley had been a long-time friend of Russian composer [[Igor Stravinsky]], who later dedicated his last orchestral composition to Huxley. Stravinsky began ''Variations'' in Santa Fé, New Mexico, in July 1963, and completed the composition in Hollywood on 28 October 1964. It was first performed in Chicago on 17 April 1965, by the Chicago Symphony Orchestra conducted by Robert Craft.<ref>Spies 1965, 62; White 1979, 534</ref><ref>White 1979, 536–37</ref><!-- Relevance to Huxley? : Although not composed for the purpose, Stravinsky's music was twice choreographed for the New York City Ballet by George Balanchine, a first version in 1966, and a second version in 1982, both times under the title ''Variations'' (Barnes 1966; Anderson 1982). --> ==Awards== * 1939 [[James Tait Black Memorial Prize]] {{smaller|(for ''After Many a Summer Dies the Swan'')}} * 1959 [[American Academy of Arts and Letters]] Award of Merit {{smaller|(for ''Brave New World'')}}. * 1962 Companion of Literature {{smaller|([[Royal Society of Literature]])}}<ref>{{cite book |last=Chevalier |first=Tracy |title=Encyclopedia of the Essay |year=1997 |publisher=Routldge |isbn=978-1-57958-342-2 |page=416}}</ref> ==Film adaptations of Huxley's work== * 1968 ''[[Point Counter Point]]'' {{smaller|(BBC mini-series by Simon Raven)}} * 1971 ''[[The Devils (film)|The Devils]]'' {{smaller|(''[[The Devils of Loudun]]'' adapted by [[Ken Russell]])}} * 1980 ''[[Brave New World (1980 film)|Brave New World]]'' {{smaller|(US TV adaptation)}} * 1998 ''[[Brave New World (1998 film)|Brave New World]]'' {{smaller|(US TV adaptation)}} ==Selected works== ===Novels=== * 1921 ''[[Crome Yellow]]'' * 1923 ''[[Antic Hay]]'' * 1925 ''[[Those Barren Leaves]]'' * 1928 ''[[Point Counter Point]]'' * 1932 ''[[Brave New World]]'' * 1936 ''[[Eyeless in Gaza (novel)|Eyeless in Gaza]]'' * 1939 ''[[After Many a Summer]]'' * 1944 ''[[Time Must Have a Stop]]'' * 1948 ''[[Ape and Essence]]'' * 1955 ''[[The Genius and the Goddess]]'' * 1962 ''[[Island (Huxley novel)|Island]]'' ===Short story collections=== * 1920 ''[[Limbo (Huxley)|Limbo]]'' * 1922 ''[[Mortal Coils]]'' * 1924 ''[[Little Mexican]]'' {{smaller|(US title: ''Young Archimedes'')}} * 1926 ''[[Two or Three Graces]]'' * 1930 ''[[Brief Candles]]'' * 1944 ''[[Collected Short Stories (Huxley)|Collected Short Stories]]'' * ''[[Jacob's Hands: A Fable]]'' {{smaller|(co-written with [[Christopher Isherwood]]; discovered 1997)}} ===Poetry collections=== * 1916 ''[[Oxford Poetry]]'' {{smaller|(magazine editor)}} * 1916 ''The Burning Wheel'' * 1917 ''Jonah'' * 1918 ''The Defeat of Youth and Other Poems'' * 1920 ''Leda'' * 1925 ''Selected Poems'' * 1929 ''Arabia Infelix and Other Poems'' * 1931 ''The Cicadas and Other Poems'' * 1971 ''Collected Poems'' ===Essay collections=== * 1923 ''On the Margin'' * 1925 ''Along the Road'' * 1926 ''Essays New and Old'' * 1927 ''Proper Studies'' * 1929 ''Do What You Will'' * 1930 ''Vulgarity in Literature'' * 1931 ''[[Music at Night (book)|Music at Night]]'' * 1932 ''Texts and Pretexts'' * 1936 ''The Olive Tree and other essays'' * 1937 ''[[Ends and Means]]'' * 1940 ''Words and their Meanings'' * 1942 ''[[The Art of Seeing]]'' * 1945 ''[[The Perennial Philosophy]]'' * 1946 ''[[Science, Liberty and Peace]]'' * 1950 ''Themes and Variations'' * 1954 ''[[The Doors of Perception]]'' * 1956 ''[[Heaven and Hell (essay)|Heaven and Hell]]'' * 1956 ''Adonis and the Alphabet'' {{smaller|(US title: ''Tomorrow and Tomorrow and Tomorrow'')}} * 1958 ''Collected Essays'' * 1958 ''[[Brave New World#Brave New World Revisited|Brave New World Revisited]]'' * 1960 ''On Art and Artists'' * 1963 ''[[Literature and Science]]'' * 1977 ''Moksha: Writings on Psychedelics and the Visionary Experience 1931–63'' * 1977 ''The Human Situation: Lectures at Santa Barbara, 1959'' ===Screenplays=== * ''[[Brave New World]]'' * ''[[Ape and Essence]]'' * 1940 ''[[Pride and Prejudice (1940 film)|Pride and Prejudice]]'' {{smaller|(collaboration)}} * 1943 ''[[Madame Curie (film)|Madame Curie]]'' {{smaller|(collaboration)}} * 1944 ''[[Jane Eyre (1943 film)|Jane Eyre]]'' {{smaller|(collaboration with [[John Houseman]])}} * 1947 ''[[A Woman's Vengeance]]'' * 1950 ''[[Prelude to Fame]]'' * 1951 Original screenplay (rejected) for Disney's animated ''[[Alice in Wonderland (1951 film)|Alice in Wonderland]]''{{thinsp}}<ref>{{cite book |last=Bradshaw |first=David |year=1993 |chapter=Introduction |title=Aldous Huxley's "Those Barren Leaves" (Vintage Classics, 2005) |page=xii |publisher=Vintage, Random House, 20 Vauxhall Brigade Road, London |nopp=true}}</ref> * 1971 ''[[Eyeless in Gaza (TV series)|Eyeless in Gaza]]'' {{smaller|(BBC mini-series in collaboration with [[Robin Chapman]])}}<ref>[http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0346956/combined "Eyeless in Gaza" (1971)]</ref> ===Travel books=== * 1925 ''Along The Road: Notes and essays of a tourist'' * 1926 ''[[Jesting Pilate (Huxley)|Jesting Pilate: The Diary of a Journey]]'' * 1934 ''[[Beyond the Mexique Bay|Beyond the Mexique Bay: A Traveller's Journey]]'' ===Children's fiction=== * 1967 ''[[The Crows of Pearblossom]]'' ===Drama=== * 1924 ''The Discovery'' {{smaller|(adapted from Francis Sheridan)}} * 1931 ''The World of Light'' * 1948 ''Mortal Coils – A Play'' {{smaller|(stage version of ''The Gioconda Smile'')}} * 1958 ''The Genius and the Goddess'' {{smaller|(stage version, co-written with Betty Wendel)}} * 1967 ''The Ambassador of Captripedia'' * 2000 ''Now More Than Ever'' {{smaller|(Lost play discovered by the Department of English Literature, University of Münster, Germany)}} ===Articles written for ''Vedanta and the West''=== * {{hlist |1941 "Distractions" |"Distractions II" |"Action and Contemplation" |"An Appreciation" |"The Yellow Mustard" |"Lines" |"Some Reflections of the Lord's Prayer"}} * {{hlist |1942 "Reflections of the Lord's Prayer" |"Reflections of the Lord's Prayer II" |"Words and Reality" |"Readings in Mysticism" |"Man and Reality" |"The Magical and the Spiritual"}} * {{hlist |1943 "Religion and Time" |"Idolatry" |"Religion and Temperament" |"A Note on the Bhagavatam" |"Seven Meditations"}} * {{hlist |1944 "On a Sentence From Shakespeare" |"The Minimum Working Hypothesis" |"From a Notebook" |"The Philosophy of the Saints"}} * {{hlist |1945 "That Art Thou" |"That Art Thou II" |"The Nature of the Ground" |"The Nature of the Ground II" |"God in the World"}} * {{hlist |1946 "Origins and Consequences of Some Contemporary Thought-Patterns" |"The Sixth Patriarch" |"Some Reflections on Time"}} * {{hlist |1947 "Reflections on Progress" |"Further Reflections on Progress" |"William Law" |"Notes on Zen"}} * {{hlist |1948 "Give Us This Day Our Daily Bread" |"A Note on Gandhi"}} * 1949 "Art and Religion * 1950 "Foreword to an Essay on the Indian Philosophy of Peace" * {{hlist |1952 "A Note on Enlightenment" |"Substitutes for Liberation"}} * {{hlist |1954 "The Desert" |"A Note on Patanjali"}} * 1955 "Who Are We?" * {{hlist |1956 "Foreword to the Supreme Doctrine" |"Knowledge and Understanding"}} * 1957 "The "Inanimate" is Alive" * 1960 "Symbol and Immediate Experience" ===Audio recordings=== * 1955 ''[[Knowledge and Understanding]]''{{thinsp}}<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.allmusic.com/album/knowledge-and-understanding-r1791018 |title=Knowledge and Understanding |publisher=[[AllMusic]] |accessdate=8 March 2013}}</ref><ref name="Note on lecturing in Santa Barbara">{{cite web |url=http://www.pooler-georgia-homepage.com/aldous-huxley.html |title=Note on lecturing in Santa Barbara |publisher=Pooler-georgia-homepage.com |accessdate=8 March 2013}}</ref> * 1955 ''[[Who Are We? (album)|Who Are We?]]''{{thinsp}}<ref name="Note on lecturing in Santa Barbara"/><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.allmusic.com/album/who-are-we-r1790202 |title=Who Are We? |publisher=[[AllMusic]] |accessdate=8 March 2013}}</ref> ===Other=== * 1936 ''Pacifism and Philosophy'' * 1937 ''An Encyclopedia of Pacifism'' {{smaller|(editor)}} * 1941 ''[[Grey Eminence]]'' * 1953 ''[[The Devils of Loudun]]'' * 1962 ''The Politics of Ecology'' * 2007 ''Selected Letters'' ==See also== {{portal|Biography}} *[[List of peace activists]] ==References== {{Reflist|33em}} ==Sources== {{refbegin}} * {{Citation |last=Roy |first=Sumita |year=2003 |title=Aldous Huxley And Indian Thought |publisher=Sterling Publishers Pvt. Ltd}} * [[Jack Anderson (dance critic)|Anderson, Jack]] 1982. "Ballet: Suzanne Farrell in 'Variations' Premiere". ''New York Times'' (4 July). * [[Clive Barnes|Barnes Clive]]. 1966. "Ballet: Still Another Balanchine-Stravinsky Pearl; City Troupe Performs in Premiere Here 'Variations' for Huxley at State Theater". ''New York Times'' (1 April): 28. * [[Claudio Spies|Spies, Claudio]]. 1965. "Notes on Stravinsky's Variations". ''Perspectives of New Music'' 4, no. 1 (Fall-Winter): 62–74. Reprinted in ''Perspectives on Schoenberg and Stravinsky'', revised edition, edited by Benjamin Boretz and Edward T. Cone, [pages]. New York:W. W. Norton, 1972. * White, Eric Walter. 1979. ''Stravinsky: The Composer and His Works'', second edition. Berkeley and Los Angeles: The University of California Press. ISBN 0-520-03985-8. {{refend}} ==Further reading== {{Library resources box |by=yes | |onlinebooks=yes |viaf=71392434}} {{refbegin|33em}} * Atkins, John. ''Aldous Huxley: A Literary Study'', J. Calder, 1956 * {{cite book |last=Bedford |first=Sybille |title=Aldous Huxley: A Biography |year=2002 |publisher=Ivan R Dee |isbn=978-1-56663-454-0}} * {{cite book |author=David King Dunaway, PH.D. |title=Huxley in Hollywood |year=1991 |publisher=Anchor |isbn=978-0-385-41591-0}} * [[Peter Edgerly Firchow|Firchow, Peter]]. ''Aldous Huxley: Satirist and Novelist'', U of Minnesota P, 1972 * [[Peter Edgerly Firchow|Firchow, Peter]]. ''The End of Utopia: A Study of Aldous Huxley's Brave New World'', Bucknell UP, 1984 * Huxley, Aldous. ''The Human Situation: Aldous Huxley Lectures at Santa Barbara 1959'', Flamingo Modern Classic, 1994, ISBN 0-00-654732-X * Huxley, Laura Archera. ''This Timeless Moment'', Celestial Arts, 2001, ISBN 0-89087-968-0 * Meckier, Jerome. ''Aldous Huxley: Modern Satirical Novelist of ideas'', [[Peter Edgerly Firchow|Firchow]] and Nugel editors, LIT Verlag Berlin-Hamburg-Münster, 2006, ISBN 3-8258-9668-4 * Murray, Nicholas. ''Aldous Huxley'', Macmillan, 2003, ISBN 0-312-30237-1 * Rolo, Charles J. (ed.). ''The World of Aldous Huxley'', Grosset Universal Library, 1947. * Sexton, James (ed.). ''Aldous Huxley: Selected Letters'', Ivan R. Dee, 2007, ISBN 1-56663-629-9 * [[Dana Sawyer|Sawyer, Dana]]. ''Aldous Huxley'', Crossroad Publishing Co., 2002, ISBN 0-8245-1987-6 * Shaw, Jeffrey M. ''Illusions of Freedom: Thomas Merton and Jacques Ellul on Technology and the Human Condition''. Eugene, OR: Wipf and Stock. 2014. ISBN 978-1625640581. * Watt, Conrad (ed.). ''Aldous Huxley'', Routledge, 1997, ISBN 0-415-15915-6 {{refend}} ==External links== {{Sister project links |voy=no |wikt=no |v=no |n=no |b=no}} * {{cite web |url= http://huxleyonhuxley.com/about/synopsis/ |title= Huxley on Huxley |others= Dir. Mary Ann Braubach. [[Cinedigm]], 2010. DVD.}} * {{cite journal |url=http://www.theparisreview.org/interviews/4698/the-art-of-fiction-no-24-aldous-huxley |title=Interview: Aldous Huxley: The Art of Fiction No. 24 |author=[[Raymond Fraser]], George Wickes |date= Spring 1960 |work=[[The Paris Review]]}} * [http://www.npg.org.uk/collections/search/person.php?sText=huxley&submitSearchTerm%5Fx=0&submitSearchTerm%5Fy=0&search=ss&OConly=true&firstRun=true&LinkID=mp02343 Portraits] at the [[National Portrait Gallery, London|National Portrait Gallery]] * [http://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b00jn8bc BBC discussion programme ''In our time'': "Brave New World". Huxley and the novel. 9 April 2009. (Audio, 45 minutes)] * [http://www.bbc.co.uk/archive/writers/12233.shtml BBC ''In their own words'' series. 12 October 1958. (Video, 12 mins).] * [http://dpg.lib.berkeley.edu/webdb/mrc/search_vod?avr=1&keyword=huxley "The Ultimate Revolution" (talk at [[University of California, Berkeley|UC Berkeley]], 20 March 1962)] * [http://www.hrc.utexas.edu/multimedia/video/2008/wallace/huxley_aldous.html Huxley interviewed] on ''[[The Mike Wallace Interview]]'' 18 May 1958. (Video) * {{Gutenberg author |id=Aldous_Huxley |name=Aldous Huxley}} * {{Internet Archive author |sname=Aldous Leonard Huxley}} * {{Librivox author |id=1538}} * {{OL author|OL19767A}} * {{IMDb name|404717}} * [http://www.anglistik.uni-muenster.de/Huxley/huxley_research.html Centre for Huxley Research] * [http://digital2.library.ucla.edu/viewItem.do?ark=21198/zz00253vz2 Aldous Huxley Papers] at [[University of California, Los Angeles Library]] Special Collections. * [http://www.panarchy.org/huxley/devils.html Aldous Huxley, The Devils of Loudun. Appendix] (1952) {{Aldous Huxley}} {{The Devils of Loudun}} {{Authority control}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Huxley, Aldous}} [[Category:Aldous Huxley| ]] [[Category:1894 births]] [[Category:1963 deaths]] [[Category:19th-century English people]] [[Category:20th-century English novelists]] [[Category:Alumni of Balliol College, Oxford]] [[Category:Burials in Surrey]] [[Category:Cancer deaths in California]] [[Category:Consciousness researchers and theorists]] [[Category:Deaths from laryngeal cancer]] [[Category:Duke University faculty]] [[Category:English agnostics]] [[Category:English essayists]] [[Category:English expatriates in the United States]] [[Category:English humanists]] [[Category:English pacifists]] [[Category:English people of Cornish descent]] [[Category:English poets]] [[Category:English philosophers]] [[Category:English satirists]] [[Category:English science fiction writers]] [[Category:English travel writers]] [[Category:Huxley family]] [[Category:James Tait Black Memorial Prize recipients]] [[Category:Mystics]] [[Category:People associated with the Human Potential Movement]] [[Category:People educated at Eton College]] [[Category:People from Godalming]] [[Category:Psychedelic drug advocates]] [[Category:Writers from Los Angeles, California]] [[Category:Writers from Taos, New Mexico]] [[Category:Male essayists]] [[Category:Perennial philosophy]] [[Category:British male poets]] [[Category:English male short story writers]] [[Category:English male novelists]] 90ahg61a4ijzc1bqshh5du6zr8t6v31 0 629 290580326 289167623 2009-05-17T20:43:53Z Erik9bot 8889502 [[WP:RBK|Reverted]] edits by [[Special:Contributions/Erik9bot|Erik9bot]] ([[User talk:Erik9bot|talk]]) to last version by Closedmouth wikitext text/x-wiki #REDIRECT [[Abstract algebra]]{{R from other capitalisation}} 7lc1s56cgwinj2uik2hydpmvpgwt2rr 0 630 713985918 713985561 2016-04-06T23:32:08Z Dcirovic 11795905 Reverted 1 edit by [[Special:Contributions/67.222.202.7|67.222.202.7]] identified as test/vandalism using [[WP:STiki|STiki]] wikitext text/x-wiki {{Wiktionary|Ada|ada|ADA}} '''Ada''' may refer to: {{TOC right}} ==Food== * [[Ada (food)]], traditional Kerala delicacy, made with rice, coconut powder mix, and sugar ==People== <!-- people without a surname, who are possibly referred to as just "Ada" --> * [[Ada (name)]], feminine given name (and list of people with the name) * [[St. Ada]], 7th-century French abbess * [[Ada, Countess of Atholl]] (died 1264) * [[Ada, Countess of Holland]] * [[Ada de Warenne]], Countess of Northumbria and Huntingdon (died 1178) * [[Ada of Caria]], satrap deposed by her brother Idrieus and restored by Alexander the Great * Ada, sister of Charlemagne, for whom the [[Ada Gospels]] at Trier were produced * [[Ada Lovelace]] (Augusta Ada King, Countess of Lovelace) (1815–1852), English mathematician and writer ==Places== {{See also|Ada River (disambiguation)|Ada Township (disambiguation)}} ===Europe=== * [[Ada, Croatia]], village in Croatia, municipality Šodolovci, Vukovar-Syrmia County * [[Ada, Serbia]], town and municipality ===Africa=== * [[Ada, Ghana]], or Ada Foah * [[Ada (Ghana parliament constituency)]] * [[Ada, Delta]], Isoka town in Delta State, Nigeria * [[Ada, Osun]], town in Osun State, Nigeria * [[Ada Estate]], luxury residential suburb of Dar es Salaam, Tanzania ===Asia=== * [[Ada, Iran]], a village in West Azerbaijan Province * [[Ada, Karaman]], a village in the central district (Karaman) of Karaman Province, Turkey ===North America=== * [[Ada, Alabama]], unincorporated community in Montgomery County, Alabama * [[Ada County, Idaho]] * [[Ada, Minnesota]], Norman County, Minnesota * [[Ada, Ohio]], Hardin County, Ohio * [[Ada, Oklahoma]], Pontotoc County, Oklahoma * [[Ada, Oregon]], Lane County, Oregon * [[Ada, West Virginia]], Mercer County, West Virginia * [[Ada, Wisconsin]], Sheboygan County, Wisconsin ==Literature, film, music, and the arts== * ''[[Ada or Ardor: A Family Chronicle]]'', 1969 novel by Vladimir Nabokov ===Television and film=== * [[Ada TV]], broadcasts in both satellite and terrestrial in the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus * [[Ada (film)|''Ada'' (film)]], 1961 film by Daniel Mann * [[Ada (dog actor)]], dog that played Colin on the sitcom ''Spaced'' ===Video games=== * [[Ada (Castlevania)|Ada (''Castlevania'')]], character in ''Castlevania: Legacy of Darkness'' * [[Ada Wong]], character in the ''Resident Evil'' franchise ==Science and engineering== * [[Ada (ship)|''Ada'' (ship)]], wooden Ketch, wrecked near Newcastle, New South Wales, Australia * [[USS Little Ada (1864)|USS ''Little Ada'' (1864)]], steamer captured by the Union Navy during the American Civil War ===Astronomy=== * [[523 Ada]], minor planet orbiting the Sun ===Biology=== * [[Ada (plant)|''Ada'' (plant)]], genus of orchids * ''[[Ada aurantiaca]]'', species of orchid and the type species of its genus * ''[[Ada keiliana]]'', species of orchid ===Scientific and medical organizations=== * [[AdA (physics)]] or Istituto Nazionale di Fisica Nucleare (National Institute for Nuclear Physics), Italy * [[American Dental Association]] * [[American Diabetes Association]] * [[American Dietetic Association]] ===Computer science=== * [[Ada (programming language)]], programming language based on Pascal * [[Ada (computer virus)]] ===Biochemistry=== * [[Adenosine deaminase]], enzyme involved in purine metabolism * [[Ada (protein)]], enzyme induced by treatment of bacterial cells * [[Ada regulon]], one of the Escherichia coli adaptive response proteins ===Meteorology=== * [[Cyclone Ada (disambiguation)]], two tropical cyclones named Ada ===Air travel=== * [[Ada Air]], regional airline based in Tirana, Albania * [[Ada International Airport]] or Saipan International Airport, Saipan Island, Northern Mariana Islands * [[Aerolínea de Antioquia]], Colombian Airline * [[Airline Deregulation Act]], 1978 US bill removing governmental control from commercial aviation * [[Adana Şakirpaşa Airport]]'s IATA code ==See also== * [[ADA (disambiguation)]] * [[Adah (disambiguation)]] * [[Adha (disambiguation)]] {{Disambiguation|geo|hndis}} [[Category:Three-letter disambiguation pages]] 0oktcn57t8hgdec057o4c1gpegexkle 0 632 716688795 715213516 2016-04-23T06:35:04Z SSTflyer 25530780 why include the same list on two different dab pages? wikitext text/x-wiki {{wiktionary|Aberdeen}} '''[[Aberdeen]]''' is a city in Scotland, United Kingdom. '''Aberdeen''' may also refer to: {{TOC right}} == Places == === Africa === ==== Sierra Leone ==== * [[Aberdeen, Sierra Leone]] ==== South Africa ==== * [[Aberdeen, Eastern Cape]] === Asia === ==== Hong Kong ==== * [[Aberdeen Channel]], a channel between Ap Lei Chau (Aberdeen Island) and Nam Long Shan on the Hong Kong Island in Hong Kong * [[Aberdeen floating village]], at Aberdeen Harbour, containing approximately 600 junks, which house an estimated 6,000 people * Aberdeen Harbour, a harbour between [[Aberdeen, Hong Kong]] and Ap Lei Chau (Aberdeen Island) * [[Aberdeen, Hong Kong]] * [[Ap Lei Chau]] or Aberdeen Island, an island of Hong Kong ==== India ==== * Aberdeen Bazaar, a shopping centre in [[Port Blair]], South Andaman Island ==== Sri Lanka ==== * [[Aberdeen Falls]], a waterfall in Sri Lanka. === Australia === * [[Aberdeen, New South Wales]] * [[Aberdeen, South Australia]], one of the early townships that merged in 1940 to create the town of Burra * [[Aberdeen, Tasmania]], a suburb of the [[City of Devonport]] === Caribbean Sea === * [[Aberdeen, Jamaica]], a town in [[Saint Elizabeth, Jamaica]] ===Europe=== * [[Aberdeen (Parliament of Scotland constituency)]] * [[Aberdeen (UK Parliament constituency)]] 1832-1885 * [[Aberdeen Burghs (UK Parliament constituency)]] 1801-1832 * [[Aberdeen Central (Scottish Parliament constituency)]] * [[Aberdeen Central (UK Parliament constituency)]] * [[Aberdeen Donside (Scottish Parliament constituency)]] * [[County of Aberdeen]], a historic county of Scotland whose county town was Aberdeen * [[Old Aberdeen]], a part of the city of Aberdeen in Scotland ===North America=== ==== Canada ==== * [[Aberdeen, Abbotsford]], a neighbourhood in the City of Abbotsford, British Columbia * [[Aberdeen, Kamloops]], an area in the City of Kamloops, British Columbia * [[Aberdeen Centre]], a shopping mall in Richmond, British Columbia * [[Aberdeen Parish, New Brunswick]] * [[Aberdeen, Nova Scotia]], part of the Municipality of Inverness County, Nova Scotia * [[New Aberdeen, Nova Scotia]] * Aberdeen Bay, a bay between southern [[Baffin Island]] and north-eastern [[Hector Island]] in the Nunavut territory * [[Aberdeen Lake (Nunavut)]], a lake in Kivalliq Region, Nunavut, Canada * Aberdeen, community in the township of [[Champlain, Ontario|Champlain]], Prescott and Russell County, Ontario * [[Aberdeen, Grey County, Ontario]] * Aberdeen Township, Quebec, until 1960 part of Sheen-Esher-Aberdeen-et-Malakoff, now part of [[Rapides-des-Joachims, Quebec]] * [[Aberdeen No. 373, Saskatchewan]] * [[Aberdeen, Saskatchewan]] ==== United States of America ==== * [[Aberdeen, Arkansas]] * [[Aberdeen, California]] * [[Aberdeen, Florida]] * [[Aberdeen, Georgia]] * [[Aberdeen, Idaho]] * [[Aberdeen, Ohio County, Indiana]] * [[Aberdeen, Porter County, Indiana]] * [[Aberdeen, Kentucky]] * [[Aberdeen, Maryland]] :* [[Aberdeen Proving Ground]], a United States Army facility located in Aberdeen, Maryland * Aberdeen, Massachusetts, a neighborhood of [[Brighton, Boston]] * [[Aberdeen, Mississippi]] :* [[Aberdeen Lake (Mississippi)]], a lake in northeast Mississippi on the Tennessee-Tombigbee Waterway, close to Aberdeen, Mississippi * [[Aberdeen, Montana]] * [[Aberdeen, North Carolina]] * [[Aberdeen, Ohio]] * [[Aberdeen Township, New Jersey]] * [[Aberdeen, Pennsylvania]] * [[Aberdeen, South Dakota]] * [[Aberdeen, Texas]] * [[Aberdeen (Disputanta, Virginia)]] * Aberdeen Field Airport, [[Smithfield, Virginia]] * [[Aberdeen, Washington]] * [[Aberdeen, West Virginia]] == Airports == {{Main|Aberdeen Airport (disambiguation)}} == Education == * [[Aberdeen College]], formerly one of the largest further education colleges in Scotland, merged with Banff & Buchan College to form North East Scotland College * [[Aberdeen Hall]], a university-preparatory school in Kelowna, British Columbia, Canada * [[University of Aberdeen]], a public research university in the city of Aberdeen == Entertainment == * [[Aberdeen (2000 film)|''Aberdeen'' (2000 film)]], a 2000 Norwegian-British film directed by Hans Petter Moland, starring Stellan Skarsgård and Lena Headey * [[Aberdeen (2014 film)|''Aberdeen'' (2014 film)]], a 2014 Hong Kong film starring Louis Koo * [[Aberdeen (band)]], an American rock band * [[Aberdeen (song)]], a song by Cage The Elephant * [[Aberdeen City (band)]], Boston based indie/alternative rock band == Other transportation == * [[Aberdeen, Carolina and Western Railway]], a short-line railroad operating in North Carolina * [[Aberdeen and Rockfish Railroad]], a short-line railroad operating in North Carolina * [[Aberdeen Line]], a British shipping company founded in 1825 * [[Aberdeen Lock and Dam]], one of four lock and dam structures on the Tennessee-Tombigbee Waterway * [[Aberdeen Railway]], a railway company which built a line from Aberdeen to Forfar and Arbroath == Ships == * [[SS Aberdeen]], a steamship operating for the Canadian Pacific Railway on Okanagan Lake from 1893 to 1919 * [[SS Aberdeen (1881)]], an innovative British steamship built for the Aberdeen Line in 1881 * [[SS Aberdeen (1912)]], a coastal whale catcher operating out of Gray's Harbor from the Canadian border south to Cape Blanco in Oregon * [[SS Aberdeen Victory]], a merchant ship operated during the latter stages of World War II, later commissioned as the USS Altair == Sports == * [[Aberdeen F.C. (1881)]], a Scottish football team formed in 1881. On 14 April 1903 they merged with the two other Aberdeen clubs Victoria United and Orion to form the current Aberdeen F.C. * [[Aberdeen F.C.]], a Scottish professional football club based in Aberdeen * [[Aberdeen GSFP RFC]], an amateur rugby union club based in Aberdeen * [[Aberdeen IronBirds]], a minor league baseball team affiliated with the Baltimore Orioles * [[Aberdeen L.F.C.]], a women's football team affiliated with Aberdeen F.C. == Train stations == * [[Aberdeen station (disambiguation)]], stations of the name == See also == * [[Aberdeen Act]] * [[Aberdeen Central (disambiguation)]] * [[Aberdeen Gardens (disambiguation)]] * [[Aberdeen High School (disambiguation)]] * [[Aberdeen Historic District (disambiguation)]] * [[Aberdeen Hospital (disambiguation)]] * [[Aberdeen Island (disambiguation)]] * [[Aberdeen Line (disambiguation)]] * [[Battle of Aberdeen (disambiguation)]] * [[Diocese of Aberdeen and Orkney]], one of the seven dioceses of the Scottish Episcopal Church * [[Etymology of Aberdeen]] * [[Marquess of Aberdeen and Temair]], a title in the Peerage of the United Kingdom * {{lookfrom|Aberdeen}} * {{intitle|Aberdeen}} {{disambiguation|geo|school|ship}} 15xl6chm8r9irk7323oyls9kpkla69n 0 633 717932901 717931710 2016-04-30T15:47:07Z Maczkopeti 26240210 wikitext text/x-wiki {{redirect|Alga|places called Alga|Alga (disambiguation)|other uses|Algae (disambiguation)}} {{Use dmy dates|date=March 2014}} {{paraphyletic group |fossil_range={{long fossil range|Mesoproterozoic|present|ref=<ref name="butterfield">{{cite journal |author=N. J. Butterfield |year=2000 |title=''Bangiomorpha pubescens'' n. gen., n. sp.: implications for the evolution of sex, multicellularity, and the Mesoproterozoic/Neoproterozoic radiation of eukaryotes |journal=[[Paleobiology (journal)|Paleobiology]] |volume=26 |issue=3 |pages=386–404 |url=http://paleobiol.geoscienceworld.org/cgi/content/abstract/26/3/386 |doi=10.1666/0094-8373(2000)026<0386:BPNGNS>2.0.CO;2 |issn=0094-8373}}</ref>}} |domain=[[Eukaryota]], [[Bacteria]] |image=NSW seabed 1.JPG |image_width=263px |image_caption=A variety of algae growing on the sea bed in shallow waters |includes= * [[Archaeplastida]] ** [[Plantae]] *** [[Chlorophyta]] (green algae) *** [[Charophyta]] (green algae) ** [[Rhodophyta]] (red algae) ** [[Glaucophyta]] * [[Rhizaria]], [[Excavata]] ** [[Chlorarachniophytes]] ** [[Euglenids]] * [[Chromista]], [[Alveolata]] ** [[Heterokonts]] *** [[Bacillariophyceae]] (Diatoms) *** [[Axodine]]s *** [[Bolidomonas]] *** [[Eustigmatophyceae]] *** [[Phaeophyceae]] (brown algae) *** [[Chrysophyceae]] (golden algae) *** [[Raphidophyceae]] *** [[Synurophyceae]] *** [[Xanthophyceae]] (yellow-green algae) ** [[Cryptophyta]] ** [[Dinoflagellata]] ** [[Haptophyta]] * [[Cyanobacteria]] (blue-green algae) |excludes= * [[Bacteria]] (non-photosynthetic) * [[Protist]]a (non-photosynthetic) * [[Animalia]] * [[Embryophyta]] * [[Fungi]]}} [[File:AlgaeTree.png|thumb|260px|The lineage of algae according to [[Thomas Cavalier-Smith]]. The exact number and placement of [[Endosymbiotic theory|endosymbiotic events]] is currently unknown, so this diagram can be taken only as a general guide.<ref name="keeling"/><ref name="parfrey"/> It represents the most parsimonious way of explaining the three types of endosymbiotic origins of plastids. These types include the endosymbiotic events of [[cyanobacteria]], [[red algae]] and [[green algae]], leading to the hypothesis of the supergroups [[Archaeplastida]], [[Chromalveolata]] and [[Cabozoa]] respectively. Endosymbiotic events are noted by dotted lines.]] '''Algae''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|æ|l|dʒ|i|,_|ˈ|æ|l|ɡ|i}}; singular ''alga'' {{IPAc-en|ˈ|æ|l|ɡ|ə}}) is an informal term for a large, diverse group of [[photosynthesis|photosynthetic]] [[organism]]s which are not necessarily closely related and are thus [[polyphyletic]]. Included organisms range from [[unicellular]] genera, such as ''[[Chlorella]]'' and the [[diatoms]], to [[multicellular]] forms, such as the [[Macrocystis pyrifera|giant kelp]], a large [[brown algae|brown alga]] which may grow up to 50&nbsp;meters in length. Most are aquatic and [[autotrophic]] and lack many of the distinct cell and tissue types, such as [[stomata]], [[xylem]] and [[phloem]], which are found in [[embryophyte|land plants]]. The largest and most complex marine algae are called [[seaweed]]s, while the most complex freshwater forms are the [[Charophyta]], a [[phylum|division]] of green algae which includes, for example, ''[[Spirogyra]]'' and the [[stonewort]]s. There is no generally accepted definition of algae. One definition is that algae "have [[chlorophyll]] as their primary photosynthetic pigment and lack a sterile covering of cells around their reproductive cells".<ref>{{cite book |author=Lee, R. E. |year=2008 |title=Phycology |publisher=Cambridge University Press}}</ref> Some authors exclude all prokaryotes<ref name="IntroBot">{{cite book |last=Nabors |first=Murray W. |title=Introduction to Botany |year=2004 |publisher=Pearson Education, Inc |location=San Francisco, CA |isbn=978-0-8053-4416-5}}</ref> and thus do not consider [[cyanobacteria]] (blue-green algae) as algae.<ref name="Allaby 92">{{cite encyclopedia |editor1-last=Allaby |editor1-first=M. |year=1992 |encyclopedia=The Concise Dictionary of Botany |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxford |title=Algae}}</ref> Algae constitute a [[polyphyletic]] group<ref name="IntroBot"/> since they do not include a common ancestor, and although their plastids seem to have a single origin, from cyanobacteria,<ref name="keeling">{{cite journal |title=Diversity and evolutionary history of plastids and their hosts |author=Patrick J. Keeling |url=http://www.amjbot.org/cgi/content/full/91/10/1481 |journal=American Journal of Botany |year=2004 |volume=91 |pages=1481–1493 |doi=10.3732/ajb.91.10.1481 |issue=10 |pmid=21652304}}</ref> they were acquired in different ways. [[Green algae]] are examples of algae that have primary chloroplasts derived from [[endosymbiotic theory|endosymbiotic]] cyanobacteria. [[Diatoms]] and brown algae are examples of algae with secondary chloroplasts derived from an [[endosymbiotic theory#Secondary endosymbiosis|endosymbiotic]] [[red alga]].<ref>{{cite journal |authors=J.D. Palmer, D.E. Soltis, M.W. Chase |year=2004 |title=The plant tree of life: an overview and some points of view |journal=Am. J. Bot. |volume=91 |issue=10 |pages=1437–1445 |doi=10.3732/ajb.91.10.1437 |pmid=21652302}}</ref> Algae exhibit a wide range of reproductive strategies, from simple [[asexual reproduction|asexual]] cell division to complex forms of [[sexual reproduction]].<ref>Smithsonian National Museum of Natural History; Department of Botany. http://botany.si.edu/projects/algae/introduction.htm</ref> Algae lack the various structures that characterize land plants, such as the phyllids (leaf-like structures) of [[bryophytes]], [[rhizoid]]s in [[nonvascular plants]], and the [[root]]s, [[leaf|leaves]], and other [[Organ (anatomy)|organs]] that are found in [[tracheophyte]]s ([[vascular plants]]). Most are [[phototroph]]ic, although some are [[mixotroph]]ic, deriving energy both from photosynthesis and uptake of organic carbon either by [[osmotrophy]], [[myzocytosis|myzotrophy]], or [[phagocytosis|phagotrophy]]. Some unicellular [[species]] of [[green algae]], many [[golden algae]], [[euglenids]], [[dinoflagellates]] and other algae have become [[heterotroph]]s (also called colorless or apochlorotic algae), sometimes parasitic, relying entirely on external energy sources and have limited or no photosynthetic apparatus.<ref>Pringsheim, E.G. 1963. ''Farblose Algen. Ein beitrag zur Evolutionsforschung''. Gustav Fischer Verlag, Stuttgart. 471 pp., [[species:Algae#Pringsheim .281963.29]].</ref><ref>{{cite journal |authors=Tartar, A., Boucias, D. G., Becnel, J. J., and Adams, B. J. |year=2003 |title=Comparison of plastid 16S rRNA (rrn 16) genes from Helicosporidium spp.: evidence supporting the reclassification of Helicosporidia as green algae (Chlorophyta) |journal=International Journal of Systematic and Evolutionary Microbiology |volume=53 |pages=1719–1723 |doi=10.1099/ijs.0.02559-0 |pmid=14657099 |issue=Pt 6}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Figueroa‐Martinez |first1=F. |last2=Nedelcu |first2=A. M. |last3=Smith |first3=D. R. |last4=Reyes‐Prieto |first4=A. |date=2015 |title=When the lights go out: the evolutionary fate of free‐living colorless green algae |journal=New Phytologist |volume=206 |issue=3 |pages=972–982 |url=http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/nph.13279/full |doi=10.1111/nph.13279}}</ref> Some other heterotrophic organisms, like the [[apicomplexans]], are also derived from cells whose ancestors possessed plastids, but are not traditionally considered as algae. Algae have photosynthetic machinery ultimately derived from [[cyanobacteria]] that produce [[oxygen]] as a by-product of photosynthesis, unlike other photosynthetic bacteria such as [[Purple sulfur bacteria|purple]] and [[green sulfur bacteria]]. Fossilized filamentous algae from the [[Vindhya]] basin have been dated back to 1.6 to 1.7 billion years ago.<ref>{{cite journal |pmid=19416859 |year=2009 |last1=Bengtson |first1=S |last2=Belivanova |first2=V |last3=Rasmussen |first3=B |last4=Whitehouse |first4=M |title=The controversial "Cambrian" fossils of the Vindhyan are real but more than a billion years older |volume=106 |issue=19 |pages=7729–34 |doi=10.1073/pnas.0812460106 |pmc=2683128 |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America |bibcode=2009PNAS..106.7729B}}</ref> ==Etymology and study== The singular ''alga'' is the Latin word for "seaweed" and retains that meaning in English.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|title=alga, algae|encyclopedia=Webster's Third New International Dictionary of the English Language Unabridged with Seven Language Dictionary|volume=1|year=1986|publisher=Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc}}</ref> The [[etymology]] is obscure. Although some speculate that it is related to Latin ''algēre'', "be cold",<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |first=Eric |last=Partridge |title=algae |encyclopedia=Origins |year=1983}}</ref> there is no known reason to associate seaweed with temperature. A more likely source is ''alliga'', "binding, entwining."<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |title=alga|first=Charlton T. |last=Lewis |author2=Charles Short |location=Oxford |publisher=Clarendon Press |year=1879 |isbn=978-0-19-864201-5 |url=http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?layout.reflang=la;layout.refdoc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0059;layout.reflookup=Alga;layout.refcit=;doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0059%3Aentry%3D%231812}}</ref> The [[Ancient Greek]] word for seaweed was ''φῦκος'' (fūkos or phykos), which could mean either the seaweed (probably red algae) or a red dye derived from it. The Latinization, ''fūcus'', meant primarily the cosmetic rouge. The etymology is uncertain, but a strong candidate has long been some word related to the Biblical ''פוך'' (pūk), "paint" (if not that word itself), a cosmetic eye-shadow used by the ancient Egyptians and other inhabitants of the eastern Mediterranean. It could be any color: black, red, green, blue.<ref>{{cite book| author = Thomas Kelly Cheyne |author2= John Sutherland Black| title = Encyclopædia biblica: a critical dictionary of the literary, political and religious history, the archæology, geography, and natural history of the Bible| url = https://books.google.com/?id=GccVAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA3525| year = 1902| publisher = Macmillan Company| isbn = | page = 3525 }}</ref> Accordingly, the modern study of marine and freshwater algae is called either [[phycology]] or algology, depending on whether the Greek or Latin root is used. The name ''Fucus'' appears in a number of [[taxon|taxa]]. ==Classification== {{further|wikispecies:Algae}} [[File:Gephyrocapsa oceanica color.jpg|thumb|False-color [[Scanning electron micrograph]] of the unicellular [[coccolithophore]] ''[[Gephyrocapsa]] oceanica'']] Most algae contain [[chloroplast]]s that are similar in structure to [[cyanobacteria]]. Chloroplasts contain circular [[DNA]] like that in cyanobacteria and presumably represent reduced [[endosymbiotic theory|endosymbiotic]] cyanobacteria. However, the exact origin of the chloroplasts is different among separate lineages of algae, reflecting their acquisition during different endosymbiotic events. The table below describes the composition of the three major groups of algae. Their lineage relationships are shown in the figure in the upper right. Many of these groups contain some members that are no longer photosynthetic. Some retain plastids, but not chloroplasts, while others have lost plastids entirely. [[Phylogeny]] based on [[plastid]]<ref name="Bhattacharya1998">{{cite journal |last1=Bhattacharya |first1=D. |last2=Medlin |first2=L. |year=1998 |journal=Plant Physiology |volume=116 |issue=1 |pages=9–15 |url=http://www.plantphysiol.org/cgi/reprint/116/1/9.pdf |doi=10.1104/pp.116.1.9 |title=Algal Phylogeny and the Origin of Land Plants}}</ref> not nucleocytoplasmic genealogy: {{clade|1=[[Cyanobacteria]]|2= {{clade|[[Glaucophyte]]s|2= {{clade|label1=rhodoplasts|label2=chloroplasts|1= {{clade|1=[[Rhodophytes]]|2=[[Heterokonts]]|3= {{clade|[[Cryptomonad|Cryptophytes]]|[[Haptophytes]]}} }} |2= {{clade|1=[[Euglenophyte]]s|2= {{clade|1= {{clade|1=[[Chlorophyte]]s|2={{clade|[[Charophyte]]s|[[Embryophytes|Land plants (Embryophyta)]]}}}} |2=[[Chlorarachniophytes]] }} }} }} }} }} {| class="wikitable" |- ! Supergroup affiliation !! Members !! [[Endosymbiont]] !! Summary |- |[[Primoplantae]]/<br>[[Archaeplastida]] | * [[Chlorophyta]] * [[Rhodophyta]] * [[Glaucophyta]] |Cyanobacteria |These algae have ''primary'' [[chloroplast]]s, i.e. the chloroplasts are surrounded by ''two membranes'' and probably developed through a single endosymbiotic event. The chloroplasts of red algae have [[chlorophyll]]s ''a'' and ''c'' (often), and [[phycobilin]]s, while those of green algae have chloroplasts with chlorophyll ''a'' and ''b'' without phycobilins. Land plants are pigmented similarly to green algae and probably developed from them, and thus [[Chlorophyta]] is a sister [[taxon]] to the plants; sometimes Chlorophyta, [[Charophyta]] and land plants are grouped together as [[Viridiplantae]]. |- | [[Excavata]] and [[Rhizaria]] | * [[Chlorarachniophytes]] * [[Euglenids]] |Green algae | These groups have green chloroplasts containing chlorophylls ''a'' and ''b''.<ref name="BioRaven">{{cite book |title=Biology |edition=8 |last=Losos |first=Jonathan B. |author2=Mason, Kenneth A. |author3=Singer, Susan R. |publisher=McGraw-Hill |year=2007 |isbn=978-0-07-304110-0}}</ref> Their chloroplasts are surrounded by ''four and three membranes'' respectively, and were probably retained from ingested green algae. '''Chlorarachniophytes''', which belong to the phylum [[Cercozoa]], contain a small [[nucleomorph]], which is a [[relict]] of the algae's [[cell nucleus|nucleus]]. '''Euglenids''', which belong to the phylum [[Euglenozoa]], live primarily in freshwater and have chloroplasts with only three membranes. It has been suggested that the endosymbiotic green algae were acquired through [[myzocytosis]] rather than [[phagocytosis]].<ref>{{cite journal|author1=Archibald JM |author2=Keeling PJ |title=Recycled plastids: a 'green movement' in eukaryotic evolution |journal=Trends in Genetics |volume=18 |issue=11 |date=November 2002 |pages=577–584 |doi=10.1016/S0168-9525(02)02777-4 |pmid=12414188}}</ref> |- |[[Chromista]] and [[Alveolata]] | * [[Heterokonts]] * [[Haptophyta]] * [[Cryptomonad]]s * [[Dinoflagellates]] |Red algae | These groups have chloroplasts containing chlorophylls ''a'' and ''c'', and phycobilins. The shape varies from plant to plant; they may be of discoid, plate-like, reticulate, cup-shaped, spiral or ribbon shaped. They have one or more pyrenoids to preserve protein and starch. The latter chlorophyll type is not known from any prokaryotes or primary chloroplasts, but genetic similarities with red algae suggest a relationship there.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Janson |first=Sven |author2=Graneli, Edna |title=Genetic analysis of the psbA gene from single cells indicates a cryptomonad origin of the plastid in Dinophysis (Dinophyceae) |journal=Phycologia |date=September 2003 |volume=42 |issue=5 |pages=473–477 |publisher=Allen Press Publishing Services |issn=0031-8884 |doi=10.2216/i0031-8884-42-5-473.1}}</ref> In the first three of these groups ('''Chromista'''), the chloroplast has four membranes, retaining a [[nucleomorph]] in [[Cryptomonad]]s, and they likely share a common pigmented ancestor, although other evidence casts doubt on whether the [[Heterokonts]], [[Haptophyta]], and [[Cryptomonad]]s are in fact more closely related to each other than to other groups.<ref name="parfrey">{{cite journal |title=Evaluating Support for the Current Classification of Eukaryotic Diversity |authors=Laura Wegener Parfrey, Erika Barbero, Elyse Lasser, Micah Dunthorn, Debashish Bhattacharya, David J Patterson, and Laura A Katz |doi=10.1371/journal.pgen.0020220 |journal=PLoS Genet. |date=December 2006 |volume=2 |issue=12 |pages =e220 |pmid=17194223 |pmc=1713255}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |authors=Burki F, Shalchian-Tabrizi K, Minge M, Skjæveland Å, Nikolaev SI |year=2007 |title=Phylogenomics Reshuffles the Eukaryotic Supergroups |journal=PLOS ONE |volume=2 |issue=8 |page=e790 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0000790 |pmid=17726520 |pmc=1949142 |editor1-last=Butler |editor1-first=Geraldine |bibcode=2007PLoSO...2..790B |display-authors=etal}}</ref> The typical '''dinoflagellate''' chloroplast has three membranes, but there is considerable diversity in chloroplasts within the group, and it appears that there were a number of endosymbiotic events.<ref name="keeling"/> The [[Apicomplexa]], a group of closely related parasites, also have [[plastid]]s called [[apicoplast]]s. Apicoplasts are not photosynthetic, but appear to have a common origin with [[Dinoflagellates|Dinoflagellate]] chloroplasts.<ref name="keeling"/> |} [[File:Gmelin - Historia Fucorum (Titelblatt).png|thumb|upright|Title page of [[Samuel Gottlieb Gmelin|Gmelin's]] ''Historia Fucorum'', dated 1768]] [[Linnaeus]], in ''[[Species Plantarum]]'' (1753),<ref>Linnæus, C. (1753). ''Species Plantarum'', vol. 2, p. 1131, [http://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/13830#page/573/mode/1up].</ref> the starting point for modern [[botanical nomenclature]], recognized 14 genera of algae, of which only 4 are currently considered among algae.<ref>Sharma, O. P. (1986). Textbook of Algae. McGraw Hill. p. 22, [https://books.google.com/books?id=hOa74Hm4zDIC&lpg=PP1&hl=en&pg=PA22].</ref> In ''[[10th edition of Systema Naturae|Systema Naturae]]'', Linnaeus described the genera ''[[Volvox]]'', ''[[Corallina]]'' and a species of ''[[Acetabularia]]'' (as ''[[Madrepora]]''), among the animals. In 1768, [[Samuel Gottlieb Gmelin]] (1744–1774) published the ''Historia Fucorum'', the first work dedicated to marine algae and the first book on [[marine biology]] to use the then new [[binomial nomenclature]] of Linnaeus. It included elaborate illustrations of seaweed and marine algae on folded leaves.<ref>Gmelin S G (1768) [https://books.google.co.nz/books?id=YUAAAAAAQAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=%22Historia+Fucorum%22&hl=en ''Historia Fucorum''] Ex typographia Academiae scientiarum, St. Petersburg.</ref><ref>Silva PC, Basson PW and Moe RL (1996) [https://books.google.co.nz/books?id=vuWEemVY8WEC&pg=PA2&lpg=PA2&dq=%22Historia+Fucorum%22+binomial+nomenclature&source=bl&hl=en ''Catalogue of the Benthic Marine Algae of the Indian Ocean''] page 2, University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-91581-7.</ref> [[W.H.Harvey]] (1811—1866) and [[Lamouroux]] (1813)<ref>Medlin, L. K., W. H. C. F. Kooistra, D. Potter, G. W. Saunders, and R. A. Anderson (1997). [http://epic.awi.de/2100/1/Med1997c.pdf Phylogenetic relationships of the "golden algae" (haptophytes, heterokont chromophytes) and their plastids.] ''Plant Systematics and Evolution'', p. 188.</ref> were the first to divide macroscopic algae into four divisions based on their pigmentation. This is the first use of a biochemical criterion in plant systematics. Harvey's four divisions are: red algae (Rhodospermae), brown algae (Melanospermae), green algae (Chlorospermae) and Diatomaceae.<ref name="Dixon 73">{{cite book |last=Dixon |first=P S |title=Biology of the Rhodophyta |year=1973 |publisher=Oliver & Boyd |location=Edinburgh |isbn=978-0-05-002485-0 |page=232}}</ref><ref>Harvey, D. (1836). ''[http://images.algaebase.org/pdf/562E38EB0a0fc2A17Eukv24B7E9F/18893.pdf Flora hibernica]''.</ref> At this time, microscopic algae were discovered and reported by a different group of workers (e.g., [[Otto Friedrich Müller|O. F. Müller]] and [[Christian Gottfried Ehrenberg|Ehrenberg]]) studying the [[Infusoria]] (microscopic organisms). Unlike [[macroalgae]], which were clearly viewed as plants, [[microalgae]] were frequently considered animals because they are often motile.<ref>Medlin et al. (1997), p. 188.</ref> Even the non-motile (coccoid) microalgae were sometimes merely seen as stages of the life cycle of plants, macroalgae or animals.<ref>Braun, A. ''[http://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/bibliography/2057#/summary Algarum unicellularium genera nova et minus cognita, praemissis observationibus de algis unicellularibus in genere (New and less known genera of unicellular algae, preceded by observations respecting unicellular algae in general)].'' Lipsiae, Apud W. Engelmann, 1855. Translation at: Lankester, E. & Busk, G. (eds.). ''Quarterly Journal of Microscopical Science'', 1857, vol. 5, [http://jcs.biologists.org/content/s1-5/17/13.full.pdf+html (17), 13-16]; [http://jcs.biologists.org/content/s1-5/18/90.full.pdf+html (18), 90-96]; [http://jcs.biologists.org/content/s1-5/19/143.full.pdf+html (19), 143-149].</ref><ref>Siebold, C. Th. v. "[http://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/49155#page/5/mode/1up Ueber einzellige Pflanzen und Thiere (On unicellular plants and animals)]". In: Siebold, C. Th. v. & Kölliker, A. (1849). ''Zeitschrift für wissenschaftliche Zoologie'', Bd. 1, p. 270. Translation at: Lankester, E. & Busk, G. (eds.). ''Quarterly Journal of Microscopical Science'', 1853, vol. 1, [http://jcs.biologists.org/content/s1-1/2/111.full.pdf+html (2), 111-121]; [http://jcs.biologists.org/content/s1-1/3/195.full.pdf+html (3), 195-206].</ref> Although used as a taxonomic category in some pre-Darwinian classifications, e.g., Linnaeus (1753), de Jussieu (1789), Horaninow (1843), Agassiz (1859), Wilson & Cassin (1864), in further classifications, the "algae" are seen as an artificial, [[polyphyletic]] group. Throughout the 20th century, most classifications treated the following groups as divisions or classes of algae: [[cyanophyte]]s, [[rhodophyte]]s, [[chrysophyte]]s, [[xanthophyte]]s, [[diatom|bacillariophyte]]s, [[phaeophyte]]s, [[Dinoflagellate#history|pyrrhophyte]]s ([[Cryptomonad|cryptophyte]]s and [[dinophyte]]s), [[euglenophyte]]s and [[chlorophyte]]s. Later, many new groups were discovered (e.g., [[Bolidophyceae]]), and others were splintered from older groups: [[charophyte]]s and [[glaucophyte]]s (from chlorophytes), many [[heterokontophyte]]s (e.g., [[Synurophyceae|synurophytes]] from chrysophytes, or [[eustigmatophyte]]s from xanthophytes), [[haptophyte]]s (from chrysophytes) and [[chlorarachniophyte]]s (from xanthophytes). With the abandonment of plant-animal dichotomous classification, most groups of algae (sometimes all) were included in [[Protista]], later also abandoned in favour of [[Eukaryota]]. However, as a legacy of the older plant life scheme, some groups that were also treated as [[protozoa]]ns in the past still have duplicated classifications (see [[ambiregnal protist]]s). Some parasitic algae (e.g., the green algae ''[[Prototheca]]'' and ''[[Helicosporidium]]'', parasites of metazoans, or ''[[Cephaleuros]]'', parasites of plants) were originally classified as [[fungi]], [[sporozoan]]s or [[protist]]ans of [[incertae sedis]],<ref>{{cite book |last1=Williams |first1=B. A. |last2=Keeling |first2=P. J. |date=2003 |chapter=Cryptic organelles in parasitic protists and fungi |editor1-last=Littlewood |editor1-first=D. T. J. |title=The Evolution of Parasitism |publisher=Elsevier Academic Press |publicationplace=London |page=46 |isbn=0-12-031754-0 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_fAQGEJobT0C&lpg=PA33&hl=&pg=PA46}}</ref> while others (e.g., the green algae ''[[Phyllosiphon]]'' and ''[[Rhodochytrium]]'', parasites of plants, or the red algae ''[[Pterocladiophila]]'' and ''[[Gelidiocolax mammillatus]]'', parasites of other red algae, or the dinoflagellates ''[[Oodinium]]'', parasites of fish) had their relationship with algae conjectured early. In other cases, some groups were originally characterized as parasitic algae (e.g., ''[[Chlorochytrium]]''), but later were seen as [[endophytic]] algae.<ref>Round (1981). pp.&nbsp;398–400, [https://books.google.com/books?id=Rm08AAAAIAAJ&lpg=PA262&hl=&pg=PA398].</ref> Furthermore, groups like the [[apicomplexan]]s are also parasites derived from ancestors that possessed plastids, but are not included in any group traditionally seen as algae. ==Relationship to land plants== The first land plants probably evolved from shallow freshwater [[Charophyta|charophyte]] algae much like ''[[Chara (alga)|Chara]]'' almost 500 million years ago. These probably had an isomorphic [[alternation of generations]] and were probably filamentous. Fossils of isolated land plant spores suggest land plants may have been around as long as 475 million years ago.<ref>{{cite news | title = When plants conquered land | author = Ivan Noble | date = 18 September 2003 | url = http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/3117034.stm | publisher = BBC }}</ref><ref name="Wellman2003">{{cite journal | author = Wellman, C.H. |author2= Osterloff, P.L.|author3= Mohiuddin, U. | year = 2003| title = Fragments of the earliest land plants| journal = Nature| volume = 425 | issue = 6955| pages = 282–285| doi = 10.1038/nature01884| pmid = 13679913|bibcode = 2003Natur.425..282W }}</ref> ==Morphology== [[File:Kelp-forest-Monterey.jpg|thumb|upright|The [[kelp forest]] exhibit at the Monterey Bay Aquarium. A three-dimensional, multicellular thallus]] A range of algal [[Morphology (biology)|morphologies]] are exhibited, and [[Convergent evolution|convergence]] of features in unrelated groups is common. The only groups to exhibit three-dimensional multicellular [[Thallus|thalli]] are the [[Red algae|reds]] and [[Brown algae|browns]], and some [[Chlorophyta|chlorophytes]].<ref name="Xiao2004">{{cite journal| last1 = Xiao | first1 = S. | last2 = Knoll | first2 = A.H.| last3 = Yuan | first3 = X.| last4 = Pueschel | first4 = C.M.| year = 2004| title = Phosphatized multicellular algae in the Neoproterozoic Doushantuo Formation, China, and the early evolution of florideophyte red algae| journal = American Journal of Botany| volume = 91| issue = 2| pages = 214–227| doi = 10.3732/ajb.91.2.214| url = http://www.amjbot.org/cgi/content/full/91/2/214 | pmid = 21653378}}</ref> Apical growth is constrained to subsets of these groups: the [[Florideophyceae|florideophyte]] reds, various browns, and the charophytes.<ref name=Xiao2004/> The form of [[Charophyta|charophytes]] is quite different from those of reds and browns, because they have distinct nodes, separated by internode 'stems'; whorls of branches reminiscent of the [[horsetail]]s occur at the nodes.<ref name=Xiao2004/> [[Conceptacle]]s are another [[polyphyletic]] trait; they appear in the [[coralline algae]] and the [[Hildenbrandiales]], as well as the browns.<ref name=Xiao2004/> Most of the simpler algae are [[unicellular]] [[flagellate]]s or [[amoeboid]]s, but colonial and non-motile forms have developed independently among several of the groups. Some of the more common organizational levels, more than one of which may occur in the [[biological life cycle|life cycle]] of a species, are * ''[[Colony (biology)|Colonial]]'': small, regular groups of motile cells * ''Capsoid'': individual non-motile cells embedded in [[mucilage]] * ''Coccoid'': individual non-motile cells with cell walls * ''Palmelloid'': non-motile cells embedded in mucilage * ''Filamentous'': a string of non-motile cells connected together, sometimes branching * ''Parenchymatous'': cells forming a [[thallus (tissue)|thallus]] with partial differentiation of tissues In three lines, even higher levels of organization have been reached, with full tissue differentiation. These are the [[brown algae]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/chromista/phaeophyta.html|title= Introduction to the Phaeophyta: Kelps and brown "Algae"|first=Ben|last=Waggoner|publisher=University of California Museum of Palaeontology (UCMP)|date=1994–2008|accessdate=19 December 2008| archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20081221171218/http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/chromista/phaeophyta.html| archivedate= 21 December 2008 | deadurl= no}}</ref>—some of which may reach 50&nbsp;m in length ([[kelp]]s)<ref name="Thomas 02">{{cite book| last = Thomas| first = D N| title = Seaweeds| year = 2002| publisher = The Natural History Museum| location = London| isbn = 978-0-565-09175-0 }}</ref>—the [[red alga]]e,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/protista/rhodophyta.html |title= Introduction to the Rhodophyta, The red "algae"| first=Ben |last=Waggoner |publisher=University of California Museum of Palaeontology (UCMP) |date=1994–2008 |accessdate=19 December 2008| archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20081218211021/http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/protista/rhodophyta.html | archivedate= 18 December 2008 | deadurl= no}}</ref> and the [[green alga]]e.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/greenalgae/greenalgae.html|title=Introduction to the Green Algae|work=berkeley.edu}}</ref> The most complex forms are found among the green algae (see [[Charales]] and [[Charophyta]]), in a lineage that eventually led to the higher [[land plants]]. The point where these non-algal plants begin and algae stop is usually taken to be the presence of reproductive organs with protective cell layers, a characteristic not found in the other alga groups. ==Physiology== Many algae, particularly members of the [[Characeae]],<ref>{{cite journal |last=Tazawa |first=Masashi |title=Sixty Years Research with Characean Cells: Fascinating Material for Plant Cell Biology |url=https://books.google.com/?id=iMxH0-q42PkC&pg=PA31 |accessdate=7 October 2012 |volume=72 |year=2010 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-3-642-13145-5 |pages=5–34 |journal=Progress in Botany |doi=10.1007/978-3-642-13145-5_1 |series=Progress in Botany}}</ref> have served as model experimental organisms to understand the mechanisms of the water permeability of membranes, [[osmoregulation]], [[turgor regulation]], [[salt tolerance]], [[cytoplasmic streaming]], and the generation of [[action potentials]]. [[Phytohormone]]s are found not only in higher plants, but in algae too.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Tarakhovskaya |first1=E. R. |last2=Maslov |first2=Yu. I. |last3=Shishova |first3=M. F. |date=April 2007 |title=Phytohormones in algae |journal=Russian Journal of Plant Physiology |volume=54 |issue=2 |pages=163–170 |doi=10.1134/s1021443707020021}}</ref> ==Symbiotic algae== Some species of algae form [[symbiosis|symbiotic relationships]] with other organisms. In these [[symbioses]], the algae supply photosynthates (organic substances) to the host organism providing protection to the algal cells. The host organism derives some or all of its energy requirements from the algae. Examples are as follows. ===Lichens=== {{Main|Lichens}} [[File:Lichens near Clogher Head (stevefe).jpg|thumb|Rock lichens in Ireland]]''[[Lichen]]s'' are defined by the [[International Association for Lichenology]] to be "an association of a fungus and a photosynthetic [[symbiont]] resulting in a stable vegetative body having a specific structure."<ref>{{cite book| last = Brodo| first = Irwin M| last2 = Sharnoff| first2 = Sylvia Duran| last3 = Sharnoff| first3 = Stephen| last4 = Laurie-Bourque| first4 = Susan| title = Lichens of North America| year = 2001| publisher = Yale University Press| location = New Haven| isbn = 978-0-300-08249-4| page = 8 }}</ref> The fungi, or mycobionts, are mainly from the [[Ascomycota]] with a few from the [[Basidiomycota]]. They are not found alone in nature; but when they began to associate is not known.<ref>{{cite book| last = Pearson| first = Lorentz C| title = The Diversity and Evolution of Plants| year = 1995| publisher = CRC Press| isbn = 978-0-8493-2483-3| page = 221 }}</ref> One mycobiont associates with the same phycobiont species, rarely two, from the [[green algae]], except that alternatively the mycobiont may associate with a species of [[cyanobacteria]] (hence "photobiont" is the more accurate term). A photobiont may be associated with many different mycobionts or may live independently; accordingly, lichens are named and classified as fungal species.<ref>Brodo et al. (2001), page 6: "A species of lichen collected anywhere in its range has the same lichen-forming fungus and, generally, the same photobiont. (A particular photobiont, on the other hand, may associate with scores of different lichen fungi)."</ref> The association is termed a morphogenesis because the lichen has a form and capabilities not possessed by the symbiont species alone (they can be experimentally isolated). It is possible that the photobiont triggers otherwise latent genes in the mycobiont.<ref>Brodo et al. (2001), page 8.</ref> ===Coral reefs=== {{Main|Coral|Coral reef|Symbiodinium}} [[File:Coral Reef.jpg|thumb|Floridian coral reef]] [[Coral reef]]s are accumulated from the [[calcareous]] [[exoskeleton]]s of [[marine invertebrate]]s of the order [[Scleractinia]] (stony [[coral]]s). These [[Animal#Food and energy sourcing|animals]] [[Metabolism|metabolize]] [[Sugar#Chemistry|sugar]] and [[oxygen]] to obtain energy for their cell-building processes, including [[secretion]] of the exoskeleton, with water and [[carbon dioxide]] as byproducts. [[Dinoflagellate]]s (algal [[protist]]s) are often [[endosymbiont]]s in the cells of the coral-forming marine invertebrates, where they accelerate host-cell metabolism by generating immediately available sugar and oxygen through [[photosynthesis]] using incident light and the carbon dioxide produced by the host. Reef-building stony corals ([[hermatypic coral]]s) require [[Endosymbiont|endosymbiotic]] algae from the genus ''[[Symbiodinium]]'' to be in a healthy condition.<ref>{{cite book| last = Taylor| first = Dennis L| editor-last = Goff| editor-first = Lynda J| title = Algal Symbiosis: A Continuum of Interaction Strategies| year = 1983| publisher = CUP Archive| isbn = 978-0-521-25541-7| pages = 19–20| contribution = The coral-algal symbiosis }}</ref> The loss of ''Symbiodinium'' from the host is known as [[coral bleaching]], a condition which leads to the deterioration of a reef. ===Sea sponges=== {{Main|Sea sponge}} Green algae live close to the surface of some sponges, for example, breadcrumb sponge (''[[Halichondria panicea]]''). The alga is thus protected from predators; the sponge is provided with oxygen and sugars which can account for 50 to 80% of sponge growth in some species.<ref>http://uwsp.edu/cnr/UWEXlakes/laketides/vol26-4/vol26-4.pdf</ref> ==Life-cycle== [[Rhodophyta]], [[Chlorophyta]] and [[Heterokontophyta]], the three main algal [[phylum|divisions]], have life-cycles which show considerable variation and complexity. In general, there is an asexual phase where the seaweed's cells are [[diploid]], a sexual phase where the cells are [[haploid]] followed by fusion of the male and female [[gametes]]. Asexual reproduction permits efficient population increases, but less variation is possible. Commonly, in sexual reproduction of unicellular and colonial algae, two specialized sexually compatible haploid gametes make physical contact and fuse to form a [[zygote]]. To ensure a successful mating, the development and release of gametes is highly synchronized and regulated; pheromones may play a key role in these processes.<ref name="pmid24597605">{{cite journal |vauthors=Frenkel J, Vyverman W, Pohnert G |title=Pheromone signaling during sexual reproduction in algae |journal=Plant J. |volume=79 |issue=4 |pages=632–44 |year=2014 |pmid=24597605 |doi=10.1111/tpj.12496 |url=}}</ref> Sexual reproduction allows for more variation and provides the benefit of efficient recombinational repair of DNA damages during meiosis, a key stage of the sexual cycle.<ref>Harris Bernstein, Carol Bernstein and Richard E. Michod (2011). Meiosis as an Evolutionary Adaptation for DNA Repair. Chapter 19 pages&nbsp;357–382 in "DNA Repair" (Inna Kruman editor). InTech Open Publisher. DOI: 10.5772/25117 ISBN 978-953-307-697-3 http://www.intechopen.com/books/dna-repair/meiosis-as-an-evolutionary-adaptation-for-dna-repair</ref> However, sexual reproduction is more costly than asexual reproduction.<ref name="pmid19441962">{{cite journal |vauthors=Otto SP |title=The evolutionary enigma of sex |journal=Am. Nat. |volume=174 Suppl 1 |issue= |pages=S1–S14 |year=2009 |pmid=19441962 |doi=10.1086/599084 |url=}}</ref> Meiosis has been shown to occur in many different species of algae.<ref name="pmid773364">{{cite journal |vauthors=Heywood P, Magee PT |title=Meiosis in protists. Some structural and physiological aspects of meiosis in algae, fungi, and protozoa |journal=Bacteriol Rev |volume=40 |issue=1 |pages=190–240 |year=1976 |pmid=773364 |pmc=413949 |doi= |url=}}</ref> {{details|Conceptacle}} ==Numbers== [[File:Taiwan 2009 East Coast ShihTiPing Giant Stone Steps Algae FRD 6581.jpg|thumb|Algae on coastal rocks at [[:zh:石梯坪|Shihtiping]] in Taiwan]] The ''Algal Collection of the US National Herbarium'' (located in the [[National Museum of Natural History]]) consists of approximately 320,500 dried specimens, which, although not exhaustive (no exhaustive collection exists), gives an idea of the order of magnitude of the number of algal species (that number remains unknown).<ref>{{cite web|title=Algae Herbarium|publisher=National Museum of Natural History, Department of Botany|year=2008|url=http://botany.si.edu/projects/algae/herbarium.htm|accessdate=19 December 2008| archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20081201112552/http://botany.si.edu/projects/algae/herbarium.htm| archivedate= 1 December 2008 | deadurl= no}}</ref> Estimates vary widely. For example, according to one standard textbook,<ref name="John 02">John (2002), page 1.</ref> in the British Isles the ''UK Biodiversity Steering Group Report'' estimated there to be 20000 algal species in the UK. Another checklist reports only about 5000 species. Regarding the difference of about 15000 species, the text concludes: "It will require many detailed field surveys before it is possible to provide a reliable estimate of the total number of species&nbsp;..." Regional and group estimates have been made as well: * 5000–5500 species of red algae worldwide * "some 1300 in Australian Seas"<ref name="Huisman 00">Huisman (2000), page 25.</ref> * 400 seaweed species for the western coastline of South Africa,<ref name="Stegenga 97">Stegenga (1997).</ref> and 212 species from the coast of KwaZulu-Natal.<ref>{{cite book| last = Clerck| first = Olivier| title = Guide to the seaweeds of KwaZulu-Natal| year = 2005| isbn = 978-90-72619-64-8 }}</ref> Some of these are duplicates, as the range extends across both coasts, and the total recorded is probably about 500 species. Most of these are listed in [[List of seaweeds of South Africa]]. These exclude [[phytoplankton]] and crustose corallines. * 669 marine species from California (US)<ref name="Abbott and Hollenberg 76">Abbott and Hollenberg (1976), page 2.</ref> * 642 in the check-list of Britain and Ireland<ref name="Hardy nad Guiry 06">Hardy and Guiry (2006).</ref> and so on, but lacking any scientific basis or reliable sources, these numbers have no more credibility than the British ones mentioned above. Most estimates also omit microscopic algae, such as phytoplankton. The most recent estimate suggests 72,500 algal species worldwide.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Guiry | first1 = M. D. | year = 2012 | title = How Many Species of Algae Are There? | url = | journal = Journal of Phycology | volume = 48 | issue = 5| pages = 1057–1063 | doi = 10.1111/j.1529-8817.2012.01222.x }}</ref> ==Distribution== The distribution of algal species has been fairly well studied since the founding of [[phytogeography]] in the mid-19th century AD.<ref name=Round8>{{cite book|author=Round, FE |date=1981 |title=The ecology of algae |chapter= Chapter 8, Dispersal, continuity and phytogeography |pages=357–361 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Rm08AAAAIAAJ&lpg=PA262&hl=&pg=PA398#v=onepage&q&f=false |accessdate=6 February 2015}}</ref> Algae spread mainly by the dispersal of [[spore]]s analogously to the dispersal of Plantae by seeds and spores. This dispersal can be accomplished by air, water, or other organisms. Due to this, spores can be found in a variety of environments: fresh and marine waters, air, soil, and in or on other organisms.<ref name=Round8/> Whether a spore is to grow into an organism depends on the combination of the species and the environmental conditions of where the spore lands. The spores of fresh-water algae are dispersed mainly by running water and wind, as well as by living carriers.<ref name=Round8/> However, not all bodies of water can carry all species of algae, as the chemical composition of certain water bodies will limit the algae that can survive within it.<ref name=Round8/> Marine spores are often spread by ocean currents. Ocean water presents many vastly-different habitats based on temperature and nutrient-availability, resulting in phytogeographic zones, regions and provinces.<ref>Round (1981), page 362.</ref> To some degree, the distribution of algae is subject to floristic discontinuities caused by geographical features, such as [[Antarctica]], long distances of ocean or general land masses. It is therefore possible to identify species occurring by locality, such as "Pacific Algae" or "North Sea Algae". When they occur out of their localities, it is usually possible to hypothesize a transport mechanism, such as the hulls of ships. For example, ''Ulva reticulata'' and ''Ulva fasciata'' travelled from the mainland to Hawaii in this manner. Mapping is possible for select species only: "there are many valid examples of confined distribution patterns."<ref>Round (1981), Page 357.</ref> For example, ''Clathromorphum'' is an arctic genus and is not mapped far south of there.<ref>Round (1981), page 371.</ref> On the other hand, scientists regard the overall data as insufficient due to the "difficulties of undertaking such studies."<ref>Round (1981), page 366.</ref> ==Ecology== [[File:Phytoplankton Lake Chuzenji.jpg|thumb|left|Phytoplankton, [[Lake Chuzenji]]]] Algae are prominent in bodies of water, common in terrestrial environments and are found in unusual environments, such as [[Snow algae|on snow]] and [[Ice algae|on ice]]. Seaweeds grow mostly in shallow marine waters, under {{convert|100|m|ft|abbre=on}}; however, some have been recorded to a depth of {{convert|360|m|ft}}.<ref>Round (1981), page 176.</ref> The various sorts of algae play significant roles in aquatic ecology. Microscopic forms that live suspended in the water column ([[phytoplankton]]) provide the food base for most marine [[food chain]]s. In very high densities ([[algal bloom]]s) these algae may discolor the water and outcompete, poison, or [[asphyxiate]] other life forms. Algae can be used as [[indicator organism]]s to monitor pollution in various aquatic systems.<ref name=Omar2010>{{cite journal|title=Perspectives on the Use of Algae as Biological Indicators for Monitoring and Protecting Aquatic Environments, with Special Reference to Malaysian Freshwater Ecosystems |author=Wan Maznah Wan Omar |pmc=3819078 |journal=Trop Life Sci Res |date=Dec 2010 |volume=21 |issue=2 |pages=51–67}}</ref> In many cases, algal [[metabolism]] is sensitive to various pollutants. Due to this, the species composition of algal populations may shift in the presence of chemical pollutants.<ref name=Omar2010/> To detect these changes, algae can be sampled from the environment and maintained in laboratories with relative ease.<ref name=Omar2010/> On the basis of their habitat, algae can be categorized as: [[Aquatic plant|aquatic]] ([[planktonic]], [[benthic]], [[Marine biology|marine]], [[freshwater]]), [[terrestrial plant|terrestrial]], [[Aerobiology|aerial]] (subareial),<ref>Johansen, J. R. 2012. Diatoms of aerial habitats. In: Smol, J. P. & Stoermer, E. F. (Eds.). ''The Diatoms: Applications for the Environmental and Earth Sciences'', 2nd ed. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge, UK. pp.&nbsp;465–472, [https://books.google.com/books?id=SpuPKw7zZGAC&lpg=PP1&hl=&pg=PA465#v=onepage&q&f=false].</ref> [[lithophytic]], [[halophytic]] (or [[euryhaline]]), [[psammon]], [[thermophilic]], [[Psychrophile|cryophilic]], [[epibiont]] ([[epiphytic]], [[epizoic]]), [[endosymbiont]] ([[endophytic]], endozoic), [[parasitic]], [[calcareous|calcifilic]] or [[lichen]]ic (phycobiont).<ref>Sharma, O. P. (1986). pp.&nbsp;2–6, [https://books.google.com/books?id=hOa74Hm4zDIC&lpg=PP1&hl=&pg=PA2#v=onepage&q&f=false].</ref> ==Cultural associations== In [[Classical Chinese]], the word {{lang|zh|{{linktext|藻}}}} is used both for "algae" and (in the modest tradition of the [[scholar-official|imperial scholars]]) for "literary talent". The third island in [[Kunming Lake]] beside the [[Summer Palace]] in Beijing is known as the Zaojian Tang Dao which thus simultaneously means "Island of the Algae-Viewing Hall" and "Island of the Hall for Reflecting on Literary Talent". ==Uses== [[File:Algae Harvester.jpg|thumb|Harvesting algae]] ===Agar=== [[Agar]], a [[gelatin]]ous substance derived from [[red algae]], has a number of commercial uses.<ref name="Lewis ''et al.'' 88">{{cite book| last = Lewis| first = J G| last2 = Stanley| first2 = N F| last3 = Guist| first3 = G G| editor-last = Lembi| editor-first = C.A.| editor2-last= Waaland| editor2-first = J.R.| title = Algae and Human Affairs| year = 1988| publisher = Cambridge University Press| location = Cambridge| isbn = 978-0-521-32115-0| contribution = 9 Commercial production of algal hydrocolloides }}</ref> It is a good medium on which to grow bacteria and fungi as most microorganisms cannot digest agar. ===Alginates=== Alginic acid, or alginate, is extracted from brown algae. Its uses range from gelling agents in food, to medical dressings. Alginic acid also has been used in the field of [[biotechnology]] as a biocompatible medium for cell encapsulation and cell immobilization. [[Molecular cuisine]] is also a user of the substance for its gelling properties, by which it becomes a delivery vehicle for flavours. Between 100,000 and 170,000 wet tons of ''[[Macrocystis]]'' are harvested annually in [[New Mexico]] for [[Alginic acid|alginate]] extraction and [[abalone]] feed.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.algaebase.org/generadetail.lasso?genus_id=35715&-session=abv3:51909EC307dcf25DFApmi3530315|publisher=AlgaeBase|title=Macrocystis C. Agardh 1820: 46|accessdate=28 December 2008| archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20090104145632/http://www.algaebase.org/generadetail.lasso?genus_id=35715&-session=abv3:51909EC307dcf25DFApmi3530315| archivedate= 4 January 2009 | deadurl= no}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://botany.si.edu/projects/algae/economicuses/brownalgae.htm|work=Algae Research|publisher=Smithsonian National Museum of Natural History|title=Secondary Products of Brown Algae|accessdate=29 December 2008}}</ref> ===Energy source=== {{Main|Algae fuel|Biological hydrogen production|Biohydrogen|Biodiesel|Ethanol fuel|Butanol fuel|Vegetable oil}} To be competitive and independent from fluctuating support from (local) policy on the long run, biofuels should equal or beat the cost level of fossil fuels. Here, algae based fuels hold great promise,<ref>{{cite journal|last=Chisti|first=Y|title=Biodiesel from microalgae.|journal=Biotechnology advances|date=May–Jun 2007|volume=25|issue=3|pages=294–306|pmid=17350212|doi=10.1016/j.biotechadv.2007.02.001}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last=Yang|first=ZK|author2=Niu, YF|author3=Ma, YH|author4=Xue, J|author5=Zhang, MH|author6=Yang, WD|author7=Liu, JS|author8=Lu, SH|author9=Guan, Y|author10= Li, HY|title=Molecular and cellular mechanisms of neutral lipid accumulation in diatom following nitrogen deprivation.|journal=Biotechnology for biofuels|date=4 May 2013|volume=6|issue=1|page=67|pmid=23642220|doi=10.1186/1754-6834-6-67|pmc=3662598}}</ref> directly related to the potential to produce more biomass per unit area in a year than any other form of biomass. The break-even point for algae-based biofuels is estimated to occur by 2025.<ref>An Outlook on Microalgal Biofuels René H. Wijffels and Maria J. Barbosa Science 13 August 2010: 329 (5993), 796–799. [DOI:10.1126/science.1189003]</ref> ===Fertilizer=== {{Details|Seaweed fertiliser}} [[File:Inishmaan Gardens.jpg|thumb|Seaweed-fertilized gardens on [[Inisheer]]]] For centuries, seaweed has been used as a fertilizer; [[George Owen of Henllys]] writing in the 16th century referring to drift weed in [[South Wales]]:<ref>{{cite journal|journal=Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society of England|volume=10|pages=142–143|title=On the Farming of South Wales: Prize Report|first=Clare Sewell|last=Read|authorlink=Clare Sewell Read|year=1849|location=London|publisher=John Murray}} [https://books.google.com/books?id=UJYEAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA142&dq=%22this+kind+of+ore+they+often+gather%22&lr=&as_brr=0&as_pt=ALLTYPES#PPR4,M1 Downloadable Google Books].</ref><blockquote>This kind of ore they often gather and lay on great heapes, where it heteth and rotteth, and will have a strong and loathsome smell; when being so rotten they cast on the land, as they do their muck, and thereof springeth good corn, especially barley&nbsp;... After spring-tydes or great rigs of the sea, they fetch it in sacks on horse backes, and carie the same three, four, or five miles, and cast it on the lande, which doth very much better the ground for corn and grass.</blockquote> Today, algae are used by humans in many ways; for example, as [[fertilizer]]s, [[soil conditioner]]s and livestock feed.<ref>{{cite book| last = McHugh| first = Dennis J.| title = A Guide to the Seaweed Industry: FAO Fisheries Technical Paper 441| url = http://www.fao.org/DOCREP/006/Y4765E/y4765e0c.htm#TopOfPage| year = 2003| publisher = Fisheries and Aquaculture Department, Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the United Nations| location = Rome| isbn = 978-92-5-104958-7| chapter = 9, Other Uses of Seaweeds }}</ref> Aquatic and microscopic species are cultured in clear tanks or ponds and are either harvested or used to treat effluents pumped through the ponds. [[Algaculture]] on a large scale is an important type of [[aquaculture]] in some places. [[Maerl]] is commonly used as a soil conditioner. ===Nutrition=== {{See also|Edible seaweed}} [[File:Dulse.JPG|thumb|Dulse, a type of food]] Naturally growing seaweeds are an important source of food, especially in Asia. They provide many vitamins including: A, [[Thiamine|B<sub>1</sub>]], [[Riboflavin|B<sub>2</sub>]], [[Vitamin B6|B<sub>6</sub>]], [[niacin]] and [[Vitamin C|C]], and are rich in [[iodine]], [[potassium]], iron, [[magnesium]] and [[calcium]].<ref>{{cite book| last = Simoons| first = Frederick J| title = Food in China: A Cultural and Historical Inquiry| year = 1991| publisher = CRC Press| isbn = 978-0-936923-29-1| pages = 179–190| chapter = 6, Seaweeds and Other Algae }}</ref> In addition commercially cultivated [[Microphyte|microalgae]], including both algae and [[cyanobacteria]], are marketed as nutritional supplements, such as [[Spirulina (dietary supplement)|Spirulina]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.siu.edu/~ebl/leaflets/algae.htm|work=Ethnobotanical Leaflets|title=Modern Uses of Cultivated Algae|publisher=Southern Illinois University Carbondale|first=Steve L|last=Morton|accessdate=26 December 2008|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20081223081614/http://www.siu.edu/~ebl/leaflets/algae.htm <!--DASHBot-->|archivedate=23 December 2008}}</ref> [[Chlorella]] and the Vitamin-C supplement, [[Dunaliella]], high in [[beta-carotene]]. Algae are national foods of many nations: China consumes more than 70 species, including ''[[fat choy (vegetable)|fat choy]]'', a [[cyanobacterium]] considered a vegetable; Japan, over 20 species;<ref name="Mondragon 03">{{cite book| last1 = Mondragón| first1 = Jennifer| last2 = Mondragón| first2 = Jeff| title = Seaweeds of the Pacific Coast| year = 2003| publisher = Sea Challengers Publications| location = Monterey, California| isbn = 978-0-930118-29-7 }}</ref> Ireland, [[dulse]]; [[Chile]], [[cochayuyo]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.algaebase.org/speciesdetail.lasso?species_id=11752&sk=0&from=results&-session=abv3:51909EC30802716127sVj3EDC9C7 |publisher=AlgaeBase|title=Durvillaea antarctica (Chamisso) Hariot}}</ref> [[laver (seaweed)|Laver]] is used to make "laver bread" in [[Wales]] where it is known as ''bara lawr''; in [[Korea]], [[Gim (Korean food)|gim]]; in Japan, [[nori]] and [[aonori]]. It is also used along the west coast of North America from California to [[British Columbia]], in Hawaii and by the [[Māori people|Māori]] of [[New Zealand]]. [[Sea lettuce]] and [[Alaria esculenta|badderlocks]] are a salad ingredient in [[Scotland]], Ireland, [[Greenland]] and [[Iceland]]. The oils from some algae have high levels of [[unsaturated fatty acid]]s. For example, ''[[Parietochloris incisa]]'' is very high in [[arachidonic acid]], where it reaches up to 47% of the triglyceride pool.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Bigogno|first= C|author2=I Khozin-Goldberg|author3= S Boussiba|author4= A Vonshak|author5= Z Cohen|year=2002|journal=Phytochemistry|volume=60|pages=497–503|doi=10.1016/S0031-9422(02)00100-0|pmid=12052516|title=Lipid and fatty acid composition of the green oleaginous alga Parietochloris incisa, the richest plant source of arachidonic acid|issue=5}}</ref> Some varieties of algae favored by vegetarianism and [[veganism]] contain the long-chain, essential [[omega-3 fatty acid]]s, [[docosahexaenoic acid]] (DHA) and [[eicosapentaenoic acid]] (EPA). Fish oil contains the omega-3 fatty acids, but the original source is algae ([[microalgae]] in particular), which are eaten by marine life such as [[copepod]]s and are passed up the food chain.<ref>{{cite news | url = http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=15823852 | publisher = [[National Public Radio]] | title = Morning Edition: Getting Brain Food Straight from the Source | author = Allison Aubrey | date = 1 November 2007 }}</ref> Algae have emerged in recent years as a popular source of [[omega-3 fatty acid]]s for vegetarians who cannot get long-chain EPA and DHA from other vegetarian sources such as [[flaxseed oil]], which only contains the short-chain [[alpha-linolenic acid]] (ALA). ===Pollution control=== * Sewage can be treated with algae, reducing the usage of large amounts of toxic chemicals that would otherwise be needed. * Algae can be used to capture [[fertilizers]] in runoff from farms. When subsequently harvested, the enriched algae itself can be used as fertilizer. * Aquariums and ponds can be filtered using algae, which absorb nutrients from the water in a device called an [[algae scrubber]], also known as an algae turf scrubber (A T S) .<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.reefbase.org/resource_center/publication/main.aspx?refid=10859|title=ReefBase :: Main Publications : Nutrient cycling in the Great Barrier Reef Aquarium - Proceedings of the 6th International Coral Reef Symposium, Australia|year=1988|volume=2|author=Morrissey, J., M.S. Jones and V. Harriott|work=reefbase.org}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.google.com/patents/about?id=NogyAAAAEBAJ&dq=U.S.+Patent+4333263|title=Patent US4333263 - Algal turf scrubber|work=google.com}}</ref><ref>[http://www.hydromentia.com/Products-Services/Algal-Turf-Scrubber/Product-Documentation/Assets/ATS-Technical-Brochure.pdf Hydromentia Water Treatment Technologies]</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/journal/120083425/abstract|title=ALGAL RESPONSE TO NUTRIENT ENRICHMENT IN FORESTED OLIGOTROPHIC STREAM - Veraart - 2008 - Journal of Phycology - Wiley Online Library|work=wiley.com}}</ref> [[Agricultural Research Service]] scientists found that 60–90% of nitrogen runoff and 70–100% of phosphorus runoff can be captured from [[manure effluents]] using a horizontal algae scrubber, also called an [[algal turf scrubber]] (ATS). Scientists developed the ATS, which consists of shallow, 100-foot raceways of nylon netting where algae colonies can form, and studied its efficacy for three years. They found that algae can readily be used to reduce the nutrient runoff from agricultural fields and increase the quality of water flowing into rivers, streams, and oceans. Researchers collected and dried the nutrient-rich algae from the ATS and studied its potential as an organic fertilizer. They found that cucumber and corn seedlings grew just as well using ATS organic fertilizer as they did with commercial fertilizers.<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.ars.usda.gov/is/AR/archive/may10/algae0510.htm |title= Algae: A Mean, Green Cleaning Machine |publisher=USDA Agricultural Research Service |date=7 May 2010}}</ref> Algae scrubbers, using bubbling upflow or vertical waterfall versions, are now also being used to filter aquariums and ponds. ===Bioremediation=== The alga ''[[Stichococcus bacillaris]]'', has been seen to colonize silicone resins used at archaeological sites; [[Biodegradation|biodegrading]] the synthetic substance.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Microorganisms Attack Synthetic Polymers in Items Representing Our Cultural Heritage |first1=Francesca |last1=Cappitelli |first2=Claudia |journal=Applied and Environmental Microbiology |year=2008 |volume=74 |pmc=2227722 |last2=Sorlini |issue=3 |pages=564–569 |doi=10.1128/AEM.01768-07 |pmid=18065627}}</ref> ===Pigments=== The natural [[pigment]]s ([[carotenoid]]s and [[chlorophylls]]) produced by algae can be used as an alternative to chemical [[dyes]] and coloring agents.<ref>{{cite book| last = Arad| first = Shoshana| last2 = Spharim| first2 = Ishai| editor-last = Altman| editor-first = Arie| title = Agricultural Biotechnology| series = Books in Soils, Plants, and the Environment| volume = 61| year = 1998| publisher = CRC Press| isbn = 978-0-8247-9439-2| page = 638| contribution = Production of Valuable Products from Microalgae: An Emerging Agroindustry }}</ref> The presence of some individual alga pigments, together with specific pigment concentrations ratios, are taxon-specific: analysis of their concentrations with various analytical methods, particularly [[high-performance liquid chromatography]] (HPLC), can therefore offer deep insight into the taxonomic composition and relative abundance of natural alga populations in sea water samples.<ref>{{cite journal |author=C. Rathbun |author2=A. Doyle |author3=T. Waterhouse|date=June 1994 |title=Measurement of Algal Chlorophylls and Carotenoids by HPLC |url=http://bats.bios.edu/methods/chapter13.pdf |journal=[[Joint Global Ocean Flux Study]] protocols |publisher=[[Global Ocean Data Analysis Project]] |volume=13 |issue= |pages=91–96 |doi= |pmc= |pmid= }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author=M. Latasa|author2=R. Bidigare|date=1998 |title=A comparison of phytoplankton populations of the Arabian Sea during the Spring Intermonsoon and Southwest Monsoon of 1995 as described by HPLC-analyzed pigments|url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0967064598000666|journal=Deep-Sea Research Part II: Topical Studies in Oceanography |publisher=[[Pergamon Press]] |issue=45 |pages=2133–2170 |doi=10.1016/S0967-0645(98)00066-6|bibcode = 1998DSRII..45.2133L |volume=45}}</ref> ===Stabilizing substances=== {{Main|Carrageenan|Chondrus crispus}} Carrageenan, from the red alga ''Chondrus crispus'', is used as a stabilizer in milk products. ==See also== * [[AlgaeBase]] * [[AlgaePARC]] * [[Toxoid]] - Anatoxin * [[Eutrophication]] * [[Marimo]] algae * [[Iron fertilization]] * [[Microbiofuels]] * [[Microphyte]] * [[Photobioreactor]] * [[Plant#Algae|Plant]] ==References== {{Reflist|28em}} ==Bibliography== {{Refbegin|30em}} ===General=== * {{cite book| last = Chapman| first = V.J.| title = Seaweeds and their Uses| year = 1950| publisher = Methuen & Co. Ltd| location = London| isbn = 978-0-412-15740-0 }} * Fritsch, F.E. (1935/1945). ''The Structure and Reproduction of the Algae''. I. and II. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press * van den Hoek, C., D.G. Mann, and H.M. Jahns (1995). ''Algae: an introduction to phycology''. Cambridge University Press (623 pp). * {{cite book| last = Lembi| first = C.A.| last2 = Waaland| first2 = J.R.| title = Algae and Human Affairs| year = 1988| publisher = Cambridge University Press| location = Cambridge| isbn = 978-0-521-32115-0 }} * {{cite book| last = Mumford| first = T F| last2 = Miura| first2 = A| editor-last = Lembi| editor-first = C A| editor2-last = Waaland| editor2-first = J R| title = Algae and Human Affairs| year = 1988| publisher = Cambridge University Press| isbn = 978-0-521-32115-0| pages = 87–117| contribution = ''Porphyra'' as food: cultivation and economic }}. * {{cite book| last = Round| first = F E| title = The Ecology of Algae| year = 1981| publisher = Cambridge University Press| location = London| isbn = 978-0-521-22583-0 }} * Smith, G.M. (1938). [https://archive.org/details/cryptogamicbotan031880mbp ''Cryptogamic Botany'', vol. 1]. McGraw-Hill, New York. ===Regional=== ;Britain and Ireland * {{cite book| last = Brodie| first = Juliet| last2 = Burrows| first2 = Elsie M| last3 = Chamberlain| first3 = Yvonne M.| last4 = Christensen| first4 = Tyge| last5 = Dixon| first5 = Peter Stanley| last6 = Fletcher| first6 = R.L.| last7 = Hommersand| first7 = Max H| last8 = Irvine| first8 = Linda M| last9 = Maggs| first9 = Christine A| displayauthors=8|title = Seaweeds of the British Isles: A Collaborative Project of the British Phycological Society and the British Museum (Natural History)| year = 1977–2003| publisher = British Museum (Natural History), HMSO, Intercept| location = London, Andover| isbn = 978-0-565-00781-2 }} * {{cite book|last=Cullinane|first=John P|year=1973|title=Phycology of the South Coast of Ireland|location=Cork|publisher=Cork University Press}} * {{cite book| last = Hardy| first = F G| last2 = Aspinall| first2 = R J| title = An Atlas of the Seaweeds of Northumberland and Durham| year = 1988| publisher = Northumberland Biological Records Centre| location = The Hancock Museum, University Newcastle upon Tyne| isbn = 978-0-9509680-5-6 }} * {{cite book| last = Hardy| first = F G| last2 = Guiry| first2 = Michael D| last3 = Arnold| first3 = Henry R| title = A Check-list and Atlas of the Seaweeds of Britain and Ireland| edition = Revised| year = 2006| publisher = British Phycological Society| location = London| isbn = 978-3-906166-35-3 }} * {{cite book| last = John| first = D M| last2 = Whitton| first2 = B A| last3 = Brook| first3 = J A| title = The Freshwater Algal Flora of the British Isles| year = 2002| publisher = Cambridge University Press| location = Cambridge, UK; New York| isbn = 978-0-521-77051-4 }} * {{cite book|last=Knight|first=Margery|last2=Parke|first2=Mary W|title=Manx Algae: An Algal Survey of the South End of the Isle of Man|year=1931|location=Liverpool|publisher=University Press|series=Liverpool Marine Biology Committee (LMBC) Memoirs on Typical British Marine Plants & Animals|volume=XXX}} * {{cite book|last=Morton|first=Osborne|year=1994|title=Marine Algae of Northern Ireland|location=Belfast|publisher=Ulster Museum|isbn=978-0-900761-28-7}} * {{cite journal|last=Morton|first=Osborne|title=The Marine Macroalgae of County Donegal, Ireland|journal=Bulletin of the Irish Biogeographical Society|volume=27|pages=3–164|date=1 December 2003}} ;Australia * {{cite book| last = Huisman| first = J M| title = Marine Plants of Australia| year = 2000| publisher = University of Western Australian (UWA) Press| isbn = 978-1-876268-33-6 }} ;New Zealand * {{cite book|last=Chapman|first=Valentine Jackson|last2=Lindauer|first2=VW|last3=Aiken|first3=M|last4=Dromgoole|first4=FI|title=The Marine algae of New Zealand|year=1970 |origyear=1900, 1956, 1961, 1969|location=London; Lehre, Germany|publisher=Linnaean Society of London; Cramer}} ;Europe * {{cite book| last1 = Cabioc'h| first1 = Jacqueline| last2 = Floc'h| first2 = Jean-Yves| last3 = Le Toquin| first3 = Alain| last4 = Boudouresque| first4 = Charles-François| last5 = Meinesz| first5 = Alexandre| last6 = Verlaque| first6 = Marc| title = Guide des algues des mers d'Europe: Manche/Atlantique-Méditerranée| year = 1992| publisher = Delachaux et Niestlé| location = Lausanne, Suisse| language = French| isbn = 978-2-603-00848-5 }} * {{cite book|title=Les Algues de côtes françaises (manche et atlantique), notions fondamentales sur l'écologie, la biologie et la systématique des algues marines|first=Paulette|last= Gayral|language= French|location=Paris| publisher=Doin, Deren et Cie|year=1966}} * {{cite book| last = Guiry| first = M.D.| last2 = Blunden| first2 = G.| title = Seaweed Resources in Europe: Uses and Potential| year = 1991| publisher = John Wiley & Sons| isbn = 978-0-471-92947-5 }} * {{cite book|last=Míguez Rodríguez|first=Luís|year=1998|title=Algas mariñas de Galicia: bioloxía, gastronomía, industria|language=Galician|publisher=Edicións Xerais de Galicia|location=[[Vigo]]|isbn=978-84-8302-263-4}} * {{cite book| last = Otero| first = J.| title = Guía das macroalgas de Galicia| year = 2002| publisher = Baía Edicións| location = [[A Coruña]]| language = Galician| isbn = 978-84-89803-22-0 }} * {{cite book |last=Bárbara |first=I. |last2=Cremades |first2=J. |year=1993 |title=Guía de las algas del litoral gallego |language=Spanish |publisher=Concello da Coruña – Casa das Ciencias |location=A Coruña}} ;Arctic * {{cite book|last=Kjellman|first=Frans Reinhold|year=1883|title= The algae of the Arctic Sea: a survey of the species, together with an exposition of the general characters and the development of the flora|location=Stockholm|publisher=Kungl. Svenska vetenskapsakademiens handlingar|volume=20|issue=5|pages=1–350}} ;Greenland * {{cite book|last=Lund|first=Søren Jensen|year=1959|title=The Marine Algae of East Greenland|location=Kövenhavn|publisher=C.A. Reitzel|id=9584734}} ;Faroe Islands * {{cite book|first=Frederik|last=Børgesen|contribution= Marine Algae|pages=339–532|editor-last=Warming|editor-first= Eugene |title=Botany of the Faröes Based Upon Danish Investigations. Part II|location= København|publisher=Det nordiske Forlag|origyear=1903|year=1970}}. ;Canary Islands * {{cite book|first=Frederik|last=Børgesen|title=Marine Algae from the Canary Islands|year=1936 |origyear=1925, 1926, 1927, 1929, 1930|location=København|publisher=Bianco Lunos}} ;Morocco * {{cite book|title=Algues de la côte atlantique marocaine|first=Paulette |last=Gayral|year=1958|publisher=Rabat [Société des sciences naturelles et physiques du Maroc]|location=Casablanca|language=French }} ;South Africa * {{cite book|author2= Bolton, J.J.|author3= Anderson, R.J.| last = Stegenga| first = H.| title = Seaweeds of the South African West Coast| year = 1997| publisher = Bolus Herbarium, University of Cape Town| isbn = 978-0-7992-1793-3 }} ;North America * {{cite book| last2 = Hollenberg |first2=G.J.| last = Abbott| first = I.A.| title = Marine Algae of California| year = 1976| publisher = Stanford University Press| location = California| isbn = 978-0-8047-0867-8 }} * {{cite book|last=Greeson|first= Phillip E.|year= 1982 |title=An annotated key to the identification of commonly occurring and dominant genera of Algae observed in the Phytoplankton of the United States| publisher=US Department of the Interior, Geological Survey| location=Washington, D.C.| url=https://archive.org/details/annotatedkeytoid00gree|accessdate=19 December 2008}} * {{cite book|last=Taylor|first= William Randolph|year=1969 |origyear=1937, 1957, 1962|title=Marine Algae of the Northeastern Coast of North America|publisher=University of Michigan Press|location= Ann Arbor|isbn=978-0-472-04904-2}} * {{cite book| last = Wehr| first = J D| last2 = Sheath| first2 = R G| title = Freshwater Algae of North America: Ecology and Classification| year = 2003| publisher = Academic Press| location = US| isbn = 978-0-12-741550-5 }} {{Refend}} ==External links== {{Commons category|Algae}} * {{cite web|url=http://www.algaebase.org |title=AlgaeBase|first=Michael and Wendy|last=Guiry}} – a database of all algal names including images, nomenclature, taxonomy, distribution, bibliography, uses, extracts * [http://ccdb.ucsd.edu/sand/main?stype=lite&keyword=algae&event=display&Submit=Go&start=1 Algae – Cell Centered Database] * {{cite web|title=Algae Research|publisher=National Museum of Natural History, Department of Botany|year=2008|url=http://botany.si.edu/projects/algae/|accessdate=19 December 2008| archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20081201013721/http://botany.si.edu/projects/algae/| archivedate= 1 December 2008 | deadurl= no}} * {{cite web| first=Don |last=Anderson |author2=Bruce Keafer|author3=Judy Kleindinst|author4=Katie Shaughnessy|author5=Katherine Joyce|author6=Danielle Fino|author7= Adam Shepherd |title=Harmful Algae|year=2007|publisher=US National Office for Harmful Algal Blooms|url=http://www.whoi.edu/redtide/page.do?pid=14779|accessdate=19 December 2008| archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20081205151336/http://www.whoi.edu/redtide/page.do?pid=14779| archivedate= 5 December 2008 | deadurl= no}} * {{cite web|title=Australian Freshwater Algae (AFA)|publisher=Department of Environment and Climate Change NSW Botanic Gardens Trust|url=http://www.rbgsyd.nsw.gov.au/science/hot_science_topics/australian_freshwater_algae2|accessdate=19 December 2008| archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20081230140015/http://www.rbgsyd.nsw.gov.au/science/hot_science_topics/australian_freshwater_algae2| archivedate= 30 December 2008 | deadurl= no}} * {{cite web|title=Freshwater Algae Research|publisher=Phycology Section, Patrick Center for Environmental Research|year=2011|url=http://diatom.ansp.org/|accessdate=17 December 2011}} * {{cite web|title=Monterey Bay Flora|publisher=Monterey Bay Aquarium Research Institute (MBARI)|date=1996–2008|accessdate=20 December 2008|url=http://www.mbari.org/staff/conn/botany/flora/mflora.htm}} * {{cite web|url=http://ucjeps.berkeley.edu/INA.html|title= Index Nominum Algarum (INA)|first=Paul|last=Silva|date=1997–2004|publisher=University Herbarium, University of California|location=Berkeley|accessdate=19 December 2008| archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20081223172950/http://ucjeps.berkeley.edu/INA.html| archivedate= 23 December 2008 | deadurl= no}} * [http://tolweb.org/notes/?note_id=52 Algae: Protists with Chloroplasts] * {{cite web|title=Research on microalgae|publisher=Wageningen UR|year=2009|url=http://www.algae.wur.nl/uk/|accessdate=18 May 2009| archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20090424044729/http://www.algae.wur.nl/UK/| archivedate= 24 April 2009 | deadurl= no}} * [http://www.environment.gov.au/biodiversity/abrs/online-resources/glossaries/algae/index.html Algae glossary (Australian Biological Resources Study).] * {{cite web|title=About Algae|publisher=Natural History Museum, United Kingdom|url=http://www.nhm.ac.uk/research-curation/scientific-resources/biodiversity/uk-biodiversity/algaevision/about-algae/index.html}} * EnAlgae [http://www.enalgae.eu] {{Botany}} {{Protist structures}} {{fisheries and fishing}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Algae| ]] [[Category:Endosymbiotic events]] gwu4hmrc6wet23bcnijcsya6hpj7lus 0 634 714319634 714319120 2016-04-09T00:40:53Z Wikisahand 28041907 /* Connection to Linear Regression */ wikitext text/x-wiki {{Use dmy dates|date=June 2013}} [[File:Biologist and statistician Ronald Fisher.jpg|thumb|220px|Biologist and statistician Ronald Fisher]] '''Analysis of variance''' ('''ANOVA''') is a collection of [[statistical model]]s used to analyze the differences among group means and their associated procedures (such as "variation" among and between groups), developed by [[statistician]] and [[evolutionary biology|evolutionary biologist]] [[Ronald Fisher]]. In the ANOVA setting, the observed [[variance]] in a particular variable is partitioned into components attributable to different sources of variation. In its simplest form, ANOVA provides a [[statistical test]] of whether or not the [[mean]]s of several groups are equal, and therefore generalizes the [[Student's t-test#Independent two-sample t-test|''t''-test]] to more than two groups. ANOVAs are useful for comparing (testing) three or more means (groups or variables) for [[statistical significance]]. It is conceptually similar to [[Multiple comparisons problem|multiple two-sample t-tests]], but is less conservative (results in less [[type I error]]) and is therefore suited to a wide range of practical problems. {{TOC limit}} ==History== While the analysis of variance reached fruition in the 20th century, antecedents extend centuries into the past according to Stigler.<ref>Stigler (1986)</ref> These include hypothesis testing, the partitioning of sums of squares, experimental techniques and the additive model. [[Pierre-Simon Laplace|Laplace]] was performing hypothesis testing in the 1770s.<ref>Stigler (1986, p 134)</ref> The development of least-squares methods by Laplace and [[Carl Friedrich Gauss|Gauss]] circa 1800 provided an improved method of combining observations (over the existing practices of astronomy and geodesy). It also initiated much study of the contributions to sums of squares. Laplace soon knew how to estimate a variance from a residual (rather than a total) sum of squares.<ref>Stigler (1986, p 153)</ref> By 1827 Laplace was using least squares methods to address ANOVA problems regarding measurements of atmospheric tides.<ref>Stigler (1986, pp&nbsp;154–155)</ref> Before 1800 astronomers had isolated observational errors resulting from reaction times (the "[[personal equation]]") and had developed methods of reducing the errors.<ref>Stigler (1986, pp&nbsp;240–242)</ref> The experimental methods used in the study of the personal equation were later accepted by the emerging field of psychology <ref>Stigler (1986, Chapter 7 - Psychophysics as a Counterpoint)</ref> which developed strong (full factorial) experimental methods to which randomization and blinding were soon added.<ref>Stigler (1986, p 253)</ref> An eloquent non-mathematical explanation of the additive effects model was available in 1885.<ref>Stigler (1986, pp&nbsp;314–315)</ref> [[Ronald Fisher]] introduced the term [[variance]] and proposed its formal analysis in a 1918 article ''[[The Correlation Between Relatives on the Supposition of Mendelian Inheritance]]''.<ref>''The Correlation Between Relatives on the Supposition of Mendelian Inheritance''. Ronald A. Fisher. ''Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh''. 1918. (volume 52, pages 399–433)</ref> His first application of the analysis of variance was published in 1921.<ref>On the "Probable Error" of a Coefficient of Correlation Deduced from a Small Sample. Ronald A. Fisher. Metron, 1: 3-32 (1921)</ref> Analysis of variance became widely known after being included in Fisher's 1925 book ''[[Statistical Methods for Research Workers]]''. Randomization models were developed by several researchers. The first was published in Polish by [[Neyman]] in 1923.<ref>Scheffé (1959, p 291, "Randomization models were first formulated by Neyman (1923) for the completely randomized design, by Neyman (1935) for randomized blocks, by Welch (1937) and Pitman (1937) for the Latin square under a certain null hypothesis, and by Kempthorne (1952, 1955) and Wilk (1955) for many other designs.")</ref> One of the attributes of ANOVA which ensured its early popularity was computational elegance. The structure of the additive model allows solution for the additive coefficients by simple algebra rather than by matrix calculations. In the era of mechanical calculators this simplicity was critical. The determination of statistical significance also required access to tables of the F function which were supplied by early statistics texts. ==Motivating example== [[File:Anova, no fit..png|thumb|No fit.]][[File:ANOVA fair fit.jpg|thumb|Fair fit]][[File:ANOVA very good fit.jpg|thumb|Very good fit]]The analysis of variance can be used as an exploratory tool to explain observations. A dog show provides an example. A dog show is not a random sampling of the breed: it is typically limited to dogs that are adult, pure-bred, and exemplary. A histogram of dog weights from a show might plausibly be rather complex, like the yellow-orange distribution shown in the illustrations. Suppose we wanted to predict the weight of a dog based on a certain set of characteristics of each dog. Before we could do that, we would need to ''explain'' the distribution of weights by dividing the dog population into groups based on those characteristics. A successful grouping will split dogs such that (a) each group has a low variance of dog weights (meaning the group is relatively homogeneous) and (b) the mean of each group is distinct (if two groups have the same mean, then it isn't reasonable to conclude that the groups are, in fact, separate in any meaningful way). In the illustrations to the right, each group is identified as ''X''<sub>1</sub>, ''X''<sub>2</sub>, etc. In the first illustration, we divide the dogs according to the product (interaction) of two binary groupings: young vs old, and short-haired vs long-haired (thus, group 1 is young, short-haired dogs, group 2 is young, long-haired dogs, etc.). Since the distributions of dog weight within each of the groups (shown in blue) has a large variance, and since the means are very close across groups, grouping dogs by these characteristics does not produce an effective way to explain the variation in dog weights: knowing which group a dog is in does not allow us to make any reasonable statements as to what that dog's weight is likely to be. Thus, this grouping fails to ''fit'' the distribution we are trying to explain (yellow-orange). An attempt to explain the weight distribution by grouping dogs as (pet vs working breed) and (less athletic vs more athletic) would probably be somewhat more successful (fair fit). The heaviest show dogs are likely to be big strong working breeds, while breeds kept as pets tend to be smaller and thus lighter. As shown by the second illustration, the distributions have variances that are considerably smaller than in the first case, and the means are more reasonably distinguishable. However, the significant overlap of distributions, for example, means that we cannot reliably say that ''X''<sub>1</sub> and ''X''<sub>2</sub> are truly distinct (i.e., it is perhaps reasonably likely that splitting dogs according to the flip of a coin—by pure chance—might produce distributions that look similar). An attempt to explain weight by breed is likely to produce a very good fit. All Chihuahuas are light and all St Bernards are heavy. The difference in weights between Setters and Pointers does not justify separate breeds. The analysis of variance provides the formal tools to justify these intuitive judgments. A common use of the method is the analysis of experimental data or the development of models. The method has some advantages over correlation: not all of the data must be numeric and one result of the method is a judgment in the confidence in an explanatory relationship. ==Background and terminology== ANOVA is a particular form of [[statistical hypothesis testing]] heavily used in the analysis of experimental data. A test result (calculated from the [[null hypothesis]] and the sample) is called statistically significant if it is deemed unlikely to have occurred by chance, ''assuming the truth of the null hypothesis''. A statistically significant result, when a probability ([[p-value]]) is less than a threshold (significance level), justifies the rejection of the [[null hypothesis]], but only if the a priori probability of the null hypothesis is not high. In the typical application of ANOVA, the null hypothesis is that all groups are simply random samples of the same population. For example, when studying the effect of different treatments on similar samples of patients, the null hypothesis would be that all treatments have the same effect (perhaps none). Rejecting the null hypothesis would imply that different treatments result in altered effects. By construction, hypothesis testing limits the rate of [[Type I errors]] (false positives) to a significance level. Experimenters also wish to limit [[Type II errors]] (false negatives). The rate of Type II errors depends largely on sample size (the rate will increase for small numbers of samples), significance level (when the standard of proof is high, the chances of overlooking a discovery are also high) and [[effect size]] (a smaller effect size is more prone to Type II error). The terminology of ANOVA is largely from the statistical [[design of experiments]]. The experimenter adjusts factors and measures responses in an attempt to determine an effect. Factors are assigned to experimental units by a combination of randomization and [[Randomized block design|blocking]] to ensure the validity of the results. [[Blind experiment|Blinding]] keeps the weighing impartial. Responses show a variability that is partially the result of the effect and is partially random error. ANOVA is the synthesis of several ideas and it is used for multiple purposes. As a consequence, it is difficult to define concisely or precisely. "Classical ANOVA for balanced data does three things at once: {{ordered list|start=1 | As [[exploratory data analysis]], an ANOVA is an organization of an additive data decomposition, and its sums of squares indicate the variance of each component of the decomposition (or, equivalently, each set of terms of a linear model). | Comparisons of mean squares, along with F-tests&nbsp;... allow testing of a nested sequence of models. | Closely related to the ANOVA is a linear model fit with coefficient estimates and standard errors."<ref>Gelman (2005, p 2)</ref> }} In short, ANOVA is a statistical tool used in several ways to develop and confirm an explanation for the observed data. Additionally: {{ordered list|start=4 | It is computationally elegant and relatively robust against violations of its assumptions. | ANOVA provides industrial strength (multiple sample comparison) statistical analysis. | It has been adapted to the analysis of a variety of experimental designs. }} As a result: ANOVA "has long enjoyed the status of being the '''most used''' (some would say abused) statistical technique in psychological research."<ref> Howell (2002, p 320)</ref> ANOVA "is probably the '''most useful''' technique in the field of statistical inference."<ref>Montgomery (2001, p 63)</ref> ANOVA is difficult to teach, particularly for complex experiments, with [[Restricted randomization|split-plot designs]] being notorious.<ref>Gelman (2005, p 1)</ref> In some cases the proper application of the method is best determined by problem pattern recognition followed by the consultation of a classic authoritative test.<ref> Gelman (2005, p 5)</ref> ===Design-of-experiments terms=== (Condensed from the NIST Engineering Statistics handbook: Section 5.7. A Glossary of DOE Terminology.)<ref>{{cite web | title = Section 5.7. A Glossary of DOE Terminology | work = NIST Engineering Statistics handbook | publisher = NIST | url = http://www.itl.nist.gov/div898/handbook/pri/section7/pri7.htm | accessdate = 5 April 2012}}</ref> ; Balanced design: An experimental design where all cells (i.e. treatment combinations) have the same number of observations. ; Blocking: A schedule for conducting treatment combinations in an experimental study such that any effects on the experimental results due to a known change in raw materials, operators, machines, etc., become concentrated in the levels of the blocking variable. The reason for blocking is to isolate a systematic effect and prevent it from obscuring the main effects. Blocking is achieved by restricting randomization. ; Design: A set of experimental runs which allows the fit of a particular model and the estimate of effects. ; DOE: Design of experiments. An approach to problem solving involving collection of data that will support valid, defensible, and supportable conclusions.<ref>{{cite web | title = Section 4.3.1 A Glossary of DOE Terminology | work= NIST Engineering Statistics handbook | publisher = NIST | url= http://www.itl.nist.gov/div898/handbook/pmd/section3/pmd31.htm | accessdate = 14 Aug 2012}}</ref> ; Effect: How changing the settings of a factor changes the response. The effect of a single factor is also called a main effect. ; Error: Unexplained variation in a collection of observations. DOE's typically require understanding of both random error and lack of fit error. ; Experimental unit: The entity to which a specific treatment combination is applied. ; Factors: Process inputs an investigator manipulates to cause a change in the output. ; Lack-of-fit error: Error that occurs when the analysis omits one or more important terms or factors from the process model. Including replication in a DOE allows separation of experimental error into its components: lack of fit and random (pure) error. ; Model: Mathematical relationship which relates changes in a given response to changes in one or more factors. ; Random error: Error that occurs due to natural variation in the process. Random error is typically assumed to be normally distributed with zero mean and a constant variance. Random error is also called experimental error. ; Randomization: A schedule for allocating treatment material and for conducting treatment combinations in a DOE such that the conditions in one run neither depend on the conditions of the previous run nor predict the conditions in the subsequent runs.<ref group="nb">Randomization is a term used in multiple ways in this material. "Randomization has three roles in applications: as a device for eliminating biases, for example from unobserved explanatory variables and selection effects: as a basis for estimating standard errors: and as a foundation for formally exact significance tests." Cox (2006, page 192) Hinkelmann and Kempthorne use randomization both in experimental design and for statistical analysis.</ref> ; Replication: Performing the same treatment combination more than once. Including replication allows an estimate of the random error independent of any lack of fit error. ; Responses: The output(s) of a process. Sometimes called dependent variable(s). ; Treatment: A treatment is a specific combination of factor levels whose effect is to be compared with other treatments. ==Classes of models== There are three classes of models used in the analysis of variance, and these are outlined here. ===Fixed-effects models=== {{Main|Fixed effects model}} The fixed-effects model (class I) of analysis of variance applies to situations in which the experimenter applies one or more treatments to the subjects of the experiment to see whether the [[response variable]] values change. This allows the experimenter to estimate the ranges of response variable values that the treatment would generate in the population as a whole. ===Random-effects models=== {{Main|Random effects model}} Random effects model (class II) is used when the treatments are not fixed. This occurs when the various factor levels are sampled from a larger population. Because the levels themselves are [[random variables]], some assumptions and the method of contrasting the treatments (a multi-variable generalization of simple differences) differ from the fixed-effects model.<ref>Montgomery (2001, Chapter 12: Experiments with random factors)</ref> ===Mixed-effects models=== {{Main|Mixed model}} A mixed-effects model (class III) contains experimental factors of both fixed and random-effects types, with appropriately different interpretations and analysis for the two types. Example: Teaching experiments could be performed by a university department to find a good introductory textbook, with each text considered a treatment. The fixed-effects model would compare a list of candidate texts. The random-effects model would determine whether important differences exist among a list of randomly selected texts. The mixed-effects model would compare the (fixed) incumbent texts to randomly selected alternatives. Defining fixed and random effects has proven elusive, with competing definitions arguably leading toward a linguistic quagmire.<ref> Gelman (2005, pp. 20–21)</ref> ==Assumptions of ANOVA== The analysis of variance has been studied from several approaches, the most common of which uses a [[linear model]] that relates the response to the treatments and blocks. Note that the model is linear in parameters but may be nonlinear across factor levels. Interpretation is easy when data is balanced across factors but much deeper understanding is needed for unbalanced data. ===Textbook analysis using a normal distribution=== The analysis of variance can be presented in terms of a [[linear model]], which makes the following assumptions about the [[probability distribution]] of the responses:<ref>{{cite book |title = Statistical Methods | last1 = Snedecor | first1 = George W. | last2 = Cochran | first2 = William G. | year = 1967 | edition = 6th | page = 321 }}</ref><ref>Cochran & Cox (1992, p 48)</ref><ref>Howell (2002, p 323)</ref><ref> {{cite book | last1 = Anderson | first1 = David R. | last2 = Sweeney | first2 = Dennis J. | last3 = Williams | first3 = Thomas A. | title = Statistics for business and economics | publisher = West Pub. Co | location = Minneapolis/St. Paul | year = 1996 | edition = 6th| isbn = 0-314-06378-1 | pages = 452–453}} </ref> * [[Statistical independence|Independence]] of observations &ndash; this is an assumption of the model that simplifies the statistical analysis. * [[normal distribution|Normality]] &ndash; the distributions of the [[Residual (statistics)|residuals]] are [[Normal distribution|normal]]. * Equality (or "homogeneity") of variances, called [[homoscedasticity]] &mdash; the variance of data in groups should be the same. The separate assumptions of the textbook model imply that the [[errors and residuals in statistics|errors]] are independently, identically, and normally distributed for fixed effects models, that is, that the errors (<math>\varepsilon</math>) are independent and :<math>\varepsilon \thicksim N(0, \sigma^2).\,</math> ===Randomization-based analysis=== {{See also|Random assignment|Randomization test}} In a [[Randomized controlled trial|randomized controlled experiment]], the treatments are randomly assigned to experimental units, following the experimental protocol. This randomization is objective and declared before the experiment is carried out. The objective random-assignment is used to test the significance of the null hypothesis, following the ideas of [[Charles Sanders Peirce|C. S. Peirce]] and [[Ronald Fisher]]. This design-based analysis was discussed and developed by [[Francis J. Anscombe]] at [[Rothamsted Experimental Station]] and by [[Oscar Kempthorne]] at [[Iowa State University]].<ref>Anscombe (1948)</ref> Kempthorne and his students make an assumption of ''unit treatment additivity'', which is discussed in the books of Kempthorne and [[David R. Cox]].{{Citation needed|date=August 2011}} ====Unit-treatment additivity==== In its simplest form, the assumption of unit-treatment additivity<ref group="nb">Unit-treatment additivity is simply termed additivity in most texts. Hinkelmann and Kempthorne add adjectives and distinguish between additivity in the strict and broad senses. This allows a detailed consideration of multiple error sources (treatment, state, selection, measurement and sampling) on page 161.</ref> states that the observed response <math>y_{i,j}</math> from experimental unit <math>i</math> when receiving treatment <math>j</math> can be written as the sum of the unit's response <math>y_i</math> and the treatment-effect <math> t_j</math>, that is <ref>Kempthorne (1979, p 30)</ref><ref name="Cox">Cox (1958, Chapter 2: Some Key Assumptions)</ref><ref>Hinkelmann and Kempthorne (2008, Volume 1, Throughout. Introduced in Section 2.3.3: Principles of experimental design; The linear model; Outline of a model)</ref> : <math>y_{i,j}=y_i+t_j.</math> The assumption of unit-treatment additivity implies that, for every treatment <math>j</math>, the <math>j</math>th treatment has exactly the same effect <math>t_j</math> on every experiment unit. The assumption of unit treatment additivity usually cannot be directly [[falsificationism|falsified]], according to Cox and Kempthorne. However, many ''consequences'' of treatment-unit additivity can be falsified. For a randomized experiment, the assumption of unit-treatment additivity ''implies'' that the variance is constant for all treatments. Therefore, by [[contraposition]], a necessary condition for unit-treatment additivity is that the variance is constant. The use of unit treatment additivity and randomization is similar to the design-based inference that is standard in finite-population [[survey sampling]]. ====Derived linear model==== Kempthorne uses the randomization-distribution and the assumption of ''unit treatment additivity'' to produce a ''derived linear model'', very similar to the textbook model discussed previously.<ref>Hinkelmann and Kempthorne (2008, Volume 1, Section 6.3: Completely Randomized Design; Derived Linear Model)</ref> The test statistics of this derived linear model are closely approximated by the test statistics of an appropriate normal linear model, according to approximation theorems and simulation studies.<ref name="HinkelmannKempthorne">Hinkelmann and Kempthorne (2008, Volume 1, Section 6.6: Completely randomized design; Approximating the randomization test)</ref> However, there are differences. For example, the randomization-based analysis results in a small but (strictly) negative correlation between the observations.<ref>Bailey (2008, Chapter 2.14 "A More General Model" in Bailey, pp.&nbsp;38–40)</ref><ref>Hinkelmann and Kempthorne (2008, Volume 1, Chapter 7: Comparison of Treatments)</ref> In the randomization-based analysis, there is ''no assumption'' of a ''normal'' distribution and certainly ''no assumption'' of ''independence''. On the contrary, ''the observations are dependent''! The randomization-based analysis has the disadvantage that its exposition involves tedious algebra and extensive time. Since the randomization-based analysis is complicated and is closely approximated by the approach using a normal linear model, most teachers emphasize the normal linear model approach. Few statisticians object to model-based analysis of balanced randomized experiments. ====Statistical models for observational data==== However, when applied to data from non-randomized experiments or [[observational study|observational studies]], model-based analysis lacks the warrant of randomization.<ref> Kempthorne (1979, pp 125–126, "The experimenter must decide which of the various causes that he feels will produce variations in his results must be controlled experimentally. Those causes that he does not control experimentally, because he is not cognizant of them, he must control by the device of randomization." "[O]nly when the treatments in the experiment are applied by the experimenter using the full randomization procedure is the chain of inductive inference sound. It is ''only'' under these circumstances that the experimenter can attribute whatever effects he observes to the treatment and the treatment only. Under these circumstances his conclusions are reliable in the statistical sense.") </ref> For observational data, the derivation of confidence intervals must use ''subjective'' models, as emphasized by [[Ronald Fisher]] and his followers. In practice, the estimates of treatment-effects from observational studies generally are often inconsistent. In practice, "statistical models" and observational data are useful for suggesting hypotheses that should be treated very cautiously by the public.<ref>Freedman {{full|date=November 2012}}</ref> ===Summary of assumptions=== The normal-model based ANOVA analysis assumes the independence, normality and homogeneity of the variances of the residuals. The randomization-based analysis assumes only the homogeneity of the variances of the residuals (as a consequence of unit-treatment additivity) and uses the randomization procedure of the experiment. Both these analyses require homoscedasticity, as an assumption for the normal-model analysis and as a consequence of randomization and additivity for the randomization-based analysis. However, studies of processes that change variances rather than means (called dispersion effects) have been successfully conducted using ANOVA.<ref>Montgomery (2001, Section 3.8: Discovering dispersion effects)</ref> There are ''no'' necessary assumptions for ANOVA in its full generality, but the F-test used for ANOVA hypothesis testing has assumptions and practical limitations which are of continuing interest. Problems which do not satisfy the assumptions of ANOVA can often be transformed to satisfy the assumptions. The property of unit-treatment additivity is not invariant under a "change of scale", so statisticians often use transformations to achieve unit-treatment additivity. If the response variable is expected to follow a parametric family of probability distributions, then the statistician may specify (in the protocol for the experiment or observational study) that the responses be transformed to stabilize the variance.<ref>Hinkelmann and Kempthorne (2008, Volume 1, Section 6.10: Completely randomized design; Transformations)</ref> Also, a statistician may specify that logarithmic transforms be applied to the responses, which are believed to follow a multiplicative model.<ref name="Cox" /><ref>Bailey (2008)</ref> According to Cauchy's [[functional equation]] theorem, the [[logarithm]] is the only continuous transformation that transforms real multiplication to addition.{{citation needed|date=October 2013}} ==Characteristics of ANOVA== ANOVA is used in the analysis of comparative experiments, those in which only the difference in outcomes is of interest. The statistical significance of the experiment is determined by a ratio of two variances. This ratio is independent of several possible alterations to the experimental observations: Adding a constant to all observations does not alter significance. Multiplying all observations by a constant does not alter significance. So ANOVA statistical significance result is independent of constant bias and scaling errors as well as the units used in expressing observations. In the era of mechanical calculation it was common to subtract a constant from all observations (when equivalent to dropping leading digits) to simplify data entry.<ref>Montgomery (2001, Section 3-3: Experiments with a single factor: The analysis of variance; Analysis of the fixed effects model)</ref><ref> Cochran & Cox (1992, p 2 example)</ref> This is an example of data [[Coding (social sciences)|coding]]. ==Logic of ANOVA== The calculations of ANOVA can be characterized as computing a number of means and variances, dividing two variances and comparing the ratio to a handbook value to determine statistical significance. Calculating a treatment effect is then trivial, "the effect of any treatment is estimated by taking the difference between the mean of the observations which receive the treatment and the general mean."<ref> Cochran & Cox (1992, p 49)</ref> ===Partitioning of the sum of squares=== {{main|Partition of sums of squares}} ANOVA uses traditional standardized terminology. The definitional equation of sample variance is <math>s^2=\textstyle\frac{1}{n-1}\sum(y_i-\bar{y})^2</math>, where the divisor is called the degrees of freedom (DF), the summation is called the sum of squares (SS), the result is called the mean square (MS) and the squared terms are deviations from the sample mean. ANOVA estimates 3 sample variances: a total variance based on all the observation deviations from the grand mean, an error variance based on all the observation deviations from their appropriate treatment means and a treatment variance. The treatment variance is based on the deviations of treatment means from the grand mean, the result being multiplied by the number of observations in each treatment to account for the difference between the variance of observations and the variance of means. The fundamental technique is a partitioning of the total [[sum of squares (statistics)|sum of squares]] ''SS'' into components related to the effects used in the model. For example, the model for a simplified ANOVA with one type of treatment at different levels. :<math>SS_\text{Total} = SS_\text{Error} + SS_\text{Treatments}</math> The number of [[Degrees of freedom (statistics)|degrees of freedom]] ''DF'' can be partitioned in a similar way: one of these components (that for error) specifies a [[chi-squared distribution]] which describes the associated sum of squares, while the same is true for "treatments" if there is no treatment effect. :<math>DF_\text{Total} = DF_\text{Error} + DF_\text{Treatments}</math> See also [[Lack-of-fit sum of squares]]. ===The F-test=== {{Main|F-test}} The [[F-test]] is used for comparing the factors of the total deviation. For example, in one-way, or single-factor ANOVA, statistical significance is tested for by comparing the F test statistic :<math>F = \frac{\text{variance between treatments}}{\text{variance within treatments}}</math> :<math>F = \frac{MS_\text{Treatments}}{MS_\text{Error}} = {{SS_\text{Treatments} / (I-1)} \over {SS_\text{Error} / (n_T-I)}}</math> where ''MS'' is mean square, <math>I</math> = number of treatments and <math>n_T</math> = total number of cases to the [[F-distribution]] with <math>I - 1</math>, <math>n_T - I</math> degrees of freedom. Using the [[F-distribution]] is a natural candidate because the test statistic is the ratio of two scaled sums of squares each of which follows a scaled [[chi-squared distribution]]. The expected value of F is <math>1 + {n \sigma^2_\text{Treatment}} / {\sigma^2_\text{Error}}</math> (where n is the treatment sample size) which is 1 for no treatment effect. As values of F increase above 1, the evidence is increasingly inconsistent with the null hypothesis. Two apparent experimental methods of increasing F are increasing the sample size and reducing the error variance by tight experimental controls. There are two methods of concluding the ANOVA hypothesis test, both of which produce the same result: * The textbook method is to compare the observed value of F with the critical value of F determined from tables. The critical value of F is a function of the degrees of freedom of the numerator and the denominator and the significance level (α). If F ≥ F<sub>Critical</sub>, the null hypothesis is rejected. * The computer method calculates the probability (p-value) of a value of F greater than or equal to the observed value. The null hypothesis is rejected if this probability is less than or equal to the significance level (α). The ANOVA F-test is known to be nearly optimal in the sense of minimizing false negative errors for a fixed rate of false positive errors (i.e. maximizing power for a fixed significance level). For example, to test the hypothesis that various medical treatments have exactly the same effect, the [[F-test]]'s p-values closely approximate the [[permutation test]]'s [[p-value]]s: The approximation is particularly close when the design is balanced.<ref name="HinkelmannKempthorne" /><ref>Hinkelmann and Kempthorne (2008, Volume 1, Section 6.7: Completely randomized design; CRD with unequal numbers of replications)</ref> Such [[permutation test]]s characterize [[uniformly most powerful test|tests with maximum power]] against all [[alternative hypothesis|alternative hypotheses]], as observed by Rosenbaum.<ref group="nb">Rosenbaum (2002, page 40) cites Section 5.7 (Permutation Tests), Theorem 2.3 (actually Theorem 3, page 184) of [[Erich Leo Lehmann|Lehmann]]'s ''Testing Statistical Hypotheses'' (1959).</ref> The ANOVA F–test (of the null-hypothesis that all treatments have exactly the same effect) is recommended as a practical test, because of its robustness against many alternative distributions.<ref>Moore and McCabe (2003, page 763)</ref><ref group="nb">The F-test for the comparison of variances has a mixed reputation. It is not recommended as a hypothesis test to determine whether two ''different'' samples have the same variance. It is recommended for ANOVA where two estimates of the variance of the ''same'' sample are compared. While the F-test is not generally robust against departures from normality, it has been found to be robust in the special case of ANOVA. Citations from Moore & McCabe (2003): "Analysis of variance uses F statistics, but these are not the same as the F statistic for comparing two population standard deviations." (page 554) "The F test and other procedures for inference about variances are so lacking in robustness as to be of little use in practice." (page 556) "[The ANOVA F test] is relatively insensitive to moderate nonnormality and unequal variances, especially when the sample sizes are similar." (page 763) ANOVA assumes homoscedasticity, but it is robust. The statistical test for homoscedasticity (the F-test) is not robust. Moore & McCabe recommend a rule of thumb.</ref> ===Extended logic=== ANOVA consists of separable parts; partitioning sources of variance and hypothesis testing can be used individually. ANOVA is used to support other statistical tools. Regression is first used to fit more complex models to data, then ANOVA is used to compare models with the objective of selecting simple(r) models that adequately describe the data. "Such models could be fit without any reference to ANOVA, but ANOVA tools could then be used to make some sense of the fitted models, and to test hypotheses about batches of coefficients."<ref name="Gelman">Gelman (2008)</ref> "[W]e think of the analysis of variance as a way of understanding and structuring multilevel models—not as an alternative to regression but as a tool for summarizing complex high-dimensional inferences&nbsp;..."<ref name="Gelman" /> ==ANOVA for a single factor== {{Main|One-way analysis of variance}} The simplest experiment suitable for ANOVA analysis is the completely randomized experiment with a single factor. More complex experiments with a single factor involve constraints on randomization and include completely randomized blocks and Latin squares (and variants: Graeco-Latin squares, etc.). The more complex experiments share many of the complexities of multiple factors. A relatively complete discussion of the analysis (models, data summaries, ANOVA table) of the completely randomized experiment is [[One-way analysis of variance|available]]. ==ANOVA for multiple factors== {{Main|Two-way analysis of variance}} ANOVA generalizes to the study of the effects of multiple factors. When the experiment includes observations at all combinations of levels of each factor, it is termed [[Factorial experiment|factorial]]. Factorial experiments are more efficient than a series of single factor experiments and the efficiency grows as the number of factors increases.<ref name="Montgomery">Montgomery (2001, Section 5-2: Introduction to factorial designs; The advantages of factorials)</ref> Consequently, factorial designs are heavily used. The use of ANOVA to study the effects of multiple factors has a complication. In a 3-way ANOVA with factors x, y and z, the ANOVA model includes terms for the main effects (x, y, z) and terms for [[Interaction (statistics)|interactions]] (xy, xz, yz, xyz). All terms require hypothesis tests. The proliferation of interaction terms increases the risk that some hypothesis test will produce a false positive by chance. Fortunately, experience says that high order interactions are rare.<ref>Belle (2008, Section 8.4: High-order interactions occur rarely)</ref> {{verify source|date=December 2014}} The ability to detect interactions is a major advantage of multiple factor ANOVA. Testing one factor at a time hides interactions, but produces apparently inconsistent experimental results.<ref name="Montgomery" /> Caution is advised when encountering interactions; Test interaction terms first and expand the analysis beyond ANOVA if interactions are found. Texts vary in their recommendations regarding the continuation of the ANOVA procedure after encountering an interaction. Interactions complicate the interpretation of experimental data. Neither the calculations of significance nor the estimated treatment effects can be taken at face value. "A significant interaction will often mask the significance of main effects."<ref>Montgomery (2001, Section 5-1: Introduction to factorial designs; Basic definitions and principles)</ref> Graphical methods are recommended to enhance understanding. Regression is often useful. A lengthy discussion of interactions is available in Cox (1958).<ref>Cox (1958, Chapter 6: Basic ideas about factorial experiments)</ref> Some interactions can be removed (by transformations) while others cannot. A variety of techniques are used with multiple factor ANOVA to reduce expense. One technique used in factorial designs is to minimize replication (possibly no replication with support of [[Tukey's test of additivity|analytical trickery]]) and to combine groups when effects are found to be statistically (or practically) insignificant. An experiment with many insignificant factors may collapse into one with a few factors supported by many replications.<ref>Montgomery (2001, Section 5-3.7: Introduction to factorial designs; The two-factor factorial design; One observation per cell)</ref> ==Worked numeric examples== Several fully worked numerical examples are available. A [[F-test#One-way ANOVA example|simple case]] uses one-way (a single factor) analysis. A [[Two-way analysis of variance|more complex case]] uses two-way (two-factor) analysis. ==Associated analysis== Some analysis is required in support of the ''design'' of the experiment while other analysis is performed after changes in the factors are formally found to produce statistically significant changes in the responses. Because experimentation is iterative, the results of one experiment alter plans for following experiments. ===Preparatory analysis=== ====The number of experimental units==== In the design of an experiment, the number of experimental units is planned to satisfy the goals of the experiment. Experimentation is often sequential. Early experiments are often designed to provide mean-unbiased estimates of treatment effects and of experimental error. Later experiments are often designed to test a hypothesis that a treatment effect has an important magnitude; in this case, the number of experimental units is chosen so that the experiment is within budget and has adequate power, among other goals. Reporting sample size analysis is generally required in psychology. "Provide information on sample size and the process that led to sample size decisions."<ref>Wilkinson (1999, p 596)</ref> The analysis, which is written in the experimental protocol before the experiment is conducted, is examined in grant applications and administrative review boards. Besides the power analysis, there are less formal methods for selecting the number of experimental units. These include graphical methods based on limiting the probability of false negative errors, graphical methods based on an expected variation increase (above the residuals) and methods based on achieving a desired confident interval.<ref>Montgomery (2001, Section 3-7: Determining sample size)</ref> ====Power analysis==== [[Statistical power|Power analysis]] is often applied in the context of ANOVA in order to assess the probability of successfully rejecting the null hypothesis if we assume a certain ANOVA design, effect size in the population, sample size and significance level. Power analysis can assist in study design by determining what sample size would be required in order to have a reasonable chance of rejecting the null hypothesis when the alternative hypothesis is true.<ref>Howell (2002, Chapter 8: Power)</ref><ref>Howell (2002, Section 11.12: Power (in ANOVA))</ref><ref>Howell (2002, Section 13.7: Power analysis for factorial experiments)</ref><ref>Moore and McCabe (2003, pp 778–780)</ref> ====Effect size==== {{Main|Effect size}} Several standardized measures of effect have been proposed for ANOVA to summarize the strength of the association between a predictor(s) and the dependent variable (e.g., &eta;<sup>2</sup>, &omega;<sup>2</sup>, or &fnof;<sup>2</sup>) or the overall standardized difference (&Psi;) of the complete model. Standardized effect-size estimates facilitate comparison of findings across studies and disciplines. However, while standardized effect sizes are commonly used in much of the professional literature, a non-standardized measure of effect size that has immediately "meaningful" units may be preferable for reporting purposes.<ref name="Wilkinson">Wilkinson (1999, p 599)</ref> ===Follow-up analysis=== It is always appropriate to carefully consider outliers. They have a disproportionate impact on statistical conclusions and are often the result of errors. ====Model confirmation==== It is prudent to verify that the assumptions of ANOVA have been met. Residuals are examined or analyzed to confirm [[homoscedasticity]] and gross normality.<ref>Montgomery (2001, Section 3-4: Model adequacy checking)</ref> Residuals should have the appearance of (zero mean normal distribution) noise when plotted as a function of anything including time and modeled data values. Trends hint at interactions among factors or among observations. One rule of thumb: "If the largest standard deviation is less than twice the smallest standard deviation, we can use methods based on the assumption of equal standard deviations and our results will still be approximately correct."<ref>Moore and McCabe (2003, p 755, Qualifications to this rule appear in a footnote.)</ref> ====Follow-up tests==== A statistically significant effect in ANOVA is often followed up with one or more different follow-up tests. This can be done in order to assess which groups are different from which other groups or to test various other focused hypotheses. Follow-up tests are often distinguished in terms of whether they are planned ([[A priori and a posteriori|a priori]]) or [[Post-hoc analysis|post hoc]]. Planned tests are determined before looking at the data and post hoc tests are performed after looking at the data. Often one of the "treatments" is none, so the treatment group can act as a control. [[Dunnett's test]] (a modification of the t-test) tests whether each of the other treatment groups has the same mean as the control.<ref>Montgomery (2001, Section 3-5.8: Experiments with a single factor: The analysis of variance; Practical interpretation of results; Comparing means with a control)</ref> Post hoc tests such as [[Tukey's range test]] most commonly compare every group mean with every other group mean and typically incorporate some method of controlling for Type I errors. Comparisons, which are most commonly planned, can be either simple or compound. Simple comparisons compare one group mean with one other group mean. Compound comparisons typically compare two sets of groups means where one set has two or more groups (e.g., compare average group means of group A, B and C with group D). Comparisons can also look at tests of trend, such as linear and quadratic relationships, when the independent variable involves ordered levels. Following ANOVA with pair-wise multiple-comparison tests has been criticized on several grounds.<ref name="Wilkinson" /><ref>Hinkelmann and Kempthorne (2008, Volume 1, Section 7.5: Comparison of Treatments; Multiple Comparison Procedures)</ref> There are many such tests (10 in one table) and recommendations regarding their use are vague or conflicting.<ref>Howell (2002, Chapter 12: Multiple comparisons among treatment means)</ref><ref>Montgomery (2001, Section 3-5: Practical interpretation of results)</ref> ==Study designs and ANOVAs== There are several types of ANOVA. Many statisticians base ANOVA on the [[experimental design|design of the experiment]],<ref>Cochran & Cox (1957, p 9, "[T]he general rule [is] that the way in which the experiment is conducted determines not only whether inferences can be made, but also the calculations required to make them.")</ref> especially on the protocol that specifies the [[random assignment]] of treatments to subjects; the protocol's description of the assignment mechanism should include a specification of the structure of the treatments and of any [[blocking (statistics)|blocking]]. It is also common to apply ANOVA to observational data using an appropriate statistical model.{{Citation needed|date=May 2011}} Some popular designs use the following types of ANOVA: *[[One-way ANOVA]] is used to test for differences among two or more [[statistical independence|independent]] groups (means),e.g. different levels of urea application in a crop, or different levels of antibiotic action on several bacterial species,<ref>[http://www.biomedicalstatistics.info/en/multiplegroups/one-way-anova.html One-way/single factor ANOVA. Biomedical Statistics]</ref> or different levels of effect of some medicine on groups of patients. Typically, however, the one-way ANOVA is used to test for differences among at least three groups, since the two-group case can be covered by a [[t-test]].<ref>{{Cite journal | doi = 10.1093/biomet/6.1.1 | title = The Probable Error of a Mean | journal = Biometrika | volume = 6 | pages = 1–0 | year = 1908 | pmid = | pmc = }}</ref> When there are only two means to compare, the [[t-test]] and the ANOVA [[F-test]] are equivalent; the relation between ANOVA and ''t'' is given by ''F''&nbsp;=&nbsp;''t''<sup>2</sup>. *[[Factorial experiment|Factorial]] ANOVA is used when the experimenter wants to study the interaction effects among the treatments. *[[Repeated measures]] ANOVA is used when the same subjects are used for each treatment (e.g., in a [[longitudinal study]]). *[[Multivariate analysis of variance]] (MANOVA) is used when there is more than one [[dependent variable|response variable]]. ==ANOVA cautions== Balanced experiments (those with an equal sample size for each treatment) are relatively easy to interpret; Unbalanced experiments offer more complexity. For single factor (one way) ANOVA, the adjustment for unbalanced data is easy, but the unbalanced analysis lacks both robustness and power.<ref>Montgomery (2001, Section 3-3.4: Unbalanced data)</ref> For more complex designs the lack of balance leads to further complications. "The orthogonality property of main effects and interactions present in balanced data does not carry over to the unbalanced case. This means that the usual analysis of variance techniques do not apply. Consequently, the analysis of unbalanced factorials is much more difficult than that for balanced designs."<ref>Montgomery (2001, Section 14-2: Unbalanced data in factorial design)</ref> In the general case, "The analysis of variance can also be applied to unbalanced data, but then the sums of squares, mean squares, and F-ratios will depend on the order in which the sources of variation are considered."<ref name="Gelman" /> The simplest techniques for handling unbalanced data restore balance by either throwing out data or by synthesizing missing data. More complex techniques use regression. ANOVA is (in part) a significance test. The American Psychological Association holds the view that simply reporting significance is insufficient and that reporting confidence bounds is preferred.<ref name="Wilkinson" /> While ANOVA is conservative (in maintaining a significance level) against [[multiple comparisons]] in one dimension, it is not conservative against comparisons in multiple dimensions.<ref>Wilkinson (1999, p 600)</ref> ==Generalizations== ANOVA is considered to be a special case of [[linear regression]]<ref>Gelman (2005, p.1) (with qualification in the later text)</ref><ref>Montgomery (2001, Section 3.9: The Regression Approach to the Analysis of Variance)</ref> which in turn is a special case of the [[general linear model]].<ref>Howell (2002, p 604)</ref> All consider the observations to be the sum of a model (fit) and a residual (error) to be minimized. The [[Kruskal&ndash;Wallis test]] and the [[Friedman test]] are [[nonparametric]] tests, which do not rely on an assumption of normality.<ref>Howell (2002, Chapter 18: Resampling and nonparametric approaches to data)</ref><ref>Montgomery (2001, Section 3-10: Nonparametric methods in the analysis of variance)</ref> ===Connection to Linear Regression=== Below we make clear the connection between multi-way ANOVA and linear regression. Linearly re-order the data so that <math>k^{th}</math> observation is associated with a response <math>y_k</math> and factors <math>Z_{k,b}</math> where <math>b \in \{1,2,...,B\}</math> denotes the different factors and <math>B</math> is the total number of factors. In one-way ANOVA <math>B=1</math> and in two-way ANOVA <math>B=2</math>. Furthermore, we assume the <math>b^{th}</math> factor has <math>I_b</math> levels. Now, we can [[one-hot]] encode the factors into the <math> \prod_{b=1}^B I_b</math> dimensional vector <math>v_k</math>. The one-hot encoding function <math>g_b : I_b \mapsto \{0,1\}^{I_b}</math> is defined such that the <math>l^{th}</math> entry of <math>g_b(Z_{k,b})</math> is <math display="block"> g_b(Z_{k,b})_l = \begin{cases} 1 & \text{if } i=Z_{k,b} \\ 0 & \text{otherwise} \end{cases} </math> The vector <math>v_k</math> is the concatenation of all of the above vectors for all <math>b</math>. Thus, <math>v_k= [g_1(Z_{k,1}),g_2(Z_{k,2}),...,g_B(Z_{k,B})]</math>. In order to obtain a fully general <math>B</math>-way interaction ANOVA we must also concatenate every additional interaction term in the vector <math>v_k</math> and then add an intercept term. Let that vector be <math>x_k</math>. With this notation in place, we now have the exact connection with linear regression. We simply regress response <math>y_k</math> against the vector <math>X_k</math>. However, there is a concern about identifiability. In order to overcome such issues we assume that the sum of the parameters within each set of interactions is equal to zero. From here, one can use F-statistics or other methods to determine the relevance of the individual factors. ====Example==== We can consider the 2-way interaction example where we assume that the first factor has 2 levels and the second factor has 3 levels. Define <math>a_i = 1</math> if <math>Z_{k,1}=i</math> and <math>b_i = 1</math> if <math>Z_{k,2}=i</math>, i.e. <math>a</math> is the one-hot encoding of the first factor and <math>b</math> is the one-hot encoding of the second factor. With that, <math display="block"> X_k = [a_1,a_2,b_1,b_2,b_3,a_1 \times b_1,a_1 \times b_2, a_1 \times b_3, a_2 \times b_1, a_2 \times b_2, a_2 \times b_3,1] </math> where the last term is an intercept term. For a more concrete example suppose that <math display="block"> \begin{align} Z_{k,1} & = 2 \\ Z_{k,2} & = 1 \end{align} </math> Then, <math display="block"> X_k = [0,1,1,0,0,0,0,0,1,0,0] </math> ==See also== {{Commons category|Analysis of variance}} {{colbegin|3}} *[[AMOVA]] *[[Analysis of covariance]] (ANCOVA) *[[ANORVA]] *[[ANOVA on ranks]] *[[ANOVA-simultaneous component analysis]] *[[Explained variation]] *[[Mixed-design analysis of variance]] *[[Multivariate analysis of variance]] (MANOVA) *[[One-way analysis of variance]] *[[Repeated measures design#Repeated measures ANOVA|Repeated measures ANOVA]] *[[Two-way analysis of variance]] *[[Variance decomposition]] {{colend}} ==Footnotes== {{reflist|group="nb"}} ==Notes== {{reflist|30em}} ==References== * {{cite journal|doi=10.2307/2984159|title=The Validity of Comparative Experiments|authorlink=Francis J. Anscombe|first=F. J.|last=Anscombe|journal=[[Journal of the Royal Statistical Society]]. Series A (General)|volume=111|issue=3|year=1948|pages=181–211|jstor=2984159|mr=30181}} * {{cite book |last=Bailey|first=R. A.|authorlink=Rosemary A. Bailey|title=Design of Comparative Experiments|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2008 |isbn=978-0-521-68357-9|url=http://www.maths.qmul.ac.uk/~rab/DOEbook}} Pre-publication chapters are available on-line. * {{cite book | last = Belle | first = Gerald van | title = Statistical rules of thumb | publisher = Wiley | location = Hoboken, N.J | year = 2008 | edition = 2nd | isbn = 978-0-470-14448-0 }} * {{cite book | last1 = Cochran | first1 = William G. | last2 = Cox | first2 = Gertrude M. | title = Experimental designs | publisher = Wiley | location = New York | year = 1992 | isbn = 978-0-471-54567-5 | edition = 2nd }} * Cohen, Jacob (1988). ''Statistical power analysis for the behavior sciences'' (2nd ed.). Routledge ISBN 978-0-8058-0283-2 * {{Cite journal | doi = 10.1037/0033-2909.112.1.155 | author = Cohen, Jacob | year = 1992 | title = Statistics a power primer | url = | journal = Psychological Bulletin | volume = 112 | issue = 1| pages = 155–159 | pmid=19565683}} *[[David R. Cox|Cox, David R.]] (1958). ''Planning of experiments''. Reprinted as ISBN 978-0-471-57429-3 *{{cite book | last = Cox | first = D. R. | title = Principles of statistical inference | publisher = Cambridge University Press | location = Cambridge New York | year = 2006 | isbn = 978-0-521-68567-2 }} * [[David A. Freedman (statistician)|Freedman, David A.]](2005). ''Statistical Models: Theory and Practice'', Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-67105-7 * {{Cite journal | last1 = Gelman | first1 = Andrew | doi = 10.1214/009053604000001048 | title = Analysis of variance? Why it is more important than ever | journal = The Annals of Statistics | volume = 33 | pages = 1–53 | year = 2005 }} *{{cite book | last = Gelman | first = Andrew | title = The new Palgrave dictionary of economics | publisher = Palgrave Macmillan | location = Basingstoke, Hampshire New York | chapter=Variance, analysis of |edition=2nd | year = 2008 | isbn = 978-0-333-78676-5}} *{{cite book |author=Hinkelmann, Klaus & [[Oscar Kempthorne|Kempthorne, Oscar]]|year=2008|title=Design and Analysis of Experiments|volume=I and II|edition=Second|publisher=Wiley|isbn=978-0-470-38551-7}} * {{cite book | last = Howell | first = David C. | title = Statistical methods for psychology | publisher = Duxbury/Thomson Learning | location = Pacific Grove, CA | year = 2002 | edition = 5th | isbn = 0-534-37770-X}} *{{cite book |author=[[Oscar Kempthorne|Kempthorne, Oscar]] |year=1979 |title=The Design and Analysis of Experiments |edition=Corrected reprint of (1952) Wiley |publisher=Robert E. Krieger |isbn=0-88275-105-0 }} * Lehmann, E.L. (1959) Testing Statistical Hypotheses. John Wiley & Sons. * {{cite book | last = Montgomery | first = Douglas C. | title = Design and Analysis of Experiments | publisher = Wiley | location = New York | year = 2001 | edition = 5th | isbn = 978-0-471-31649-7}} * Moore, David S. & McCabe, George P. (2003). Introduction to the Practice of Statistics (4e). W H Freeman & Co. ISBN 0-7167-9657-0 * Rosenbaum, Paul R. (2002). ''Observational Studies'' (2nd ed.). New York: Springer-Verlag. ISBN 978-0-387-98967-9 * {{cite book |title=The Analysis of Variance |last=Scheffé |first=Henry |location=New York |publisher=Wiley |year=1959}} *{{cite book | last = Stigler | first = Stephen M. | title = The history of statistics : the measurement of uncertainty before 1900 | publisher = Belknap Press of Harvard University Press | location = Cambridge, Mass | year = 1986 | isbn = 0-674-40340-1 }} * {{Cite journal |author = Wilkinson, Leland |title = Statistical Methods in Psychology Journals; Guidelines and Explanations |journal = American Psychologist |volume = 5 |issue = 8 |pages = 594–604 |year = 1999 |doi = 10.1037/0003-066X.54.8.594}} ==Further reading== {{further cleanup|date=November 2014}} * {{cite journal | last = Box | first = G. E. P. | authorlink = George E. P. Box | title = Non-Normality and Tests on Variances | journal = Biometrika | volume = 40 | issue = 3/4 | pages = 318–335 | publisher = Biometrika Trust | year = 1953 | jstor = 2333350 | doi=10.1093/biomet/40.3-4.318 }} * {{Cite journal | last1 = Box | first1 = G. E. P. |authorlink=George E. P. Box | title = Some Theorems on Quadratic Forms Applied in the Study of Analysis of Variance Problems, I. Effect of Inequality of Variance in the One-Way Classification | doi = 10.1214/aoms/1177728786 | journal = The Annals of Mathematical Statistics | volume = 25 | issue = 2 | pages = 290 | year = 1954 | pmid = | pmc = }} * {{Cite journal | last1 = Box | first1 = G. E. P. | title = Some Theorems on Quadratic Forms Applied in the Study of Analysis of Variance Problems, II. Effects of Inequality of Variance and of Correlation Between Errors in the Two-Way Classification | doi = 10.1214/aoms/1177728717 | journal = The Annals of Mathematical Statistics | volume = 25 | issue = 3 | pages = 484 | year = 1954 | pmid = | pmc = }} * {{cite book |author=Caliński, Tadeusz & Kageyama, Sanpei|title=Block designs: A Randomization approach, Volume '''I''': Analysis|series=Lecture Notes in Statistics|volume=150|publisher=Springer-Verlag|location=New York|year=2000|isbn=0-387-98578-6 }} * {{cite book|title=Plane Answers to Complex Questions: The Theory of Linear Models|last=Christensen|first=Ronald|location=New York|publisher=Springer|year=2002| edition=Third|isbn=0-387-95361-2}} *[[David R. Cox|Cox, David R.]] & [[Nancy M. Reid|Reid, Nancy M.]] (2000). ''The theory of design of experiments''. (Chapman & Hall/CRC). ISBN 978-1-58488-195-7 * {{Cite journal | doi = 10.1017/S0021859600003750| author = Fisher, Ronald | year = 1918 | title = Studies in Crop Variation. I. An examination of the yield of dressed grain from Broadbalk | url = http://www.library.adelaide.edu.au/digitised/fisher/15.pdf | journal = Journal of Agricultural Science| volume = 11 | issue = | pages = 107–135}} * [[David A. Freedman (statistician)|Freedman, David A.]]; Pisani, Robert; Purves, Roger (2007) ''Statistics'', 4th edition. W.W. Norton & Company ISBN 978-0-393-92972-0 * {{cite book|last1=Hettmansperger|first1=T. P.|last2=McKean|first2=J. W.|title=Robust nonparametric statistical methods| edition=First|series=Kendall's Library of Statistics|volume=Volume 5|editor=Edward Arnold|location=New York|publisher=John Wiley & Sons, Inc.|year=1998|pages=xiv+467 pp.|isbn=0-340-54937-8 |mr=1604954 }} * {{cite book |first=Marvin |last=Lentner |author2=Thomas Bishop |title=Experimental design and analysis |edition=Second |publisher=Valley Book Company |location=P.O. Box 884, Blacksburg, VA 24063 |year=1993 |isbn=0-9616255-2-X }} * Tabachnick, Barbara G. & Fidell, Linda S. (2007). ''Using Multivariate Statistics'' (5th ed.). Boston: Pearson International Edition. ISBN 978-0-205-45938-4 * {{cite book|last=Wichura|first=Michael J.|title=The coordinate-free approach to linear models|series=Cambridge Series in Statistical and Probabilistic Mathematics|publisher=Cambridge University Press|location=Cambridge|year=2006|pages=xiv+199|isbn=978-0-521-86842-6|mr=2283455|ref=harv}} * {{ cite book | last = Phadke | first = Madhav S. | title = Quality Engineering using Robust Design | publisher = Prentice Hall PTR | location = New Jersey | year = 1989 | isbn = 0-13-745167-9 }} ==External links== {{wikiversity}} * [[SOCR]] [http://wiki.stat.ucla.edu/socr/index.php/AP_Statistics_Curriculum_2007_ANOVA_1Way ANOVA Activity] and [http://www.socr.ucla.edu/htmls/ana/ANOVA1Way_Analysis.html interactive applet]. * [http://www.southampton.ac.uk/~cpd/anovas/datasets/index.htm Examples of all ANOVA and ANCOVA models with up to three treatment factors, including randomized block, split plot, repeated measures, and Latin squares, and their analysis in R] * NIST/SEMATECH e-Handbook of Statistical Methods, [http://www.itl.nist.gov/div898/handbook/prc/section4/prc43.htm section 7.4.3: "Are the means equal?"] *[http://www.biostat.katerynakon.in.ua/en/multiplegroups/anova.html Analysis of variance: Introduction] {{Statistics|correlation|state=collapsed}} {{Experimental design|state=collapsed}} {{Portal bar|Statistics}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Analysis Of Variance}} [[Category:Analysis of variance| ]] [[Category:Design of experiments]] [[Category:Statistical tests]] [[Category:Parametric statistics]] h6e70rqf8lwq7jmjsmqwcrhtktqyjnu 0 635 593483477 160876326 2014-02-01T20:57:43Z Ranze 17009072 wikitext text/x-wiki #REDIRECT [[Analysis of variance]] {{R from acronym}} 1zhm51isd5kb5f4p2g6rcb39qmizus4 0 639 717941380 716284462 2016-04-30T16:32:40Z Yobot 7328338 /* Structure classification */BLP related template + other fixes using [[Project:AWB|AWB]] (12006) wikitext text/x-wiki {{Distinguish|Alkene|Alkyne|Alkaline}} {{refimprove|date=July 2014}} [[Image:Methane-2D-stereo.svg|right|thumb|Chemical structure of [[methane]], the simplest alkane]] In [[organic chemistry]], an '''alkane''', or '''paraffin''' (a historical name that also has [[paraffin (disambiguation)|other meanings]]), is a [[saturation (chemistry)|saturated]] [[hydrocarbon]]. Alkanes consist only of [[hydrogen]] and [[carbon]] atoms and all bonds are [[single bond]]s.<ref name="merriam-webster">{{cite web|url=http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/alkane|title=Alkane - Definition and More from the Free Merriam-Webster Dictionary|publisher=merriam-webster.com|accessdate=3 October 2014}}</ref> Alkanes (technically, always [[Open-chain compound|acyclic]] or open-chain compounds) have the general chemical formula {{Carbon}}<sub>''n''</sub>{{Hydrogen}}<sub>2''n''+2</sub>. For example, methane is CH<sub>4</sub>, in which ''n''&nbsp;=&nbsp;1 (''n'' being the number of carbon atoms). Alkanes belong to a [[homologous series]] of organic compounds in which the members differ by a [[molecular mass]] of 14.03&nbsp;u (mass of a [[methylene bridge|methylene group]], —CH<sub>2</sub>—, one carbon atom of mass 12.01&nbsp;u, and two hydrogen atoms of mass ~1.01&nbsp;u each). There are two main commercial sources: [[petroleum]] (crude oil)<ref name="google">{{cite book|title=Hydrocarbons (Alkanes, Alkenes And Alkynes)|author=Arora, A.|date=2006|publisher=Discovery Publishing House Pvt. Limited|isbn=9788183561426|url=http://books.google.com.pk/books?id=_4vfMv7aP3EC}}</ref> and natural gas. Each carbon atom has 4 bonds (either [[C-H bond|C–H]] or [[C-C bond|C–C bond]]s), and each hydrogen atom is joined to a carbon atom (H–C bonds). A series of linked carbon atoms is known as the [[skeletal formula|carbon skeleton]] or carbon backbone. The number of carbon atoms is used to define the size of the alkane e.g., C<sub>2</sub> alkane. An '''[[alkyl]] group''', generally abbreviated with the symbol R, is a [[functional group]] or side-chain that, like an alkane, consists solely of single-bonded carbon and hydrogen atoms, for example a [[methyl]] or [[ethyl group]]. The simplest possible alkane (the parent molecule) is [[methane]], CH<sub>4</sub>. There is no limit to the number of carbon atoms that can be linked together, the only limitation being that the molecule is acyclic, is [[Saturation (chemistry)|saturated]], and is a [[hydrocarbon]]. [[Waxes]] include examples of larger alkanes where the number of carbons in the carbon backbone is greater than about 17, above which the compounds are solids at '''standard [[ambient temperature]] and pressure''' ('''SATP'''). Alkanes are not very reactive and have little [[biological activity]]. Alkanes can be viewed as a molecular tree upon which can be hung the more active/reactive [[functional groups]] of biological molecules. ==Structure classification== Saturated hydrocarbons are [[hydrocarbon]]s having only single covalent bonds between their carbons. They can be: * linear (general formula {{chem|C|''n''|H|2''n''+2}}) wherein the carbon atoms are joined in a snake-like structure * branched (general formula {{chem|C|''n''|H|2''n''+2}}, ''n''&nbsp;>&nbsp;3) wherein the carbon backbone splits off in one or more directions * [[Cyclic compound|cyclic]] (general formula {{chem|C|''n''|H|2''n''}}, ''n''&nbsp;>&nbsp;2) wherein the carbon backbone is linked so as to form a loop. According to the definition by [[International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry|IUPAC]], the former two are alkanes, whereas the third group is called [[cycloalkane]]s.<ref>{{GoldBookRef | title=alkanes | file = A00222 | date = 1995}}</ref> Saturated hydrocarbons can also combine any of the linear, cyclic (e.g., polycyclic) and branching structures; the general formula is {{chem|C|''n''|H|2''n''−2''k''+2}}, where ''k'' is the number of independent loops. Alkanes are the [[Open chain compound|acyclic]] (loopless) ones, corresponding to ''k''&nbsp;=&nbsp;0. ==Isomerism== [[Image:Saturated C4 hydrocarbons ball-and-stick.png|thumb|right| Different C<sub>4</sub> alkanes and cycloalkanes (left to right): [[n-butane|''n''-butane]] and [[isobutane]] are the two C<sub>4</sub>H<sub>10</sub> isomers; [[cyclobutane]] and [[methylcyclopropane]] are the two C<sub>4</sub>H<sub>8</sub> isomers.<br /> Bicyclo[1.1.0]butane is the only C<sub>4</sub>H<sub>6</sub> compound and has no isomer; [[tetrahedrane]] (below) is the only C<sub>4</sub>H<sub>4</sub> compound and also has no isomer.]] [[File:Tetrahedrane-3D-balls.png|thumb|right|100px|[[Tetrahedrane]] ]] Alkanes with more than three [[carbon]] atoms can be arranged in various different ways, forming [[structural isomer]]s. The simplest isomer of an alkane is the one in which the carbon atoms are arranged in a single chain with no branches. This isomer is sometimes called the ''n''-isomer (''n'' for "normal", although it is not necessarily the most common). However the chain of carbon atoms may also be branched at one or more points. The number of possible isomers increases rapidly with the number of carbon atoms. For example:<ref name= OEIS >[[On-Line Encyclopedia of Integer Sequences]] {{OEIS|id=A000602}}</ref> * C<sub>1</sub>: [[methane]] only * C<sub>2</sub>: [[ethane]] only * C<sub>3</sub>: [[propane]] only * C<sub>4</sub>: 2 isomers: [[n-butane|''n''-butane]] and [[isobutane]] * C<sub>5</sub>: 3 isomers: [[pentane]], [[isopentane]], and [[neopentane]] * C<sub>6</sub>: 5 isomers: [[hexane]], [[2-Methylpentane|2-methylpentane]], [[3-Methylpentane|3-methylpentane]], [[2,2-Dimethylbutane|2,2-dimethylbutane]], and [[2,3-Dimethylbutane|2,3-dimethylbutane]] * C<sub>12</sub>: 355 isomers * C<sub>32</sub>: 27,711,253,769 isomers * C<sub>60</sub>: 22,158,734,535,770,411,074,184 isomers, many of which are not stable. Branched alkanes can be [[chirality (chemistry)|chiral]]. For example, [[3-methylhexane]] and its higher [[Homology (chemistry)|homologues]] are chiral due to their [[stereogenic center]] at carbon atom number 3. In addition to the alkane isomers, the chain of carbon atoms may form one or more loops. Such compounds are called [[cycloalkane]]s. ==Nomenclature== {{Main|IUPAC nomenclature of organic chemistry}} The [[IUPAC nomenclature of organic chemistry#Alkanes|IUPAC nomenclature]] (systematic way of naming compounds) for alkanes is based on identifying hydrocarbon chains. Unbranched, saturated hydrocarbon chains are named systematically with a Greek numerical prefix denoting the number of carbons and the suffix "-ane".<ref>{{cite book | url = http://www.acdlabs.com/iupac/nomenclature/93/r93_184.htm | accessdate = 12 February 2007 | chapter = R-2.2.1: Hydrocarbons | author = IUPAC, Commission on Nomenclature of Organic Chemistry | title = A Guide to IUPAC Nomenclature of Organic Compounds (Recommendations 1993) | year = 1993 | publisher = Blackwell Scientific | isbn = 0-632-03488-2}}</ref> In 1866, [[August Wilhelm von Hofmann]] suggested systematizing nomenclature by using the whole sequence of vowels a, e, i, o and u to create suffixes -ane, -ene, -ine (or -yne), -one, -une, for the [[hydrocarbons]] C<sub>n</sub>H<sub>2''n''+2</sub>, C<sub>n</sub>H<sub>2''n''</sub>, C<sub>n</sub>H<sub>2''n''−2</sub>, C<sub>n</sub>H<sub>2''n''−4</sub>, C<sub>n</sub>H<sub>2''n''−6</sub>.<ref>[http://www.chem.yale.edu/~chem125/125/history99/5Valence/Nomenclature/alkanenames.html Alkane Nomenclature<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> Now, the first three name hydrocarbons with single, double and triple bonds;<ref>Thus, the ending "-diene" is applied in some cases where von Hofmann had "-ine"</ref> "-one" represents a [[ketone]]; "-ol" represents an alcohol or OH group; "-oxy-" means an [[ether]] and refers to oxygen between two carbons, so that methoxymethane is the IUPAC name for [[dimethyl ether]]. It is difficult or impossible to find compounds with more than one [[International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry|IUPAC]] name. This is because shorter chains attached to longer chains are prefixes and the convention includes brackets. Numbers in the name, referring to which carbon a group is attached to, should be as low as possible, so that 1- is implied and usually omitted from names of organic compounds with only one side-group. Symmetric compounds will have two ways of arriving at the same name. ===Linear alkanes=== <!-- redirected from [[linear paraffins]] --> Straight-chain alkanes are sometimes indicated by the prefix "''n''-" (for ''normal'') where a non-linear [[isomer]] exists. Although this is not strictly necessary, the usage is still common in cases where there is an important difference in properties between the straight-chain and branched-chain isomers, e.g., [[hexane|''n''-hexane]] or 2- or 3-methylpentane. Alternative names for this group are: '''linear paraffins''' or '''''n''-paraffins'''. The members of the series (in terms of number of carbon atoms) are named as follows: :[[methane]], CH<sub>4</sub> – one carbon and four hydrogen :[[ethane]], C<sub>2</sub>H<sub>6</sub> – two carbon and six hydrogen :[[propane]], C<sub>3</sub>H<sub>8</sub> – three carbon and 8 hydrogen :[[butane]], C<sub>4</sub>H<sub>10</sub> – four carbon and 10 hydrogen :[[pentane]], C<sub>5</sub>H<sub>12</sub> – five carbon and 12 hydrogen :[[hexane]], C<sub>6</sub>H<sub>14</sub> – six carbon and 14 hydrogen The first four names were [[back-formation|derived]] from [[methanol]], [[diethyl ether|ether]], [[propionic acid]] and [[butyric acid]], respectively. Alkanes with five or more carbon atoms are named by adding the [[Affix|suffix]] '''-ane''' to the appropriate [[IUPAC numerical multiplier|numerical multiplier]] prefix<ref name = reusch-nom>{{cite web | author = William Reusch | work = Virtual Textbook of Organic Chemistry | title = Nomenclature – Alkanes | url = http://www.cem.msu.edu/~reusch/VirtualText/nomen1.htm}}</ref> with elision of any terminal vowel (''-a'' or ''-o'') from the basic numerical term. Hence, [[pentane]], C<sub>5</sub>H<sub>12</sub>; [[hexane]], C<sub>6</sub>H<sub>14</sub>; [[heptane]], C<sub>7</sub>H<sub>16</sub>; [[octane]], C<sub>8</sub>H<sub>18</sub>; etc. The prefix is generally Greek, however alkanes with a carbon atom count ending in nine, for example [[nonane]], use the [[Latin language|Latin]] prefix '''non-'''. For a more complete list, see [[List of alkanes]]. ===Branched alkanes=== [[Image:Isopentane-numbered-3D-balls.png|thumb|right|[[Ball-and-stick model]] of [[isopentane]] (common name) or 2-methylbutane (IUPAC systematic name)]] Simple branched alkanes often have a common name using a prefix to distinguish them from linear alkanes, for example [[pentane|''n''-pentane]], [[isopentane]], and [[neopentane]]. IUPAC naming conventions can be used to produce a systematic name. The key steps in the naming of more complicated branched alkanes are as follows:<ref>{{cite web | author = William Reusch | work = Virtual Textbook of Organic Chemistry | title = Examples of the IUPAC Rules in Practice | url = http://www.cem.msu.edu/~reusch/VirtualText/nomexmp1.htm}}</ref> * Identify the longest continuous chain of carbon atoms * Name this longest root chain using standard naming rules * Name each side chain by changing the suffix of the name of the alkane from "-ane" to "-yl" * Number the root chain so that the sum of the numbers assigned to each side group will be as low as possible * Number and name the side chains before the name of the root chain * If there are multiple side chains of the same type, use prefixes such as "di-" and "tri-" to indicate it as such, and number each one. * Add side chain names in alphabetical (disregarding "di-" etc. prefixes) order in front of the name of the root chain {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center" |+ Comparison of nomenclatures for three isomers of C<sub>5</sub>H<sub>12</sub> |- ! Common name ! ''n''-pentane || isopentane || neopentane |- ! IUPAC name ! pentane || 2-methylbutane || 2,2-dimethylpropane |- ! Structure | [[Image:Pentane-2D-Skeletal.svg|120px]] || [[Image:Isopentane-2D-skeletal.png|90px]] || [[Image:Neopentane-2D-skeletal.png|70px]] |} ===Cyclic alkanes=== {{Main|Cycloalkane}} So-called cyclic alkanes are, in the technical sense, not a subset of alkanes, but are cycloalkanes instead. They are hydrocarbons just like alkanes, but contain one or more rings. Simple cycloalkanes have a prefix "cyclo-" to distinguish them from alkanes. Cycloalkanes are named as per their acyclic counterparts with respect to the number of carbon atoms, e.g., [[cyclopentane]] (C<sub>5</sub>H<sub>10</sub>) is a cycloalkane with 5 carbon atoms just like [[pentane]] (C<sub>5</sub>H<sub>12</sub>), but they are joined up in a five-membered ring. In a similar manner, [[propane]] and [[cyclopropane]], [[butane]] and [[cyclobutane]], etc. Substituted cycloalkanes are named similarly to substituted alkanes — the cycloalkane ring is stated, and the substituents are according to their position on the ring, with the numbering decided by the [[Cahn–Ingold–Prelog priority rules]].<ref name=reusch-nom/> ===Trivial/common names=== The trivial (non-[[IUPAC nomenclature|systematic]]) name for alkanes is ''paraffins''. Together, alkanes are known as the ''paraffin series''. Trivial names for compounds are usually historical artifacts. They were coined before the development of systematic names, and have been retained due to familiar usage in industry. Cycloalkanes are also called naphthenes. It is almost certain that the term ''paraffin'' stems from the petrochemical industry. Branched-chain alkanes are called ''isoparaffins''. The use of the term "paraffin" is a general term and often does not distinguish between pure compounds and mixtures of [[isomers]], i.e., compounds with the same [[chemical formula]], e.g., [[pentane]] and [[isopentane]]. ;Examples The following trivial names are retained in the IUPAC system: * [[isobutane]] for 2-methylpropane * [[isopentane]] for 2-methylbutane * [[neopentane]] for 2,2-dimethylpropane. ==Physical properties== All alkanes are colourless and odourless.<ref>[http://nsdl.niscair.res.in/bitstream/123456789/777/1/Revised+organic+chemistry.pdf]</ref><ref name="s-anand">{{cite web|url=http://textbook.s-anand.net/ncert/class-11/chemistry/13-hydrocarbons|title=13. Hydrocarbons &#124; Textbooks|publisher=textbook.s-anand.net|accessdate=3 October 2014}}</ref> ===Table of alkanes=== {| class="wikitable" |- |'''Alkane''' |'''Formula''' |'''Boiling point [°C]''' |'''Melting point [°C]''' |'''Density [g·cm<sup>−3</sup>] (at 20&nbsp;°C''') |- |[[Methane]] |CH<sub>4</sub> | −162 | −182 | gas |- |[[Ethane]] |C<sub>2</sub>H<sub>6</sub> | −89 | −183 | gas |- |[[Propane]] |C<sub>3</sub>H<sub>8</sub> | −42 | −188 | gas |- |[[Butane]] |C<sub>4</sub>H<sub>10</sub> | 0 | −138 | gas |- |[[Pentane]] |C<sub>5</sub>H<sub>12</sub> | 36 | −130 | 0.626 (liquid) |- |[[Hexane]] |C<sub>6</sub>H<sub>14</sub> | 69 | −95 | 0.659 (liquid) |- |[[Heptane]] |C<sub>7</sub>H<sub>16</sub> | 98 | −91 | 0.684 (liquid) |- |[[Octane]] |C<sub>8</sub>H<sub>18</sub> | 126 | −57 | 0.703 (liquid) |- |[[Nonane]] |C<sub>9</sub>H<sub>20</sub> | 151 | −54 | 0.718 (liquid) |- |[[Decane]] |C<sub>10</sub>H<sub>22</sub> | 174 | −30 | 0.730 (liquid) |- |[[Undecane]] |C<sub>11</sub>H<sub>24</sub> | 196 | −26 | 0.740 (liquid) |- |[[Dodecane]] |C<sub>12</sub>H<sub>26</sub> | 216 | −10 | 0.749 (liquid) |- |[[Hexadecane]] |C<sub>16</sub>H<sub>34</sub> | 287 | 18 | 0.773 (liquid) |- |[[Icosane]] |C<sub>20</sub>H<sub>42</sub> | 343 | 37 | solid |- |[[Triacontane]] |C<sub>30</sub>H<sub>62</sub> | 450 | 66 | solid |- |[[Tetracontane]] |C<sub>40</sub>H<sub>82</sub> | 525 | 82 | solid |- |[[Pentacontane]] |C<sub>50</sub>H<sub>102</sub> | 575 | 91 | solid |- |[[Hexacontane]] |C<sub>60</sub>H<sub>122</sub> | 625 | 100 | solid |} ===Boiling point=== [[Image:AlkaneBoilingMeltingPoint.png|right|thumb|400px|Melting (blue) and boiling (orange) points of the first 16 ''n''-alkanes in °C.]] Alkanes experience intermolecular [[van der Waals force]]s. Stronger intermolecular van der Waals forces give rise to greater boiling points of alkanes.<ref name=m&b>{{cite book|title = Organic Chemistry | author = R. T. Morrison, R. N. Boyd | isbn = 0-13-643669-2 | publisher = Prentice Hall | location = New Jersey | edition = 6th|year = 1992}}</ref> There are two determinants for the strength of the van der Waals forces: * the number of electrons surrounding the [[molecule]], which increases with the alkane's molecular weight * the surface area of the molecule Under [[standard conditions]], from CH<sub>4</sub> to C<sub>4</sub>H<sub>10</sub> alkanes are gaseous; from C<sub>5</sub>H<sub>12</sub> to C<sub>17</sub>H<sub>36</sub> they are liquids; and after C<sub>18</sub>H<sub>38</sub> they are solids. As the boiling point of alkanes is primarily determined by weight, it should not be a surprise that the boiling point has almost a linear relationship with the size ([[molecular weight]]) of the molecule. As a rule of thumb, the boiling point rises 20–30&nbsp;°C for each carbon added to the chain; this rule applies to other homologous series.<ref name = m&b/> A straight-chain alkane will have a boiling point higher than a branched-chain alkane due to the greater surface area in contact, thus the greater van der Waals forces, between adjacent molecules. For example, compare [[isobutane]] (2-methylpropane) and [[n-butane]] (butane), which boil at −12 and 0&nbsp;°C, and 2,2-dimethylbutane and 2,3-dimethylbutane which boil at 50 and 58&nbsp;°C, respectively.<ref name = m&b/> For the latter case, two molecules 2,3-dimethylbutane can "lock" into each other better than the cross-shaped 2,2-dimethylbutane, hence the greater van der Waals forces. On the other hand, cycloalkanes tend to have higher boiling points than their linear counterparts due to the locked conformations of the molecules, which give a plane of intermolecular contact.{{Citation needed|date=April 2007}} ===Melting points=== The [[melting point]]s of the alkanes follow a similar trend to [[boiling points]] for the same reason as outlined above. That is, (all other things being equal) the larger the molecule the higher the melting point. There is one significant difference between boiling points and melting points. Solids have more rigid and fixed structure than liquids. This rigid structure requires energy to break down. Thus the better put together solid structures will require more energy to break apart. For alkanes, this can be seen from the graph above (i.e., the blue line). The odd-numbered alkanes have a lower trend in melting points than even numbered alkanes. This is because even numbered alkanes pack well in the solid phase, forming a well-organized structure, which requires more energy to break apart. The odd-numbered alkanes pack less well and so the "looser" organized solid packing structure requires less energy to break apart.<ref>{{cite journal | author=Boese R, Weiss HC, Blaser D | title= The melting point alternation in the short-chain ''n''-alkanes: Single-crystal X-ray analyses of propane at 30&nbsp;K and of ''n''-butane to ''n''-nonane at 90&nbsp;K | journal= Angew Chem Int Ed | year=1999 | volume=38 | pages=988–992 |doi=10.1002/(SICI)1521-3773(19990401)38:7<988::AID-ANIE988>3.3.CO;2-S}}</ref> The melting points of branched-chain alkanes can be either higher or lower than those of the corresponding straight-chain alkanes, again depending on the ability of the alkane in question to pack well in the solid phase: This is particularly true for isoalkanes (2-methyl isomers), which often have melting points higher than those of the linear analogues. ===Conductivity and solubility=== Alkanes do not conduct electricity, nor are they substantially [[Relative static permittivity|polarized]] by an [[electric field]]. For this reason they do not form [[hydrogen bond]]s and are insoluble in polar solvents such as water. Since the hydrogen bonds between individual water molecules are aligned away from an alkane molecule, the coexistence of an alkane and water leads to an increase in molecular order (a reduction in [[entropy]]). As there is no significant bonding between water molecules and alkane molecules, the [[second law of thermodynamics]] suggests that this reduction in entropy should be minimized by minimizing the contact between alkane and water: Alkanes are said to be [[hydrophobic]] in that they repel water. Their solubility in nonpolar solvents is relatively good, a property that is called [[lipophilicity]]. Different alkanes are, for example, miscible in all proportions among themselves. The density of the alkanes usually increases with the number of carbon atoms, but remains less than that of water. Hence, alkanes form the upper layer in an alkane–water mixture. ===Molecular geometry===<!-- This section is linked from [[Nylon]] --> [[Image:Ch4 hybridization.svg|thumb|right|sp<sup>3</sup>-hybridization in [[methane]].]] The molecular structure of the alkanes directly affects their physical and chemical characteristics. It is derived from the [[electron configuration]] of [[carbon]], which has four [[valence electron]]s. The carbon atoms in alkanes are always [[Orbital hybridization|sp<sup>3</sup> hybridized]], that is to say that the valence electrons are said to be in four equivalent orbitals derived from the combination of the 2s orbital and the three 2p orbitals. These orbitals, which have identical energies, are arranged spatially in the form of a [[tetrahedron]], the angle of cos<sup>−1</sup>(−{{frac|3}})&nbsp;≈&nbsp;109.47° between them. ===Bond lengths and bond angles=== An alkane molecule has only C–H and C–C single bonds. The former result from the overlap of an sp<sup>3</sup> orbital of carbon with the 1s orbital of a hydrogen; the latter by the overlap of two sp<sup>3</sup> orbitals on different carbon atoms. The [[bond length]]s amount to 1.09&nbsp;×&nbsp;10<sup>−10</sup>&nbsp;m for a C–H bond and 1.54&nbsp;×&nbsp;10<sup>−10</sup>&nbsp;m for a C–C bond. [[Image:Ch4-structure.png|thumb|right|The tetrahedral structure of methane.]] The spatial arrangement of the bonds is similar to that of the four sp<sup>3</sup> orbitals—they are tetrahedrally arranged, with an angle of 109.47° between them. Structural formulae that represent the bonds as being at right angles to one another, while both common and useful, do not correspond with the reality. ===Conformation=== {{Main|Alkane stereochemistry}} The structural formula and the [[bond angle]]s are not usually sufficient to completely describe the geometry of a molecule. There is a further [[degrees of freedom (physics and chemistry)|degree of freedom]] for each carbon–carbon bond: the [[torsion angle]] between the atoms or groups bound to the atoms at each end of the bond. The spatial arrangement described by the torsion angles of the molecule is known as its [[conformational isomerism|conformation]]. [[Image:Newman projection ethane.png|thumb|right|200px|Newman projections of the two conformations of ethane: eclipsed on the left, staggered on the right.]] [[Image:Ethane-rotamers-3D-balls.png|thumb|right|200px|[[Ball-and-stick model]]s of the two rotamers of ethane]] [[Ethane]] forms the simplest case for studying the conformation of alkanes, as there is only one C–C bond. If one looks down the axis of the C–C bond, one will see the so-called [[Newman projection]]. The hydrogen atoms on both the front and rear carbon atoms have an angle of 120° between them, resulting from the projection of the base of the tetrahedron onto a flat plane. However, the torsion angle between a given hydrogen atom attached to the front carbon and a given hydrogen atom attached to the rear carbon can vary freely between 0° and 360°. This is a consequence of the free rotation about a carbon–carbon single bond. Despite this apparent freedom, only two limiting conformations are important: [[eclipsed]] conformation and [[staggered conformation]]. The two conformations, also known as [[rotamer]]s, differ in energy: The staggered conformation is 12.6&nbsp;kJ/mol lower in energy (more stable) than the eclipsed conformation (the least stable). This difference in energy between the two conformations, known as the [[torsion energy]], is low compared to the thermal energy of an ethane molecule at ambient temperature. There is constant rotation about the C–C bond. The time taken for an ethane molecule to pass from one staggered conformation to the next, equivalent to the rotation of one CH<sub>3</sub> group by 120° relative to the other, is of the order of 10<sup>−11</sup>&nbsp;seconds. The case of [[higher alkanes]] is more complex but based on similar principles, with the antiperiplanar conformation always being the most favored around each carbon–carbon bond. For this reason, alkanes are usually shown in a zigzag arrangement in diagrams or in models. The actual structure will always differ somewhat from these idealized forms, as the differences in energy between the conformations are small compared to the thermal energy of the molecules: Alkane molecules have no fixed structural form, whatever the models may suggest. ===Spectroscopic properties=== Virtually all organic compounds contain carbon–carbon and carbon–hydrogen bonds, and so show some of the features of alkanes in their spectra. Alkanes are notable for having no other groups, and therefore for the ''absence'' of other characteristic spectroscopic features of different functional group like [[Alcohol (chemistry)|–OH]], [[Aldehyde|–CHO]], [[Carboxylic acid|–COOH]] etc. ====Infrared spectroscopy==== The carbon–hydrogen stretching mode gives a strong absorption between 2850 and 2960&nbsp;[[Wavenumber|cm<sup>−1</sup>]], while the carbon–carbon stretching mode absorbs between 800 and 1300&nbsp;cm<sup>−1</sup>. The carbon–hydrogen bending modes depend on the nature of the group: methyl groups show bands at 1450&nbsp;cm<sup>−1</sup> and 1375&nbsp;cm<sup>−1</sup>, while methylene groups show bands at 1465&nbsp;cm<sup>−1</sup> and 1450&nbsp;cm<sup>−1</sup>. Carbon chains with more than four carbon atoms show a weak absorption at around 725&nbsp;cm<sup>−1</sup>. ====NMR spectroscopy==== The proton resonances of alkanes are usually found at [[chemical shift|''δ''<sub>H</sub>]] = 0.5–1.5. The carbon-13 resonances depend on the number of hydrogen atoms attached to the carbon: ''δ''<sub>C</sub> = 8–30 (primary, methyl, –CH<sub>3</sub>), 15–55 (secondary, methylene, –CH<sub>2</sub>–), 20–60 (tertiary, methyne, C–H) and quaternary. The carbon-13 resonance of quaternary carbon atoms is characteristically weak, due to the lack of [[nuclear Overhauser effect]] and the long [[relaxation time]], and can be missed in weak samples, or samples that have not been run for a sufficiently long time. ====Mass spectrometry==== Alkanes have a high [[ionization energy]], and the molecular ion is usually weak. The fragmentation pattern can be difficult to interpret, but, in the case of branched chain alkanes, the carbon chain is preferentially cleaved at tertiary or quaternary carbons due to the relative stability of the resulting [[free radical]]s. The fragment resulting from the loss of a single methyl group (''M''&nbsp;−&nbsp;15) is often absent, and other fragment are often spaced by intervals of fourteen mass units, corresponding to sequential loss of CH<sub>2</sub> groups. ==Chemical properties== Alkanes are only weakly reactive with ionic and other polar substances. The [[acid dissociation constant]] (pK<sub>a</sub>) values of all alkanes are above 60, hence they are practically inert to acids and bases (see: [[carbon acid]]s). This inertness is the source of the term ''paraffins'' (with the meaning here of "lacking affinity"). In [[crude oil]] the alkane molecules have remained chemically unchanged for millions of years. However redox reactions of alkanes, in particular with oxygen and the halogens, are possible as the carbon atoms are in a strongly reduced condition; in the case of methane, the lowest possible oxidation state for carbon (−4) is reached. Reaction with oxygen (''if'' present in sufficient quantity to satisfy the reaction [[stoichiometry]]) leads to combustion without any smoke, producing [[carbon dioxide]] and water. [[Free radical halogenation]] reactions occur with halogens, leading to the production of [[haloalkanes]]. In addition, alkanes have been shown to interact with, and bind to, certain transition metal complexes in [[carbon-hydrogen bond activation|C–H bond activation]]. [[Free radical]]s, molecules with unpaired electrons, play a large role in most reactions of alkanes, such as cracking and reformation where long-chain alkanes are converted into shorter-chain alkanes and straight-chain alkanes into branched-chain isomers. In highly branched alkanes, the bond angle may differ significantly from the optimal value (109.5°) in order to allow the different groups sufficient space. This causes a tension in the molecule, known as [[steric hindrance]], and can substantially increase the reactivity. ===Reactions with oxygen (combustion reaction)=== All alkanes react with [[oxygen]] in a [[combustion]] reaction, although they become increasingly difficult to ignite as the number of carbon atoms increases. The general equation for complete combustion is: :C<sub>''n''</sub>H<sub>2''n''+2</sub> + ({{frac|3|2}}''n''&nbsp;+&nbsp;{{frac|2}})&nbsp;O<sub>2</sub> → (''n''&nbsp;+&nbsp;1)&nbsp;H<sub>2</sub>O + ''n''&nbsp;CO<sub>2</sub> :or C<sub>''n''</sub>H<sub>2''n''+2</sub> + ({{sfrac|3''n'' + 1|2}})&nbsp;O<sub>2</sub> → (''n''&nbsp;+&nbsp;1)&nbsp;H<sub>2</sub>O + ''n''&nbsp;CO<sub>2</sub> In the absence of sufficient oxygen, [[carbon monoxide]] or even [[soot]] can be formed, as shown below: :C<sub>''n''</sub>H<sub>2''n''+2</sub> + (''n''&nbsp;+&nbsp;{{frac|2}})&nbsp;[[oxygen|O<sub>2</sub>]] → (''n''&nbsp;+&nbsp;1)&nbsp;H<sub>2</sub>O + ''n''&nbsp;[[carbon monoxide|CO]] :C<sub>''n''</sub>H<sub>2''n''+2</sub> + ({{frac|2}}''n''&nbsp;+&nbsp;{{frac|2}})&nbsp;[[oxygen|O<sub>2</sub>]] → (''n''&nbsp;+&nbsp;1)&nbsp;H<sub>2</sub>O + ''n''&nbsp;[[carbon|C]] For example, [[methane]]: :2&nbsp;CH<sub>4</sub> + 3&nbsp;O<sub>2</sub> → 2&nbsp;CO + 4&nbsp;H<sub>2</sub>O :CH<sub>4</sub> + {{frac|3|2}}&nbsp;O<sub>2</sub> → CO + 2&nbsp;H<sub>2</sub>O See the [[Standard enthalpy change of formation (data table)#Alkanes|alkane heat of formation table]] for detailed data. The [[standard enthalpy change of combustion]], Δ<sub>c</sub>''H''<sup><s>o</s></sup>, for alkanes increases by about 650&nbsp;kJ/mol per CH<sub>2</sub> group. Branched-chain alkanes have lower values of Δ<sub>c</sub>''H''<sup><s>o</s></sup> than straight-chain alkanes of the same number of carbon atoms, and so can be seen to be somewhat more stable. === Reactions with halogens === {{Main|Free radical halogenation}} Alkanes react with [[halogen]]s in a so-called ''free radical halogenation'' reaction. The hydrogen atoms of the alkane are progressively replaced by halogen atoms. [[Free radical]]s are the reactive species that participate in the reaction, which usually leads to a mixture of products. The reaction is highly [[exothermic reaction|exothermic]], and can lead to an explosion. These reactions are an important industrial route to halogenated hydrocarbons. There are three steps: * '''Initiation''' the halogen radicals form by [[homolysis (chemistry)|homolysis]]. Usually, energy in the form of heat or light is required. * '''Chain reaction''' or '''Propagation''' then takes place—the halogen radical abstracts a hydrogen from the alkane to give an alkyl radical. This reacts further. * '''Chain termination''' where the radicals recombine. Experiments have shown that all halogenation produces a mixture of all possible isomers, indicating that all hydrogen atoms are susceptible to reaction. The mixture produced, however, is not a statistical mixture: Secondary and tertiary hydrogen atoms are preferentially replaced due to the greater stability of secondary and tertiary free-radicals. An example can be seen in the monobromination of propane:<ref name = m&b/> [[Image:Monobromination of propane.png|500px|center|Monobromination of [[propane]]]] === Cracking === {{Main|Cracking (chemistry)}} Cracking breaks larger molecules into smaller ones. This can be done with a thermal or catalytic method. The thermal cracking process follows a [[homolysis (chemistry)|homolytic]] mechanism with formation of [[free-radical]]s. The catalytic cracking process involves the presence of [[acid]] [[catalyst]]s (usually solid acids such as [[silica-alumina]] and [[zeolite]]s), which promote a [[heterolytic cleavage|heterolytic]] (asymmetric) breakage of bonds yielding pairs of ions of opposite charges, usually a [[carbocation]] and the very unstable [[hydride]] [[anion]]. Carbon-localized free radicals and cations are both highly unstable and undergo processes of chain rearrangement, C–C scission in position [[beta scission|beta]] (i.e., cracking) and [[intramolecular|intra-]] and [[intermolecular]] hydrogen transfer or [[hydride]] transfer. In both types of processes, the corresponding [[reactive intermediate]]s (radicals, ions) are permanently regenerated, and thus they proceed by a self-propagating chain mechanism. The chain of reactions is eventually terminated by radical or ion recombination. === Isomerization and reformation === Dragan and his colleague were the first to report about isomerization in alkanes.<ref name="Asinger, Friedrich 1967">Asinger, Friedrich. Paraffins; Chemistry and Technology. Oxford: Pergamon Press, 1967. Print.</ref> Isomerization and reformation are processes in which straight-chain alkanes are heated in the presence of a [[platinum]] catalyst. In isomerization, the alkanes become branched-chain isomers. In other words, it does not lose any carbons or hydrogens, keeping the same molecular weight.<ref name="Asinger, Friedrich 1967"/> In reformation, the alkanes become [[cycloalkane]]s or [[aromatic hydrocarbon]]s, giving off hydrogen as a by-product. Both of these processes raise the [[octane number]] of the substance. Butane is the most common alkane that is put under the process of isomerization, as it makes many branched alkanes with high octane numbers.<ref name="Asinger, Friedrich 1967"/> ===Other reactions=== Alkanes will react with [[steam]] in the presence of a [[nickel]] [[catalyst]] to give [[hydrogen]]. Alkanes can be [[Chlorosulfonation|chlorosulfonated]] and [[nitration|nitrated]], although both reactions require special conditions. The [[fermentation (biochemistry)|fermentation]] of alkanes to [[carboxylic acid]]s is of some technical importance. In the [[Reed reaction]], [[sulfur dioxide]], [[chlorine]] and [[photochemistry|light]] convert hydrocarbons to [[Sulfonic acid|sulfonyl chlorides]]. [[Nucleophilic abstraction|Nucleophilic Abstraction]] can be used to separate an alkane from a metal. Alkyl groups can be transferred from one compound to another by [[transmetalation]] reactions. ==Occurrence== {{refimprove|date=July 2015}} ===Occurrence of alkanes in the Universe=== [[Image:Jupiter.jpg|thumb|right|[[Methane]] and [[ethane]] make up a tiny proportion<!-- 0.3% methane and 0.00006% ethane is tiny not large --> of [[Jupiter]]'s atmosphere]] [[Image:Oil well.jpg|thumb|right|Extraction of oil, which contains many different [[hydrocarbon]]s including alkanes]] Alkanes form a small portion<!-- 0.3% methane and 0.00006% ethane for Jupiter is small not significant: else find cite that claims this is significant, or specify in which context. Uranus and Neptune have more but still small --> of the [[Celestial body atmosphere|atmospheres]] of the outer gas planets such as [[Jupiter]] (0.1% methane, 2&nbsp;[[parts per million|ppm]] ethane), [[Saturn]] (0.2% methane, 5&nbsp;ppm ethane), [[Uranus]] (1.99% methane, 2.5&nbsp;ppm ethane) and [[Neptune]] (1.5% methane, 1.5&nbsp;ppm ethane). [[Titan (moon)|Titan]] (1.6% methane), a satellite of Saturn, was examined by the [[Huygens (spacecraft)|''Huygens'' probe]], which indicated that Titan's atmosphere periodically rains liquid methane onto the moon's surface.<ref>{{cite web|title=Titan: Arizona in an Icebox?|url=http://www.planetary.org/news/2005/huygens_science-results_0121.html|author=Emily Lakdawalla|accessdate=21 January 2004|archiveurl=//web.archive.org/web/20080406104505/http://planetary.org/news/2005/0121_Titan_Arizona_in_an_Icebox.html|archivedate=6 April 2008}}</ref> Also on Titan the Cassini mission has imaged seasonal methane/ethane lakes near the polar regions of Titan. [[Methane]] and [[ethane]] have also been detected in the tail of the comet [[Hyakutake]]. Chemical analysis showed that the abundances of ethane and methane were roughly equal, which is thought to imply that its ices formed in interstellar space, away from the Sun, which would have evaporated these volatile molecules.<ref name="science">{{cite journal | author=Mumma, M.J. | title=Detection of Abundant Ethane and Methane, Along with Carbon Monoxide and Water, in Comet C/1996 B2 Hyakutake: Evidence for Interstellar Origin | journal=Science | year=1996 | volume=272 | doi=10.1126/science.272.5266.1310 | pmid=8650540 | last2 = Disanti |first2=M.A. |last3=dello Russo |first3=N. |last4=Fomenkova |first4=M. |last5=Magee-Sauer |first5=K. |last6=Kaminski |first6=C.D. |last7=D.X. |first7=Xie | issue=5266 | bibcode=1996Sci...272.1310M | pages=1310–4}}</ref> Alkanes have also been detected in [[meteorite]]s such as [[carbonaceous chondrite]]s. ===Occurrence of alkanes on Earth=== Traces of methane gas (about 0.0002% or 1745&nbsp;ppb) occur in the Earth's atmosphere, produced primarily by [[methanogenesis|methanogenic]] microorganisms, such as [[Archaea]] in the gut of ruminants.<ref name=Janssen>{{cite journal | last1 = Janssen | first1 = P. H. | last2 = Kirs | first2 = M. | year = 2008 | title = Structure of the Archaeal Community of the Rumen | url = | journal = Appl Environ Microbiol | volume = 74 | issue = 12| pages = 3619–3625 | doi = 10.1128/AEM.02812-07 |pmc= 2446570 | pmid=18424540}}</ref> The most important commercial sources for alkanes are natural gas and [[Petroleum|oil]].<ref name=m&b/> Natural gas contains primarily methane and ethane, with some [[propane]] and [[butane]]: oil is a mixture of liquid alkanes and other [[hydrocarbons]]. These hydrocarbons were formed when marine animals and plants (zooplankton and phytoplankton) died and sank to the bottom of ancient seas and were covered with sediments in an [[wikt:anoxic|anoxic]] environment and converted over many millions of years at high temperatures and high pressure to their current form. Natural gas resulted thereby for example from the following reaction: :C<sub>6</sub>H<sub>12</sub>O<sub>6</sub> → 3&nbsp;CH<sub>4</sub> + 3&nbsp;CO<sub>2</sub> These hydrocarbon deposits, collected in porous rocks trapped beneath impermeable cap rocks, comprise commercial [[oil fields]]. They have formed over millions of years and once exhausted cannot be readily replaced. The depletion of these hydrocarbons reserves is the basis for what is known as the [[energy crisis]]. Methane is also present in what is called [[biogas]], produced by animals and decaying matter, which is a possible [[renewable energy source]]. Alkanes have a low solubility in water, so the content in the oceans is negligible; however, at high pressures and low temperatures (such as at the bottom of the oceans), methane can co-crystallize with water to form a solid [[methane clathrate]] (methane hydrate). Although this cannot be commercially exploited at the present time, the amount of combustible energy of the known methane clathrate fields exceeds the energy content of all the natural gas and oil deposits put together. Methane extracted from methane clathrate is therefore a candidate for future fuels. ===Biological occurrence=== Acyclic alkanes occur in nature in various ways. ;Bacteria and archaea [[Image:Rotbuntes Rind.jpg|thumb|right|[[Methanogen]]ic [[archaea]] in the gut of this cow are responsible for some of the [[methane]] in Earth's atmosphere.]] Certain types of bacteria can metabolize alkanes: they prefer even-numbered carbon chains as they are easier to degrade than odd-numbered chains.{{Citation needed|date=April 2007}} On the other hand, certain [[archaea]], the [[methanogen]]s, produce large quantities of [[methane]] by the metabolism of [[carbon dioxide]] or other [[oxidation|oxidized]] organic compounds. The energy is released by the oxidation of [[hydrogen]]: :CO<sub>2</sub> + 4&nbsp;H<sub>2</sub> → CH<sub>4</sub> + 2&nbsp;H<sub>2</sub>O Methanogens are also the producers of [[marsh gas]] in [[wetlands]], and release about two billion tonnes of methane per year{{Citation needed|date=April 2007}}—the atmospheric content of this gas is produced nearly exclusively by them. The methane output of [[cattle]] and other [[herbivore]]s, which can release up to 150 liters per day,{{Citation needed|date=April 2007}} and of [[termite]]s,{{Citation needed|date=April 2007}} is also due to methanogens. They also produce this simplest of all alkanes in the [[intestine]]s of humans. Methanogenic archaea are, hence, at the end of the [[carbon cycle]], with carbon being released back into the atmosphere after having been fixed by [[photosynthesis]]. It is probable that our current deposits of natural gas were formed in a similar way.{{Citation needed|date=April 2007}} ;Fungi and plants Alkanes also play a role, if a minor role, in the biology of the three [[eukaryote|eukaryotic]] groups of organisms: [[Fungus|fungi]], plants and animals. Some specialized yeasts, e.g., ''Candida tropicale'', ''[[Pichia]]'' sp., ''[[Rhodotorula]]'' sp., can use alkanes as a source of carbon or energy. The fungus ''[[Amorphotheca resinae]]'' prefers the longer-chain alkanes in [[aviation fuel]], and can cause serious problems for aircraft in tropical regions.<ref name=Hendey>{{cite journal | last1 = Hendey | first1 = N. I. | year = 1964 | title = Some observations on Cladosporium resinae as a fuel contaminant and its possible role in the corrosion of aluminium alloy fuel tanks | url = | journal = Transactions of the British Mycological Society | volume = 47 | issue = 7| pages = 467–475 | doi=10.1016/s0007-1536(64)80024-3}}</ref> In plants, the solid long-chain alkanes are found in the [[plant cuticle]] and [[epicuticular wax]] of many species, but are only rarely major constituents.<ref name=Baker1982>EA Baker (1982) Chemistry and morphology of plant epicuticular waxes. pp. 139-165. In "The Plant Cuticle". edited by DF Cutler, KL Alvin and CE Price. Academic Press, London. ISBN 0-12-199920-3</ref> They protect the plant against water loss, prevent the [[Leaching (agriculture)|leaching]] of important minerals by the rain, and protect against bacteria, fungi, and harmful insects. The carbon chains in plant alkanes are usually odd-numbered, between 27 and 33 carbon atoms in length<ref name=Baker1982/> and are made by the plants by [[decarboxylation]] of even-numbered [[fatty acid]]s. The exact composition of the layer of wax is not only species-dependent, but changes also with the season and such environmental factors as lighting conditions, temperature or humidity.<ref name=Baker1982/> More volatile short-chain alkanes are also produced by and found in plant tissues. The [[Jeffrey pine]] is noted for producing exceptionally high levels of ''n''-[[heptane]] in its resin, for which reason its distillate was designated as the zero point for one [[octane rating]]. Floral scents have also long been known to contain volatile alkane components, and ''n''-[[nonane]] is a significant component in the scent of some [[rose]]s.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Kim | first1 =HyunJung | last2=Kim | first2=NamSun | last3=Lee | first3=DongSun | year = 2000 | title = Determination of floral fragrances of Rosa hybrida using solid-phase trapping-solvent extraction and gas chromatography–mass spectrometry. | url = | journal = Journal of Chromatography, A | volume = 902 | issue = 2| pages = 389–404 | doi = 10.1016/S0021-9673(00)00863-3 }}</ref> Emission of gaseous and volatile alkanes such as [[ethane]], [[pentane]], and [[hexane]] by plants has also been documented at low levels, though they are not generally considered to be a major component of biogenic air pollution.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Kesselmeier | first1 =J. | last2=Staudt | first2=N. | year = 1999 | title = Biogenic Volatile Organic Compounds (VOC): An Overview on Emission, Physiology and Ecology | url =http://www.geo.uni-frankfurt.de/iau/epos/Gruppenintern/Kesselmeier___Staudt_JAC_1999.pdf | journal = Journal of Atmospheric Chemistry | volume = 33 | pages = 22–38 }}</ref> Edible vegetable oils also typically contain small fractions of biogenic alkanes with a wide spectrum of carbon numbers, mainly 8 to 35, usually peaking in the low to upper 20s, with concentrations up to dozens of milligrams per kilogram (parts per million by weight) and sometimes over a hundred for the total alkane fraction.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Moreda | first1 =W. | last2=Perez-Camino | first2=M. C. |last3=Cert| first3=A.| year = 2001 | title = Gas and liquid chromatography of hydrocarbons in edible vegetable oils | journal = Journal of Chromatography A | volume = 936 | pages = 159–171 | doi=10.1016/s0021-9673(01)01222-5}}</ref> ;Animals Alkanes are found in animal products, although they are less important than unsaturated hydrocarbons. One example is the shark liver oil, which is approximately 14% [[pristane]] (2,6,10,14-tetramethylpentadecane, C<sub>19</sub>H<sub>40</sub>). They are important as [[pheromone]]s, chemical messenger materials, on which insects depend for communication. In some species, e.g. the support beetle ''[[Xylotrechus colonus]]'', [[pentacosane]] (C<sub>25</sub>H<sub>52</sub>), 3-methylpentaicosane (C<sub>26</sub>H<sub>54</sub>) and 9-methylpentaicosane (C<sub>26</sub>H<sub>54</sub>) are transferred by body contact. With others like the [[tsetse fly]] ''Glossina morsitans morsitans'', the pheromone contains the four alkanes 2-methylheptadecane (C<sub>18</sub>H<sub>38</sub>), 17,21-dimethylheptatriacontane (C<sub>39</sub>H<sub>80</sub>), 15,19-dimethylheptatriacontane (C<sub>39</sub>H<sub>80</sub>) and 15,19,23-trimethylheptatriacontane (C<sub>40</sub>H<sub>82</sub>), and acts by smell over longer distances. [[waggle dance|Waggle-dancing]] [[honey bee]]s produce and release two alkanes, tricosane and pentacosane.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Thom | date = 21 August 2007 | title = The Scent of the Waggle Dance | url = | journal = PLoS Biology | volume = 5 | issue = 9| page = e228 | doi = 10.1371/journal.pbio.0050228 | pmid=17713987 | pmc=1994260|display-authors=etal}}</ref> ===Ecological relations=== [[Image:Ophrys sphegodes flower.jpg|thumb|right|Early spider orchid (''[[Ophrys sphegodes]]'')]] One example, in which both plant and animal alkanes play a role, is the ecological relationship between the [[sand bee]] (''[[Andrena nigroaenea]]'') and the [[early spider orchid]] (''[[Ophrys sphegodes]]''); the latter is dependent for [[pollination]] on the former. Sand bees use pheromones in order to identify a mate; in the case of ''A. nigroaenea'', the females emit a mixture of [[tricosane]] (C<sub>23</sub>H<sub>48</sub>), [[pentacosane]] (C<sub>25</sub>H<sub>52</sub>) and [[heptacosane]] (C<sub>27</sub>H<sub>56</sub>) in the ratio 3:3:1, and males are attracted by specifically this odor. The orchid takes advantage of this mating arrangement to get the male bee to collect and disseminate its pollen; parts of its flower not only resemble the appearance of sand bees, but also produce large quantities of the three alkanes in the same ratio as female sand bees. As a result, numerous males are lured to the blooms and attempt to copulate with their imaginary partner: although this endeavor is not crowned with success for the bee, it allows the orchid to transfer its pollen, which will be dispersed after the departure of the frustrated male to different blooms. ==Production== ===Petroleum refining=== [[Image:ShellMartinez-refi.jpg|thumb|right|An [[oil refinery]] at [[Martinez, California]].]] As stated earlier, the most important source of alkanes is natural gas and [[crude oil]].<ref name=m&b/> Alkanes are separated in an [[oil refinery]] by [[fractional distillation]] and processed into many different products. ===Fischer–Tropsch=== The [[Fischer–Tropsch process]] is a method to synthesize liquid hydrocarbons, including alkanes, from [[carbon monoxide]] and hydrogen. This method is used to produce substitutes for [[petroleum distillate]]s. ===Laboratory preparation=== There is usually little need for alkanes to be synthesized in the laboratory, since they are usually commercially available. Also, alkanes are generally non-reactive chemically or biologically, and do not undergo [[functional group interconversion]]s cleanly. When alkanes are produced in the laboratory, it is often a side-product of a reaction. For example, the use of [[N-Butyllithium|''n''-butyllithium]] as a strong [[base (chemistry)|base]] gives the conjugate acid, ''n''-butane as a side-product: : C<sub>4</sub>H<sub>9</sub>Li + H<sub>2</sub>O → C<sub>4</sub>H<sub>10</sub> + [[lithium hydroxide|LiOH]] However, at times it may be desirable to make a portion of a molecule into an alkane like functionality ([[alkyl]] group) using the above or similar methods. For example, an [[ethyl group]] is an alkyl group; when this is attached to a [[Hydroxyl|hydroxy]] group, it gives [[ethanol]], which is not an alkane. To do so, the best-known methods are [[hydrogenation]] of [[alkene]]s: :RCH=CH<sub>2</sub> + H<sub>2</sub> → RCH<sub>2</sub>CH<sub>3</sub>{{spaces|5}}(R = [[alkyl]]) Alkanes or alkyl groups can also be prepared directly from [[alkyl halide]]s in the [[Corey–House synthesis|Corey–House–Posner–Whitesides reaction]]. The [[Barton–McCombie deoxygenation]]<ref>{{cite journal | author1-link=Derek Harold Richard Barton| last1=Barton |first1= D. H. R. |last2= McCombie |first2= S. W. | title=A new method for the deoxygenation of secondary alcohols |journal=J. Chem. Soc., Perkin Trans. 1|year= 1975 | issue=16 |pages= 1574–1585 | doi = 10.1039/P19750001574 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last1=Crich | first1=David | last2=Quintero | first2=Leticia | title=Radical chemistry associated with the thiocarbonyl group | journal=[[Chem. Rev.]] |year= 1989 |volume=89 |pages= 1413–1432 | doi = 10.1021/cr00097a001 | issue=7 }}</ref> removes hydroxyl groups from alcohols e.g. :[[Image:Barton-McCombie Deoxygenation Scheme.svg|600px|[[Barton–McCombie deoxygenation]] scheme]] and the [[Clemmensen reduction]]<ref>Martin, E. L. ''Org. React.'' 1942, ''1'', 155. (Review)</ref><ref>Buchanan, J. G. St. C.; Woodgate, P. D. ''Quart. Rev.'' 1969, ''23'', 522, (Review).</ref><ref>Vedejs, E. ''Org. React.'' 1975, ''22'', 401, (Review).</ref><ref>Yamamura, S.; Nishiyama, S. ''Comp. Org. Syn.'' 1991, ''8'', 309–313, (Review).</ref> removes carbonyl groups from aldehydes and ketones to form alkanes or alkyl-substituted compounds e.g.: :[[Image:Clemmensen Reduction Scheme.png|250px|[[Clemmensen Reduction]]]] ==Applications== The applications of a certain alkane can be determined quite well according to the number of carbon atoms. The first four alkanes are used mainly for heating and cooking purposes, and in some countries for electricity generation. [[Methane]] and [[ethane]] are the main components of natural gas; they are normally stored as gases under pressure. It is, however, easier to transport them as liquids: This requires both compression and cooling of the gas. [[Propane]] and [[butane]] can be liquefied at fairly low pressures, and are well known as [[liquified petroleum gas]] (LPG). Propane, for example, is used in the propane gas burner and as a fuel for cars,<ref>[http://www.ferrellgas.com/Resource_/PageResource/LA_Transit_Case_Study.pdf Using propane as a fuel]</ref> butane in disposable cigarette lighters. The two alkanes are used as propellants in [[aerosol spray]]s. From [[pentane]] to [[octane]] the alkanes are reasonably volatile liquids. They are used as fuels in [[internal combustion engine]]s, as they vaporise easily on entry into the combustion chamber without forming droplets, which would impair the uniformity of the combustion. Branched-chain alkanes are preferred as they are much less prone to premature ignition, which causes [[Engine knocking|knocking]], than their straight-chain homologues. This propensity to premature ignition is measured by the [[octane rating]] of the fuel, where [[2,2,4-Trimethylpentane|2,2,4-trimethylpentane]] (''isooctane'') has an arbitrary value of 100, and [[heptane]] has a value of zero. Apart from their use as fuels, the middle alkanes are also good [[solvent]]s for nonpolar substances. Alkanes from [[nonane]] to, for instance, [[hexadecane]] (an alkane with sixteen carbon atoms) are liquids of higher [[viscosity]], less and less suitable for use in gasoline. They form instead the major part of [[Diesel fuel|diesel]] and [[aviation fuel]]. Diesel fuels are characterized by their [[cetane number]], cetane being an old name for hexadecane. However, the higher melting points of these alkanes can cause problems at low temperatures and in polar regions, where the fuel becomes too thick to flow correctly. Alkanes from hexadecane upwards form the most important components of [[fuel oil]] and [[lubricating oil]]. In the latter function, they work at the same time as anti-corrosive agents, as their hydrophobic nature means that water cannot reach the metal surface. Many solid alkanes find use as [[paraffin wax]], for example, in [[candle]]s. This should not be confused however with true [[wax]], which consists primarily of [[ester]]s. Alkanes with a chain length of approximately 35 or more carbon atoms are found in [[bitumen]], used, for example, in road surfacing. However, the higher alkanes have little value and are usually split into lower alkanes by [[Cracking (chemistry)|cracking]]. Some synthetic [[polymer]]s such as [[polyethylene]] and [[polypropylene]] are alkanes with chains containing hundreds of thousands of carbon atoms. These materials are used in innumerable applications, and billions of kilograms of these materials are made and used each year. ==Environmental transformations== {{multiple issues|section=yes| {{unreferenced section|date=August 2014}} {{expand section|date=August 2014}} }} When released in the environment, alkanes don't undergo rapid biodegradation, because they have no functional groups (like [[hydroxyl]] or [[carbonyl]]) that are needed by most organisms in order to metabolize the compound. However, some bacteria can metabolize some alkanes (especially those linear and short), by [[oxidation|oxidizing]] the terminal carbon atom. The product is an alcohol, that could be next oxidized to an [[aldehyde]], and finally to a [[carboxylic acid]]. The resulting [[fatty acid]] could be metabolized through the [[fatty acid degradation]] pathway. ==Hazards== {{multiple issues|section=yes| {{unreferenced section|date=August 2014}} {{expand section|date=August 2014}} }} Methane is explosive when mixed with air (1–8% CH<sub>4</sub>). Other lower alkanes can also form explosive mixtures with air. The lighter liquid alkanes are highly flammable, although this risk decreases with the length of the carbon chain. Pentane, hexane, heptane, and octane are classed as ''dangerous for the environment'' and ''harmful''. '''Considerations for detection / risk control:''' * Methane is lighter than air (possibility of accumulation under roofs) * Ethane is slightly heavier than air (possibility of pooling at ground levels / pits) * Propane is heavier than air (possibility of pooling at ground levels / pits) * Butane is heavier than air (possibility of pooling at ground levels / pits) ==See also== {{Commons|Homologous series of alkanes|Alkane}} {{Wiktionary}} * [[Alkene]] * [[Alkyne]] * [[Cycloalkane]] * [[Higher alkanes]] {{Clear}} ==References== {{Reflist|30em}} ==Further reading== * [https://www2.chemistry.msu.edu/faculty/reusch/VirtTxtJml/intro1.htm Virtual Textbook of Organic Chemistry] {{Hydrocarbons}} {{Alkanes}} {{Functional Groups}} {{BranchesofChemistry}} {{Use dmy dates|date=June 2013}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Alkanes| ]] [[Category:Hydrocarbons]] [[Category:Functional groups]] nq84uziiecir1ein1t0hgqnlwdoi7x7 0 640 717799338 714783301 2016-04-29T19:52:37Z Crh23 15364288 clean up, [[WP:AWB/T|typo(s) fixed]]: For example → For example, using [[Project:AWB|AWB]] wikitext text/x-wiki {{Use mdy dates|date=June 2013}} [[File:D.C. Court of Appeals.JPG|thumb|The [[District of Columbia Court of Appeals|Court of Appeals]] in [[Washington, D.C.]]]] '''United States appellate procedure''' involves the rules and regulations for filing [[appeal]]s in [[state court (United States)|state courts]] and [[United States federal courts|federal courts]]. The nature of an appeal can vary greatly depending on the type of case and the rules of the court in the [[jurisdiction]] where the case was prosecuted. There are many types of [[standard of review]] for appeals, such as ''[[Trial de novo|de novo]]'' and [[abuse of discretion]]. However, most appeals begin when a party files a [[petition for review]] to a higher court for the purpose of overturning the lower court's decision. An [[appellate court]] is a [[court]] that hears cases on appeal from another court. Depending on the particular legal rules that apply to each circumstance, a party to a [[court case]] who is unhappy with the result might be able to challenge that result in an appellate court on specific grounds. These grounds typically could include errors of law, [[fact]], procedure or due process. In different jurisdictions, appellate courts are also called appeals courts, courts of appeals, superior courts, or supreme courts. The specific procedures for appealing, including even whether there is a right of appeal from a particular type of decision, can vary greatly from state to state. The right to file an appeal can also vary from state to state; for example, the [[New Jersey Constitution]] vests judicial power in a Supreme Court, a Superior Court, and other courts of limited jurisdiction, with an appellate court being part of the Superior Court.<ref>Jeffrey S. Mandel, New Jersey Appellate Practice (Gann Law Books), chapter 1:2</ref> ==Access to appellant status== A party who files an appeal is called an "appellant", "plaintiff in error", "petitioner" or "pursuer", and a party on the other side is called a "appellee". A "cross-appeal" is an appeal brought by the respondent. For example, suppose at trial the judge found for the plaintiff and ordered the defendant to pay $50,000. If the defendant files an appeal arguing that he should not have to pay any money, then the plaintiff might file a cross-appeal arguing that the defendant should have to pay $200,000 instead of $50,000. The appellant is the party who, having lost part or all their [[lawsuit|claim]] in a [[lower court]] decision, is appealing to a higher court to have their case reconsidered. This is usually done on the basis that the lower court judge erred in the application of law, but it may also be possible to appeal on the basis of court misconduct, or that a finding of fact was entirely unreasonable to make on the evidence. The appellant in the new case can be either the [[plaintiff]] (or claimant), [[defendant]], third-party [[intervenor]], or respondent (appellee) from the lower case, depending on who was the losing party. The winning party from the lower court, however, is now the respondent. In unusual cases the appellant can be the victor in the court below, but still appeal. An appellee is the party to an appeal in which the lower court [[judgment (law)|judgment]] was in its favor. The appellee is required to respond to the [[petition]], [[oral argument]]s, and [[legal brief]]s of the appellant. In general, the appellee takes the procedural posture that the lower court's decision should be affirmed. ==Ability to appeal== An appeal "as of right" is one that is guaranteed by statute or some underlying constitutional or legal principle. The appellate court cannot refuse to listen to the appeal. An appeal "by leave" or "permission" requires the appellant to obtain leave to appeal; in such a situation either or both of the lower court and the court may have the discretion to grant or refuse the appellant's demand to appeal the lower court's decision. In the [[United States Supreme Court|Supreme Court]], review in most cases is available only if the Court exercises its discretion and grants a writ of certiorari.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.law.cornell.edu/rules/supct/10.html|title=U.S. Supreme Court Rule 10|publisher=Legal Information Institute}}</ref> In [[tort]], [[equity (law)|equity]], or other civil matters either party to a previous case may file an appeal. In criminal matters, however, the state or prosecution generally has no appeal "as of right". And due to the [[double jeopardy]] principle, the state or prosecution may never appeal a jury or bench verdict of acquittal. But in some jurisdictions, the state or prosecution may appeal "as of right" from a trial court's dismissal of an indictment in whole or in part or from a trial court's granting of a defendant's suppression motion. Likewise, in some jurisdictions, the state or prosecution may appeal an issue of law "by leave" from the trial court or the appellate court. The ability of the prosecution to appeal a decision in favor of a defendant varies significantly internationally.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.lawreform.ie/publications/data/lrc119/lrc_119.html|title=Consultation Paper on Prosecution Appeals Brought in Cases of Indictment|publisher=Law Reform Commission of Ireland}}</ref> All parties must present grounds to appeal, or it will not be heard. By convention in some law reports, the appellant is named first. This can mean that where it is the defendant who appeals, the name of the case in the law reports reverses (in some cases twice) as the appeals work their way up the court hierarchy. This is not always true, however. In the [[United States federal courts|federal courts]], the parties' names always stay in the same order as the lower court when an appeal is taken to the [[United States Courts of Appeals|circuit courts of appeals]], and are re-ordered only if the appeal reaches the [[United States Supreme Court|Supreme Court]]. ==Direct or collateral: Appealing criminal convictions== Many jurisdictions recognize two types of appeals, particularly in the criminal context.<ref>{{cite web|accessdate=2008-03-03|url=http://www.leeds.ac.uk/law/hamlyn/postconv.htm|title=UK Law Online |publisher=University of Leeds }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|accessdate=2008-03-03|url=http://uscode.house.gov/download/pls/28C154.txt|title=Special Habeas Corpus Procedures in Capital Cases |publisher=United States Office of the Law Revision Counsel }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|accessdate=2008-03-03|url=http://www.twelfth.courts.state.oh.us/Decisions/Pre00011.doc|title=State of Ohio |publisher=Ohio 12th District Court of Appeals |archiveurl = http://web.archive.org/web/20080227072142/http://www.twelfth.courts.state.oh.us/Decisions/Pre00011.doc <!-- Bot retrieved archive --> |archivedate = 2008-02-27}}</ref> The first is the traditional "direct" appeal in which the appellant files an appeal with the next higher court of review. The second is the collateral appeal or post-conviction petition, in which the petitioner-appellant files the appeal in a court of first instance—usually the court that tried the case. The key distinguishing factor between direct and collateral appeals is that the former occurs in state courts, and the latter in federal courts. Relief in post-conviction is rare and is most often found in [[capital punishment|capital]] or violent [[felony]] cases. The typical scenario involves an incarcerated defendant locating [[DNA]] evidence demonstrating the defendant's actual innocence. ===Appellate review=== "Appellate review" is the general term for the process by which courts with appellate [[jurisdiction]] take jurisdiction of matters decided by lower courts. It is distinguished from [[Judicial review (theory)|judicial review]], which refers to the court's overriding constitutional or statutory right to determine if a legislative act or administrative decision is defective for jurisdictional or other reasons (which may vary by jurisdiction). In most jurisdictions the normal and preferred way of seeking appellate review is by filing an appeal of the final [[Legal judgment|judgment]]. Generally, an appeal of the judgment will also allow appeal of all other orders or rulings made by the trial court in the course of the case. This is because such orders cannot be appealed "as of right". However, certain critical interlocutory [[court order]]s, such as the denial of a request for an interim [[injunction]], or an order holding a person in [[contempt of court]], can be appealed immediately although the case may otherwise not have been fully disposed of. There are two distinct forms of appellate review, "direct" and "collateral". For example, a criminal defendant may be convicted in state court, and lose on "direct appeal" to higher state appellate courts, and if unsuccessful, mount a "collateral" action such as filing for a writ of [[habeas corpus]] in the [[United States federal courts|federal courts]]. Generally speaking, "[d]irect appeal statutes afford defendants the opportunity to challenge the merits of a judgment and allege errors of law or fact. ... [Collateral review], on the other hand, provide[s] an independent and civil inquiry into the validity of a conviction and sentence, and as such are generally limited to challenges to constitutional, jurisdictional, or other fundamental violations that occurred at trial." "Graham v. Borgen", 483 F 3d. 475 (7th Cir. 2007) (no. 04-4103) (slip op. at 7) (citation omitted). In Anglo-American [[common law]] courts, appellate review of lower court decisions may also be obtained by filing a petition for review by [[prerogative writ]] in certain cases. There is no corresponding right to a writ in any pure or continental [[civil law (legal system)|civil law]] legal systems, though some mixed systems such as [[Civil Code of Quebec|Quebec]] recognize these prerogative writs. ====Direct Appeal==== After exhausting the first appeal as of right, defendants usually petition the highest state court to review the decision. This appeal is known as a direct appeal.<ref>{{cite web|last=Bickford|first=James|title=Opinion Recap:All Judicial Review is either direct or collateral|url=http://www.scotusblog.com/2011/03/opinion-summary-all-judicial-review-is-either-direct-or-collateral/|work=Anti-Terrorism and Effective Death Penalty Act|publisher=SCOTUS Bblog|accessdate=2011-05-04}}</ref> The highest state court, generally known as the Supreme Court, exercises discretion over whether it will review the case. On direct appeal, a prisoner challenges the grounds of the conviction based on an error that occurred at trial or some other stage in the adjudicative process. =====Preservation Issues===== An appellant's claim(s) must usually be preserved at trial. This means that the defendant had to object to the error when it occurred in the trial. Because constitutional claims are of great magnitude, appellate courts might be more lenient to review the claim even if it was not preserved. For example, Connecticut applies the following standard to review unpreserved claims: 1.the record is adequate to review the alleged claim of error; 2. the claim is of constitutional magnitude alleging the violation of a fundamental right; 3. the alleged constitutional violation clearly exists and clearly deprived the defendant of a fair trial; 4. if subject to harmless error analysis, the state has failed to demonstrate harmlessness of the alleged constitutional violation beyond a reasonable doubt.<ref>{{cite web|last=Dauman|first=Chad|title=Criminal Appeals in the United States: Preservation Issues|url=http://www.Chaddauman.blogspot.com|work=blog|accessdate=2011-04-27}}</ref> ====State Post Conviction Relief: Collateral Appeal==== All States have a post-conviction relief process. Similar to federal post-conviction relief, an appellant can petition the court to correct alleged fundamental errors that were not corrected on direct review.<ref>{{cite book|last=Yackle|first=Larry|title=Federal Courts, Habeas Corpus|year=2003|publisher=Thomson Reuters}}</ref> Typical claims might include [[ineffective assistance of counsel]] and actual innocence based on new evidence. These proceedings are normally separate from the direct appeal, however some states allow for collateral relief to be sought on direct appeal.<ref>[http://courts.mi.gov/Courts/MichiganSupremeCourt/rules/Documents/CHAPTER%207.%20APPELLATE%20RULES%20(entire%20chapter).pdf]</ref> After direct appeal, the conviction is considered final. An appeal from the post conviction court proceeds just as a direct appeal. That is, it goes to the intermediate appellate court, followed by the highest court. If the petition is granted the appellant could be released from incarceration, the sentence could be modified, or a new trial could be ordered.<ref>{{cite web|title=Process For Post-Conviction Relief|url=http://www.doj.state.or.us/victims/pdf/pcvap_handout_post_conviction.pdf|work=Oregon Department of Justice|publisher=Oregon Department of Justice|accessdate=April 27, 2011}}</ref> ====Habeas Corpus==== {{main|Habeas corpus in the United States}} ==Notice of appeal== A "notice of appeal" is a form or document that in many cases is required to begin an appeal. The form is completed by the appellant or by the appellant's legal representative. The nature of this form can vary greatly from country to country and from court to court within a country. The specific rules of the legal system will dictate exactly how the appeal is officially begun. For example, the appellant might have to file the notice of appeal with the appellate court, or with the court from which the appeal is taken, or both. Some courts have samples of a notice of appeal on the court's own web site. In New Jersey, for example, the Administrative Office of the Court has promulgated a form of notice of appeal for use by appellants, though using this exact form is not mandatory and the failure to use it is not a jurisdictional defect provided that all pertinent information is set forth in whatever form of notice of appeal is used.<ref>Jeffrey S. Mandel, New Jersey Appellate Practice (Gann Law Books)</ref> The deadline for beginning an appeal can often be very short: traditionally, it is measured in days, not months. This can vary from country to country, as well as within a country, depending on the specific rules in force. In the U.S. federal court system, criminal defendants must file a notice of appeal within 10 days of the entry of either the judgment or the order being appealed, or the right to appeal is forfeited.<ref>{{citation|title=Rule 4(b)(1)(A)|url=http://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/html/uscode28a/usc_sec_28a_00000004----000-.html}}</ref> ==Appellate procedure== {{See also|United States courts of appeals}} Generally speaking the appellate court examines the record of [[evidence (law)|evidence]] presented in the trial court and the law that the lower court applied and decides whether that decision was legally sound or not. The appellate court will typically be deferential to the lower court's findings of fact (such as whether a defendant committed a particular act), unless clearly erroneous, and so will focus on the court's application of the law to those facts (such as whether the act found by the court to have occurred fits a legal definition at issue). If the appellate court finds no defect, it "affirms" the judgment. If the appellate court does find a legal defect in the decision "below" (i.e., in the lower court), it may "modify" the ruling to correct the defect, or it may nullify ("reverse" or "vacate") the whole decision or any part of it. It may, in addition, send the case back ("remand" or "remit") to the lower court for further proceedings to remedy the defect. In some cases, an appellate court may review a lower court decision "de novo" (or completely), challenging even the lower court's findings of fact. This might be the proper standard of review, for example, if the lower court resolved the case by granting a pre-trial [[motion to dismiss]] or motion for [[summary judgment]] which is usually based only upon written submissions to the trial court and not on any trial testimony. Another situation is where appeal is by way of "re-hearing". Certain jurisdictions permit certain appeals to cause the trial to be heard afresh in the appellate court. Sometimes, the appellate court finds a defect in the procedure the parties used in filing the appeal and dismisses the appeal without considering its merits, which has the same effect as affirming the judgment below. (This would happen, for example, if the appellant waited too long, under the appellate court's rules, to file the appeal.) Generally, there is no [[Jury trial|trial]] in an appellate court, only consideration of the record of the evidence presented to the trial court and all the pre-trial and trial court proceedings are reviewed—unless the appeal is by way of re-hearing, new evidence will usually only be considered on appeal in "very" rare instances, for example if that material evidence was unavailable to a party for some very significant reason such as [[prosecutorial misconduct]]. In some systems, an appellate court will only consider the written decision of the lower court, together with any written evidence that was before that court and is relevant to the appeal. In other systems, the appellate court will normally consider the record of the lower court. In those cases the record will first be certified by the lower court. The appellant has the opportunity to present arguments for the granting of the appeal and the appellee (or respondent) can present arguments against it. Arguments of the parties to the appeal are presented through their appellate lawyers, if represented, or "[[pro se]]" if the party has not engaged legal representation. Those arguments are presented in written [[brief (law)|briefs]] and sometimes in [[oral argument]] to the court at a [[hearing (law)|hearing]]. At such hearings each party is allowed a brief presentation at which the appellate judges ask questions based on their review of the record below and the submitted briefs. In an [[adversarial system]], appellate courts do not have the power to review lower court decisions unless a party appeals it. Therefore, if a lower court has ruled in an improper manner, or against [[Precedent|legal precedent]], that judgment will stand if not appealed – even if it might have been overturned on appeal. The United States legal system generally recognizes two types of appeals: a trial "de novo" or an appeal on the record. A [[trial de novo]] is usually available for review of informal proceedings conducted by some minor judicial tribunals in proceedings that do not provide all the procedural attributes of a formal judicial [[trial (law)|trial]]. If unchallenged, these decisions have the power to settle more minor legal disputes once and for all. If a party is dissatisfied with the finding of such a tribunal, one generally has the power to request a trial "de novo" by a [[court of record]]. In such a proceeding, all issues and [[evidence (law)|evidence]] may be developed newly, as though never heard before, and one is not restricted to the evidence heard in the lower proceeding. Sometimes, however, the decision of the lower proceeding is itself admissible as evidence, thus helping to curb frivolous appeals. In some cases, an application for "trial de novo" effectively erases the prior trial as if it had never taken place. The Supreme Court of Virginia has stated that '"This Court has repeatedly held that the effect of an appeal to circuit court is to "annul the judgment of the inferior tribunal as completely as if there had been no previous trial."'<ref>"Gaskill v. Commonwealth", 206 Va. 486, 490, 144 S.E.2d 293, 296 (1965)</ref> The only exception to this is that if a defendant appeals a conviction for a crime having multiple levels of offenses, where they are convicted on a lesser offense, the appeal is of the lesser offense; the conviction represents an acquittal of the more serious offenses. "[A] trial on the same charges in the circuit court does not violate double jeopardy principles, . . . subject only to the limitation that conviction in [the] district court for an offense lesser included in the one charged constitutes an acquittal of the greater offense, permitting trial de novo in the circuit court only for the lesser-included offense."<ref>"Kenyon v. Commonwealth", 37 Va. App. 668, 673, 561 S.E.2d 17, 19–20</ref> In an appeal on the record from a decision in a judicial proceeding, both appellant and respondent are bound to base their arguments wholly on the proceedings and body of evidence as they were presented in the lower tribunal. Each seeks to prove to the higher court that the result they desired was the just result. [[Precedent]] and [[case law]] figure prominently in the arguments. In order for the appeal to succeed, the appellant must prove that the lower court committed [[reversible error]], that is, an impermissible action by the court acted to cause a result that was unjust, and which would not have resulted had the court acted properly. Some examples of reversible error would be erroneously instructing the jury on the law applicable to the case, permitting seriously [[improper argument]] by an attorney, admitting or excluding evidence improperly, acting outside the court's jurisdiction, injecting bias into the proceeding or appearing to do so, juror misconduct, etc. The failure to formally object at the time, to what one views as improper action in the lower court, may result in the affirmance of the lower court's judgment on the grounds that one did not "preserve the issue for appeal" by objecting. In cases where a judge rather than a jury decided issues of fact, an appellate court will apply an "abuse of discretion" standard of review. Under this standard, the appellate court gives deference to the lower court's view of the evidence, and reverses its decision only if it were a clear abuse of discretion. This is usually defined as a decision outside the bounds of reasonableness. On the other hand, the appellate court normally gives less deference to a lower court's decision on issues of law, and may reverse if it finds that the lower court applied the wrong legal standard. In some cases, an appellant may successfully argue that the law under which the lower decision was rendered was [[Constitutionality|unconstitutional]] or otherwise invalid, or may convince the higher court to order a new trial on the basis that evidence earlier sought was concealed or only recently discovered. In the case of new evidence, there must be a high probability that its presence or absence would have made a material difference in the trial. Another issue suitable for appeal in criminal cases is effective assistance of counsel. If a defendant has been convicted and can prove that his lawyer did not adequately handle his case and that there is a reasonable probability that the result of the trial would have been different had the lawyer given competent representation, he is entitled to a new trial. A lawyer traditionally starts an oral argument to any appellate court with the words "May it please the court." After an appeal is heard, the "mandate" is a formal notice of a decision by a court of appeal; this notice is transmitted to the trial court and, when filed by the [[Court clerk|clerk]] of the trial court, constitutes the final judgment on the case, unless the appeal court has directed further proceedings in the trial court. The mandate is distinguished from the appeal court's [[court opinion|opinion]], which sets out the legal reasoning for its decision. In some jurisdictions the mandate is known as the "remittitur". ==Results== The result of an appeal can be: :*<span id="Affirmed">Affirmed</span>: Where the reviewing court basically agrees with the result of the lower courts ruling(s). :*<span id="Reversed">Reversed</span>: Where the reviewing court basically disagrees with the result of the lower courts ruling(s), and overturns their decision. :*<span id="Remanded">Remanded</span>: Where the reviewing court sends the case back to the lower court. There can be multiple outcomes, so that the reviewing court can affirm some rulings, reverse others and remand the case all at the same time. Remand is not required where there is nothing left to do in the case. "Generally speaking, an appellate court's judgment provides 'the final directive of the appeals courts as to the matter appealed, setting out with specificity the court's determination that the action appealed from should be affirmed, reversed, remanded or modified'".<ref>State v. Randolph, 210 N.J. 330, 350 n.5 (2012), citing Mandel, New Jersey Appellate Practice (Gann Law Books), chapter 28:2</ref> Some reviewing courts who have discretionary review may send a case back without comment other than ''review improvidently granted''. In other words, after looking at the case, they chose not to say anything. The result for the case of ''review improvidently granted'' is effectively the same as affirmed, but without that extra higher court stamp of approval. ==See also== {{wikiquote}} {{wiktionary|appeal}} * [[Appellate court]] * [[Appellee]] * [[Civil procedure]] * [[Court of Appeals (disambiguation)|Court of Appeals]] * [[Courts-martial in the United States]] * [[Criminal procedure]] * [[Defendant]] * [[Interlocutory appeal]] * [[List of legal topics]] * [[Petition for stay]] * [[Plaintiff]] * [[Pursuer]] * [[Reversible error]] * [[Supreme Court of the United States]] * [[Writ of Certiorari]] * [[Writ of habeas corpus]] * [[Writ of mandamus]] *[[List of wrongful convictions in the United States]] ==References== {{Reflist|colwidth=30em}} [[Category:United States appellate procedure|*]] [[Category:United States procedural law]] [[Category:Legal procedure]] mk0ue5xbk1z58w8f6pkpusrjnhefh9e 0 642 706708349 682673193 2016-02-24T21:08:22Z PBS-AWB 11989454 modification to EB1911 and some other similar templates, replaced: ;Attribution → '''Attribution''', == References == {{Reflist}} ' → ==Notes== {{Reflist}} == References == ', == References == '''Attribution''' → using [[Project:AWB|AWB]] wikitext text/x-wiki {{other uses|Answer (disambiguation)|Wikipedia:Answers}} {{refimprove|date=August 2013}} {{Use mdy dates|date=June 2013}} {{Civil procedure (United States)}} Generally, an '''answer''' is a reply to a [[question]]. It can be solution, a retaliation or a response to it. In law, an '''answer''' was originally a solemn assertion in opposition to someone or something, and thus generally any counter-statement or [[defense (legal)|defense]], a [[reply]] to a [[question]] or response, or [[objection (law)|objection]], or a correct solution of a problem.<ref name="autogenerated1">{{harvnb|Chisholm|1911}}</ref> In the [[common law]], an '''answer''' is the first [[pleading]] by a [[defendant]], usually filed and served upon the [[plaintiff]] within a certain strict time limit after a civil [[complaint]] or criminal [[information]] or [[indictment]] has been served upon the defendant. It may have been preceded by an ''optional'' "pre-answer" [[motion to dismiss]] or [[demurrer]]; if such a motion is unsuccessful, the defendant ''must'' file an answer to the complaint or risk an adverse [[default judgment]]. In a criminal case, there is usually an arraignment or some other kind of appearance before the defendant comes to court. The pleading in the criminal case, which is entered on the record in open court, is usually either [[guilt (law)|guilt]]y or not guilty. Generally speaking in private, civil cases there is no plea entered of guilt or innocence. There is only a judgment that grants money damages or some other kind of [[equitable remedy]] such as [[restitution]] or a permanent [[injunction]]. Criminal cases may lead to [[Fine (penalty)|fine]]s or other [[punishment]], such as [[imprisonment]].{{Citation needed|date=May 2008}} The famous Latin ''Responsa Prudentium'' ("answers of the learned ones") were the accumulated views of many successive generations of Roman [[lawyer]]s, a body of legal opinion which gradually became authoritative.<ref name="autogenerated1"/> In music an "'''answer'''" (also known as [[countersubject]]) is the technical name in counterpoint for the repetition or modification by one part or instrument of a theme proposed by another.<ref name="autogenerated1" /> ==Notes== {{Reflist}} == References == *{{EB1911|wstitle=Answer}} ==External links== [[Category:Common law]] [[Category:Legal documents]] 7hjy84uweb0oxu7gzlx2tos72k48hbm 0 643 715400263 715399755 2016-04-15T15:06:18Z IronGargoyle 820190 Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/8.26.21.99|8.26.21.99]] ([[User talk:8.26.21.99|talk]]) ([[WP:HG|HG]]) (3.1.20) wikitext text/x-wiki {{Redirect4|Court of appeal|Court of appeals}} {{Use mdy dates|date=June 2013}} {{multiple issues| {{refimprove|date=March 2008}} {{globalize|date=September 2010}} }} An '''appellate court''', commonly called an '''''appeals court''''', '''''court of appeals''''' ([[American English]]),<ref>{{cite web|url=http://education.yahoo.com/reference/dictionary/entry/court%20of%20appeals |title=Court of appeals|publisher=Education.yahoo.com |date= |accessdate=2012-01-08}}</ref> '''''appeal court''''' ([[British English]]), '''''court of second instance''''' or '''''second instance court''''', is any [[court of law]] that is empowered to hear an [[appeal]] of a [[trial court]] or other lower [[tribunal]]. In most [[jurisdiction]]s, the court system is divided into at least three levels: the trial court, which initially hears cases and reviews evidence and testimony to determine the facts of the case; at least one intermediate appellate court; and a [[supreme court]] (or court of last resort) which primarily reviews the decisions of the intermediate courts. A jurisdiction's supreme court is that jurisdiction's highest appellate court.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/supreme-court |title=Supreme Court |publisher=Collins English Dictionary - Complete & Unabridged 11th Edition. Retrieved October 26, 2012 from CollinsDictionary.com}}</ref> Appellate courts nationwide can operate by varying rules.<ref>{{cite web|title=A Guide to Illinois Civil Appellate Procedure|url=http://applawyers.org/Civil_Appeals_Guide_Revised.pdf|website=Appellate Lawyers Association|accessdate=7 July 2015}}</ref> The authority of appellate courts to review decisions of lower courts varies widely from one jurisdiction to another. In some places, the appellate court has limited powers of review. "Generally speaking, an appellate court's judgment provides 'the final directive of the appeals courts as to the matter appealed, setting out with specificity the court's determination that the action appealed from should be affirmed, reversed, remanded or modified'".<ref>State v. Randolph, 210 N.J. 330, 350 n.5 (2012), citing Mandel, New Jersey Appellate Practice (Gann Law Books 2012), chapter 28:2</ref> ==United States== {{main|United States Supreme Court|United States courts of appeals}} In the United States, both state and [[United States courts of appeals|federal]] appellate courts are usually restricted to examining whether the lower court made the correct legal determinations, rather than hearing direct evidence and determining what the facts of the case were.<ref>{{cite web|title=Court Role and Structure|url=http://www.uscourts.gov/about-federal-courts/court-role-and-structure|website=United States Courts|accessdate=7 July 2015}}</ref> Furthermore, U.S. appellate courts are usually restricted to hearing appeals based on matters that were originally brought up before the trial court. Hence, such an appellate court will not consider an appellant's argument if it is based on a theory that is raised for the first time in the appeal. {{Citation needed|date=July 2015}} In most U.S. states, and in U.S. federal courts, parties before the court are allowed one appeal as of right. This means that a party who is unsatisfied with the outcome of a trial may bring an [[appeal]] to contest that outcome. However, appeals may be costly, and the appellate court must find an error on the part of the court below that justifies upsetting the verdict. Therefore, only a small proportion of trial court decisions result in appeals. Some appellate courts, particularly supreme courts, have the power of [[discretionary review]], meaning that they can decide whether they will hear an appeal brought in a particular case. ===Institutional titles=== Many U.S. jurisdictions title their appellate court a '''''court of appeal''''' or '''''court of appeals'''''.<ref>The term ''court of appeals'' is not capitalized in carefully edited texts such as reference works, for example [http://legal-dictionary.thefreedictionary.com/Court+of+Appeal West's Encyclopedia of American Law] unless referring to a specific court or courts, but many legal professionals do not comply with this most common English usage shown in major dictionaries but rather capitalize this and many other legal texts.</ref> Historically, others have titled their appellate court a '''''court of errors''''' (or '''''court of errors and appeals'''''), on the premise that it was intended to correct errors made by lower courts. Examples of such courts include the [[New Jersey Court of Errors and Appeals]] (which existed from 1844 to 1947), the Connecticut Supreme Court of Errors (which has been renamed the [[Connecticut Supreme Court]]), the Kentucky Court of Errors (renamed the [[Kentucky Supreme Court]]), and the Mississippi High Court of Errors and Appeals (since renamed the [[Supreme Court of Mississippi]]). In some jurisdictions, courts able to hear appeals are known as an '''appellate division'''. The phrase "court of appeals" most often refers to intermediate appellate courts. However, the New York system is different: the "[[New York Court of Appeals]]" is the highest appellate court; and the phrase "[[New York Supreme Court]]" applies to the trial court of general jurisdiction. Depending on the system, certain courts may serve as both trial courts and appellate courts, hearing appeals of decisions made by courts with more limited jurisdiction. Some jurisdictions have specialized appellate courts, such as the [[Texas Court of Criminal Appeals]], which only hears appeals raised in criminal cases, and the [[United States Court of Appeals for the Federal Circuit]], which has general jurisdiction but derives most of its caseload from patent cases, on one hand, and appeals from the [[Court of Federal Claims]] on the other. ==New Zealand== {{main|Court of Appeal of New Zealand}} The [[Court of Appeal of New Zealand]], located in [[Wellington]], is New Zealand's principal intermediate appellate court.<ref>{{cite web|title=Court of Appeal|url=http://www.justice.govt.nz/courts/court-of-appeal|website=justice.govt.nz|accessdate=7 August 2014}}</ref> In practice, most appeals are resolved at this intermediate appellate level, rather than in the [[Supreme Court of New Zealand|Supreme Court]].<ref>{{cite web|title=The history of the court system|url=http://www.courtsofnz.govt.nz/about/system/history/overview/|website=courtsofnz.govt.nz|accessdate=7 August 2014}}</ref> ==See also== *[[Court of Criminal Appeal (disambiguation)]] *[[Court of Criminal Appeals (disambiguation)]] ==References== {{Reflist}} *Lax, Jeffrey R. "Constructing Legal Rules on Appellate Courts." American Political Science Review 101.3 (2007): 591-604. Sociological Abstracts; Worldwide Political Science Abstracts. Web. 29 May 2012. {{DEFAULTSORT:Appellate Court}} [[Category:Courts by type]] [[Category:Appellate courts]] ehv35n3zuvs8kbgrc4zxrv84gzlg3on 0 644 375387155 15899172 2010-07-25T15:56:11Z Rich Farmbrough 82835 wikitext text/x-wiki #REDIRECT [[Arithmetic logic unit]] fmjpx9gnvs391rwlh9jx80n8eb04ecf 0 648 666125903 666119102 2015-06-09T01:53:09Z Paine Ellsworth 9092818 add [[WP:CAT|cat]] wikitext text/x-wiki #REDIRECT [[Actor]] {{Redr|from gender|move|hatnote|p}} moj0ydjs92sbrx33i8sf7vkhfqzw0on 0 649 716192104 714148301 2016-04-20T13:30:44Z Bitnllto 20802693 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Use dmy dates|date=June 2013}} '''Arraignment''' is a formal reading of a [[crime|criminal]] charging document in the presence of the [[defendant]] to inform the defendant of the charges against them. In response to arraignment, the accused is expected to enter a [[plea]]. Acceptable pleas vary among jurisdictions, but they generally include "guilty", "not guilty", and the [[peremptory pleas]] (or pleas in bar) setting out reasons why a trial cannot proceed. Pleas of "[[nolo contendere]]" (no contest) and the "[[Alford plea|''Alford'' plea]]" are allowed in some circumstances. == By country == === Australia === In Australia, arraignment is the first of eleven stages in a criminal trial, and involves the [[court clerk|clerk]] of the [[court]] reading out the [[indictment]]. The judge will testify during the indictment process. === Canada === In every province in Canada except British Columbia, defendants are arraigned on the day of their trial. In British Columbia, arraignment takes places in one of the first few court appearances by the defendant or their lawyer. The defendant is asked whether he or she pleads guilty or not guilty to each charge. === France === In France, the general rule is that one cannot remain in police custody for more than 24 hours from the time of the arrest.<ref name=fti-france>{{cite web|title=CRIMINAL PROCEEDINGS AND DEFENCE RIGHTS IN FRANCE|publisher=[[Fair Trials International]]|url=http://www.fairtrials.org/wp-content/uploads/France-advice-note.pdf}}</ref> However, police custody can last another 24 hours in specific circumstances, especially if the offence is punishable by at least one year's imprisonment, or if the investigation is deemed to require the extra time, and can last up to 96 hours in certain cases involving terrorism, drug trafficking or organised crime.<ref name=fti-france/> The police needs to have the consent of the prosecutor (in the vast majority of cases, the prosecutor will consent).<ref name=fti-france/> === Germany === In Germany, if one has been arrested and taken into custody by the police one must be brought before a judge as soon as possible and at the latest on the day after the arrest.<ref name=fti-germany>{{cite web|title=CRIMINAL PROCEEDINGS AND DEFENCE RIGHTS IN GERMANY|publisher=[[Fair Trials International]]|url=http://www.fairtrials.org/wp-content/uploads/Germany-advice-note.pdf}}</ref> === New Zealand === At the first appearance, the accused is read the charges and asked for a plea. The available pleas are, guilty, not guilty, and no plea. No plea allows the defendant to get legal advice on the plea, which must be made on the second appearance.<ref>http://www.howtolaw.co/facing-criminal-charges-392160</ref> === South Africa === In South Africa, arraignment is defined as the calling upon the accused to appear, the informing of the accused of the crime charged against him, the demanding of the accused whether he be guilty or not guilty, and the entering of his plea. His plea having been entered he is said to stand arraigned. === United Kingdom === In England, Wales, and [[Northern Ireland]], arraignment is the first of eleven stages in a criminal trial, and involves the [[court clerk|clerk]] of the [[court]] reading out the [[indictment]]. In England and Wales, the police cannot legally detain anyone for more than 24 hours without charging them unless an officer with the rank of superintendent (or above) authorises detention for a further 12 hours (36 hours total), or a judge (who will be a magistrate) authorises detention by the police before charge for up to a maximum of 96 hours, but for terrorism-related offences people can be held by the police for up to 28 days before charge.<ref name=fti-england-wales>{{cite web|title=CRIMINAL PROCEEDINGS AND DEFENCE RIGHTS IN ENGLAND AND WALES|publisher=[[Fair Trials International]]|url=http://www.fairtrials.org/wp-content/uploads/Criminal-Proceedings-and-Defence-Rights-in-England-and-Wales-Aug-2013.pdf}}</ref> If they are not released after being charged, they should be brought before a court as soon as practicable.<ref name=fti-england-wales/> === United States === Under the United States [[Federal Rules of Criminal Procedure]], "arraignment shall [...] [consist of an] open [...] reading [of] the [[indictment]] [...] to the defendant [...] and call[] on him to plead thereto. He/she shall be given a copy of the indictment [...] before he/she is called upon to plead."<ref>{{frcrp|10}}</ref> In federal courts, arraignment takes place in two stages. The first is called the initial arraignment and must take place within 48 hours of an individual's arrest, 72 hours if the individual was arrested on the weekend and not able to go before a judge until Monday.<ref>{{cite book |title=Criminal Procedure |publisher=Thomson Wadsworth |year=2012 |edition=8th |first=Joel |last=Samaha |isbn=978-0-495-91335-1 }}</ref> During this arraignment the defendant is informed of the pending legal charges and is informed of his or her right to retain counsel. The presiding judge also decides at what amount, if any, to set [[bail]]. During the second arraignment, a post-indictment arraignment or PIA, the defendant is allowed to enter a plea. In New York, most people arrested must be released if they are not arraigned within 24 hours.<ref>{{cite news|title=Ruling Forces New York to Release Or Arraign Suspects in 24 Hours|first=Kevin|last=Sack|work=[[The New York Times]]|date=27 March 1991|url=http://www.nytimes.com/1991/03/27/nyregion/ruling-forces-new-york-to-release-or-arraign-suspects-in-24-hours.html}}</ref> In California, arraignments must be conducted without unnecessary delay and, in any event, within 48 hours of arrest, excluding weekends and holidays.<ref name=riverside>[[County of Riverside v. McLaughlin]], 500 U.S. 44 (1991)</ref> Thus, an individual arrested without a warrant, in some cases, may be held for as long as 168 hours (7 days) without arraignment or charge.<ref name=riverside/> ==Form of the arraignment== The wording of the arraignment varies from jurisdiction to jurisdiction.<ref>In some jurisdictions the wording of the arraignment is set by statute or court practice direction.</ref> However, it generally conforms with the following principles: # The accused person ([[defendant]]) is addressed by [[name]]; # The [[criminal charge|charge]] against the accused person is read, including the alleged date, time, and place of offense (and sometimes the names of the state's witnesses and the range of punishment for the charge(s)); and, # The accused person is asked formally how he or she [[plea]]ds. ==Video arraignment== '''Video arraignment''' is the act of conducting the arraignment process using some form of [[videoconferencing]] technology. Use of video arraignment system allows the [[court]]s to conduct the requisite arraignment process without the need to transport the defendant to the [[courtroom]] by using an [[audio-visual]] link between the location where the defendant is being held and the courtroom. Use of the video arraignment process addresses the problems associated with having to transport defendants. The transportation of defendants requires time, puts additional demands on the public safety organizations to provide for the safety of the public, court personnel and for the security of the population held in detention. It also addresses the rising costs of transportation. ==Guilty and not-guilty pleas== If the defendant pleads guilty, an [[Preliminary hearing|evidentiary hearing]] usually follows. The court is not required to accept a guilty plea. During the hearing, the judge assesses the offense, the [[mitigating factor]]s, and the defendant's character, and passes [[Sentence (law)|sentence]]. If the defendant pleads [[not guilty (plea)|not guilty]], a date is set for a [[preliminary hearing]] or a [[trial]]. In the past, a defendant who refused to plead (or "stood mute") was subject to [[peine forte et dure]] ([[Law French]] for "strong and hard punishment"). Today in [[Common law|common-law]] jurisdictions, the court enters a plea of not guilty for a defendant who refuses to enter a plea.<ref>In Queensland, Australia, this matter is covered by statute. See s601 of the Queensland [[Criminal Code]].</ref> The rationale for this is the defendant's [[right to silence]]. ==Pre-trial release== This is also often the stage at which arguments for or against pre-trial release and bail may be made, depending on the alleged crime and jurisdiction. ==See also== *[[Desk appearance ticket]] ==References== {{reflist}} {{Criminal procedure}} [[Category:Legal terms]] [[Category:Prosecution]] [[Category:United States criminal procedure]] [[Category:Criminal law of the United Kingdom]] [[Category:Australian criminal law]] 2hg2moeaxbdvnak0blyveh74idkybuo 0 651 717941369 711953524 2016-04-30T16:32:35Z Yobot 7328338 BLP related template + other fixes using [[Project:AWB|AWB]] (12006) wikitext text/x-wiki {{Other uses|America the Beautiful (disambiguation)}} {{Redirect|Materna}} {{refimprove|date = November 2013}} {{Use mdy dates|date=June 2013}} {{Infobox song <!-- See Wikipedia:WikiProject_Songs --> | Name = America the Beautiful | Cover = 5 America, the Beautiful.png | Caption = Sheet music | Type = [[Patriotic song]] | Artist = | alt Artist = | Album = | Published = 1895 (poem) | Released = | track_no = | Recorded = | Genre = | Length = | Writer = [[Katharine Lee Bates]] | Composer = [[Samuel A. Ward]] | Label = | Producer = | Chart position = | Tracks = | prev = | prev_no = | next = | next_no = | Misc = }} {{Listen|type=music|filename=America the Beautiful (US Navy Band).ogg|title="America the Beautiful"|description=Performed by the [[United States Navy Band]] and Sea Chanters, arr. Carmen Dragon |filename2=America (US Army Brass).ogg|title2="America the Beautiful"|description2=[[United States Army Band]] Brass version}} "'''America the Beautiful'''" is an American [[patriotic song]]. The lyrics were written by [[Katharine Lee Bates]], and the music was composed by church organist and choirmaster [[Samuel A. Ward]]. Bates originally wrote the words as a poem, "Pikes Peak", first published in the [[Fourth of July]] edition of the church periodical ''The Congregationalist'' in 1895. At that time, the poem was titled "America" for publication. Ward had originally written the music, "Materna", for the hymn "[[O Mother dear, Jerusalem]]" in 1882, though it was not first published until 1892.<ref>{{cite book|last=McKim|first=LindaJo|title=The Presbyterian Hymnal Companion|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=kde8yd0INHsC&pg=PA379|page=379|publisher=John Knox Press|location=Louisville, Kentucky|accessdate=2012-06-22|year=1993|isbn=9780664251802}} (McKim notes that Ward mailed a friend a postcard in which he stated the hymn had been composed in 1882, however).</ref> Ward's music combined with the Bates poem was first published in 1910 and titled ''America the Beautiful''. The song is one of the most popular of the many American patriotic songs.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://lcweb2.loc.gov/diglib/ihas/loc.natlib.ihas.100010615/full.html |title=Materna (O Mother Dear, Jerusalem) / Samuel Augustus Ward [hymnal&#93;:Print Material Full Description: Performing Arts Encyclopedia, Library of Congress |publisher=Lcweb2.loc.gov |date=2007-10-30 |accessdate=2011-08-20}}</ref> ==History== [[File:Americathebeautiful.jpg|left|thumb|upright|Commemoration plaque atop [[Pikes Peak]] in July 1999]] In 1893, at the age of 33, Bates, an English professor at [[Wellesley College]], had taken a train trip to [[Colorado Springs, Colorado|Colorado Springs]], Colorado, to teach a short summer school session at [[Colorado College]]. Several of the sights on her trip inspired her, and they found their way into her poem, including the [[World's Columbian Exposition]] in Chicago, the "White City" with its promise of the future contained within its alabaster buildings; the wheat fields of America's heartland [[Kansas]], through which her train was riding on July 16; and the majestic view of the [[Great Plains]] from high atop Zebulon's [[Pikes Peak]]. On the pinnacle of that mountain, the words of the poem started to come to her, and she wrote them down upon returning to her hotel room at the original [[Antlers Hilton Hotel|Antlers Hotel]]. The poem was initially published two years later in ''The Congregationalist'' to commemorate the Fourth of July. It quickly caught the public's fancy. Amended versions were published in 1904 and 1911. Several existing pieces of music were adapted to the poem. A [[hymn tune]] composed by Samuel A. Ward was generally considered the best music as early as 1910 and is still the popular tune today. Just as Bates had been inspired to write her poem, Ward, too, was inspired to compose his tune. The tune came to him while he was on a ferryboat trip from [[Coney Island]] back to his home in New York City, after a leisurely summer day in 1882, and he immediately wrote it down. He was so anxious to capture the tune in his head, he asked fellow passenger friend Harry Martin for his shirt cuff to write the tune on. He composed the tune for the old hymn "O Mother Dear, Jerusalem", retitling the work "Materna". Ward's music combined with Bates's poem were first published together in 1910 and titled "America the Beautiful".<ref>{{cite book |title=Songs Sung Red, White, and Blue: The Stories Behind America's Best-Loved Patriotic Songs |first=Ace |last=Collins |page=19 |publisher=Harper |year=2003 |isbn= 0-06-051304-7 |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=kKsA1Qi8BBgC&pg=PA19#v=onepage&f=false}}</ref> Ward died in 1903, not knowing the national stature his music would attain since the music was only first applied to the song in 1904. Bates was more fortunate since the song's popularity was well established by the time of her death in 1929. At various times in the more than 100 years that have elapsed since the song was written, particularly during the [[John F. Kennedy]] administration, there have been efforts to give "America the Beautiful" legal status either as a national hymn or as a national anthem equal to, or in place of, "[[The Star-Spangled Banner]]", but so far this has not succeeded.{{citation needed|date=February 2016}} Proponents prefer "America the Beautiful" for various reasons, saying it is easier to sing, more melodic, and more adaptable to new orchestrations while still remaining as easily recognizable as "The Star-Spangled Banner". Some prefer "America the Beautiful" over "The Star-Spangled Banner" due to the latter's war-oriented imagery. Others prefer "The Star-Spangled Banner" for the same reason. While that national dichotomy has stymied any effort at changing the tradition of the national anthem, "America the Beautiful" continues to be held in high esteem by a large number of Americans.{{citation needed|date=February 2016}} This song was used as the background music of the television broadcast of the [[Tiangong-1]] launch.<ref>http://www.theguardian.com/world/2011/sep/30/china-launch-america-the-beautiful</ref> The song is often included in songbooks in a wide variety of religious congregations in the United States. ==Lyrics== {| |+'''America. A Poem for July 4.''' |<poem>Original poem (1893){{citation needed|date=February 2016}} O beautiful for spacious{{Disputed inline|reason=Original versions read "for halcyon skies"|date=February 2016}} skies, For amber waves of grain, For purple mountain majesties Above the enameled plain! America! America! God shed His grace on thee, Till souls wax fair as earth and air And music-hearted sea! O beautiful for pilgrim feet Whose stern, impassioned stress A thoroughfare for freedom beat Across the wilderness! America! America! God shed His grace on thee Till paths be wrought through wilds of thought By pilgrim foot and knee! O beautiful for glory-tale Of liberating strife, When once or twice, for man's avail, Men lavished precious life! America! America! God shed His grace on thee Till selfish gain no longer stain, The banner of the free! O beautiful for patriot dream That sees beyond the years Thine alabaster cities gleam Undimmed by human tears! America! America! God shed His grace on thee Till nobler men keep once again Thy whiter jubilee!</poem> |<poem style="margin-left:1em;">1904 version{{citation needed|date=February 2016}} &nbsp; O beautiful for spacious skies, For amber waves of grain, For purple mountain majesties Above the fruited plain! America! America! God shed His grace on thee, And crown thy good with brotherhood From sea to shining sea! O beautiful for pilgrim feet Whose stern impassioned stress A thoroughfare for freedom beat Across the wilderness. America! America! God mend thine ev'ry flaw, Confirm thy soul in self-control, Thy liberty in law. O beautiful for glorious tale Of liberating strife, When valiantly for man's avail Men lavish precious life. America! America! May God thy gold refine Till all success be nobleness, And ev'ry gain divine. O beautiful for patriot dream That sees beyond the years Thine alabaster cities gleam Undimmed by human tears. America! America! God shed His grace on thee, And crown thy good with brotherhood From sea to shining sea.</poem> |<poem style="margin-left:1em;">1911 version<ref>[https://archive.org/details/americabeautiful00baterich Bates, Katharine Lee (1911). ''America the Beautiful and Other Poems''. New York: Thomas Y. Crowell Company, pp. 3-4.]</ref> &nbsp; O beautiful for spacious skies, For amber waves of grain, For purple mountain majesties Above the fruited plain! America! America! God shed His grace on thee And crown thy good with brotherhood From sea to shining sea! O beautiful for pilgrim feet, Whose stern, impassioned stress A thoroughfare for freedom beat Across the wilderness! America! America! God mend thine every flaw, Confirm thy soul in self-control, Thy liberty in law! O beautiful for heroes proved In liberating strife, Who more than self their country loved And mercy more than life! America! America! May God thy gold refine, Till all success be nobleness, And every gain divine! O beautiful for patriot dream That sees beyond the years Thine alabaster cities gleam Undimmed by human tears! America! America! God shed His grace on thee And crown thy good with brotherhood From sea to shining sea!</poem> |} ==Popular versions== In 1976, while the United States celebrated its bicentennial, a soulful version popularized by [[Ray Charles]] peaked at number 98 on the US R&B Charts,<ref>[[Ray Charles discography]]</ref> and is included on the soundtrack for the movie ''[[The Sandlot]]''. Three different renditions of the song have entered the [[Hot Country Songs]] charts. The first was by [[Charlie Rich]], which went to number 22 in 1976.<ref>{{cite book|last=Whitburn|first=Joel|title=Hot Country Songs 1944 to 2008|publisher=Record Research, Inc|year=2008|page=350|isbn=0-89820-177-2}}</ref> A second, by [[Mickey Newbury]], peaked at number 82 in 1980.<ref>Whitburn, p. 297</ref> An [[all-star]] version of "America the Beautiful" performed by [[country music|country]] singers [[Trace Adkins]], [[Sherrié Austin]], [[Billy Dean]], [[Vince Gill]], [[Carolyn Dawn Johnson]], [[Toby Keith]], [[Brenda Lee]], [[Lonestar]], [[Lyle Lovett]], [[Lila McCann]], [[Lorrie Morgan]], [[Jamie O'Neal]], [[The Oak Ridge Boys]], [[Collin Raye]], [[Kenny Rogers]], [[Keith Urban]] and [[Phil Vassar]] reached number 58 in July 2001. The song re-entered the chart following the [[September 11 attacks]].<ref>Whitburn, p. 24</ref> Popularity of the song increased greatly following the September 11 attacks; at some sporting events it was sung in addition to the traditional singing of the national anthem. During the first taping of the ''[[Late Show with David Letterman]]'' following the attacks, CBS newsman [[Dan Rather]] cried briefly as he quoted the fourth verse.<ref>{{cite news |date=2001-09-18 |work=Salon.com |title=Dan Rather's tears; Journalists don't cry on camera. That was before last week. |url=http://archive.salon.com/ent/tv/feature/2001/09/18/rather/index.html |first=Stephanie |last=Zacharek}}</ref> For [[Super Bowl XLVIII]], [[The Coca-Cola Company]] aired a multilingual version of the song, sung in several different languages. This commercial incited an outcry from quite a few Americans{{who|date=October 2015}}.<ref>{{cite news| url=http://time.com/3773/coca-colas-its-beautiful-super-bowl-ad-brings-out-some-ugly-americans/ | work=Time | first=James | last=Poniewozik | title=Coca-Cola's "It's Beautiful" Super Bowl Ad Brings Out Some Ugly Americans | date=February 2, 2014}}</ref> ==Idioms== "From sea to shining sea", originally used in the charters of some of the English Colonies in North America, is an American [[idiom]] meaning from the [[Atlantic Ocean]] to the [[Pacific Ocean]] (or vice versa). Many songs have used this term, including the American patriotic songs "America, the Beautiful" and "[[God Bless the USA]]". In addition to these, it is also featured in [[Schoolhouse Rock]]'s "Elbow Room". A term similar to this is the official Canadian (Latin) motto ''{{Lang|la|[[A Mari Usque Ad Mare]]}}'' (From sea to sea).<ref>{{cite web|last1=Martin|first1=Gary|title=From sea to shining sea|url=http://www.phrases.org.uk/meanings/from%20sea%20to%20shining%20sea.html|website=Phrases.org|accessdate=24 July 2014}}</ref> "Purple mountain majesties" refers to the shade of the [[Pikes Peak]] in [[Colorado Springs, Colorado]], which Bates looked at while writing the poem.<ref>http://www.americanheritage.org/Elementary_Extraction_15-America_the_Beautiful_TX.pdf {{wayback|url=http://www.americanheritage.org/Elementary_Extraction_15-America_the_Beautiful_TX.pdf |date=20120904222648 }}</ref> ==Books== [[Lynn Sherr]]'s 2001 book ''America the Beautiful'' discusses the origins of the song and the backgrounds of its authors in depth. The book points out that the poem has the same meter as that of "[[Auld Lang Syne]]"; the songs can be sung interchangeably. Additionally, Sherr discusses the evolution of the lyrics, for instance changes in from the original third verse written by Bates.<ref>{{cite book |title=America the Beautiful: The Stirring True Story Behind Our Nation's Favorite Song |first=Lynn |last=Sherr |publisher=PublicAffairs |location=New York |year=2001 |isbn=978-1-58648-085-1 |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=HdSmeAv3v-oC&pg=PA78#v=onepage&q=&f=false |page=78 |accessdate=June 6, 2013}}</ref> The song appears in [[Ellen Raskin]]'s ''[[The Westing Game]]''. ==References== {{Reflist}} ==Further reading== *Collins, Ace. ''Songs Sung, Red, White, and Blue: The Stories Behind America's Best-Loved Patriotic Songs''. HarperResource, 2003. ISBN 0060513047 ==External links== {{Commons category|Katharine Lee Bates America the Beautiful}} {{Wikisource}} * [http://memory.loc.gov/cocoon/ihas/loc.natlib.ihas.200000001/default.html MP3 and RealAudio recordings available at the United States Library of Congress] * {{cantorion|pieces/3049/America_the_Beautiful_(Materna)|America the Beautiful}} * [http://hymntime.com/tch/htm/o/b/f/obfsskis.htm Words, sheet music & MIDI file] at the Cyber Hymnal * [http://www.springsgov.com/Page.asp?NavID=5138 America the Beautiful Park] in Colorado Springs named for Katharine Lee Bates' words. * [http://web.me.com/highlandsarchives/The_Highlands_Archives/America.html Archival collection] of America the Beautiful lantern slides from the 1930s. * [http://www.traditional-songs.com/download_score.php?name=America%20the%20Beautiful&country=Usa Another free sheet music] {{List of official United States national symbols}} [[Category:1895 songs]] [[Category:American patriotic songs]] [[Category:Pikes Peak]] 1d8a9lspkglgwzdl07cy6ckb95hjrfb 0 653 714986429 714986208 2016-04-13T00:58:12Z Lentower 1159327 /* See also */ add <!-- Please keep entries in alphabetical order & add a short description [[WP:SEEALSO]] --> {{div col||20em|small=yes}} {{div col end}} wikitext text/x-wiki {{Use mdy dates|date=June 2013}} {{Disability}} [[File:Hoergeraet analog 050609.jpg|thumb|250px|Hearing aid]] '''Assistive technology''' is an [[umbrella term]] that includes assistive, adaptive, and rehabilitative devices for [[disability|people with disabilities]] and also includes the process used in selecting, locating, and using them. Assistive technology promotes greater independence by enabling people to perform tasks that they were formerly unable to accomplish, or had great difficulty accomplishing, by providing enhancements to, or changing methods of interacting with, the [[technology]] needed to accomplish such tasks. ==Assistive technology and adaptive technology== The term adaptive technology is often used as the [[synonym]] for assistive technology, however, they are different terms. Assistive technology refers to "any item, piece of equipment, or product system, whether acquired commercially, modified, or customized, that is used to increase, maintain, or improve functional capabilities of individuals with disabilities",<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://section508.gov/assistive-technology-act-1998|title=Assistive Technology Act of 1998 {{!}} Section508.gov|website=section508.gov|access-date=2016-04-04}}</ref> while adaptive technology covers items that are specifically designed for persons with disabilities and would seldom be used by non-disabled persons. In other words, "assistive technology is any object or system that increases or maintains the capabilities of people with disabilities," while adaptive technology is "any object or system that is specifically designed for the purpose of increasing or maintaining the capabilities of people with disabilities."<ref>{{cite web | title = Tennessee Science Standards | url = http://glencoe.mcgraw-hill.com/sites/dl/free/0078901359/594902/AAT_v4.pdf | accessdate = 2012-10-05}}</ref> Consequently, adaptive technology is a subset of assistive technology. Adaptive technology often refers specifically to electronic and information technology access.<ref>{{cite web | title = Assessing for Adaptive Technology Needs | url = http://dtn.tamu.edu/pdf/pp-assessingAT.ppt | accessdate = 2012-10-05}}</ref> ==Mobility impairments== === Wheelchairs === {{Main|Wheelchair}} Wheelchairs are devices that can be manually propelled or electrically propelled and that include a seating system and are designed to be a substitute for the normal mobility that most people enjoy. Wheelchairs and other mobility devices allow people to perform mobility related [[activities of daily living]] which include feeding, toileting, dressing grooming and bathing. The devices comes in a number of variations where they can be propelled either by hand or by motors where the occupant uses electrical controls to manage motors and seating control actuators through a [[joystick]], [[sip-and-puff]] control, or other input devices. Often there are handles behind the seat for someone else to do the pushing or input devices for caregivers. Wheelchairs are used by people for whom [[walking]] is difficult or impossible due to illness, injury, or disability. People with both sitting and walking disability often need to use a wheelchair or walker. === Transfer devices === {{Main|Patient lift}} Patient transfer devices generally allow patients with impaired mobility to be moved by caregivers between beds, wheelchairs, commodes, toilets, chairs, stretchers, shower benches, automobiles, swimming pools, and other patient support systems (i.e., radiology, surgical, or examining tables). The most common devices are [[Patient lift]]s (for vertical transfer), [[Transfer bench]]es, stretcher or convertible chairs (for lateral, supine transfer), sit-to-stand lifts (for moving patients from one seated position to another i.e., from wheelchairs to commodes), air bearing inflatable mattresses (for supine transfer i.e., transfer from a gurney to an operating room table), and sliding boards (usually used for transfer from a bed to a wheelchair). Highly dependent patients who cannot assist their caregiver in moving them often require a [[Patient lift]] (a floor or ceiling-suspended sling lift) which though invented in 1955 and in common use since the early 1960s is still considered the state-of-the-art transfer device by OSHA and the American Nursing Association. === Walkers === {{Main|Walker (mobility)|l1=Walker}}A [[walker (mobility)|walker]] or walking frame or Rollator is a tool for disabled people who need additional support to maintain balance or stability while walking. It consists of a frame that is about waist high, approximately twelve inches deep and slightly wider than the user. Walkers are also available in other sizes, such as for children, or for heavy people. Modern walkers are height-adjustable. The front two legs of the walker may or may not have wheels attached depending on the strength and abilities of the person using it. It is also common to see caster wheels or glides on the back legs of a walker with wheels on the front.<ref>C. Barrué. Personalization and Shared Autonomy in Assistive Technologies. Ph. Thesis. Universitat Politècnica de Catalunya. 2012</ref> === Prosthesis === {{Main|Prosthesis}}A '''prosthesis''', '''prosthetic''', or '''prosthetic limb''' is a device that replaces a missing [[Human body|body]] part. It is part of the field of [[biomechatronics]], the science of using [[Mechanical system|mechanical]] devices with human [[muscle]], [[skeleton]], and [[nervous systems]] to assist or enhance motor control lost by [[Trauma (medicine)|trauma]], [[disease]], or [[Congenital disorder|defect]]. Prostheses are typically used to replace parts lost by injury (traumatic) or missing from birth ([[congenital]]) or to supplement defective body parts. Inside the body, [[artificial heart valve]]s are in common use with [[artificial heart]]s and [[artificial lung|lungs]] seeing less common use but under active technology development. Other medical devices and aids that can be considered prosthetics include [[hearing aids]], [[visual prosthesis|artificial eyes]], [[palatal obturator]], [[Adjustable gastric band|gastric bands]], and [[dentures]]. Prostheses are specifically ''not'' [[orthoses]], although given certain circumstances a prosthesis might end up performing some or all of the same functionary benefits as an orthosis. Prostheses are technically the complete finished item. For instance, a C-Leg knee alone is ''not'' a prosthesis, but only a prosthetic ''component''. The complete prosthesis would consist of the attachment system&nbsp; to the residual limb — usually a "socket", and all the attachment hardware components all the way down to and including the terminal device. Keep this in mind as nomenclature is often interchanged. The terms "prosthetic" and "orthotic" are adjectives used to describe devices such as a prosthetic knee. The terms "prosthetics" and "orthotics" are used to describe the respective allied health fields. The devices themselves are properly referred to as "prostheses" and "orthoses" in the plural and "prosthesis" and "orthosis" in the singular. == Visual impairments == {{Main|Blindness#Management}} Many people with serious visual impairments live independently, using a wide range of tools and techniques. Examples of assistive technology for visually impairment include screen readers, screen magnifiers, Braille embossers, desktop video magnifiers, and voice recorders. === Screen readers === {{Main|Screen reader}} Screen readers allow the visually impaired to easily access electronic information. These software programs connect to a computer to read the text displayed out loud. There is a variety of platforms and applications available for a variety of costs.[[File:English braille sample.jpg|thumb|Braille is a system of raised dots representing letters, numbers, punctuation, and words.]] === Braille and braille embossers === {{Main|Braille}} Braille is a system of raised dots formed into units called braille cells. A full braille cell is made up of six dots, with two parallel rows of three dots, but other combinations and quantities of dots represent other letters, numbers, punctuation marks, or words. People can then use their fingers to read the code of raised dots. A braille embosser is, simply put, a printer for braille. Instead of a standard printer adding ink onto a page, the braille embosser imprints the raised dots of braille onto a page. Some braille embossers combine both braille and ink so the documents can be read with either sight or touch. === Desktop video magnifier === {{Main|Video magnifier}} Desktop video magnifiers are electronic devices that use a camera and a display screen to perform digital magnification of printed materials. They enlarge printed pages for those with low vision. A camera connects to a monitor that displays real time images, and the user can control settings such as magnification, focus, contrast, underlining, highlighting, and other screen preferences. They come in a variety of sizes and styles; some are small and portable with handheld cameras, while others are much larger and mounted on a fixed stand. === Screen magnification software === {{Main|Screen magnifier}} A screen magnifier is software that interfaces with a computer's graphical output to present enlarged screen content. It allows users to enlarge the texts and graphics on their computer screens for easier viewing. Similar to desktop video magnifiers, this technology assists people with low vision. After the user loads the software into their computer's memory, it serves as a kind of "computer magnifying glass." Wherever the computer cursor moves, it enlarges the area around it. This allows greater computer accessibility for a wide range of visual abilities. ==Personal emergency response systems== {{Main|Telecare}} [[File:Head-wand.jpg|thumb|This voter with a [[manual dexterity]] disability is making choices on a [[touchscreen]] with a head dauber]] [[Personal emergency response systems]] (PERS), or [[Telecare]] (UK term), are a particular sort of assistive technology that use electronic sensors connected to an alarm system to help caregivers manage risk and help vulnerable people stay independent at home longer. An example would be the systems being put in place for senior people such as fall detectors, thermometers (for [[hypothermia]] risk), flooding and unlit gas sensors (for people with mild [[dementia]]). Notably, these alerts can be customized to the particular person's risks. When the alert is triggered, a message is sent to a caregiver or contact center who can respond appropriately. ==Accessibility software== {{Main|Computer accessibility}} In human–computer interaction, computer accessibility (also known as accessible computing) refers to the accessibility of a computer system to all people, regardless of disability or severity of impairment, examples include [[web accessibility]] guidelines.<ref>[http://www.learningdisabilities.org.uk/page.cfm?pagecode=ISSIWD Web accessibility guidelines]</ref> Another approach is for the user to present a token to the computer terminal, such as a smart card, that has configuration information to adjust the computer speed, text size, etc. to their particular needs. This is useful where users want to access public computer based terminals in Libraries, ATM, Information kiosks etc. The concept is encompassed by the CEN EN 1332-4 Identification Card Systems - Man-Machine Interface.<ref>[http://www.cen.eu/cen/Sectors/TechnicalCommitteesWorkshops/CENTechnicalCommittees/Pages/TCStruc.aspx?param=6205&title=Personal%20identification,%20electronic%20signature%20and%20cards%20and%20their%20related%20systems%20and%20operations CEN EN 1332-4 Identification Card Systems - Man-Machine Interface]</ref> This development of this standard has been supported in Europe by [[SNAPI]] and has been successfully incorporated into the [[Lasseo]] specifications, but with limited success due to the lack of interest from public computer terminal suppliers. ==Hearing impairments== {{Main|Assistive Technology for Deaf and Hard of Hearing}} The deaf or hard of hearing community has a difficult time to communicate and perceive information as compared to hearing individuals. Thus, these individuals often rely on visual and tactile mediums for receiving and communicating information. The use of assistive technology and devices provides this community with various solutions to their problems by providing higher sound (for those who are hard of hearing), tactile feedback, visual cues and improved technology access. Individuals who are deaf or hard of hearing utilize a variety of assistive technologies that provide them with improved accessibility to information in numerous environments.<ref>{{cite web | title = Assistive Technology for Individuals who are Deaf or Hard of Hearing | url = http://www.wati.org/content/supports/free/pdf/Ch13-Hearing.pdf | accessdate = 2015-11-08}}</ref> Most devices either provide amplified sound or alternate ways to access information through vision and/or vibration. These technologies can be grouped into three general categories: [[Assistive Technology for Deaf and Hard of Hearing#Hearing Technology|Hearing Technology]], alerting devices, and [[Assistive Technology for Deaf and Hard of Hearing#Communication Support|communication support]]. === Hearing aids === {{Main|Hearing aid}} A hearing aid or deaf aid is an electroacoustic device which is designed to amplify sound for the wearer, usually with the aim of making speech more intelligible, and to correct impaired hearing as measured by audiometry. This type of assistive technology helps people with hearing loss participate more fully in their communities by allowing them to hear more clearly. They amplify any and all sound waves through use of a microphone, amplifier, and speaker. There is a wide variety of hearing aids available, including digital, in-the-ear, in-the-canal, behind-the-ear, and on-the-body aids. === Assistive listening devices === {{Main|Assistive listening device}} Assistive listening devices include FM, infrared, and loop assistive listening devices. This type of technology allows people with hearing difficulties to focus on a speaker or subject by getting rid of extra background noises and distractions, making places like auditoriums, classrooms, and meetings much easier to participate in. The assistive listening device usually uses a microphone to capture an audio source near to its origin and broadcast it wirelessly over an FM (Frequency Modulation) transmission, IR (Infra Red) transmission, IL (Induction Loop) transmission, or other transmission method. The person who is listening may use an FM/IR/IL Receiver to tune into the signal and listen at his/her preferred volume. === Amplified telephone equipment === {{Main|Telecommunications device for the deaf|l1=Telecommunications device for the deaf#Other devices for the deaf or hard of hearing}} This type of assistive technology allows users to amplify the volume and clarity of their phone calls so that they can easily partake in this medium of communication. There are also options to adjust the frequency and tone of a call to suit their individual hearing needs. Additionally, there is a wide variety of amplified telephones to choose from, with different degrees of amplification. For example, a phone with 26 to 40 decibel is generally sufficient for mild hearing loss, while a phone with 71 to 90 decibel is better for more severe hearing loss.<ref>{{Cite web|title = Guide to Amplified Phones|url = https://assistech.com/store/amplified-telephone-guide|website = assistech.com|accessdate = 2015-11-25}}</ref> ==Augmentative and alternative communication== {{Main|Augmentative and alternative communication}} [[File:AAC user using eye gaze.JPG|thumb|An AAC user uses number coding on an eye gaze communication board]] '''Augmentative and alternative communication (AAC)''' is an umbrella term that encompasses methods of communication for those with impairments or restrictions on the production or comprehension of spoken or written language.<ref name=asha2005>[[#refASHA2005|ASHA (2005)]].</ref> AAC systems are extremely diverse and depend on the capabilities of the user. They may be as basic as pictures on a board that are used to request food, drink, or other care; or they can be advanced [[speech generating device]]s, based on speech synthesis, that are capable of storing hundreds of phrases and words.<ref name="GillamMarquardt2000">[[#refGillamMarqardt2000|Gilliam & Marquardt]], pp. 356–359.</ref> ==Cognitive impairments== {{Main|Cognitive orthotics}} Assistive technology for cognition (ATC)<ref>LoPresti, E.F., Mihailidis, A. & Kirsch, N. (2004). Assistive Technology for cognitive rehabilitation: State of the art. Neuropsychological Rehabilitation, 14, 5-39.</ref> is the use of technology (usually high tech) to augment and assistive cognitive processes such as attention, memory, self-regulation, navigation, [[emotion recognition]] and management, planning, and sequencing activity. Systematic reviews of the field have found that the number of ATC are growing rapidly, but have focused on memory and planning, that there is emerging evidence for efficacy, that a lot of scope exists to develop new ATC.<ref>Gillespie, A., Best, C. & O'Neill, B. (2012). [http://lse.academia.edu/AlexGillespie/Papers/1347581/Cognitive_function_and_assistive_technology_for_cognition_A_systematic_review Cognitive function and Assistive Technology for cognition: A systematic review]. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 18, 1-19.</ref> Examples of ATC include: [[NeuroPage]] which prompts users about meetings,<ref>Wilson, et al. (1997). Evaluation of NeuroPage: A new memory aid. Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery and Psychiatry, 63, 113-115.</ref> [[Wakamaru]], which provides companionship and reminds users to take medicine and calls for help if something is wrong, and telephone Reassurance systems.<ref>assistivetech.net: [http://atwiki.assistivetech.net/index.php/Telephone_Reassurance Telephone Reassurance]. Accessed 2009-08-06.</ref> === Memory aids === Memory aids are any type of assistive technology that helps a user learn and remember certain information. Many memory aids are used for cognitive impairments such as reading, writing, or organizational difficulties. For example, a Smartpen records handwritten notes by creating both a digital copy and an audio recording of the text. Users simply tap certain parts of their notes and the pen saves it and reads it back to them. From there, the user can also download their notes onto a computer for increased accessibility. Digital voice recorders are also used to record "in the moment" information for fast and easy recall at a later time.<ref>{{Cite web|title = Using External Aids to Compensate for Memory and Organizational Problems Post-TBI|url = http://www.brainline.org/content/2011/04/using-external-aids-to-compensate-for-memory-and-organizational-problems-post-tbi.html|accessdate = 2015-11-30}}</ref> === Educational software === {{Main|Educational software}} Educational software is software that assists people with reading, learning, comprehension, and organizational difficulties. Any accommodation software such as text readers, notetakers, text enlargers, organization tools, word predictions, and talking word processors falls under the category of educational software. ==Assistive technology in sport== [[File:NYC Marathon wheelchair.jpg|thumb|A [[New York City Marathon]] competitor uses a racing wheelchair]] Assistive technology in sport is an area of technology design that is growing. Assistive technology is the array of new devices created to enable sports enthusiasts who have disabilities to play. Assistive technology may be used in [[adaptive sports]], where an existing sport is modified to enable players with a disability to participate; or, assistive technology may be used to invent completely new sports with athletes with disabilities exclusively in mind. An increasing number of people with disabilities are participating in sports, leading to the development of new assistive technology.<ref>{{cite book|last=Scherer, Marcia and Stefano Federici|title=Assistive Technology Assessment Handbook|year=2012|publisher=CRC Press|isbn=9781439838655|page=425}}</ref> Assistive technology devices can be simple, or "low-tech", or they may use highly advanced technology, with some even using computers. Assistive technology for sports may also be simple, or advanced.<ref>{{cite web|title=Assistive technologies|url=http://www.understandingdisability.org/AssistiveTechnologies|publisher=Spaulding Framingham|accessdate=September 5, 2012}}</ref> Accordingly, assistive technology can be found in sports ranging from local community recreation to the elite [[Paralympic Games]]. More complex assistive technology devices have been developed over time, and as a result, sports for people with disabilities "have changed from being a clinical therapeutic tool to an increasingly competition-oriented activity".<ref>{{cite book|last=Scherer, Marcia and Stefano Federici|title=Assistive Technology Assessment Handbook|year=2012|publisher=CRC Press|isbn=9781439838655|page=427}}</ref> ==Assistive technology in education== In the United States there are two major pieces of legislation that govern the use of assistive technology within the school system. The first is Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act of 1973 and the second being the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) which was first enacted in 1975 under the name The Education for All Handicapped Children Act. In 2004, during the reauthorization period for IDEA, the National Instructional Material Access Center (NIMAC) was created which provided a repository of accessible text including publisher's textbooks to students with a qualifying disability. Files provided are in XML format and used as a starting platform for braille readers, screen readers, and other digital text software.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nimac.us/}}</ref> IDEA defines assistive technology as follows: "any item, piece of equipment, or product system, whether acquired commercially off the shelf, modified, or customized, that is used to increase, maintain, or improve functional capabilities of a child with a disability. (B) Exception.--The term does not include a medical device that is surgically implanted, or the replacement of such device." <ref>{{cite web|url=http://idea.ed.gov/explore/view/p/,root,statute,I,A,602,1,}}</ref> Assistive technology in this area is broken down into low, mid, and high tech categories. Low tech encompasses equipment that is often low cost and does not include batteries or requires charging. Examples include adapted paper and pencil grips for writing or masks and color overlays for reading. Mid tech supports used in the school setting include the use of handheld spelling dictionaries and portable word processors used to keyboard writing. High tech supports involve the use of tablet devices and computers with accompanying software. Software supports for writing include the use of auditory feedback while keyboarding, word prediction for spelling, and speech to text. Supports for reading include the use of text to speech (TTS) software and font modification via access to digital text. Limited supports are available for math instruction and mostly consist of grid based software to allow younger students to keyboard equations and auditory feedback of more complex equations using MathML and Daisy. ==Computer accessibility== {{Main|Computer accessibility}} [[File:Sip-and-puff device.jpg|thumb|A [[sip-and-puff]] device which allows a person with substantial disability to make selections and navigate computerized interfaces by controlling inhalations and exhalations]] One of the largest problems that affect people with disabilities is discomfort with prostheses.<ref name=hussein>{{cite journal|last=Abdullah|first=Hussein A.|author2=Tarry, Cole|author3=Datta, Rahul.|author4=Mittal, Gauri S.|author5=Abderrahim, Mohamed|title=Dynamic Biomechanical Model for Assessing and Monitoring Robot-Assisted Upper-Limb Therapy|journal=Journal of Rehabilitation Research and Development|year=2007|volume=44|issue=1|pages=43–62|doi=10.1682/JRRD.2006.03.0025|pmid=17551857}}</ref> An experiment performed in Massachusetts utilized 20 people with various sensors attached to their arms.<ref name=hussein /> The subjects tried different arm exercises, and the sensors recorded their movements. All of the data helped engineers develop new engineering concepts for prosthetics.<ref name=hussein /> Assistive technology may attempt to improve the ergonomics of the devices themselves such as [[Dvorak Simplified Keyboard|Dvorak]] and other alternative keyboard layouts, which offer more ergonomic layouts of the keys.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Chubon, R.A., Hester, M.R. |title=An enhanced standard computer keyboard system for single-finger and typing-stick typing |journal=[[Journal of Rehabilitation Research and Development]] |volume=25 |issue=4 |pages=17–24 |year=1988 |pmid=2973523 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author=Anson, D., George, S., Galup, R., Shea, B., Vetter, R. |title=Efficiency of the Chubon versus the QWERTY keyboard |journal= Assistive-Technology |volume=13 |issue=1 |pages=40–5 |year=2001 |pmid=12212435 |doi=10.1080/10400435.2001.10132032 }}</ref> Assistive technology devices have been created to enable people with disabilities to use modern touch screen mobile computers such as the [[iPad]], [[iPhone]] and [[iPod touch]]. The Pererro is a plug and play adapter for [[iOS]] devices which uses the built in [[Apple VoiceOver]] feature in combination with a basic switch. This brings touch screen technology to those who were previously unable to use it. Apple, with the release of iOS 7 had introduced the ability to navigate apps using switch control. Switch access could be activated either through an external bluetooth connected switch, single touch of the screen, or use of right and left head turns using the device's camera. Additional accessibility features include the use of Assistive Touch which allows a user to access multi-touch gestures through pre-programmed onscreen buttons. For users with physical disabilities a large variety of switches are available and customizable to the user's needs varying in size, shape, or amount of pressure required for activation. [[Switch access]] may be placed near any area of the body which has consistent and reliable mobility and less subject to fatigue. Common sites include the hands, head, and feet. Eye gaze and head mouse systems can also be used as an alternative mouse navigation. A user may utilize single or multiple switch sites and the process often involves a scanning through items on a screen and activating the switch once the desired object is highlighted. ==Home automation== The form of [[home automation]] called [[assistive domotics]] focuses on making it possible for elderly and disabled people to live independently. Home automation is becoming a viable option for the elderly and disabled who would prefer to stay in their own homes rather than move to a healthcare facility. This field uses much of the same technology and equipment as home automation for security, entertainment, and energy conservation but tailors it towards elderly and disabled users. For example, automated prompts and reminders utilize motion sensors and pre-recorded audio messages; an automated prompt in the kitchen may remind the resident to turn off the oven, and one by the front door may remind the resident to lock the door.<ref>{{Cite web|title = Assistive technology - devices to help with everyday living|url = https://www.alzheimers.org.uk/site/scripts/documents_info.php?documentID=109|website = www.alzheimers.org.uk|accessdate = 2015-11-30|language = en|first = Natasha|last = Judd}}</ref> == Impacts of assistive technology == Overall, assistive technology aims to allow people with disabilities to "participate more fully in all aspects of life (home, school, and community)" and increases their opportunities for "education, social interactions, and potential for meaningful employment."<ref>{{Cite web|title = Considering Assistive Technology {{!}} Center for Parent Information and Resources|url = http://www.parentcenterhub.org/repository/considering-at/|website = www.parentcenterhub.org|accessdate = 2015-11-25}}</ref> It creates greater independence and control for disabled individuals. For example, in one study of 1,342 infants, toddlers and preschoolers, all with some kind of developmental, physical, sensory, or cognitive disability, the use of assistive technology created improvements in child development. These included improvements in "cognitive, social, communication, literacy, motor, adaptive, and increases in engagement in learning activities."<ref>{{Cite web|url = http://community.fpg.unc.edu/sites/community.fpg.unc.edu/files/resources/Handout/CONNECT-Handout-5-1.pdf|title = Research Summary on Assistive Technology Interventions|date = August 2013|accessdate = 24 November 2015|website = Community|publisher = |last = Dunst, Trivette, Hamby, Simkus|first = }}</ref> ==See also== {{Commons category}} <!-- Please keep entries in alphabetical order & add a short description [[WP:SEEALSO]] --> {{div col||20em|small=yes}} * [[Accessibility]] * [[Augmentative and alternative communication]] * [[Braille technology]] * [[Design for All (in ICT)]] * [[Durable medical equipment]] * [[Matching Person & Technology Model]] * [[OATS]]: Open Source Assistive Technology Software * [[Occupational Therapy]] * [[Transgenerational design]] * [[Universal access to education]] {{div col end}} <!-- please keep entries in alphabetical order --> ==References== ;Sources * <span id="refASHA2005" class="citation">{{cite web |url=http://www.asha.org/docs/html/PS2005-00113.html|title=Roles and Responsibilities of Speech-Language Pathologists With Respect to Augmentative and Alternative Communication: Position Statement|year=2005|author=American Speech-Language-Hearing Association.|accessdate=2009-01-23| archiveurl= http://web.archive.org/web/20090213100431/http://asha.org/docs/html/PS2005-00113.html| archivedate= 13 February 2009 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}</span> * <span id="refGlennenDeCoste" class="citation">{{cite book |editors=Glennen, Sharon; DeCoste, Denise C. |last=DeCoste| first= Denise C.|title=Handbook Of Augmentative And Alternative Communication|chapter=Chapter 10: Introduction to Augmentative and Alternative Communication Systems |publisher=Singular Publishing Group |location=San Diego, CA |year=1997 |isbn=1-56593-684-1 }}</span> * <span id="refSchlosserWendt" class="citation">{{cite journal |author= Schlosser, R. W. |author2=Wendt, O. |title= Effects of augmentative and alternative communication intervention on speech production in children with autism: a systematic review |journal=American Journal of Speech-Language Pathology |volume=17 |issue=3 |pages=212–230 |year=2008 |pmid=18663107 |doi=10.1044/1058-0360(2008/021)}}</span> * <span id="refBeukelmanMirenda" class="citation">{{cite book|author1=Beukelman, David R.|author2=Mirenda, Pat|title=Augmentative & alternative communication: supporting children & adults with complex communication needs |year=2005 |publisher=Paul H. Brookes Publishing Company |edition=3rd |isbn=978-1-55766-684-0}}</span> * <span id="refGalvão Filho2009" class="citation">{{cite journal|last=Galvão Filho|first=T.|year=2009|title=Tecnologia Assistiva para uma Escola Inclusiva: apropriação, demandas e perspectivas. Tese (Doutorado em Educação) – Faculdade de Educação, Universidade Federal da Bahia, Salvador, Brazil. Disponível em: http://www.galvaofilho.net/tese.htm }}</span> * <span id="refMirenda2003" class="citation">{{cite journal|last=Mirenda|first=P.|year=2003|title=Toward Functional Augmentative and Alternative Communication for Students With Autism: Manual Signs, Graphic Symbols, and Voice Output Communication Aids |journal=Language, Speech, & Hearing Services in Schools|volume=34|issue=3|pages=203–216|doi=10.1044/0161-1461(2003/017)}}</span> * <span id="refMathy2000" class="citation">{{cite book|last=Mathy|author2=Yorkston, K.|author3= Guttman|title=Augmentative and Alternative Communication Disorders for Adults with Acquired Neurologic Disorders|editor=Beukelman, D.; Yorkston, K.; Reichle, J.| chapter=Augmentative Communication for Individuals with Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis |publisher=P. H. Brookes Pub.|location=Baltimore|year=2000|isbn=978-1-55766-473-0}}</span> * <span id="refJansClark" class="citation">{{cite book |author1=Jans, Deborah |author2=Clark, Sue |chapter=Chapter 6: High Technology Aids to Communication |title=Augmentative Communication in Practice: An Introduction |isbn=978-1-898042-15-0 |url=http://www.callscotland.org.uk/Resources/Books/Augmentative-Communication-in-Practice/ |editor=Wilson, Allan |publisher=University of Edinburgh |year=1998}}</span> * <span id="refParetteEtal2000" class="citation">{{cite journal|last=Parette|first=H. P.|author2=Brotherson, M. J|author3= Huer, M. B.|year=2000|title=Giving families a voice in augmentative and alternative communication decision-making|journal=Education and Training in Mental Retardation and Developmental Disabilities|volume=35|pages=177–190|url=http://psycnet.apa.org/psycinfo/2001-17960-006}}</span> ;Notes {{Reflist|30em}} {{Technology}} {{Authority control}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Assistive Technology}} [[Category:Assistive technology| ]] [[Category:Disability]] [[Category:Educational technology]] [[Category:Web accessibility]] e8wn7t538gi19luirn20kg14zfh8jb1 0 654 56435663 30764945 2006-06-02T03:15:36Z Reinthal 79249 Redirecting to Computer accessibility wikitext text/x-wiki #REDIRECT [[Computer accessibility]] h516h2x88254d4jwexxsi0ajd5qk3xd 0 655 715213523 715213234 2016-04-14T11:35:49Z Favonian 7007500 Reverted edits by [[Special:Contribs/TestEditorUser|TestEditorUser]] ([[User talk:TestEditorUser|talk]]) to last version by Alphacolony wikitext text/x-wiki {{Other uses}} {{Redirect2|Abaci|abacuses|the Turkish surname|Abacı (disambiguation){{!}}Abacı|the medieval book|Liber Abaci}} {{pp-vandalism|expiry=6 September 2016|small=yes}} {{Use mdy dates|date=June 2013}} [[File:Boulier1.JPG|right|thumb|A Chinese abacus]] [[File:Houghton Typ 520.03.736 - Margarita philosophica.jpg|right|thumb|''Calculating-Table'' by [[Gregor Reisch]]: ''Margarita Philosophica'', 1503. The woodcut shows ''Arithmetica'' instructing an [[algorism|algorist]] and an abacist (inaccurately represented as [[Boethius]] and [[Pythagoras]]). There was keen competition between the two from the introduction of the ''[[The Compendious Book on Calculation by Completion and Balancing|Algebra]]'' into Europe in the 12th century until its triumph in the 16th.<ref>{{harvnb|Boyer|Merzbach|1991|pp=252–253}}</ref>]] The '''abacus''' (''plural'' '''abaci''' or '''abacuses'''), also called a '''counting frame''', is a calculating tool that was in use in Europe, China and Russia, centuries before the adoption of the written [[Hindu–Arabic numeral system]] and is still used by merchants, traders and clerks in some parts of [[Eastern Europe]], [[Russia]], [[China]] and [[Africa]]. Today, abaci are often constructed as a bamboo frame with beads sliding on wires, but originally they were beans or stones moved in grooves in sand or on tablets of wood, stone, or metal. ==Etymology== The use of the word ''abacus'' dates before 1387 AD, when a [[Middle English]] work borrowed the word from [[Latin]] to describe a sandboard abacus. The Latin word came from [[Greek language|Greek]] ἄβαξ ''abax'' which means something without base, and improperly, any piece of rectangular board or plank.<ref>{{harvnb|de Stefani|1909|p=2}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Gaisford|1962|p=2}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Lasserre|Livadaras|1976|p=4}}</ref> Alternatively, without reference to ancient texts on etymology, it has been suggested that it means "a square tablet strewn with dust",<ref>{{harvnb|Klein|1966|p=1}}</ref> or "drawing-board covered with dust (for the use of mathematics)"<ref>{{harvnb|Onions|Friedrichsen|Burchfield|1967|p=2}}</ref> (the exact shape of the Latin perhaps reflects the [[Genitive case|genitive form]] of the Greek word, ἄβακoς ''abakos''). Whereas the table strewn with dust definition is popular, there are those that do not place credence in this at all and in fact state that it is not proven.<ref name=pull17>{{harvnb|Pullan|1968|p=17}}</ref>{{refn|group=nb|Both C. J. Gadd, a keeper of the Egyptian and Assyrian Antiquities at the [[British Museum]], and [[Jacob Levy]], a Jewish Historian who wrote ''Neuhebräisches und chaldäisches wörterbuch über die Talmudim und Midraschim [Neuhebräisches and Chaldean dictionary on the Talmuds and Midrashi]'' disagree with the "dust table" theory.<ref name=pull17/>}} Greek ἄβαξ itself is probably a borrowing of a [[Northwest Semitic]], perhaps [[Phoenician language|Phoenician]], word akin to [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] ''ʾābāq'' (אבק), "dust" (or in post-Biblical sense meaning "sand used as a writing surface").<ref name="Etymology">{{harvnb|Huehnergard|2011|p=2}}</ref> The preferred plural of ''abacus'' is a subject of disagreement, with both ''abacuses''<ref name = SOED>{{harvnb|Brown|1993|p=2}}</ref> and ''abaci''<ref name = SOED/> in use. The user of an abacus is called an ''abacist''.<ref>{{harvnb|Gove|1976|p=1}}</ref> ==History== ===Mesopotamian=== The period 2700–2300 BC saw the first appearance of the [[Sumer]]ian abacus, a table of successive columns which delimited the successive orders of magnitude of their [[sexagesimal]] number system.<ref>{{harvnb|Ifrah|2001|p=11}}</ref> Some scholars point to a character from the [[Babylon]]ian [[cuneiform]] which may have been derived from a representation of the abacus.<ref>{{harvnb|Crump|1992|p=188}}</ref> It is the belief of Old Babylonian<ref>{{harvnb|Melville|2001}}</ref> scholars such as Carruccio that Old Babylonians "may have used the abacus for the operations of [[addition]] and [[subtraction]]; however, this primitive device proved difficult to use for more complex calculations".<ref>{{harvnb|Carruccio|2006|p=14}}</ref> ===Egyptian=== The use of the abacus in [[Ancient Egypt]] is mentioned by the Greek historian [[Herodotus]], who writes that the Egyptians manipulated the pebbles from right to left, opposite in direction to the Greek left-to-right method. Archaeologists have found ancient disks of various sizes that are thought to have been used as counters. However, wall depictions of this instrument have not been discovered.<ref name=Smith1>{{harvnb|Smith|1958|pp=157–160}}</ref> ===Persian=== During the [[Achaemenid Empire]], around 600 BC the Persians first began to use the abacus.<ref>{{harvnb|Carr|2014}}</ref> Under the [[Parthian Empire|Parthian]], [[Sassanian]] and [[Iran]]ian empires, scholars concentrated on exchanging knowledge and inventions with the countries around them – [[India]], [[China]], and the [[Roman Empire]], when it is thought to have been exported to other countries. === Greek === The earliest archaeological evidence for the use of the Greek abacus dates to the 5th century BC.<ref>{{harvnb|Ifrah|2001|p=15}}</ref> Also [[Demosthenes]] (384 BC–322 BC) talked of the need to use pebbles for calculations too difficult for your head.<ref name=Will/><ref name=pull>{{harvnb|Pullan|1968|p=16}}</ref> A play by [[Alexis (poet)|Alexis]] from the 4th century BC mentions an abacus and pebbles for accounting, and both [[Diogenes of Sinope|Diogenes]] and [[Polybius]] mention men that sometimes stood for more and sometimes for less, like the pebbles on an abacus.<ref name=pull/> The Greek abacus was a table of wood or marble, pre-set with small counters in wood or metal for mathematical calculations. This Greek abacus saw use in Achaemenid Persia, the Etruscan civilization, Ancient Rome and, until the French Revolution, the Western Christian world. A tablet found on the Greek island [[Salamis Island|Salamis]] in 1846 AD (the [[Salamis Tablet]]), dates back to 300 BC, making it the oldest counting board discovered so far. It is a slab of white marble {{convert|149|cm|0|abbr=on}} long, {{convert|75|cm|0|abbr=on}} wide, and {{convert|4.5|cm|0|abbr=on}} thick, on which are 5 groups of markings. In the center of the tablet is a set of 5 parallel lines equally divided by a vertical line, capped with a semicircle at the intersection of the bottom-most horizontal line and the single vertical line. Below these lines is a wide space with a horizontal crack dividing it. Below this crack is another group of eleven parallel lines, again divided into two sections by a line perpendicular to them, but with the semicircle at the top of the intersection; the third, sixth and ninth of these lines are marked with a cross where they intersect with the vertical line.<ref>{{harvnb|Williams|1997|pp=55–56}}</ref> Also from this time frame the ''Darius Vase'' was unearthed in 1851. It was covered with pictures including a "treasurer" holding a wax tablet in one hand while manipulating counters on a table with the other.<ref name="Will"/> ===Chinese=== {{Main|Suanpan}} [[File:abacus 6.png|thumb|[[Suanpan]] (the number represented in the picture is 6,302,715,408)]] The earliest known written documentation of the Chinese abacus dates to the 2nd century BC.<ref>{{harvnb|Ifrah|2001|p=17}}</ref> The Chinese abacus, known as the [[suanpan]] ([[:zh:算盤|算盤]], lit. "Counting tray", Mandarin ''suàn pán'', Cantonese ''syun<sup>3</sup> pun<sup>4</sup>''), is typically {{convert|20|cm|0|abbr=on}} tall and comes in various widths depending on the operator. It usually has more than seven rods. There are two beads on each rod in the upper deck and five beads each in the bottom for both [[decimal]] and [[hexadecimal]] computation. The beads are usually rounded and made of a [[hardwood]]. The beads are counted by moving them up or down towards the beam. If you move them toward the beam, you count their value. If you move away, you don't count their value.<ref name="ryerson">{{harvnb|Fernandes|2003}}</ref> The suanpan can be reset to the starting position instantly by a quick movement along the horizontal axis to spin all the beads away from the horizontal beam at the center. Suanpans can be used for functions other than counting. Unlike the simple counting board used in elementary schools, very efficient suanpan techniques have been developed to do [[multiplication]], [[division (mathematics)|division]], [[addition]], [[subtraction]], [[square root]] and [[cube root]] operations at high speed. There are currently schools teaching students how to use it. In the long scroll ''[[Along the River During the Qingming Festival]]'' painted by [[Zhang Zeduan]] (1085–1145 AD) during the [[Song dynasty]] (960–1297 AD), a suanpan is clearly seen lying beside an account book and doctor's prescriptions on the counter of an [[apothecary]]'s (Feibao). The similarity of the [[Roman abacus]] to the Chinese one suggests that one could have inspired the other, as there is some evidence of a trade relationship between the [[Roman Empire]] and China. However, no direct connection can be demonstrated, and the similarity of the abaci may be coincidental, both ultimately arising from counting with five fingers per hand. Where the Roman model (like most modern Korean and [[#Japanese abacus|Japanese]]) has 4 plus 1 bead per decimal place, the standard suanpan has 5 plus 2. (Incidentally, this allows use with a [[hexadecimal]] numeral system.) Instead of running on wires as in the Chinese, Korean, and Japanese models, the beads of Roman model run in grooves, presumably making arithmetic calculations much slower. Another possible source of the suanpan is Chinese [[counting rods]], which operated with a [[decimal|decimal system]] but lacked the concept of [[0 (number)|zero]] as a place holder. The zero was probably introduced to the Chinese in the [[Tang dynasty]] (618-907 AD) when travel in the [[Indian Ocean]] and the [[Middle East]] would have provided direct contact with [[India]], allowing them to acquire the concept of zero and the [[decimal point]] from Indian merchants and mathematicians. ===Roman=== {{Main|Roman abacus}} [[File:RomanAbacusRecon.jpg|right|thumb|Copy of a [[Roman abacus]]]] The normal method of calculation in ancient Rome, as in Greece, was by moving counters on a smooth table. Originally pebbles (''calculi'') were used. Later, and in medieval Europe, [[jeton]]s were manufactured. Marked lines indicated units, fives, tens etc. as in the [[Roman numeral]] system. This system of 'counter casting' continued into the late Roman empire and in medieval Europe, and persisted in limited use into the nineteenth century.<ref>{{harvnb|Pullan|1968|p=18}}</ref> Due to [[Pope Sylvester II]]'s reintroduction of the abacus with very useful modifications, it became widely used in Europe once again during the 11th century<ref>{{harvnb|Brown|2010|pp=81–82}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Brown|2011}}</ref> This abacus used beads on wires, unlike the traditional Roman counting boards, which meant the abacus could be used much faster.<ref>{{harvnb|Huff|1993|p=50}}</ref> Writing in the 1st century BC, Horace refers to the wax abacus, a board covered with a thin layer of black wax on which columns and figures were inscribed using a stylus.<ref name=rome>{{harvnb|Ifrah|2001|p=18}}</ref> One example of archaeological evidence of the [[Roman abacus]], shown here in reconstruction, dates to the 1st century AD. It has eight long grooves containing up to five beads in each and eight shorter grooves having either one or no beads in each. The groove marked I indicates units, X tens, and so on up to millions. The beads in the shorter grooves denote fives –five units, five tens etc., essentially in a [[bi-quinary coded decimal]] system, obviously related to the [[Roman numerals]]. The short grooves on the right may have been used for marking Roman "ounces" (i.e. fractions). ===Indian=== There is no clear evidence for use of abacus in India. The decimal number system invented in India replaced use of abacus in Western Europe.<ref name="UniOfNthC1">{{Citation|url=http://www.unc.edu/~rowlett/units/roman.html|title=Roman and "Arabic" Numerals|last=Rowlett|first=Russ|date=2004-07-04|publisher=[[University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill]]|accessdate=2009-06-22}}</ref> The ''[[Abhidharmakośabhāṣya]]'' of [[Vasubandhu]] (316-396), a Sanskrit work on Buddhist philosophy, says that the second-century CE philosopher [[Vasumitra]] said that, "placing a wick (Sanskrit ''vartikā'') on the number one (''ekāṅka'') means it is a one, while placing the wick on the number hundred means it is called a hundred, and on the number one thousand means it is called a thousand". It is unclear exactly what this arrangement may have been. Around the 5th century, Indian clerks were already finding new ways of recording the contents of the Abacus.<ref>{{harvnb|Körner|1996|p=232}}</ref> Hindu texts used the term ''śūnya'' (zero) to indicate the empty column on the abacus.<ref>{{harvnb|Mollin|1998|p=3}}</ref> ===Japanese=== {{Main|Soroban}} [[File:Soroban.JPG|thumb|Japanese [[soroban]]]] In Japanese, the abacus is called ''[[soroban]]'' ({{lang|ja|算盤, そろばん}}, lit. "Counting tray"), imported from China in the 14th century.<ref name=Gul>{{harvnb|Gullberg|1997|p=169}}</ref> It was probably in use by the working class a century or more before the ruling class started, as the class structure did not allow for devices used by the lower class to be adopted or used by the ruling class.<ref>{{harvnb|Williams|1997|p=65}}</ref> The 1/4 abacus, which is suited to decimal calculation, appeared circa 1930, and became widespread as the Japanese abandoned hexadecimal weight calculation which was still common in China. The abacus is still manufactured in Japan today even with the proliferation, practicality, and affordability of pocket [[electronic calculator]]s. The use of the soroban is still taught in Japanese [[primary school]]s as part of [[mathematics]], primarily as an aid to faster mental calculation. Using visual imagery of a soroban, one can arrive at the answer in the same time as, or even faster than, is possible with a physical instrument.<ref>{{harvnb|Murray|1982}}</ref> ===Korean=== The Chinese abacus migrated from China to [[Korea]] around 1400 AD.<ref name=Will>{{harvnb|Williams|1997|p=55}}</ref><ref name="thocp">{{harvnb|Anon|2002}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Jami|1998|p=4}}</ref> Koreans call it ''jupan'' (주판), ''supan'' (수판) or ''jusan-means calculating with an abacus-'' (주산).<ref>{{harvnb|Anon|2013}}</ref> ===Native American=== [[File:Quipu.png|thumb|Representation of an [[Inca]] [[quipu]]]] [[File:Yupana 1.png|thumb|A [[yupana]] as used by the Incas.]] Some sources mention the use of an abacus called a ''nepohualtzintzin'' in ancient [[Aztec]] culture.<ref>{{harvnb|Sanyal|2008}}</ref> This Mesoamerican abacus used a 5-digit base-20 system.<ref>{{harvnb|Anon|2004}}</ref> The word Nepōhualtzintzin {{IPA-nah|nepoːwaɬˈt͡sint͡sin|}} comes from [[Nahuatl]] and it is formed by the roots; ''Ne'' - personal -; ''pōhual'' or ''pōhualli'' {{IPA-nah|ˈpoːwalːi|}} - the account -; and ''tzintzin'' {{IPA-nah|ˈt͡sint͡sin|}} - small similar elements. Its complete meaning was taken as: counting with small similar elements by somebody. Its use was taught in the [[Calmecac]] to the ''temalpouhqueh'' {{IPA-nah|temaɬˈpoʍkeʔ|}}, who were students dedicated to take the accounts of skies, from childhood. The Nepōhualtzintzin was divided in two main parts separated by a bar or intermediate cord. In the left part there were four beads, which in the first row have unitary values (1, 2, 3, and 4), and in the right side there are three beads with values of 5, 10, and 15 respectively. In order to know the value of the respective beads of the upper rows, it is enough to multiply by 20 (by each row), the value of the corresponding account in the first row. Altogether, there were 13 rows with 7 beads in each one, which made up 91 beads in each Nepōhualtzintzin. This was a basic number to understand, 7 times 13, a close relation conceived between natural phenomena, the underworld and the cycles of the heavens. One Nepōhualtzintzin (91) represented the number of days that a season of the year lasts, two Nepōhualtzitzin (182) is the number of days of the corn's cycle, from its sowing to its harvest, three Nepōhualtzintzin (273) is the number of days of a baby's gestation, and four Nepōhualtzintzin (364) completed a cycle and approximate a year (1{{sfrac|1|4}} days short). When translated into modern computer arithmetic, the Nepōhualtzintzin amounted to the rank from 10 to the 18 in [[floating point]], which calculated stellar as well as infinitesimal amounts with absolute precision, meant that no round off was allowed. The rediscovery of the Nepōhualtzintzin was due to the Mexican engineer David Esparza Hidalgo,<ref>{{harvnb|Hidalgo|1977|p=94}}</ref> who in his wanderings throughout Mexico found diverse engravings and paintings of this instrument and reconstructed several of them made in gold, jade, encrustations of shell, etc.<ref>{{harvnb|Hidalgo|1977|pp=94–101}}</ref> There have also been found very old Nepōhualtzintzin attributed to the [[Olmec]] culture, and even some bracelets of [[Maya peoples|Maya]]n origin, as well as a diversity of forms and materials in other cultures. George I. Sanchez, "Arithmetic in Maya", Austin-Texas, 1961 found another base 5, base 4 abacus in the [[Yucatán peninsula]] that also computed calendar data. This was a finger abacus, on one hand 0, 1, 2, 3, and 4 were used; and on the other hand 0, 1, 2 and 3 were used. Note the use of zero at the beginning and end of the two cycles. Sanchez worked with [[Sylvanus Morley]], a noted Mayanist. The [[quipu]] of the [[Inca]]s was a system of colored knotted cords used to record numerical data,<ref>{{harvnb|Albree|2000|p=42}}</ref> like advanced [[tally stick]]s – but not used to perform calculations. Calculations were carried out using a [[yupana]] ([[Quechua languages|Quechua]] for "counting tool"; see figure) which was still in use after the conquest of Peru. The working principle of a yupana is unknown, but in 2001 an explanation of the mathematical basis of these instruments was proposed by Italian mathematician Nicolino De Pasquale. By comparing the form of several yupanas, researchers found that calculations were based using the [[Fibonacci sequence]] 1, 1, 2, 3, 5 and powers of 10, 20 and 40 as place values for the different fields in the instrument. Using the Fibonacci sequence would keep the number of grains within any one field at a minimum.<ref>{{harvnb|Aimi|De Pasquale|2005}}</ref> ===Russian=== [[File:Schoty abacus.jpg|thumb|Russian abacus]] The Russian abacus, the ''schoty'' (счёты), usually has a single slanted deck, with ten beads on each wire (except one wire, usually positioned near the user, with four beads for quarter-ruble fractions). Older models have another 4-bead wire for quarter-kopeks, which were minted until 1916. The Russian abacus is often used vertically, with wires from left to right in the manner of a book. The wires are usually bowed to bulge upward in the center, to keep the beads pinned to either of the two sides. It is cleared when all the beads are moved to the right. During manipulation, beads are moved to the left. For easy viewing, the middle 2 beads on each wire (the 5th and 6th bead) usually are of a different colour from the other eight beads. Likewise, the left bead of the thousands wire (and the million wire, if present) may have a different color. As a simple, cheap and reliable device, the Russian abacus was in use in all shops and markets throughout the [[Commonwealth of Independent States|former Soviet Union]], and the usage of it was taught in most schools until the 1990s.<ref>{{harvnb|Burnett|Ryan|1998|p=7}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Hudgins|2004|p=219}}</ref> Even the 1874 invention of [[mechanical calculator]], [[Odhner Arithmometer|Odhner arithmometer]], had not replaced them in [[Russia]] and likewise the mass production of Felix arithmometers since 1924 did not significantly reduce their use in the [[Soviet Union]].<ref>{{harvnb|Leushina|1991|p=427}}</ref> The Russian abacus began to lose popularity only after the mass production of [[Pocket calculator|microcalculators]] had started in the Soviet Union in 1974. Today it is regarded as an archaism and replaced by the handheld calculator. The Russian abacus was brought to France around 1820 by the mathematician [[Jean-Victor Poncelet]], who served in [[Napoleon]]'s army and had been a prisoner of war in Russia.<ref>{{harvnb|Trogeman|Ernst|2001|p=24}}</ref> The abacus had fallen out of use in western Europe in the 16th century with the rise of decimal notation and [[algorism]]ic methods. To Poncelet's French contemporaries, it was something new. Poncelet used it, not for any applied purpose, but as a teaching and demonstration aid.<ref>{{harvnb|Flegg|1983|p=72}}</ref> The [[Turkic peoples|Turks]] and the [[Armenians|Armenian]] people also used abaci similar to the Russian schoty. It was named a ''coulba'' by the Turks and a ''choreb'' by the Armenians.<ref>{{harvnb|Williams|1997|p=64}}</ref> ==School abacus== [[File:Kugleramme.jpg|left|150px|thumb|Early 20th century abacus used in Danish elementary school.]] [[File:Telraam.JPG|thumb|A twenty bead rekenrek]] Around the world, abaci have been used in pre-schools and elementary schools as an aid in teaching the [[numeral system]] and [[arithmetic]]. In Western countries, a '''bead frame''' similar to the Russian abacus but with straight wires and a vertical frame has been common (see image). It is still often seen as a plastic or wooden toy. The wire frame may be used either with positional notation like other abaci (thus the 10-wire version may represent numbers up to 9,999,999,999), or each bead may represent one unit (so that e.g. 74 can be represented by shifting all beads on 7 wires and 4 beads on the 8th wire, so numbers up to 100 may be represented). In the bead frame shown, the gap between the 5th and 6th wire, corresponding to the color change between the 5th and the 6th bead on each wire, suggests the latter use. The red-and-white abacus is used in contemporary primary schools for a wide range of number-related lessons. The twenty bead version, referred to by its [[Dutch language|Dutch]] name ''rekenrek'', is often used, sometimes on a string of beads, sometimes on a rigid framework.<ref>{{harvnb|West|2011|p=49}}</ref> {{Clear}} ==Renaissance abaci gallery== <gallery> File:Gregor Reisch, Margarita Philosophica, 1508 (1230x1615).png File:Rechentisch.png File:Rechnung auff der Linihen und Federn.JPG File:Köbel Böschenteyn 1514.jpg File:Rechnung auff der linihen 1525 Adam Ries.PNG File:1543 Robert Recorde.PNG File:Peter Apian 1544.PNG File:Adam riesen.jpg File:Rekenaar 1553.jpg </gallery> ==Uses by the blind== An adapted abacus, invented by Tim Cranmer, called a '''Cranmer abacus''' is still commonly used by individuals who are [[blindness|blind]]. A piece of soft fabric or rubber is placed behind the beads so that they do not move inadvertently. This keeps the beads in place while the users feel or manipulate them. They use an abacus to perform the mathematical functions [[multiplication]], [[division (mathematics)|division]], [[addition]], [[subtraction]], [[square root]] and [[cube root]].<ref name="aph">{{harvnb|Terlau|Gissoni|2006}}</ref> Although blind students have benefited from talking calculators, the abacus is still very often taught to these students in early grades, both in public schools and state schools for the blind. The abacus teaches mathematical skills that can never be replaced with talking calculators and is an important learning tool for blind students.<ref>{{harvnb|Presley|D'Andrea|2009}}</ref> Blind students also complete mathematical assignments using a braille-writer and [[Nemeth Braille|Nemeth code]] (a type of braille code for mathematics) but large multiplication and long division problems can be long and difficult. The abacus gives blind and visually impaired students a tool to compute mathematical problems that equals the speed and mathematical knowledge required by their sighted peers using pencil and paper. Many blind people find this number machine a very useful tool throughout life.<ref name="aph" /> ==Binary abacus== [[File:Bbinary Abacus 002.jpg|150px|thumb|Two binary abaci constructed by Dr. Robert C. Good, Jr., made from two Chinese abaci]] The binary abacus is used to explain how computers manipulate numbers.<ref>{{harvnb|Good Jr.|1985|p=34}}</ref> The abacus shows how numbers, letters, and signs can be stored in a binary system on a computer, or via [[ASCII]]. The device consists of a series of beads on parallel wires arranged in three separate rows. The beads represent a switch on the computer in either an 'on' or 'off' position. {{Clear}} ==See also== * [[Abacus logic]] * [[Chisanbop]] * [[Mental abacus]] * [[Napier's bones]] * [[Sand table]] * [[Slide rule]] * [[Soroban]] * [[Suanpan]] ==Notes== {{reflist|group=nb}} ==Footnotes== {{Reflist|4}} ==References== {{Refbegin|2}} * {{cite web | last1 = Aimi | first1 = Antonio | last2 = De Pasquale | first2 = Nicolino | others = translated by Del Bianco, Franca | url = http://www.quipus.it/english/Andean%20Calculators.pdf | format = PDF | title = Andean Calculators | year = 2005 | accessdate = July 31, 2014 | archivedate = July 31, 2014 | archiveurl = http://www.webcitation.org/6RUQbKM4j | deadurl = no | ref = harv }} * {{cite encyclopedia | last = Albree | first = Joe | editor-last = Hessenbruch | editor-first = Arne | encyclopedia = Reader's Guide to the History of Science | isbn = 1-884964-29-X | year = 2000 | publisher = Fitzroy Dearborn Publishers | location = London, UK | ref = harv }} * {{cite web | author = Anon | url = http://www.thocp.net/hardware/abacus.html | title = Abacus middle ages, region of origin Middle East | website = The History of Computing Project | date = September 12, 2002 | accessdate = July 31, 2014 | archivedate = July 31, 2014 | archiveurl = http://www.webcitation.org/6RUMNJIGW | deadurl = no | ref = harv }} * {{cite web | author = Anon | url = http://www.inaoep.mx/iberamia2004/nepo_eng.htm | title = Nepohualtzintzin, The Pre Hispanic Computer | year = 2004 | website = Iberamia 2004 | archivedate = July 31, 2014 | archiveurl = http://www.webcitation.org/6RUPKTAzz | accessdate = July 31, 2014 | deadurl = no | ref = harv }} * {{cite web | author = Anon | url = http://enc.daum.net/dic100/contents.do?query1=b19j3727a | script-title=ko:주판 | trans_title = Abacus | language = Korean | website = enc.daum.net | year = 2013 | accessdate = July 31, 2014 | archivedate = July 31, 2014 | archiveurl = http://www.webcitation.org/6RUO0RS77 | deadurl = no | ref = harv }} * {{cite book | last1 = Boyer | first1 = Carl B. | last2 = Merzbach | first2 = Uta C. | title = A History of Mathematics | year = 1991 | publisher = John Wiley & Sons, Inc. | edition = 2nd | isbn = 978-0-471-54397-8 | ref = harv }} * {{cite encyclopedia | editor-last = Brown | editor-first = Lesley | encyclopedia = Shorter Oxford English Dictionary on Historical Principles | title = abacus | publisher = Oxford University Press | location = Oxford, UK | edition = 5th | volume = 2: A-K | isbn = 978-0-19-860575-1 | year = 1993 | ref = harv }} * {{cite book | last = Brown | first = Nancy Marie | url = https://books.google.com/books/about/The_Abacus_and_the_Cross.html?id=vwy5B9ZXMh4C | title = The Abacus and the Cross: The Story of the Pope Who Brought the Light of Science to the Dark Ages | year = 2010 | publisher = Basic Books | location = Philadelphia, PA | isbn = 978-0-465-00950-3 | ref = harv }} * {{cite interview | last = Brown | first = Nancy Marie | url = http://www.religiondispatches.org/books/rd10q/3878/everything_you_think_you_know_about_the_dark_ages_is_wrong/ | title = Everything You Think You Know About the Dark Ages is Wrong | date = Jan 2, 2011 | website = rd magazine | publisher = USC Annenberg | archivedate = July 31, 2014 | archiveurl = http://www.webcitation.org/6RUKXpmSJ | ref = harv}} * {{cite encyclopedia | last1 = Burnett | first1 = Charles | last2 = Ryan | first2 = W. F. | editor1-last = Bud | editor1-first = Robert | editor2-last = Warner | editor2-first = Deborah Jean | title = Abacus (Western) | encyclopedia = Instruments of Science: An Historical Encyclopedia | pages = 5–7 | publisher = Garland Publishing, Inc. | location = New York, NY | year = 1998 | series = Garland Encyclopedias in the History of Science | isbn = 978-0-8153-1561-2 | ref = harv}} * {{cite web | last = Carr | first = Karen | url = http://www.historyforkids.org/learn/westasia/science/math.htm | title = West Asian Mathematics | publisher = History for Kids! | year = 2014 | accessdate = Jun 19, 2014 | website = Kidipede | archivedate = Jun 19, 2014 | archiveurl = http://www.webcitation.org/6QSPeTi7f | deadurl = no | ref = harv}} * {{cite book | last = Carruccio | first = Ettore | others = translated by Quigly, Isabel | title = Mathematics and Logic In History and In Contemporary Thought | publisher = Aldine Transaction | year = 2006 | isbn = 978-0-202-30850-0 | ref = harv }} * {{cite book | last = Crump | first = Thomas | title = The Japanese Numbers Game: The Use and Understanding of Numbers in Modern Japan | series = The Nissan Institute/Routledge Japanese Studies Series | publisher = Routledge | year = 1992 | isbn = 978-0-415-05609-0 | ref = harv}} * {{cite book | editor1-last = de Stefani | editor1-first = Aloysius | title = Etymologicum Gudianum quod vocatur; recensuit et apparatum criticum indicesque adiecit | year = 1909 | volume = I | publisher = Teubner | location = Leipzig, Germany | lccn = 23016143 | ref = harv }} * {{cite web | last = Fernandes | first = Luis | url = http://www.ee.ryerson.ca:8080/~elf/abacus/intro.html | title = A Brief Introduction to the Abacus | date = November 27, 2003 | work = ee.ryerson.ca | accessdate = July 31, 2014 | ref = harv }} * {{cite book | last = Flegg | first = Graham | title = Numbers: Their History and Meaning | publisher = Courier Dover Publications | year = 1983 | series = Dover Books on Mathematics | isbn = 978-0-233-97516-0 | location = Mineola, NY | ref = harv }} * {{cite book | editor-last = Gaisford | editor-first = Thomas | title = Etymologicon Magnum seu verius Lexicon Saepissime vocabulorum origines indagans ex pluribus lexicis scholiastis et grammaticis anonymi cuiusdam opera concinnatum | trans-title = The Great Etymologicon: Which Contains the Origins of the Lexicon of Words from a Large Number or Rather with a Great Amount of Research Lexicis Scholiastis and Connected Together by the Works of Anonymous Grammarians | year = 1962 | orig-year = 1848 | location = Amsterdam, The Netherlands | publisher = Adolf M. Hakkert | language = Latin | ref = harv }} * {{cite journal | last = Good Jr. | first = Robert C. | title = The Binary Abacus: A Useful Tool for Explaining Computer Operations | journal = Journal of Computers in Mathematics and Science Teaching | volume = 5 | issue = 1 | pages = 34–37 | date = Fall 1985 | ref = harv }} * {{cite encyclopedia | editor-last = Gove | editor-first = Philip Babcock | title = abacist | encyclopedia = Websters Third New International Dictionary | year = 1976 | edition = 17th | isbn = 0-87779-101-5 | publisher = G. & C. Merriam Company | location = Springfield, MA | ref= harv }} * {{cite book | last = Gullberg | first = Jan | year = 1997 | title = Mathematics: From the Birth of Numbers | publisher = W. W. Norton & Company | location = New York, NY | isbn = 0-393-04002-X |others= Illustrated by Pär Gullberg | ref = harv }} * {{cite book | last = Hidalgo | first = David Esparza | title = Nepohualtzintzin: Computador Prehispánico en Vigencia | trans_title = The Nepohualtzintzin: An Effective Pre-Hispanic Computer | location = Tlacoquemécatl, Mexico | publisher = Editorial Diana | year = 1977 | language = Spanish | ref = harv }} * {{cite book | last = Hudgins | first = Sharon | title = The Other Side of Russia: A Slice of Life in Siberia and the Russian Far East | series = Eugenia & Hugh M. Stewart '26 Series on Eastern Europe | publisher = Texas A&M University Press | year = 2004 | isbn = 978-1-58544-404-5 | ref = harv }} * {{cite encyclopedia | editor-last = Huehnergard | editor-first = John | title = Appendix of Semitic Roots, under the root ''ʾbq''. | encyclopedia = American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language | edition = 5th | year = 2011 | isbn = 978-0-547-04101-8 | publisher = Houghton Mifflin Harcourt Trade | ref = harv }} * {{cite book | last = Huff | first = Toby E. | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=DA3fkX5wQMUC&pg=PA50&lpg=PA50&dq=pope+sylvester+II+reintroduced+abacus&source=bl&ots=WvIo-rlfli&sig=pnxlRt4Q3LCsGOD4sq90Cm6gvZE&hl=en&sa=X&ei=ViWOUuuAFMrCyAG_poHYCQ&ved=0CFQQ6AEwBzgK#v=onepage&q=pope%20sylvester%20II%20reintroduced%20abacus&f=false | title = The Rise of Early Modern Science: Islam, China and the West | year = 1993 | edition = 1st | publisher = Cambridge University Press | location = Cambridge, UK | isbn = 978-0-521-43496-6 | ref = harv}} * {{cite book | last = Ifrah | first = Georges | year = 2001 | title = The Universal History of Computing: From the Abacus to the Quantum Computer | publisher = John Wiley & Sons, Inc. | location = New York, NY | isbn = 978-0-471-39671-0 | ref = harv }} * {{cite encyclopedia | last = Jami | first = Catherine | title = Abacus (Eastern) | encyclopedia = Instruments of Science: An Historical Encyclopedia | year = 1998 | isbn = 0-8153-1561-9 | publisher = Garland Publishing, Inc. | location = New York, NY | editor1-last = Bud | editor1-first = Robert | editor2-last = Warner | editor2-first = Deborah Jean | ref = harv }} * {{cite encyclopedia | editor-last = Klein | editor-first = Ernest | title = abacus | encyclopedia = A Comprehensive Etymological Dictionary of the English Language | publisher = Elsevier Publishing Company | location = Amsterdam | year = 1966 | volume = I: A-K | ref = harv }} * {{cite book | last = Körner | first = Thomas William | title = The Pleasures of Counting | publisher = Cambridge University Press | location = Cambridge, UK | year = 1996 | isbn = 978-0-521-56823-4 | ref = harv}} * {{cite book | editor1-last = Lasserre | editor1-first = Franciscus | editor2-last = Livadaras | editor2-first = Nicolaus | publisher = Edizioni dell'Ateneo | location = Rome, Italy | title = Etymologicum Magnum Genuinum: Symeonis Etymologicum: Una Cum Magna Grammatica | lccn = 77467964 | year = 1976 | volume = Primum: α — άμωσϒέπωϛ | language = Greek, Latin | ref = harv }} * {{cite book | last = Leushina | first = A. M. | title = The development of elementary mathematical concepts in preschool children | publisher = National Council of Teachers of Mathematics | year = 1991 | isbn = 978-0-87353-299-0 | ref = harv }} * {{cite web | last = Melville | first = Duncan J. | url = http://it.stlawu.edu/~dmelvill/mesomath/chronology.html | title = Chronology of Mesopotamian Mathematics | publisher = It.stlawu.edu | date = May 30, 2001 | accessdate = Jun 19, 2014 | archivedate = Jun 19, 2014 | archiveurl = http://www.webcitation.org/6QSPkdKoH | website = [[St. Lawrence University]] | deadurl = no | ref = harv}} * {{cite encyclopedia | editor-last = Mish | editor-first = Frederick C. | publisher = Merriam-Webster, Inc | title = abacus | encyclopedia = Merriam-Webster's Collegiate Dictionary | year = 2003 | edition = 11th | isbn = 0-87779-809-5 }} * {{cite book | last = Mollin | first = Richard Anthony | title = Fundamental Number Theory with Applications | series = Discrete Mathematics and its Applications | publisher = [[CRC Press]] | location = Boca Raton, FL |date = September 1998 | isbn = 978-0-8493-3987-5 | ref = harv }} * {{cite web | last = Murray | first = Geoffrey | url = http://www.csmonitor.com/1982/0720/072033.html | title = Ancient calculator is a hit with Japan's newest generation | website = The Christian Science Monitor | publisher = CSMonitor.com | date = July 20, 1982 | accessdate = July 31, 2014 | archivedate = July 31, 2014 | archiveurl = http://www.webcitation.org/6RUMBApxo | deadurl = no | ref = harv }} * {{cite encyclopedia | editor-last1 = Onions | editor-first1 = C. T. | editor-last2 = Friedrichsen | editor-first2 = G. W. S. | editor-last3 = Burchfield | editor-first3 = R. W. | title = abacus | encyclopedia = The Oxford Dictionary of English Etytmology | publisher = Oxford at the Clarendon Press | location = Oxford, UK | year = 1967 | ref = harv }} * {{cite book|title=Assistive Technology for Students who are Blind Or Visually Impaired: A Guide to Assessment|first1=Ike|last1=Presley|first2=Frances Mary|last2=D'Andrea|publisher=American Foundation for the Blind|year=2009|isbn=978-0-89128-890-9|page=61|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ooYPHSv7hEoC&pg=PA61|ref=harv}} * {{cite book | last = Pullan | first = J. M. | year = 1968 | title = The History of the Abacus | publisher = Frederick A. Praeger, Inc., Publishers | location = New York, NY | isbn = 978-0-09-089410-9 | lccn = 72075113 | ref = harv }} * {{cite encyclopedia | editor1-last = Reilly | editor1-first = Edwin D. | encyclopedia = Concise Encyclopedia of Computer Science | publisher = John Wiley and Sons, Inc. | location = New York, NY | year = 2004 | isbn = 978-0-470-09095-4 }} * {{cite journal | last = Sanyal | first = Amitava | title = Learning by Beads | journal = Hindustan Times | date = July 6, 2008 | ref = harv }} * {{cite book | last = Smith | first = David Eugene | title = History of Mathematics | volume = 2: Special Topics of Elementary Mathematics | series = Dover Books on Mathematics | publisher = Courier Dover Publications | year = 1958 | isbn = 978-0-486-20430-7 | ref = harv}} * {{cite encyclopedia | editor1-last = Stearns | editor1-first = Peter N. | editor2-last = Langer | editor2-first = William Leonard | encyclopedia = The Encyclopedia of World History | publisher = Houghton Mifflin Harcourt | location = New York, NY | year = 2001 | edition = 6th | isbn = 978-0-395-65237-4 }} * {{cite web | last1 = Terlau | first1 = Terrie | last2 = Gissoni | first2 = Fred | url = http://www.aph.org/tests/abacus.html | title = Abacus: Position Paper | publisher = APH.org | date = July 20, 2006 | accessdate = July 31, 2014 | archivedate = July 31, 2014 | archiveurl = http://www.webcitation.org/6RURTuiln | deadurl = no | ref = harv }} * {{cite book | last1 = Trogeman | first1 = Georg | last2 = Ernst | first2 = Wolfgang | editor1-last = Trogeman | editor1-first = Georg | editor2-last = Nitussov | editor2-first = Alexander Y. | editor3-last = Ernst | editor3-first = Wolfgang | title = Computing in Russia: The History of Computer Devices and Information Technology Revealed | publisher = Vieweg+Teubner Verlag | year = 2001 | isbn = 978-3-528-05757-2 | location = Braunschweig/Wiesbaden | ref = harv }} * {{cite book | last = West | first = Jessica F. | title = Number sense routines : building numerical literacy every day in grades K-3 | year = 2011 | publisher = Stenhouse Publishers | location = Portland, Me.| isbn = 978-1-57110-790-9 | ref = harv }} * {{cite book | last = Williams | first = Michael R. | editor-last = Baltes | editor-first = Cheryl | title = A History of Computing technology | publisher = IEEE Computer Society Press | location = Los Alamitos, CA | edition = 2nd | year = 1997 | isbn = 0-8186-7739-2 | lccn = 96045232 | ref = harv }} * {{cite book | last = Yoke | first = Ho Peng | title = Li, Qi and Shu: An Introduction to Science and Civilization in China | series = Dover Science Books | publisher = Courier Dover Publications | year = 2000 | isbn = 978-0-486-41445-4 }} {{Refend}} ==Further reading== {{Refbegin}} * {{cite web | last = Fernandes | first = Luis | url = http://www.ee.ryerson.ca/~elf/abacus/history.html | title = The Abacus: A Brief History | year = 2013 | work = ee.ryerson.ca | accessdate = July 31, 2014 | archivedate = July 31, 2014 | archiveurl = http://www.webcitation.org/6RUKnYTwe | deadurl = no | ref = harv }} * {{Citation | last = Menninger | first = Karl W. | year = 1969 | title = Number Words and Number Symbols: A Cultural History of Numbers | publisher = MIT Press | isbn = 0-262-13040-8}} * {{Citation | last = Kojima | first = Takashi | year = 1954 | title = The Japanese Abacus: its Use and Theory | publisher = Charles E. Tuttle Co., Inc. | location = Tokyo | isbn=0-8048-0278-5}} * {{Citation | last = Kojima | first = Takashi | year = 1963 | title = Advanced Abacus: Japanese Theory and Practice | publisher = Charles E. Tuttle Co., Inc. | location = Tokyo | isbn=0-8048-0003-0}} * {{Citation |last=Stephenson |first=Stephen Kent |url=http://www.ieeeghn.org/wiki/index.php/Ancient_Computers |title=Ancient Computers |date=July 7, 2010 | publisher = IEEE Global History Network |accessdate=2011-07-02}} * {{Citation | last = Stephenson | first = Stephen Kent | year = 2013 | title = Ancient Computers, Part I - Rediscovery, Edition 2 | isbn = 1-4909-6437-1}} {{Refend}} ==External links== {{wiktionary}} {{commons|Abacus}} * {{Wikisource-inline|list= ** {{Cite EB1911|wstitle=Abacus |short=x |noicon=x}} ** "[[s:A Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities/Abacus|Abacus]]", from ''[[s:A Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities|A Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities]]'', 3rd ed., 1890. }} ===Tutorials=== <!-- in alphabetical order by author --> * {{Citation | url = http://webhome.idirect.com/~totton/abacus/ | title = Abacus: Mystery of the Bead - an Abacus Manual | first = Totton & Gary Flom | last = Heffelfinger}} * [http://www.minmm.com/minc/show_classes.php?id=273 Min Multimedia] * {{Citation | url = http://www.youtube.com/view_play_list?p=545ABCC6BA8D6F44 | title = How to use a Counting Board Abacus | first = Stephen Kent | last = Stephenson | year = 2009}} ===Abacus curiosities=== * {{Citation | url = http://demonstrations.wolfram.com/Abacus/ | title = Abacus | first = Michael | last = Schreiber | publisher = The [[Wolfram Demonstrations Project]] | year = 2007}} * [http://www.cut-the-knot.org/blue/Abacus.shtml Abacus in Various Number Systems] at [[cut-the-knot]] * [http://www.tux.org/~bagleyd/abacus.html Java applet of Chinese, Japanese and Russian abaci] * [http://www.research.ibm.com/atomic/nano/roomtemp.html An atomic-scale abacus] * [http://tinas-sliderules.me.uk/Slide%20Rules/Abaci.html Examples of Abaci] * [http://www.tux.org/~bagleyd/java/AbacusAppMA.html Aztex Abacus] {{Authority control}} [[Category:Abacus| ]] [[Category:Chinese mathematics]] [[Category:Egyptian mathematics]] [[Category:Greek mathematics]] [[Category:Indian mathematics]] [[Category:Japanese mathematics]] [[Category:Mathematical tools]] [[Category:Roman mathematics]] c55t3jxv3d5bv2514ldh6l4pkykjt9t 0 656 718020354 707493500 2016-05-01T02:31:12Z Klaus Schmidt-Rohr 27169465 Addressed the problem with the Lewis definition raised on the talk page, and corrected incorrect and misleading statements on the first couple of pages. wikitext text/x-wiki {{About|acids in chemistry|the drug|Lysergic acid diethylamide|other uses}} {{Redirect|Acidity| the novelette|Acidity (novelette)}} {{redirect|Acidic|the band|Acidic (band)}} {{lead rewrite|date=February 2016}} {{Use dmy dates|date=June 2013}} {{more footnotes|date=May 2009}} [[File:Zn reaction with HCl.JPG|thumb|[[Zinc]], a typical metal, reacting with [[hydrochloric acid]], a typical acid]] {{Acids and bases}} An '''acid''' (from the [[Latin]] ''acidus/acēre'' meaning ''sour''<ref>[http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/acid Merriam-Webster's Online Dictionary: ''acid'']</ref>) is a chemical substance whose [[aqueous solution]]s are characterized by a sour taste, the ability to turn blue [[litmus]] red, and the ability to react with [[Base (chemistry)|bases]] and certain metals (like [[calcium]]) to form [[Salt (chemistry)|salts]]. An aqueous solution of an acid has a [[pH]] of less than 7 and is colloquially also referred to as 'acid' (as in 'dissolved in acid'), while the strict definition refers only to the [[solution|solute]]. An acid usually contains a hydrogen atom bonded to a chemical structure that is still energetically favorable after loss of H<sup>+</sup> (a positive hydrogen ion or proton). A lower pH means a higher acidity, and thus a higher concentration of [[Hydron (chemistry)|positive hydrogen ions]] in the [[solution]]. Chemicals or substances having the property of an acid are said to be '''acidic'''. There are two closely related definitions that apply to acids as described above: the [[Acid-base reaction#Arrhenius definition|Arrhenius definition]] and the [[Brønsted–Lowry acid–base theory|Brønsted-Lowry definition]]; a third, the [[Lewis acids and bases|Lewis definition]], is only tangentially related.<ref name="Oxtoby8th">Oxtoby, D. W; Gillis, H.P., Butler, L. J. (2015).''Principles of Modern Chemistry'', Brooks Cole. p. 617. ISBN 978-1305079113</ref> The Arrhenius definition defines acids as substances which increase the concentration of hydrogen ions (H<sup>+</sup>), or more accurately, [[hydronium ions]] (H<sub>3</sub>O<sup>+</sup>), when dissolved in water. The Brønsted-Lowry definition is an expansion to include solvents other than water: an acid is a substance which can act as a proton donor. By this definition, any compound which can be [[deprotonation|deprotonated]] can be considered an acid. Examples include alcohols and amines which contain O-H or N-H fragments. A Lewis acid is a substance that can accept a [[electron pair|pair of electrons]] to form a [[covalent bond]]. Examples of Lewis acids include all metal [[ion|cations]], and electron-deficient molecules such as [[boron trifluoride]] and [[aluminium trichloride]]. Many Lewis acids are not Arrhenius or Brønsted-Lowry acids, and vice versa. Common examples of acids include [[hydrochloric acid]] (a solution of [[hydrogen chloride]] which is found in [[gastric acid]] in the stomach and activates [[digestive enzymes]]), [[acetic acid]] (vinegar is a dilute aqueous solution of this liquid), [[sulfuric acid]] (used in [[car battery|car batteries]]), and [[tartaric acid]] (a solid used in baking). As these examples show, acids can be solutions or pure substances, and can be derived from solids, liquids, or gases. [[Acid strength|Strong acid]]s and some concentrated weak acids are [[corrosive substance|corrosive]], but there are exceptions such as [[carborane]]s and [[boric acid]]. ==Definitions and concepts== {{main|Acid–base reaction}} Modern definitions are concerned with the fundamental chemical reactions common to all acids. Most acids encountered in everyday life are [[aqueous solutions]], or can be dissolved in water, so the Arrhenius and Brønsted-Lowry definitions are the most relevant. The Brønsted-Lowry definition is the most widely used definition; unless otherwise specified, acid-base reactions are assumed to involve the transfer of a proton (H<sup>+</sup>) from an acid to a base. Hydronium ions are acids according to all three definitions. Interestingly, although alcohols and amines can be Brønsted-Lowry acids, they can also function as [[Lewis base]]s due to the lone pairs of electrons on their oxygen and nitrogen atoms. ===Arrhenius acids=== [[File:Arrhenius2.jpg|thumb|150px|Svante Arrhenius]] The Swedish chemist [[Svante Arrhenius]] attributed the properties of acidity to [[hydron (chemistry)|hydrogen ions]] (H<sup>+</sup>) or [[proton]]s in 1884. An '''Arrhenius acid''' is a substance that, when added to water, increases the concentration of H<sup>+</sup> ions in the water. <ref name="Oxtoby8th">Oxtoby, D. W; Gillis, H.P., Butler, L. J. (2015).''Principles of Modern Chemistry'', Brooks Cole. p. 617. ISBN 978-1305079113</ref><ref name="Ebbing">Ebbing, D.D., & Gammon, S. D. (2005). ''General chemistry'' (8th ed.). Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin. ISBN 0-618-51177-6</ref> Note that chemists often write H<sup>+</sup>(''aq'') and refer to the [[hydrogen ion]] when describing acid-base reactions but the free hydrogen nucleus, a [[proton]], does not exist alone in water, it exists as the hydronium ion, H<sub>3</sub>O<sup>+</sup>. Thus, an Arrhenius acid can also be described as a substance that increases the concentration of hydronium ions when added to water. Examples include molecular substances such as HCl and acetic acid. An Arrhenius [[base (chemistry)|base]], on the other hand, is a substance which increases the concentration of [[hydroxide]] (OH<sup>−</sup>) ions when dissolved in water. This decreases the concentration of hydronium because the ions react to form H<sub>2</sub>O molecules: H<sub>3</sub>O<sup>+</sup><sub>(aq)</sub> + OH<sup>−</sup><sub>(aq)</sub> ⇌ H<sub>2</sub>O<sub>(l)</sub> + H<sub>2</sub>O<sub>(l)</sub> Due to this equilibrium, any increase in the concentration of hydronium is accompanied by a decrease in the concentration of hydroxide. Thus, an Arrhenius acid could also be said to be one that decreases hydroxide concentration, while an Arrhenius base increases it. In an acidic solution, the concentration of hydronium ions is greater than 10<sup>−7</sup> [[Mole (unit)|moles]] per liter. Since pH is defined as the negative logarithm of the concentration of hydronium ions, acidic solutions thus have a pH of less than 7. ===Brønsted-Lowry acids{{anchor|Brønsted acids}}=== {{Main|Brønsted–Lowry acid–base theory}} [[File:Acetic-acid-dissociation-3D-balls.png|thumb|350px|alt=Acetic acid, CH<sub>3</sub>COOH, is composed of a methyl group, CH<sub>3</sub>, bound chemically to a carboxylate group, COOH. The carboxylate group can lose a proton and donate it to a water molecule, H<sub>2</sub>0, leaving behind an acetate anion CH<sub>3</sub>COO- and creating a hydronium cation H<sub>3</sub>O<sup> </sup>. This is an equilibrium reaction, so the reverse process can also take place.|[[Acetic acid]], a [[weak acid]], donates a proton (hydrogen ion, highlighted in green) to water in an equilibrium reaction to give the [[acetate]] ion and the [[hydronium]] ion. Red: oxygen, black: carbon, white: hydrogen.]] While the Arrhenius concept is useful for describing many reactions, it is also quite limited in its scope. In 1923 chemists [[Johannes Nicolaus Brønsted]] and [[Thomas Martin Lowry]] independently recognized that acid-base reactions involve the transfer of a proton. A '''Brønsted-Lowry acid''' (or simply Brønsted acid) is a species that donates a proton to a Brønsted-Lowry base.<ref name="Ebbing" /> Brønsted-Lowry acid-base theory has several advantages over Arrhenius theory. Consider the following reactions of [[acetic acid]] (CH<sub>3</sub>COOH), the [[organic acid]] that gives vinegar its characteristic taste: :{{chem|CH|3|COOH}} + {{chem|H|2|O}} {{eqm}} {{chem|CH|3|COO|−}} + {{chem|H|3|O|+}} :{{chem|CH|3|COOH}} + {{chem|NH|3}} {{eqm}} {{chem|CH|3|COO|−}} + {{chem|NH|4|+}} Both theories easily describe the first reaction: CH<sub>3</sub>COOH acts as an Arrhenius acid because it acts as a source of H<sub>3</sub>O<sup>+</sup> when dissolved in water, and it acts as a Brønsted acid by donating a proton to water. In the second example CH<sub>3</sub>COOH undergoes the same transformation, in this case donating a proton to ammonia (NH<sub>3</sub>), but does not relate to the Arrhenius definition of an acid because the reaction does not produce hydronium. Nevertheless, CH<sub>3</sub>COOH is both an Arrhenius and a Brønsted-Lowry acid. Brønsted-Lowry theory can be used to describe reactions of [[molecule|molecular compounds]] in nonaqueous solution or the gas phase. [[Hydrogen chloride]] (HCl) and ammonia combine under several different conditions to form [[ammonium chloride]], NH<sub>4</sub>Cl. In aqueous solution HCl behaves as [[hydrochloric acid]] and exists as hydronium and chloride ions. The following reactions illustrate the limitations of Arrhenius's definition: # H<sub>3</sub>O<sup>+</sup><sub>(aq)</sub> + Cl<sup>−</sup><sub>(aq)</sub> + NH<sub>3</sub> → Cl<sup>−</sup><sub>(aq)</sub> + NH<sub>4</sub><sup>+</sup><sub>(aq)</sub> + H<sub>2</sub>O # HCl<sub>(benzene)</sub> + NH<sub>3(benzene)</sub> → NH<sub>4</sub>Cl<sub>(s)</sub> # HCl<sub>(g)</sub> + NH<sub>3(g)</sub> → NH<sub>4</sub>Cl<sub>(s)</sub> As with the acetic acid reactions, both definitions work for the first example, where water is the solvent and hydronium ion is formed by the HCl solute. The next two reactions do not involve the formation of ions but are still proton-transfer reactions. In the second reaction hydrogen chloride and ammonia (dissolved in [[benzene]]) react to form solid ammonium chloride in a benzene solvent and in the third gaseous HCl and NH<sub>3</sub> combine to form the solid. ===Lewis acids=== A third, only marginally related concept was proposed in 1923 by [[Gilbert N. Lewis]], which includes reactions with acid-base characteristics that do not involve a proton transfer. A '''Lewis acid''' is a species that accepts a pair of electrons from another species; in other words, it is an electron pair acceptor.<ref name="Ebbing" /> Brønsted acid-base reactions are proton transfer reactions while Lewis acid-base reactions are electron pair transfers. Many Lewis acids are not Brønsted-Lowry acids. Contrast how the following reactions are described in terms of acid-base chemistry: :[[File:LewisAcid.png|374px]] In the first reaction a [[fluoride|fluoride ion]], F<sup>−</sup>, gives up an [[lone pair|electron pair]] to [[boron trifluoride]] to form the product [[tetrafluoroborate]]. Fluoride "loses" a pair of [[valence electron]]s because the electrons shared in the B—F bond are located in the region of space between the two atomic [[atomic nucleus|nuclei]] and are therefore more distant from the fluoride nucleus than they are in the lone fluoride ion. BF<sub>3</sub> is a Lewis acid because it accepts the electron pair from fluoride. This reaction cannot be described in terms of Brønsted theory because there is no proton transfer. The second reaction can be described using either theory. A proton is transferred from an unspecified Brønsted acid to ammonia, a Brønsted base; alternatively, ammonia acts as a Lewis base and transfers a lone pair of electrons to form a bond with a hydrogen ion. The species that gains the electron pair is the Lewis acid; for example, the oxygen atom in H<sub>3</sub>O<sup>+</sup> gains a pair of electrons when one of the H—O bonds is broken and the electrons shared in the bond become localized on oxygen. Depending on the context, a Lewis acid may also be described as an [[Oxidizing agent|oxidizer]] or an [[electrophile]]. Organic Brønsted acids, such as acetic, citric, or oxalic acid, are not Lewis acids.<ref name="Oxtoby8th" /> They dissociate in water to produce a Lewis acid, H<sup>+</sup>, but at the same time also yield an equal amount of a Lewis base (acetate, citrate, or oxalate, respectively, for the acids mentioned). Few, if any, of the acids discussed in the following are Lewis acids. ==Dissociation and equilibrium== Reactions of acids are often generalized in the form HA {{eqm}} H<sup>+</sup> + A<sup>−</sup>, where HA represents the acid and A<sup>−</sup> is the [[conjugate acid|conjugate base]]. This reaction is the '''protolysis'''. Acid-base conjugate pairs differ by one proton, and can be interconverted by the addition or removal of a proton ([[protonation]] and [[deprotonation]], respectively). Note that the acid can be the charged species and the conjugate base can be neutral in which case the generalized reaction scheme could be written as HA<sup>+</sup> {{eqm}} H<sup>+</sup> + A. In solution there exists an [[chemical equilibrium|equilibrium]] between the acid and its conjugate base. The [[equilibrium constant]] ''K'' is an expression of the equilibrium concentrations of the molecules or the ions in solution. Brackets indicate concentration, such that [H<sub>2</sub>O] means ''the concentration of H<sub>2</sub>O''. The [[acid dissociation constant]] ''K''<sub>a</sub> is generally used in the context of acid-base reactions. The numerical value of ''K''<sub>a</sub> is equal to the product of the concentrations of the products divided by the concentration of the reactants, where the reactant is the acid (HA) and the products are the conjugate base and H<sup>+</sup>. :<math>K_a = \frac{[\mbox{H}^+] [\mbox{A}^-]}{[\mbox{HA}]}</math> The stronger of two acids will have a higher ''K''<sub>a</sub> than the weaker acid; the ratio of hydrogen ions to acid will be higher for the stronger acid as the stronger acid has a greater tendency to lose its proton. Because the range of possible values for ''K''<sub>a</sub> spans many orders of magnitude, a more manageable constant, p''K''<sub>a</sub> is more frequently used, where p''K''<sub>a</sub> = -log<sub>10</sub> ''K''<sub>a</sub>. Stronger acids have a smaller p''K''<sub>a</sub> than weaker acids. Experimentally determined p''K''<sub>a</sub> at 25&nbsp;°C in aqueous solution are often quoted in textbooks and reference material. ==Nomenclature== In the classical naming system, acids are named according to their [[anion]]s. That ionic suffix is dropped and replaced with a new suffix (and sometimes prefix), according to the table below. For example, HCl has [[chloride]] as its anion, so the -ide suffix makes it take the form [[hydrochloric acid]]. In the [[IUPAC]] naming system, "aqueous" is simply added to the name of the ionic compound. Thus, for hydrogen chloride, the IUPAC name would be aqueous hydrogen chloride. The prefix "hydro-" is added only if the acid is made up of just hydrogen and one other element. Classical naming system: {| class="wikitable" !Anion prefix !Anion suffix !Acid prefix !Acid suffix !Example |- |per |ate |per |ic acid |[[perchloric acid]] (HClO<sub>4</sub>) |- | |ate | |ic acid |[[chloric acid]] (HClO<sub>3</sub>) |- | |ite | |ous acid |[[chlorous acid]] (HClO<sub>2</sub>) |- |hypo |ite |hypo |ous acid |[[hypochlorous acid]] (HClO) |- | |ide |hydro |ic acid |[[hydrochloric acid]] (HCl) |} ==Acid strength== {{main|Acid strength}} The strength of an acid refers to its ability or tendency to lose a proton. A strong acid is one that completely dissociates in water; in other words, one [[mole (unit)|mole]] of a strong acid HA dissolves in water yielding one mole of H<sup>+</sup> and one mole of the conjugate base, A<sup>−</sup>, and none of the protonated acid HA. In contrast, a weak acid only partially dissociates and at equilibrium both the acid and the conjugate base are in solution. Examples of [[strong acid]]s are [[hydrochloric acid]] (HCl), [[hydroiodic acid]] (HI), [[hydrobromic acid]] (HBr), [[perchloric acid]] (HClO<sub>4</sub>), [[nitric acid]] (HNO<sub>3</sub>) and [[sulfuric acid]] (H<sub>2</sub>SO<sub>4</sub>). In water each of these essentially ionizes 100%. The stronger an acid is, the more easily it loses a proton, H<sup>+</sup>. Two key factors that contribute to the ease of deprotonation are the [[chemical polarity|polarity]] of the H—A bond and the size of atom A, which determines the strength of the H—A bond. Acid strengths are also often discussed in terms of the stability of the conjugate base. Stronger acids have a larger ''K''<sub>a</sub> and a more negative p''K''<sub>a</sub> than weaker acids. Sulfonic acids, which are organic oxyacids, are a class of strong acids. A common example is [[toluenesulfonic acid]] (tosylic acid). Unlike sulfuric acid itself, sulfonic acids can be solids. In fact, [[polystyrene]] functionalized into polystyrene sulfonate is a solid strongly acidic plastic that is filterable. [[Superacid]]s are acids stronger than 100% sulfuric acid. Examples of superacids are [[fluoroantimonic acid]], [[magic acid]] and [[perchloric acid]]. Superacids can permanently protonate water to give ionic, crystalline [[hydronium]] "salts". They can also quantitatively stabilize [[carbocation]]s. While ''K''<sub>a</sub> measures the strength of an acid compound, the strength of an aqueous acid solution is measured by pH, which is an indication of the concentration of hydronium in the solution. The pH of a simple solution of an acid compound in water is determined by the dilution of the compound and the compound's ''K''<sub>a</sub>. ==Chemical characteristics== ===Monoprotic acids=== Monoprotic acids are those acids that are able to donate one [[proton]] per molecule during the process of [[dissociation (chemistry)|dissociation]] (sometimes called ionization) as shown below (symbolized by HA): :HA<sub>(aq)</sub> + H<sub>2</sub>O<sub>(l)</sub> {{eqm}} H<sub>3</sub>O<sup>+</sup><sub>(aq)</sub> + A<sup>−</sup><sub>(aq)</sub> &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; ''K''<sub>a</sub> Common examples of monoprotic acids in [[mineral acid]]s include [[hydrochloric acid]] (HCl) and [[nitric acid]] (HNO<sub>3</sub>). On the other hand, for [[organic acids]] the term mainly indicates the presence of one [[carboxylic acid]] group and sometimes these acids are known as monocarboxylic acid. Examples in [[organic acids]] include [[formic acid]] (HCOOH), [[acetic acid]] (CH<sub>3</sub>COOH) and [[benzoic acid]] (C<sub>6</sub>H<sub>5</sub>COOH). {{See also|Acid dissociation constant#Monoprotic acids}} ===Polyprotic acids=== Polyprotic acids, also known as polybasic acids, are able to donate more than one proton per acid molecule, in contrast to monoprotic acids that only donate one proton per molecule. Specific types of polyprotic acids have more specific names, such as diprotic acid (two potential protons to donate) and triprotic acid (three potential protons to donate). A diprotic acid (here symbolized by H<sub>2</sub>A) can undergo one or two dissociations depending on the pH. Each dissociation has its own dissociation constant, K<sub>a1</sub> and K<sub>a2</sub>. :H<sub>2</sub>A<sub>(aq)</sub> + H<sub>2</sub>O<sub>(l)</sub> {{eqm}} H<sub>3</sub>O<sup>+</sup><sub>(aq)</sub> + HA<sup>−</sup><sub>(aq)</sub> &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; ''K''<sub>a1</sub> :HA<sup>−</sup><sub>(aq)</sub> + H<sub>2</sub>O<sub>(l)</sub> {{eqm}} H<sub>3</sub>O<sup>+</sup><sub>(aq)</sub> + A<sup>2−</sup><sub>(aq)</sub> &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; &nbsp; ''K''<sub>a2</sub> The first dissociation constant is typically greater than the second; i.e., ''K''<sub>a1</sub> > ''K''<sub>a2</sub>. For example, [[sulfuric acid]] (H<sub>2</sub>SO<sub>4</sub>) can donate one proton to form the [[bisulfate]] anion (HSO<sub>4</sub><sup>−</sup>), for which ''K''<sub>a1</sub> is very large; then it can donate a second proton to form the [[sulfate]] anion (SO<sub>4</sub><sup>2−</sup>), wherein the ''K''<sub>a2</sub> is intermediate strength. The large ''K''<sub>a1</sub> for the first dissociation makes sulfuric a strong acid. In a similar manner, the weak unstable [[carbonic acid]] (H<sub>2</sub>CO<sub>3</sub>) can lose one proton to form [[bicarbonate]] anion (HCO<sub>3</sub><sup>−</sup>) and lose a second to form [[carbonate]] anion (CO<sub>3</sub><sup>2−</sup>). Both ''K''<sub>a</sub> values are small, but ''K''<sub>a1</sub> > ''K''<sub>a2</sub> . A triprotic acid (H<sub>3</sub>A) can undergo one, two, or three dissociations and has three dissociation constants, where ''K''<sub>a1</sub> > ''K''<sub>a2</sub> > ''K''<sub>a3</sub>. :H<sub>3</sub>A<sub>(aq)</sub> + H<sub>2</sub>O<sub>(l)</sub> {{eqm}} H<sub>3</sub>O<sup>+</sup><sub>(aq)</sub> + H<sub>2</sub>A<sup>−</sup><sub>(aq)</sub> &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; ''K''<sub>a1</sub> :H<sub>2</sub>A<sup>−</sup><sub>(aq)</sub> + H<sub>2</sub>O<sub>(l)</sub> {{eqm}} H<sub>3</sub>O<sup>+</sup><sub>(aq)</sub> + HA<sup>2−</sup><sub>(aq)</sub> &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; ''K''<sub>a2</sub> :HA<sup>2−</sup><sub>(aq)</sub> + H<sub>2</sub>O<sub>(l)</sub> {{eqm}} H<sub>3</sub>O<sup>+</sup><sub>(aq)</sub> + A<sup>3−</sup><sub>(aq)</sub> &nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ''K''<sub>a3</sub> An [[inorganic]] example of a triprotic acid is orthophosphoric acid (H<sub>3</sub>PO<sub>4</sub>), usually just called [[phosphoric acid]]. All three protons can be successively lost to yield H<sub>2</sub>PO<sub>4</sub><sup>−</sup>, then HPO<sub>4</sub><sup>2−</sup>, and finally PO<sub>4</sub><sup>3−</sup>, the orthophosphate ion, usually just called [[phosphate]]. Even though the positions of the three protons on the original phosphoric acid molecule are equivalent, the successive ''K''<sub>a</sub> values differ since it is energetically less favorable to lose a proton if the conjugate base is more negatively charged. An [[organic compound|organic]] example of a triprotic acid is [[citric acid]], which can successively lose three protons to finally form the [[citrate]] ion. Although the subsequent loss of each hydrogen ion is less favorable, all of the conjugate bases are present in solution. The fractional concentration, ''α'' (alpha), for each species can be calculated. For example, a generic diprotic acid will generate 3 species in solution: H<sub>2</sub>A, HA<sup>−</sup>, and A<sup>2−</sup>. The fractional concentrations can be calculated as below when given either the pH (which can be converted to the [H<sup>+</sup>]) or the concentrations of the acid with all its conjugate bases: :<math> \alpha_{H_2 A}={{[H^+]^2} \over {[H^+]^2 + [H^+]K_1 + K_1 K_2}}= {{[H_2 A]} \over {[H_2 A]+[HA^-]+[A^{2-} ]}} </math> :<math> \alpha_{HA^- }={{[H^+]K_1} \over {[H^+]^2 + [H^+]K_1 + K_1 K_2}}= {{[HA^-]} \over {[H_2 A]+[HA^-]+[A^{2-} ]}} </math> :<math> \alpha_{A^{2-}}={{K_1 K_2} \over {[H^+]^2 + [H^+]K_1 + K_1 K_2}}= {{[A^{2-} ]} \over {[H_2 A]+[HA^-]+[A^{2-} ]}} </math> A plot of these fractional concentrations against pH, for given ''K''<sub>1</sub> and ''K''<sub>2</sub>, is known as a [[Bjerrum plot]]. A pattern is observed in the above equations and can be expanded to the general ''n'' -protic acid that has been deprotonated ''i'' -times: :<math> \alpha_{H_{n-i} A^{i-} }= {{[H^+ ]^{n-i} \displaystyle \prod_{j=0}^{i}K_j} \over { \displaystyle \sum_{i=0}^n \Big[ [H^+ ]^{n-i} \displaystyle \prod_{j=0}^{i}K_j} \Big] } </math> where K<sub>0</sub> = 1 and the other K-terms are the dissociation constants for the acid. {{See also|Acid dissociation constant#Polyprotic acids}} ===Neutralization=== [[Image:Hydrochloric acid ammonia.jpg|thumb|[[Hydrochloric acid]] (in [[beaker (glassware)|beaker]]) reacting with [[ammonia]] fumes to produce [[ammonium chloride]] (white smoke).]] [[Neutralization (chemistry)|Neutralization]] is the reaction between an acid and a base, producing a [[salt (chemistry)|salt]] and neutralized base; for example, [[hydrochloric acid]] and [[sodium hydroxide]] form [[sodium chloride]] and water: :HCl<sub>(aq)</sub> + NaOH<sub>(aq)</sub> → H<sub>2</sub>O<sub>(l)</sub> + NaCl<sub>(aq)</sub> Neutralization is the basis of [[titration]], where a [[pH indicator]] shows equivalence point when the equivalent number of moles of a base have been added to an acid. It is often wrongly assumed that neutralization should result in a solution with pH 7.0, which is only the case with similar acid and base strengths during a reaction. Neutralization with a base weaker than the acid results in a weakly acidic salt. An example is the weakly acidic [[ammonium chloride]], which is produced from the strong acid [[hydrogen chloride]] and the weak base [[ammonia]]. Conversely, neutralizing a weak acid with a strong base gives a weakly basic salt, e.g. [[sodium fluoride]] from [[hydrogen fluoride]] and [[sodium hydroxide]]. ===Weak acid–weak base equilibrium=== {{main|Henderson–Hasselbalch equation}} In order for a protonated acid to lose a proton, the pH of the system must rise above the p''K''<sub>a</sub> of the acid. The decreased concentration of H<sup>+</sup> in that basic solution shifts the equilibrium towards the conjugate base form (the deprotonated form of the acid). In lower-pH (more acidic) solutions, there is a high enough H<sup>+</sup> concentration in the solution to cause the acid to remain in its protonated form. Solutions of weak acids and salts of their conjugate bases form [[buffer solution]]s. ==Applications of acids== There are numerous uses for acids. Acids are often used to remove rust and other corrosion from metals in a process known as [[pickling (metal)|pickling]]. They may be used as an electrolyte in a [[wet cell battery]], such as [[sulfuric acid]] in a [[car battery]]. Strong acids, sulfuric acid in particular, are widely used in mineral processing. For example, phosphate minerals react with sulfuric acid to produce [[phosphoric acid]] for the production of phosphate fertilizers, and [[zinc]] is produced by dissolving zinc oxide into sulfuric acid, purifying the solution and electrowinning. In the chemical industry, acids react in neutralization reactions to produce salts. For example, [[nitric acid]] reacts with [[ammonia]] to produce [[ammonium nitrate]], a fertilizer. Additionally, [[carboxylic acid]]s can be [[Esterification|esterified]] with alcohols, to produce [[ester]]s. Acids are used as additives to drinks and foods, as they alter their taste and serve as preservatives. [[Phosphoric acid]], for example, is a component of [[cola]] drinks. Acetic acid is used in day-to-day life as vinegar. Carbonic acid is an important part of some cola drinks and soda. Citric acid is used as a preservative in sauces and pickles. [[Tartaric acid]] is an important component of some commonly used foods like unripened mangoes and tamarind. Natural fruits and vegetables also contain acids. [[Citric acid]] is present in oranges, lemon and other citrus fruits. [[Oxalic acid]] is present in tomatoes, spinach, and especially in [[carambola]] and [[rhubarb]]; rhubarb leaves and unripe carambolas are toxic because of high concentrations of oxalic acid. [[Ascorbic acid]] (Vitamin C) is an essential vitamin for the human body and is present in such foods as amla ([[Phyllanthus emblica|Indian gooseberry]]), lemon, citrus fruits, and guava. Certain acids are used as drugs. [[Acetylsalicylic acid]] (Aspirin) is used as a pain killer and for bringing down fevers. Acids play important roles in the human body. The hydrochloric acid present in the stomach aids in digestion by breaking down large and complex food molecules. Amino acids are required for synthesis of proteins required for growth and repair of body tissues. Fatty acids are also required for growth and repair of body tissues. Nucleic acids are important for the manufacturing of DNA and RNA and transmitting of traits to offspring through genes. Carbonic acid is important for maintenance of pH equilibrium in the body. ===Acid catalysis=== {{Main|Acid catalysis}} Acids are used as [[catalyst]]s in industrial and organic chemistry; for example, [[sulfuric acid]] is used in very large quantities in the [[alkylation]] process to produce gasoline. Strong acids, such as sulfuric, phosphoric and hydrochloric acids also effect [[Dehydration reaction|dehydration]] and [[condensation reaction]]s. In biochemistry, many [[enzyme]]s employ acid catalysis.<ref name="Voet acid cat">{{cite book |author=Voet, Judith G.|author2=Voet, Donald |title=Biochemistry |publisher=J. Wiley & Sons |location=New York |date=2004 |pages=496–500 |isbn=978-0-471-19350-0 }}</ref> ==Biological occurrence== [[Image:Aminoacid.png|thumb|left|Basic structure of an [[amino acid]].]]Many biologically important molecules are acids. [[Nucleic acid]]s, which contain acidic [[phosphate|phosphate groups]], include [[DNA]] and [[RNA]]. Nucleic acids contain the genetic code that determines many of an organism's characteristics, and is passed from parents to offspring. DNA contains the chemical blueprint for the synthesis of [[protein]]s which are made up of [[amino acid]] subunits. [[Cell membrane]]s contain [[fatty acid]] [[ester]]s such as [[phospholipids]]. An α-amino acid has a central carbon (the α or [[alpha and beta carbon|''alpha'' carbon]]) which is covalently bonded to a [[carboxyl]] group (thus they are [[carboxylic acid]]s), an [[amine|amino]] group, a hydrogen atom and a variable group. The variable group, also called the R group or side chain, determines the identity and many of the properties of a specific amino acid. In [[glycine]], the simplest amino acid, the R group is a hydrogen atom, but in all other amino acids it is contains one or more carbon atoms bonded to hydrogens, and may contain other elements such as sulfur, oxygen or nitrogen. With the exception of glycine, naturally occurring amino acids are [[Chirality (chemistry)|chiral]] and almost invariably occur in the [[Chirality (chemistry)#By configuration: D- and L-|<small>L</small>-configuration]]. [[Peptidoglycan]], found in some bacterial [[cell wall]]s contains some <small>D</small>-amino acids. At physiological pH, typically around 7, free amino acids exist in a charged form, where the acidic carboxyl group (-COOH) loses a proton (-COO<sup>−</sup>) and the basic amine group (-NH<sub>2</sub>) gains a proton (-NH<sub>3</sub><sup>+</sup>). The entire molecule has a net neutral charge and is a [[zwitterion]], with the exception of amino acids with basic or acidic side chains. [[Aspartic acid]], for example, possesses one protonated amine and two deprotonated carboxyl groups, for a net charge of −1 at physiological pH. Fatty acids and fatty acid derivatives are another group of carboxylic acids that play a significant role in biology. These contain long hydrocarbon chains and a carboxylic acid group on one end. The cell membrane of nearly all organisms is primarily made up of a [[phospholipid bilayer]], a [[micelle]] of hydrophobic fatty acid esters with polar, hydrophilic [[phosphate]] "head" groups. Membranes contain additional components, some of which can participate in acid-base reactions. In humans and many other animals, [[hydrochloric acid]] is a part of the [[gastric acid]] secreted within the [[stomach]] to help hydrolyze [[protein]]s and [[polysaccharide]]s, as well as converting the inactive pro-enzyme, [[pepsinogen]] into the [[digestive enzyme|enzyme]], [[pepsin]]. Some organisms produce acids for defense; for example, ants produce [[formic acid]]. Acid-base equilibrium plays a critical role in regulating [[mammal]]ian breathing. [[molecular oxygen|Oxygen]] gas (O<sub>2</sub>) drives [[cellular respiration]], the process by which animals release the chemical [[potential energy]] stored in food, producing [[carbon dioxide]] (CO<sub>2</sub>) as a byproduct. Oxygen and carbon dioxide are exchanged in the [[lungs]], and the body responds to changing energy demands by adjusting the rate of [[ventilation (physiology)|ventilation]]. For example, during periods of exertion the body rapidly breaks down stored [[carbohydrate]]s and fat, releasing CO<sub>2</sub> into the blood stream. In aqueous solutions such as blood CO<sub>2</sub> exists in equilibrium with [[carbonic acid]] and [[bicarbonate]] ion. : CO<sub>2</sub> + H<sub>2</sub>O {{eqm}} H<sub>2</sub>CO<sub>3</sub> {{eqm}} H<sup>+</sup> + HCO<sub>3</sub><sup>−</sup> It is the decrease in pH that signals the brain to breathe faster and deeper, expelling the excess CO<sub>2</sub> and resupplying the cells with O<sub>2</sub>. [[Image:Aspirin-skeletal.svg|thumb|right|[[Aspirin]] (acetylsalicylic acid) is a [[carboxylic acid]].]] [[Cell membrane]]s are generally impermeable to charged or large, polar molecules because of the [[lipophilicity|lipophilic]] fatty acyl chains comprising their interior. Many biologically important molecules, including a number of pharmaceutical agents, are organic weak acids which can cross the membrane in their protonated, uncharged form but not in their charged form (i.e. as the conjugate base). For this reason the activity of many drugs can be enhanced or inhibited by the use of antacids or acidic foods. The charged form, however, is often more soluble in blood and [[cytosol]], both aqueous environments. When the extracellular environment is more acidic than the neutral pH within the cell, certain acids will exist in their neutral form and will be membrane soluble, allowing them to cross the phospholipid bilayer. Acids that lose a proton at the [[intracellular pH]] will exist in their soluble, charged form and are thus able to diffuse through the cytosol to their target. [[Ibuprofen]], [[aspirin]] and [[penicillin]] are examples of drugs that are weak acids. ==Common acids== ===Mineral acids (inorganic acids)=== * Hydrogen halides and their solutions: [[hydrofluoric acid]] (HF), [[hydrochloric acid]] (HCl), [[hydrobromic acid]] (HBr), [[hydroiodic acid]] (HI) * Halogen oxoacids: [[hypochlorous acid]] (HClO), [[chlorous acid]] (HClO<sub>2</sub>), [[chloric acid]] (HClO<sub>3</sub>), [[perchloric acid]] (HClO<sub>4</sub>), and corresponding compounds for bromine and iodine * [[Sulfuric acid]] (H<sub>2</sub>SO<sub>4</sub>) * [[Fluorosulfuric acid]] (HSO<sub>3</sub>F) * [[Nitric acid]] (HNO<sub>3</sub>) * [[Phosphoric acid]] (H<sub>3</sub>PO<sub>4</sub>) * [[Fluoroantimonic acid]] (HSbF<sub>6</sub>) * [[Fluoroboric acid]] (HBF<sub>4</sub>) * [[Hexafluorophosphoric acid]] (HPF<sub>6</sub>) * [[Chromic acid]] (H<sub>2</sub>CrO<sub>4</sub>) * [[Boric acid]] (H<sub>3</sub>BO<sub>3</sub>) ===Sulfonic acids=== A [[sulfonic acid]] has the general formula RS(=O)<sub>2</sub>–OH, where R is an organic radical. * [[Methanesulfonic acid]] (or mesylic acid, CH<sub>3</sub>SO<sub>3</sub>H) * [[Ethanesulfonic acid]] (or esylic acid, CH<sub>3</sub>CH<sub>2</sub>SO<sub>3</sub>H) * [[Benzenesulfonic acid]] (or besylic acid, C<sub>6</sub>H<sub>5</sub>SO<sub>3</sub>H) * [[p-Toluenesulfonic acid]] (or tosylic acid, CH<sub>3</sub>C<sub>6</sub>H<sub>4</sub>SO<sub>3</sub>H) * [[Trifluoromethanesulfonic acid]] (or triflic acid, CF<sub>3</sub>SO<sub>3</sub>H) * [[Polystyrene sulfonic acid]] (sulfonated [[polystyrene]], [CH<sub>2</sub>CH(C<sub>6</sub>H<sub>4</sub>)SO<sub>3</sub>H]<sub>n</sub>) ===Carboxylic acids=== A [[carboxylic acid]] has the general formula R-C(O)OH, where R is an organic radical. The carboxyl group -C(O)OH contains a [[carbonyl]] group, C=O, and a [[hydroxyl]] group, O-H. * [[Acetic acid]] (CH<sub>3</sub>COOH) * [[Citric acid]] (C<sub>6</sub>H<sub>8</sub>O<sub>7</sub>) * [[Formic acid]] (HCOOH) * [[Gluconic acid]] HOCH<sub>2</sub>-(CHOH)<sub>4</sub>-COOH * [[Lactic acid]] (CH<sub>3</sub>-CHOH-COOH) * [[Oxalic acid]] (HOOC-COOH) * [[Tartaric acid]] (HOOC-CHOH-CHOH-COOH) ===Halogenated carboxylic acids=== Halogenation at [[alpha and beta carbon|alpha position]] increases acid strength, so that the following acids are all stronger than acetic acid. * [[Fluoroacetic acid]] * [[Trifluoroacetic acid]] * [[Chloroacetic acid]] * [[Dichloroacetic acid]] * [[Trichloroacetic acid]] ===Vinylogous carboxylic acids=== Normal carboxylic acids are the direct union of a carbonyl group and a hydroxyl group. In [[vinylogous]] carboxylic acids, a carbon-carbon double bond separates the carbonyl and hydroxyl groups. * [[Ascorbic acid]] ===Nucleic acids=== * [[Deoxyribonucleic acid]] (DNA) * [[Ribonucleic acid]] (RNA) ==References== {{Reflist|30em}} * [http://www.csudh.edu/oliver/chemdata/data-ka.htm Listing of strengths of common acids and bases] * [http://goldbook.iupac.org/A00071.html IUPAC Gold Book - acid] * Zumdahl, Chemistry, 4th Edition. * Ebbing, D.D., & Gammon, S. D. (2005). ''General chemistry'' (8th ed.). Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin. ISBN 0-618-51177-6 * Pavia, D.L., Lampman, G.M., & Kriz, G.S. (2004). ''Organic chemistry volume 1: Organic chemistry 351.'' Mason, OH: Cenage Learning. ISBN 0-7593-4727-1 ==External links== * [http://scienceaid.co.uk/chemistry/physical/acidbases.html Science Aid: Acids and Bases] Information for High School students * [http://www2.iq.usp.br/docente/gutz/Curtipot_.html Curtipot]: Acid-Base equilibria diagrams, [[pH]] calculation and [[titration]] curves simulation and analysis – [[freeware]] * [http://canadaconnects.ca/chemistry/10081/ A summary of the Properties of Acids for the beginning chemistry student] * [http://www.unece.org/env/lrtap/ The UN ECE Convention on Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution] * [http://isites.harvard.edu/fs/docs/icb.topic776365.files/lecture%2017.pdf Chem 106 – Acidity Concepts] {{Authority control}} [[Category:Acids| ]] [[Category:Acid–base chemistry]] [[Category:Articles in Wikipedia Primary School Project SSAJRP]] 02xqzanmlo5tgzlr4t1rlbj5pr11iis 0 657 717932698 717652574 2016-04-30T15:46:04Z Maczkopeti 26240210 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Redirect|Bitumen|naturally occurring bituminous sands used for petroleum production|Oil sands}} {{other uses}} {{hatnote|Note: The terms '''bitumen''' and '''asphalt''' are mostly interchangeable, except where asphalt is used as an abbreviation for [[asphalt concrete]]. This article uses "asphalt/bitumen" where either term is acceptable.}} {{Use dmy dates|date=March 2014}} [[File:Bitumen.jpg|thumb|Natural asphalt/bitumen from the [[Dead Sea]]]] [[File:Refined bitumen.JPG|thumb|refined asphalt/bitumen]] [[File:University of Queensland Pitch drop experiment-white bg.jpg|thumb|100px|The University of Queensland [[pitch drop experiment]], demonstrating the [[viscosity]] of asphalt/bitumen]] '''Asphalt''' ({{IPAc-en|US|ˈ|æ|s|f|ɔː|l|t|audio=en-us-asphalt.ogg}}, {{IPAc-en|UK|ˈ|æ|s|f|æ|l|t}},<ref>'''[[Merriam-Webster]]''': [http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/asphalt]</ref><ref>'''[[Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary]]''': [http://oald8.oxfordlearnersdictionaries.com/dictionary/asphalt]</ref> occasionally {{IPAc-en|ˈ|æ|ʃ|f|ɔː|l|t}}), also known as '''bitumen''' ({{IPAc-en|US|b|ɪ|ˈ|t|juː|m|ə|n|,_|b|aɪ|-}},<ref>'''[[Dictionary.com|Dictionary Reference]]''': [http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/bitumen bitumen]</ref><ref>'''[[TheFreeDictionary.com|The Free Dictionary]]''': [http://www.thefreedictionary.com/bitumen bitumen]</ref> {{IPAc-en|UK|ˈ|b|ɪ|t|jʉ|m|ən}}<ref>'''[[Oxford Dictionaries]]''': [http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/bitumen]</ref>) is a sticky, black and highly [[viscosity|viscous]] liquid or semi-solid form of [[petroleum]]. It may be found in natural deposits or may be a refined product; it is a substance classed as a [[Pitch (resin)|pitch]]. Until the 20th century, the term '''asphaltum''' was also used.<ref name="Abraham1938">{{cite book|first=Herbert|last=Abraham|year=1938| title=Asphalts and Allied Substances: Their Occurrence, Modes of Production, Uses in the Arts, and Methods of Testing | edition=4th| publisher=D. Van Nostrand Co| location=New York |url=https://archive.org/details/asphaltsandallie031010mbp|accessdate=16 November 2009}} Full text at Internet Archive (archive.org)</ref> The word is derived from the [[Ancient Greek]] ἄσφαλτος ''ásphaltos''.<ref>[http://www.chambers.co.uk/search.php?query=asphalt&title=21st asphalt], Chambers 21st Century Dictionary</ref> The primary use (70%) of asphalt/bitumen is in road construction, where it is used as the glue or binder mixed with [[construction aggregate|aggregate]] particles to create [[asphalt concrete]]. Its other main uses are for [[bituminous waterproofing]] products, including production of [[roofing felt]] and for sealing flat roofs.<ref name=Ullmann>Anja Sörensen and Bodo Wichert "Asphalt and Bitumen" in Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry Wiley-VCH, Weinheim, 2009. {{DOI|10.1002/14356007.a03_169.pub2}}http://www.qrpoil.com/site/?bitumen</ref> The terms ''asphalt'' and ''bitumen'' are often used interchangeably to mean both natural and manufactured forms of the substance. In [[American English]], asphalt (or asphalt cement) is the carefully refined residue from the [[distillation]] process of selected crude oils. Outside the United States, the product is often called bitumen. Geologists often prefer the term ''bitumen''. Common usage often refers to various forms of asphalt/bitumen as "tar", such as at the [[La Brea Tar Pits]]. Another archaic term for asphalt/bitumen is "pitch". Naturally occurring asphalt/bitumen is sometimes specified by the term "crude bitumen". Its viscosity is similar to that of cold [[molasses]]<ref>{{cite web | title = Oil Sands – Glossary | work = Oil Sands Royalty Guidelines | publisher = Government of Alberta | year = 2008 | url = http://www.energy.gov.ab.ca/OilSands/1106.asp | accessdate = 2 February 2008 |archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20071101112113/http://www.energy.gov.ab.ca/OilSands/1106.asp <!-- Bot retrieved archive --> |archivedate = 1 November 2007}} </ref><ref>{{Citation | last = Walker | first = Ian C. | title = Marketing Challenges for Canadian Bitumen | place = Tulsa, OK | publisher = International Centre for Heavy Hydrocarbons | year = 1998 | url = http://www.oildrop.org/Info/Centre/Lib/7thConf/19980101.pdf | format= PDF | quote = Bitumen has been defined by various sources as crude oil with a dynamic viscosity at reservoir conditions of more than 10,000 centipoise. Canadian "bitumen" supply is more loosely accepted as production from the Athabasca, Wabasca, Peace River and Cold Lake oil-sands deposits. The majority of the oil produced from these deposits has an API gravity of between 8° and 12° and a reservoir viscosity of over 10,000 centipoise although small volumes have higher API gravities and lower viscosities. }}</ref> while the material obtained from the [[fractional distillation]] of [[crude oil]] boiling at {{convert|525|C|F}} is sometimes referred to as "refined bitumen". The Canadian province of [[Alberta]] has most of the world's reserves of natural bitumen, covering {{convert|142000|km2}}, an area larger than [[England]].<ref name="ST98">{{cite web | title = ST98-2015: Alberta's Energy Reserves 2014 and Supply/Demand Outlook 2015–2024 | work = Statistical Reports (ST) | publisher = Alberta Energy Regulator | year = 2015 | url = http://www.aer.ca/documents/sts/ST98/ST98-2015.pdf | accessdate = 19 January 2016}}</ref> ==Composition== {{see also|Asphaltene}} The components of asphalt are classified into four classes of compounds: *saturates, [[saturated hydrocarbons]], the % saturates correlates with softening point of the material *Naphthene aromatics, consisting of partially hydrogenated polycyclic aromatic compounds. *Polar aromatics, consisting of high [[molecular weight]] [[phenols]] and [[carboxylic acid]]s *Asphaltenes, consisting of high molecular weight phenols and [[heterocyclic compound]]s The naphthene aromatics and polar aromatics are typically the majority components. Additionally, most natural bitumens contain [[organosulfur compound]]s, resulting in an overall sulfur content of up to 4%. Nickel and [[vanadium]] are found in the <10 ppm level, as is typical of some petroleum.<ref name=Ullmann/> The substance is soluble in [[carbon disulfide]]. It is commonly modelled as a [[colloid]], with [[asphaltene]]s as the dispersed phase and [[wikt:maltene|maltenes]] as the continuous phase.<ref name="Quddus">{{cite book|author=Muhammad Abdul Quddus|year=1992 | title=thesis submitted to Department of Applied Chemistry; University of Karachi |chapter=Catalytic Oxidation of Asphalt| publisher=Higher Education Commission Pakistan: Pakistan Research Repository| location=Pakistan |page=6, in ch.2 pdf |url=http://eprints.hec.gov.pk/1171/1/891.html.htm}}</ref> and "it is almost impossible to separate and identify all the different molecules of asphalt, because the number of molecules with different chemical structure is extremely large".<ref name="Quddus99">Muhammad Abdul Quddus (1992), p.99, in ch.5 pdf</ref> Asphalt/bitumen can sometimes be confused with "[[coal tar]]", which is a visually similar black, thermoplastic material produced by the [[destructive distillation]] of coal. During the early and mid-20th century when [[town gas]] was produced, coal tar was a readily available byproduct and extensively used as the binder for road aggregates. The addition of tar to [[macadam]] roads led to the word [[tarmac]], which is now used in common parlance to refer to road-making materials. However, since the 1970s, when natural gas succeeded town gas, asphalt/bitumen has completely overtaken the use of coal tar in these applications. Other examples of this confusion include the [[La Brea Tar Pits]] and the Canadian [[oil sands]], both of which actually contain natural bitumen rather than tar. Pitch is another term sometimes used at times to refer to asphalt/bitumen, as in [[Pitch Lake]]. ==Occurrence== [[File:Puy de Poix, gisement bitumeux.JPG|thumb|right|upright|Bituminous outcrop of the Puy de la Poix, [[Clermont-Ferrand]], France]] The great majority of asphalt used commercially is obtained from petroleum. Nonetheless, large amounts of asphalt occur in concentrated form in nature. Naturally occurring deposits of asphalt/bitumen are formed from the remains of ancient, microscopic [[algae]] ([[diatom]]s) and other once-living things. These remains were deposited in the mud on the bottom of the ocean or lake where the organisms lived. Under the heat (above 50&nbsp;°C) and [[pressure]] of burial deep in the earth, the remains were transformed into materials such as asphalt/bitumen, [[kerogen]], or petroleum. Natural deposits of asphalt/bitumen include lakes such as the [[Pitch Lake]] in Trinidad and Tobago and [[Lake Bermudez]] in Venezuela. Natural [[petroleum seep|seeps]] of asphalt/bitumen occur in the [[La Brea Tar Pits]] and in the [[Dead Sea]]. Asphalt/bitumen also occurs in unconsolidated sandstones known as "oil sands" in Alberta, Canada, and the similar "tar sands" in Utah, US. The Canadian province of [[Alberta]] has most of the world's reserves of natural bitumen, in three huge deposits covering {{convert|142000|km2}}, an area larger than [[England]] or [[New York state]]. These bituminous sands contain {{convert|166|Goilbbl}} of commercially established oil reserves, giving Canada the third largest [[oil reserves]] in the world. and produce over {{convert|2.3|Moilbbl/d}} of [[heavy crude oil]] and [[synthetic crude oil]]. Although historically it was used without refining to pave roads, nearly all of the bitumen is now used as [[raw material]] for [[oil refineries]] in Canada and the United States.<ref name="ST98"/> The world's largest deposit of natural bitumen, known as the [[Athabasca oil sands]] is located in the [[McMurray Formation]] of Northern Alberta. This formation is from the early [[Cretaceous]], and is composed of numerous [[lens (geology)|lenses]] of oil-bearing sand with up to 20% oil.<ref name=bunger>{{cite journal | last1 = Bunger | first1 = J. | last2 = Thomas | first2 = K. | last3 = Dorrence | first3 = S. | year = 1979 | title = Compound types and properties of Utah and Athabasca tar sand bitumens | url = | journal = Fuel | volume = 58 | issue = 3| pages = 183–195 | doi=10.1016/0016-2361(79)90116-9}}</ref> Isotopic studies attribute the oil deposits to be about 110 million years old.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Selby | first1 = D. | last2 = Creaser | first2 = R. | year = 2005 | title = Direct radiometric dating of hydrocarbon deposits using rhenium-osmium isotopes | url = | journal = Science | volume = 308 | issue = | pages = 1293–1295 | doi=10.1126/science.1111081}}</ref> Two smaller but still very large formations occur in the [[Peace River oil sands]] and the [[Cold Lake oil sands]], to the west and southeast of the Athabasca oil sands, respectively. Of the Alberta bitumen deposits, only parts of the Athabasca oil sands are shallow enough to be suitable for surface mining. The other 80% has to be produced by oil wells using [[enhanced oil recovery]] techniques like [[steam-assisted gravity drainage]].<ref name=oilsandfacts>{{cite web |title= Facts about Alberta’s oil sands and its industry |publisher = Oil Sands Discovery Centre |url= http://history.alberta.ca/oilsands/resources/docs/facts_sheets09.pdf | accessdate= 19 January 2015}}</ref> Much smaller heavy oil or bitumen deposits also occur in the [[Uinta Basin]] in Utah, US. The [[Tar Sand Triangle]] deposit, for example, is roughly 6% bitumen.<ref name=bunger /> Asphalt/bitumen occurs in [[hydrothermal vein]]s. An example of this is within the Uinta Basin of Utah, in the US, where there is a swarm of laterally and vertically extensive veins composed of a solid hydrocarbon termed [[Gilsonite]]. These veins formed by the polymerization and solidification of hydrocarbons that were mobilized from the deeper oil shales of the [[Green River Formation]] during burial and diagenesis.<ref>{{cite book |author=T. Boden and B. Tripp |title=Gilsonite Veins of the Uinta Basin, Utah |publisher=Utah Geological Survey, Special Study 141 |location=Utah, US |year=2012}}</ref> Asphalt/bitumen is similar to the organic matter in carbonaceous meteorites.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Hayatsu | display-authors = etal | year = | title =none | url = | journal = Meteoritics | volume = 18 | issue = | page = 310 }}</ref> However, detailed studies have shown these materials to be distinct.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Kim | first1 = | last2 = Yang | year = | title =none | url = | journal = Journal of Astronomy and Space Sciences | volume = 15 | issue = 1| pages = 163–174 }}</ref> The vast Alberta bitumen resources are believed to have started out as living material from marine plants and animals, mainly algae, that died millions of years ago when an ancient ocean covered Alberta. They were covered by mud, buried deeply over the eons, and gently cooked into oil by geothermal heat at a temperature of {{convert|50|to|150|C|sigfig=2}}. Due to pressure from the rising of the [[Rocky Mountains]] in southwestern Alberta, 80 to 55 million years ago, the oil was driven northeast hundreds of kilometres into underground sand deposits left behind by ancient river beds and ocean beaches, thus forming the oil sands.<ref name=oilsandfacts/> ==History== ===Ancient times=== The use of asphalt/bitumen for waterproofing and as an adhesive dates at least to the fifth [[millennium]] BC in the early [[Indus Valley Civilization|Indus valley sites]] like [[Mehrgarh]], where it was used to line the baskets in which crops were gathered.<ref>McIntosh, Jane. The Ancient Indus Valley. p. 57</ref> In the ancient Middle East, the [[Sumer]]ians used natural asphalt/bitumen deposits for [[mortar (masonry)|mortar]] between bricks and stones, to cement parts of carvings, such as eyes, into place, for ship [[caulking]], and for waterproofing.<ref name="Abraham1938" /> The Greek historian [[Herodotus]] said hot asphalt/bitumen was used as mortar in the walls of [[Babylon]],<ref>Herodotus, Book I, 179</ref> as did [[Moses]] in reference to the [[Tower of Babel]].<ref>Genesis 11:3[http://biblehub.com/esv/genesis/11.htm]</ref> A {{convert|1|km}} tunnel beneath the river [[Euphrates]] at [[Babylon]] in the time of Queen [[Semiramis]] (ca. 800 BC) was reportedly constructed of burnt bricks covered with asphalt/bitumen as a waterproofing agent.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://archive.org/stream/asphaltsandallie031010mbp/asphaltsandallie031010mbp_djvu.txt|title=Asphalts And Allied Substances|year=1920|author=Abraham, Herbert|publisher=D. Van Nostrand}}</ref> Asphalt/bitumen was used by [[ancient Egypt]]ians to [[embalm]] mummies.<ref name="Abraham1938" /><ref>{{cite book |author=Pringle, Heather Anne |title=The Mummy Congress: Science, Obsession, and the Everlasting Dead |publisher=Barnes & Noble Books |location=New York, NY |year=2001 |pages= 196–197|isbn=0-7607-7151-0}}</ref> The [[Persian language|Persian]] word for asphalt is ''moom'', which is related to the English word [[mummy]]. The Egyptians' primary source of asphalt/bitumen was the [[Dead Sea]], which the [[Ancient Rome|Romans]] knew as ''Palus Asphaltites'' (Asphalt Lake). Approximately 40 AD, [[Dioscorides]] described the Dead Sea material as ''Judaicum bitumen'', and noted other places in the region where it could be found.<ref>{{cite book|title=De Materia Medica|author=Pedanius Dioscorides|year=}}. Original written ca. 40 AD, translated by Goodyer (1655) [http://www.therenaissanceman.org/images/DIOSCORIDES-Intro_Book_1.doc] ''or'' ''(Greek/Latin)'' compiled by Sprengel (1829) [https://books.google.com/books/download/Pedanii_Dioscoridis_____de_materia_medic.pdf?id=JwAUAAAAQAAJ&output=pdf] p. 100 (p. 145 in PDF).</ref> The Sidon bitumen is thought to refer to asphalt/bitumen found at [[Hasbeya]].<ref name="ConnanNissenbaum2004">{{cite journal|last1=Connan|first1=Jacques|last2=Nissenbaum|first2=Arie|title=The organic geochemistry of the Hasbeya asphalt (Lebanon): comparison with asphalts from the Dead Sea area and Iraq|journal=Organic Geochemistry|volume=35|issue=6|year=2004|pages=775–789|issn=0146-6380|doi=10.1016/j.orggeochem.2004.01.015}}</ref> Pliny refers also to asphalt/bitumen being found in [[Selenicë|Epirus]]. It was a valuable strategic resource; the object of the first known battle for a hydrocarbon deposit, between the [[Seleucid]]s and the [[Nabateans]] in 312 BC.<ref>{{cite journal|url=http://payperview.datapages.com/data/open/offer.do?target=%2Fbulletns%2F1977-79%2Fdata%2Fpg%2F0062%2F0005%2F0800%2F0837.htm|title=Dead Sea Asphalts—Historical Aspects [free abstract]|author=Arie Nissenbaum|journal=AAPG Bulletin|volume=62|issue=5|date=May 1978|pages=837–844|doi=10.1306/c1ea4e5f-16c9-11d7-8645000102c1865d}}</ref> In the ancient Far East, natural asphalt/bitumen was slowly boiled to get rid of the higher [[Fraction (chemistry)|fractions]], leaving a thermoplastic material of higher molecular weight which when layered on objects became quite hard upon cooling. This was used to cover objects that needed waterproofing,<ref name="Abraham1938" /> such as [[scabbard]]s and other items. Statuettes of household [[deities]] were also cast with this type of material in Japan, and probably also in China. In North America, archaeological recovery has indicated asphalt/bitumen was sometimes used to adhere stone [[projectile point]]s to wooden shafts.<ref>{{cite web|author=The Megalithic Portal and Megalith Map |url=http://www.megalithic.co.uk/article.php?sid=18502 |title=C.Michael Hogan (2008) '&#39;Morro Creek'&#39;, ed. by A. Burnham |publisher=Megalithic.co.uk |accessdate=27 August 2013}}</ref> In Canada, aboriginal people used bitumen seeping out of the banks of the Athabasca and other rivers to waterproof birch bark canoes, and also heated it in smudge pots to ward off mosquitoes in the summer time.<ref name=oilsandfacts/> ===Early use in Europe=== One hundred years after the [[fall of Constantinople]] in 1453, [[Pierre Belon]] described in his work ''[[Observations (Pierre Belon)|Observations]]'' in 1553 that ''pissasphalto'', a mixture of [[Pitch (resin)|pitch]] and bitumen, was used in [[Dubrovnik]] for tarring of ships from where it was exported to a market place in [[Venice]] where it could be bought by anyone.<ref>Africa and the Discovery of America, Volume 1, page 183, [[Leo Wiener]], BoD – Books on Demand, 1920 reprinted in 2012, ISBN 978-3864034329</ref> An 1838 edition of ''Mechanics Magazine'' cites an early use of asphalt in France. A pamphlet dated 1621, by "a certain Monsieur d'Eyrinys, states that he had discovered the existence (of asphaltum) in large quantities in the vicinity of Neufchatel", and that he proposed to use it in a variety of ways – "principally in the construction of air-proof granaries, and in protecting, by means of the arches, the water-courses in the city of Paris from the intrusion of dirt and filth", which at that time made the water unusable. "He expatiates also on the excellence of this material for forming level and durable terraces" in palaces, "the notion of forming such terraces in the streets not one likely to cross the brain of a Parisian of that generation".<ref name="MechanicsMagazineSep1838176">{{cite book|date=7 April – 29 September 1838 | title=The Mechanic's magazine, museum, register, journal and gazette| volume=29|chapter=Nothing New under the Sun (on French asphaltum use in 1621)| publisher=W.A. Robertson| location=London |page=176 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ygoAAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA479&lpg=PA479&dq=1838+september+%22mechanic's+magazine%22#v=onepage&q=asphaltum%20museum&f=false}}</ref> But it was generally neglected in France until the [[July Revolution|revolution of 1830]]. Then, in the 1830s, there was a surge of interest, and asphalt became widely used "for pavements, flat roofs, and the lining of cisterns, and in England, some use of it had been made of it for similar purposes". Its rise in Europe was "a sudden phenomenon", after natural deposits were found "in France at Osbann ([[Bas-Rhin|BasRhin]]), the Parc (l'Ain) and the Puy-de-la-Poix ([[Puy-de-Dôme|Puy-de-Dome]])", although it could also be made artificially.<ref name="LewisMiles">{{cite book |author=Miles, Lewis |title=in Australian Building: A Cultural Investigation |volume=|chapter=Section 10.6: Damp Proofing|year=2000 | publisher= | location=|page=10.06.1| url=http://www.mileslewis.net/australian-building/pdf/climatic-design/climatic-design-damp-proofing.pdf|accessdate=11 November 2009}}. Note: different sections of Miles' online work were written in different years, as evidenced at the top of each page (not including the heading page of each section). This particular section appears to have been written in 2000</ref> One of the earliest uses in France was the laying of about 24,000 square yards of Seyssel asphalt at the [[Place de la Concorde]] in 1835.<ref name=Forbes1858>{{citation |year=1958 |author=R.J. Forbes|title=Studies in Early Petroleum History |page=24 |place=[[Leiden]], Netherlands |publisher=E.J. Brill |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=eckUAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA24&dq=asphalt+claridge#v=onepage&q=asphalt%20claridge&f=false |accessdate=10 June 2010}}</ref> ===Photography and art=== Bitumen was used in early photographic technology. In 1826 or 1827, it was used by French scientist [[Joseph Nicéphore Niépce]] to make the [[View from the Window at Le Gras|oldest surviving photograph from nature]]. The bitumen was thinly coated onto a [[pewter]] plate which was then exposed in a camera. Exposure to light hardened the bitumen and made it insoluble, so that when it was subsequently rinsed with a solvent only the sufficiently light-struck areas remained. Many hours of exposure in the camera were required, making bitumen impractical for ordinary photography, but from the 1850s to the 1920s it was in common use as a [[photoresist]] in the production of printing plates for various photomechanical printing processes.<ref>[http://www.niepce.org/pagus/pagus-inv.html Niépce Museum history pages.] Retrieved 27 October 2012. {{wayback|url=http://www.niepce.org/pagus/pagus-inv.html |date=20070803222723 |df=y }}</ref><ref>[http://www.hrc.utexas.edu/exhibitions/permanent/wfp/ The First Photograph (Harry Ransom Center, University of Texas at Austin).] Retrieved 27 October 2012.</ref>{{failed verification|date=January 2016}} Bitumen was the nemesis of many artists during the 19th century. Although widely used for a time, it ultimately proved unstable for use in oil painting, especially when mixed with the most common diluents, such as linseed oil, varnish and turpentine. Unless thoroughly diluted, bitumen never fully solidifies and will in time corrupt the other pigments with which it comes into contact. The use of bitumen as a glaze to set in shadow or mixed with other colors to render a darker tone resulted in the eventual deterioration of many paintings, for instance those of [[Eugène Delacroix|Delacroix]]. Perhaps the most famous example of the destructiveness of bitumen is [[Théodore Géricault]]'s [[Raft of the Medusa]] (1818–1819), where his use of bitumen caused the brilliant colors to degenerate into dark greens and blacks and the paint and canvas to buckle.<ref name="WSJ 2009-08-21">{{cite news |last=Spiegelman |first=Willard |url=http://www.wsj.com/articles/SB10001424052970204119704574236393080650258 |title=Revolutionary Romanticism: 'The Raft of the Medusa' brought energy to French art |work=[[The Wall Street Journal]] |location=New York City |date=2009-08-21 |accessdate=2016-01-27 }}</ref> ===Early use in the United Kingdom=== Among the earlier uses of asphalt/bitumen in the United Kingdom was for etching. William Salmon's ''Polygraphice'' (1673) provides a recipe for varnish used in etching, consisting of three ounces of virgin wax, two ounces of [[mastic (plant resin)|mastic]], and one ounce of asphaltum.<ref name="SalmonPolygraphice">{{cite book|first=William|last=Salmon|year=1673|publisher=R. Jones|location=London|title=Polygraphice; Or, The Arts of Drawing, Engraving, Etching, Limning, Painting, Washing, Varnishing, Gilding, Colouring, Dying, Beautifying and Perfuming |edition= Second |page=81|url=http://shipbrook.com/jeff/bookshelf/download.html?bookid=22}}</ref> By the fifth edition in 1685, he had included more asphaltum recipes from other sources.<ref name=SalmonPolygraphice1685>{{citation |year=1685 |author=Salmon, William |title=Polygraphice; Or, The Arts of Drawing, Engraving, Etching, Limning, Painting, Washing, Varnishing, Gilding, Colouring, Dying, Beautifying and Perfuming |edition=5th |pages=76–77 |place=London |publisher=R. Jones |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=h_sC9X95PT0C&printsec=frontcover&dq=Polygraphice#v=snippet&q=%22arts%20of%20drawing%22&f=false |accessdate=18 August 2010}} [https://archive.org/stream/polygraphiceorar00salm#page/76/mode/2up Text at Internet Archive]</ref> The first British patent for the use of asphalt/bitumen was 'Cassell's patent asphalte or bitumen' in 1834.<ref name="LewisMiles" /> Then on 25 November 1837, [[Captain R. T. Claridge|Richard Tappin Claridge]] patented the use of Seyssel asphalt (patent #7849), for use in asphalte pavement,<ref name="ClaridgePatentspecs">{{cite book | date=July 1838 | title=Journal of the Franklin Institute of the State of Pennsylvania and Mechanics' Register |chapter=Specification of the Patent granted to Richard Tappin Claridge, of the County of Middlesex, for a Mastic Cement, or Composition applicable to Paving and Road making, covering Buildings and various purposes|volume=Vol. 22| location=London |pages=414–418 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=W8oGAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA414&lpg=PA414&dq=%22richard+tappin+claridge%22#v=onepage&q=%22richard%20tappin%20claridge%22&f=false|accessdate=18 November 2009 | publisher=Pergamon Press}}</ref><ref name="Notes&Queries1904">{{cite book|date=20 January 1904| title=Notes and Queries: A medium of intercommunication for Literary Men, General Readers, etc. Ninth series. | volume=Volume XII, July–December, 1903 (9th S. XII, 4 July 1903)|chapter=Comments on asphalt patents of R.T. Claridge, Esq| publisher=John C. Francis| location=London |pages=18–19 |url=https://archive.org/stream/s9notesqueries12londuoft#page/18/mode/2up/search/claridge}} Writer is replying to note or query from previous publication, cited as ''9th S. xi. 30''</ref> having seen it employed in France and Belgium when visiting with [[Frederick Walter Simms]], who worked with him on the introduction of asphalt to Britain.<ref name=FWSimmsObituary>{{cite journal| title=Obituary of Frederick Walter Simms| journal= [[Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society]]| volume=XXVI| pages= 120–121| publisher= Strangeways & Walden| location= London |date=November 1865 – June 1866 | url= https://books.google.com/books?id=3wsAAAAAMAAJ |doi=|accessdate=12 November 2009}}</ref><ref name=Broome1963>{{Cite journal |year=1963 |author=Broome, D.C. |title=The development of the modern asphalt road |journal=The Surveyor and municipal and county engineer |place=London |volume=122 |issue=3278 & 3279 |pages=1437–1440 & 1472–1475|postscript= [https://books.google.com/books?cd=10&id=j77mAAAAMAAJ&q=claridge+1857 Snippet view: Simms & Claridge p.1439]}}</ref> Dr T. Lamb Phipson writes that his father, Samuel Ryland Phipson, a friend of Claridge, was also "instrumental in introducing the asphalte pavement (in 1836)".<ref name="Phipson1902">{{cite book|first=Dr T. Lamb|last=Phipson|year=1902| title=Confessions of a Violinist: Realities and Romance | publisher=Chatto & Windus| location=London|page=11 |url=https://archive.org/details/confessionsofvio00phiprich|accessdate=26 November 2009}} Full text at Internet Archive (archive.org)</ref> Indeed, mastic pavements had been previously employed at [[Vauxhall]] by a competitor of Claridge, but without success.<ref name=Forbes1858/> In 1838, Claridge obtained patents in Scotland on 27 March, and Ireland on 23 April, and in 1851 extensions were sought for all three patents, by the trustees of a company previously formed by Claridge.<ref name="LewisMiles"/><ref name="LondonGazette1851">{{cite book|date=25 February 1851 | title=The London Gazette|chapter=Claridge's UK Patents in 1837 & 1838|page=489 |url=http://www.london-gazette.co.uk/issues/21185/pages/489}}</ref><ref name="BritishHistoryOnline1994">{{cite book|author=Hobhouse, Hermione (General Editor) |title='Northern Millwall: Tooke Town', Survey of London: volumes 43 and 44: Poplar, Blackwall and Isle of Dogs |chapter=British History Online |pages=423–433 (see text at refs 169 & 170)|year=1994 | url=http://www.british-history.ac.uk/report.aspx?compid=46514&amp;strquery=Claridge|accessdate=8 November 2009}}</ref><ref name="MechanicsMagazineSep1838">{{cite book|date=7 April – 29 September 1838 | title=The Mechanic's magazine, museum, register, journal and gazette| volume=29|chapter=Claridge's Scottish and Irish Patents in 1838 | publisher=W.A. Robertson| location=London |pages=vii, viii, 64, 128 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ygoAAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA479&lpg=PA479&dq=1838+september+%22mechanic's+magazine%22#v=onepage&q=claridge&f=false}}</ref> This was ''Claridge's Patent Asphalte Company'', formed in 1838 for the purpose of introducing to Britain "Asphalte in its natural state from the mine at Pyrimont Seysell in France",<ref name="CivilEngineer&ArchitectsJ199">{{cite book | date=October 1837 – December 1838 | title=The Civil Engineer and Architects Journal |chapter=Joint Stock Companies (description of asphalte use by Claridge's company)|volume=Vol. 1| location=London |page=199 |url=https://archive.org/details/civilengineerarc01lond|accessdate=16 November 2009}} Full text at Internet Archive (archive.org). Alternative viewing at: https://books.google.com/books?id=sQ5AAAAAYAAJ&pg</ref> and "laid one of the first asphalt pavements in Whitehall".<ref name="LewisMiles10.06.1-2">Miles, Lewis (2000), pp.10.06.1–2</ref> Trials were made of the pavement in 1838 on the footway in Whitehall, the stable at Knightsbridge Barracks,<ref name="CivilEngineer&ArchitectsJ199" /><ref name="responsetoquery18">Comments on asphalt patents of R.T. Claridge, Esq (1904), p.18</ref> "and subsequently on the space at the bottom of the steps leading from Waterloo Place to St. James Park".<ref name="responsetoquery18" /> "The formation in 1838 of Claridge's Patent Asphalte Company (with a distinguished list of aristocratic patrons, and [[Marc Isambard Brunel|Marc]] and [[Isambard Kingdom Brunel|Isambard Brunel]] as, respectively, a trustee and consulting engineer), gave an enormous impetus to the development of a British asphalt industry".<ref name="BritishHistoryOnline1994" /> "By the end of 1838, at least two other companies, Robinson's and the Bastenne company, were in production",<ref name="LewisMiles10.06.2">Miles, Lewis (2000), p.10.06.2</ref> with asphalt being laid as paving at Brighton, Herne Bay, Canterbury, Kensington, the Strand, and a large floor area in Bunhill-row, while meantime Claridge's Whitehall paving "continue(d) in good order".<ref name="MechanicsMagazineSep221838">{{cite book|date=22 September 1838 | title=The Mechanic's magazine, museum, register, journal and gazette| volume=29|chapter=1838 bitumen UK uses by Robinson's and Claridge's companies, & the Bastenne company | publisher=W.A. Robertson| location=London |page=448 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ygoAAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA479&lpg=PA479&dq=1838+september+%22mechanic's+magazine%22#v=onepage&q=bastenne&f=false}}</ref> In 1838, there was a flurry of entrepreneurial activity involving asphalt/bitumen, which had uses beyond paving. For example, asphalt could also used for flooring, damp proofing in buildings, and for waterproofing of various types of pools and baths, with these latter themselves proliferating in the 19th century.<ref name="Abraham1938"/><ref name="LewisMiles"/><ref name="Gerhard1908">{{cite book|first=W.M. Paul|last=Gerhard|year=1908| title=Modern Baths and Bath Houses| edition=1st| publisher=John Wiley and Sons| location=New York |url=https://archive.org/stream/modernbathsandb00unkngoog#page/n11/mode/1up}} (Enter "asphalt" into the search field for list of pages discussing the subject)</ref> On the London stockmarket, there were various claims as to the exclusivity of asphalt quality from France, Germany and England. And numerous patents were granted in France, with similar numbers of patent applications being denied in England due to their similarity to each other. In England, "Claridge's was the type most used in the 1840s and 50s"<ref name="LewisMiles10.06.2"/> In 1914, Claridge's Company entered into a joint venture to produce [[Macadam#Tar-bound macadam|tar-bound macadam]],<ref name=AsphalteCoMovespremises>{{citation |date=January 1914 |title=Claridge's Patent Asphalte Co. ventures into tarred slag macadam |journal=Concrete and Constructional Engineering |volume=IX |issue=1 |page=760|place=London |url=https://archive.org/stream/concreteconstruc09lond#page/760/mode/1up |accessdate=15 June 2010}}</ref> with materials manufactured through a subsidiary company called Clarmac Roads Ltd.<ref name=ClarmacRoadsRegistration>{{citation |year=1921 |title=Registration of Clarmac Roads |journal=The Law Reports: Chancery Division |volume=Vol. 1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2AQxAAAAIAAJ&q=clarmac&dq=clarmac|pages=544–547 |accessdate=17 June 2010}}</ref> Two products resulted, namely ''Clarmac'', and ''Clarphalte'', with the former being manufactured by Clarmac Roads and the latter by Claridge's Patent Asphalte Co., although ''Clarmac'' was more widely used.<ref name=ClarmacAndClarphalte>{{citation |date=7 July 1915 |title=Clarmac and Clarphalte |pages=2–4 (n13-15 in electronic page field)|journal=The Building News and Engineering Journal |volume=Vol. 109: July to December 1915 |issue=No. 3157 |url=https://archive.org/stream/buildingnewseng109londuoft#page/n13/mode/1up/search/clarmac |accessdate=18 June 2010}}</ref>{{refn|''The Building News and Engineering Journal'' contains photographs of the following roads where ''Clarmac'' was used, being "some amongst many laid with 'Clarmac'": Scott's Lane, [[Beckenham]]; Dorset Street, Marylebone; Lordswood Road, [[Birmingham]]; Hearsall Lane, [[Coventry]]; Valkyrie Avenue, [[Westcliff-on-Sea]]; and Lennard Road, [[Penge]].<ref name=Clarmaclaidroads>[https://archive.org/stream/buildingnewseng109londuoft#page/n14/mode/1up Roads laid with Clarmac] ''The Building News and Engineering Journal'', 1915 '''109''' (3157), p.3 (n14 in electronic field).</ref>|group="note"}} However, the [[First World War]] impacted financially on the Clarmac Company, which entered into liquidation in 1915.<ref name=WW1Impact>[https://books.google.com/books?id=2AQxAAAAIAAJ&q=%22war,+and+the+Claridge+%22&dq=%22war,+and+the+Claridge+%22&hl=en&ei=q7UaTOjQFcyVcezpwI8K&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=2&ved=0CC8Q6AEwAQ Clarmac financial difficults due to WW1] [https://books.google.com/books?id=2AQxAAAAIAAJ&q=%22debentures+with+the+clarmac%22&dq=%22debentures+with+the+clarmac%22&hl=en&ei=pbgaTKv9N8WecZaimJ4K&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CCwQ6AEwAA Debentures deposited] ''The Law Reports: Chancery Division'', (1921) '''Vol. 1''' p.545. Retrieved 17 June 2010.</ref><ref name=LondonGazette26Oct1915>{{citation |date=26 October 1915 |title=Notice of the Winding up of Clarmac Roads |journal=The London Gazette |issue=29340 |page=10568 |url=http://www.london-gazette.co.uk/issues/29340/pages/10568 |accessdate=15 June 2010}}</ref> The failure of Clarmac Roads Ltd had a flow-on effect to Claridge's Company, which was itself compulsorily wound up,<ref name=NewCompanyFunded>[https://books.google.com/books?id=TiYyAAAAIAAJ&q=claridge+%22compulsorily+wound+up%22&dq=claridge+%22compulsorily+wound+up%22&hl=en&ei=F9EbTIfvIMTJcdqF-bAK&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CCgQ6AEwAA Claridge's Patent Asphalte Co. compulsorily wound up] [https://books.google.com/books?id=TiYyAAAAIAAJ&q=%22funds+in+the+new+company%22&dq=%22funds+in+the+new+company%22&hl=en&ei=9dMbTKWTB4yxcbH2-PMM&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CDEQ6AEwAA Funds invested in new company] ''The Law Times Reports'' (1921) '''Vol.125''', p.256. Retrieved 15 June 2010.</ref> ceasing operations in 1917,<ref name="LondonGazette1917">{{cite book|date=16 November 1917 | title=The London Gazette|chapter=Claridge's Patent Asphalte Co. winds up 10 November 1917|page=11863| url=http://www.london-gazette.co.uk/issues/30384/pages/11863}}</ref><ref name="BritishHistoryOnline">{{cite book|author=Hobhouse, Hermione (General Editor) |title='Cubitt Town: Riverside area: from Newcastle Drawdock to Cubitt Town Pier', Survey of London: volumes 43 and 44: Poplar, Blackwall and Isle of Dogs |chapter=British History Online |pages=528–532 (see text at refs 507 & 510)|year=1994 | url=http://www.british-history.ac.uk/report.aspx?compid=46529&amp;strquery=claridge |accessdate=8 November 2009}}</ref> having invested a substantial amount of funds into the new venture, both at the outset,<ref name=NewCompanyFunded/> and in a subsequent attempt to save the Clarmac Company.<ref name=WW1Impact/> === Early use in the US === The first use of asphalt/bitumen in the New World was by indigenous peoples. On the west coast, as early as the 13th century, the [[Tongva people|Tongva]], [[Luiseño people|Luiseño]] and [[Chumash people|Chumash]] peoples collected the naturally occurring asphalt/bitumen that seeped to the surface above underlying petroleum deposits. All three used the substance as an adhesive. It is found on many different artifacts of tools and ceremonial items. For example, it was used on [[rattle (percussion instrument)|rattle]]s to adhere gourds or turtle shells to rattle handles. It was also used in decorations. Small round shell beads were often set in asphaltum to provide decorations. It was used as a sealant on baskets to make them watertight for carrying water. Asphaltum was used also to seal the planks on ocean-going canoes. Roads in the US have been paved with materials that include asphalt/bitumen since at least 1870, when a street in front of the Newark, NJ City Hall was paved. In many cases, these early pavings were made from naturally occurring "bituminous rock", such as at Ritchie Mines in Macfarlan in [[Ritchie County, West Virginia]] from 1852 to 1873. In 1876, asphalt-based paving was used to pave Pennsylvania Avenue in Washington, DC, in time for the celebration of the national centennial.<ref name="NAPA2005">{{cite book|first=Dan |last=McNichol|year=2005| title=Paving the Way: Asphalt in America| edition=|chapter=| publisher=National Asphalt Pavement Association| location=Lanham, MD |pages= |url=http://store.hotmix.org/index.php?productID=144|isbn=0-914313-04-5}}</ref> Asphalt/bitumen was also used for flooring, paving and waterproofing of baths and swimming pools during the early 20th century, following similar trends in Europe.<ref name="Gerhard1908" /> === Early use in Canada === {{see also | Bitumount | History of the petroleum industry in Canada (oil sands and heavy oil)}} Canada has the world's largest deposit of natural bitumen in the [[Athabasca oil sands]] and Canadian [[First Nations]] along the [[Athabasca River]] had long used it to waterproof their canoes. In 1719, a [[Cree]] Indian named Wa-Pa-Su brought a sample for trade to [[Henry Kelsey]] of the [[Hudson’s Bay Company]], who was the first recorded European to see it. However, it wasn't until 1787 that fur trader and explorer [[Alexander Mackenzie (explorer)|Alexander MacKenzie]] saw the Athabasca oil sands and said, "At about 24 miles from the fork (of the Athabasca and Clearwater Rivers) are some bituminous fountains into which a pole of 20 feet long may be inserted without the least resistance."<ref name=oilsandfacts/> The value of the deposit was obvious from the start, but the means of extracting the bitumen were not. The nearest town, [[Fort McMurray, Alberta]] was a small fur trading post, other markets were far away, and transportation costs were too high to ship the raw bituminous sand for paving. In 1915, Sidney Ells of the Federal Mines Branch experimented with separation techniques and used the bitumen to pave 600 feet of road in [[Edmonton, Alberta]]. Other roads in Alberta were paved with oil sands, but it was generally not economic. During the 1920s [[Karl Clark (chemist)|Dr. Karl A. Clark]] of the [[Alberta Research Council]] patented a hot water oil separation process and entrepreneur Robert C. Fitzsimmons<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.canadianpetroleumhalloffame.ca/robert-fitzsimmons.html | title = Robert C. Fitzsimmons (1881-1971) | year = 2010 | publisher = Canadian Petroleum Hall of Fame | access-date = 2016-01-20}}</ref> built the [[Bitumount]] oil separation plant, which between 1925 and 1958 produced up to {{convert|300|oilbbl|sigfig=1}} per day of bitumen using Dr. Clark's method. Most of the bitumen was used for waterproofing roofs, but other uses included fuels, lubrication oils, printers ink, medicines, rust and acid-proof paints, fireproof roofing, street paving, patent leather, and fence post preservatives.<ref name = oilsandfacts/> Eventually Fitzsimmons ran out of money and the plant was taken over by the Alberta government. Today the Bitumount plant is a [[Provincial historic sites of Alberta|Provincial Historic Site]].<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.history.alberta.ca/energyheritage/bitumount/default.aspx | title = Bitumount | year = 2016 | publisher = Government of Alberta | access-date = 2016-01-20}}</ref> ==Modern use== [[File:Road repaving.jpg|thumb|The [[road surface]] is removed and a new bitumen layer is added]] === Rolled asphalt concrete === {{main|Asphalt concrete}} The largest use of asphalt/bitumen is for making [[asphalt concrete]] for road surfaces and accounts for approximately 85% of the asphalt consumed in the United States. Asphalt concrete pavement mixes are typically composed of 5% asphalt/bitumen cement and 95% aggregates (stone, sand, and gravel). Due to its highly viscous nature, asphalt/bitumen cement must be heated so it can be mixed with the aggregates at the asphalt mixing facility. The temperature required varies depending upon characteristics of the asphalt/bitumen and the aggregates, but [[Asphalt concrete#Mixture formulations|warm-mix asphalt technologies]] allow producers to reduce the temperature required. There are about 4,000 asphalt concrete mixing plants in the U.S., and a similar number in Europe.<ref>{{cite book | title = The Asphalt Paving Industry: A Global Perspective, 2nd Edition | publisher = National Asphalt Pavement Association and European Asphalt Pavement Association | date = February 2011 | location = Lanham, Maryland, and Brussels | url = http://www.asphaltpavement.org/images/stories/GL_101_Edition_3.pdf | format = PDF | accessdate = 27 September 2012 | isbn = 0-914313-06-1}}</ref> When maintenance is performed on asphalt pavements, such as [[Pavement milling|milling]] to remove a worn or damaged surface, the removed material can be returned to a facility for processing into new pavement mixtures. The asphalt/bitumen in the removed material can be reactivated and put back to use in new pavement mixes.<ref>{{cite journal |title=How Should We Express RAP and RAS Contents? |journal=Asphalt Technology E-News |year=2014 |authorlink=National Center for Asphalt Technology |volume=26 |issue=2 |url=http://www.eng.auburn.edu/research/centers/ncat/info-pubs/newsletters/fall-2014/recycledcontents.html |accessdate=2015-08-13 }}</ref> With some 95% of paved roads being constructed of or surfaced with asphalt,<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/policyinformation/statistics/2012/hm12.cfm |title=Highway Statistics Series: Public Road Length Miles by Type of Surface and Ownership |publisher=[[Federal Highway Administration]] |date=2013-10-01 |accessdate=2015-08-13 }}</ref> a substantial amount of asphalt pavement material is reclaimed each year. According to industry surveys conducted annually by the [[Federal Highway Administration]] and the National Asphalt Pavement Association, more than 99% of the asphalt removed each year from road surfaces during widening and resurfacing projects is reused as part of new pavements, roadbeds, shoulders and embankments.<ref>{{cite web|title=Asphalt Pavement Recycling|url=http://www.asphaltpavement.org/recycling|work=Annual Asphalt Pavement Industry Survey on Recycled Materials and Warm-Mix Asphalt Usage: 2009–2013|publisher=National Asphalt Pavement Association|accessdate=13 August 2015}}</ref> Asphalt concrete paving is widely used in airports around the world. Due to the sturdiness and ability to be repaired quickly, it is widely used for runways dedicated to aircraft landing and taking off. === Mastic asphalt === [[Mastic asphalt]] is a type of asphalt which differs from dense graded asphalt ([[asphalt concrete]]) in that it has a higher asphalt/bitumen ([[binder (material)|binder]]) content, usually around 7–10% of the whole aggregate mix, as opposed to rolled asphalt concrete, which has only around 5% added asphalt/bitumen. This thermoplastic substance is widely used in the building industry for waterproofing flat roofs and tanking underground. Mastic asphalt is heated to a temperature of {{convert|210|°C|°F}} and is spread in layers to form an impervious barrier about {{convert|20|mm|in|abbr=off|sp=us}} thick. === Asphalt emulsion === A number of technologies allow asphalt/bitumen to be mixed at much lower temperatures. These involve mixing with petroleum solvents to form "cutbacks" with reduced melting point, or mixtures with water to turn the asphalt/bitumen into an [[emulsion]]. Asphalt emulsions contain up to 70% asphalt/bitumen and typically less than 1.5% chemical additives. There are two main types of emulsions with different affinity for aggregates, [[cationic]] and [[anionic]]. Asphalt emulsions are used in a wide variety of applications. [[Chipseal]] involves spraying the road surface with asphalt emulsion followed by a layer of crushed rock, gravel or crushed slag. Slurry seal involves the creation of a mixture of asphalt emulsion and fine crushed aggregate that is spread on the surface of a road. Cold-mixed asphalt can also be made from asphalt emulsion to create pavements similar to hot-mixed asphalt, several inches in depth and asphalt emulsions are also blended into recycled hot-mix asphalt to create low-cost pavements. === Synthetic crude oil === {{main|Synthetic crude oil}} {{see also|Petroleum production in Canada}} Synthetic crude oil, also known as syncrude, is the output from a bitumen upgrader facility used in connection with oil sand production in Canada. Bituminous sands are mined using enormous (100 ton capacity) [[power shovel]]s and loaded into even larger (400 ton capacity) [[dump trucks]] for movement to an upgrading facility. The process used to extract the bitumen from the sand is a hot water process originally developed by [[Karl Clark (chemist)|Dr. Karl Clark]] of the [[University of Alberta]] during the 1920s. After extraction from the sand, the bitumen is fed into a [[Upgrader|bitumen upgrader]] which converts it into a [[light crude oil]] equivalent. This synthetic substance is fluid enough to be transferred through conventional [[oil pipeline]]s and can be fed into conventional [[oil refineries]] without any further treatment. By 2015 Canadian bitumen upgraders were producing over {{convert|1|Moilbbl}} per day of synthetic crude oil, of which 75% was exported to oil refineries in the United States.<ref name=NEBstats>{{Cite web | url = https://www.neb-one.gc.ca/nrg/sttstc/crdlndptrlmprdct/index-eng.html | title = Crude Oil and Petroleum Products | publisher = [[National Energy Board]] of Canada | accessdate = January 21, 2016}}</ref> In Alberta, five bitumen upgraders produce synthetic crude oil and a variety of other products: The [[Suncor Energy]] upgrader near [[Fort McMurray, Alberta]] produces synthetic crude oil plus diesel fuel; the [[Syncrude Canada]], [[Canadian Natural Resources]], and [[Nexen]] upgraders near Fort McMurray produce synthetic crude oil; and the Shell [[Scotford Upgrader]] near Edmonton produces synthetic crude oil plus an intermediate feedstock for the nearby Shell Oil Refinery.<ref name=CAPP2015>{{Cite web | url = http://www.capp.ca/publications-and-statistics/publications/264673 | title = 2015 CAPP Crude Oil Forecast, Markets & Transportation | publisher = [[Canadian Association of Petroleum Producers]] | accessdate = January 21, 2016}}</ref> A sixth upgrader, under construction in 2015 near [[Redwater, Alberta]], will upgrade half of its crude bitumen directly to diesel fuel, with the remainder of the output being sold as feedstock to nearby oil refineries and petrochemical plants.<ref>{{Cite web | url = http://www.nwrpartnership.com/ | title = The Project | publisher = North West Redwater Partnership | accessdate = January 21, 2016}}</ref> === Non-upgraded crude bitumen === {{See also|Western Canadian Select}} Canadian bitumen does not differ substantially from oils such as Venezuelan extra-heavy and Mexican [[heavy crude oil|heavy oil]] in chemical composition, and the real difficulty is moving the extremely viscous bitumen through [[oil pipeline]]s to the refinery. Many modern oil refineries are extremely sophisticated and can process non-upgraded bitumen directly into products such as gasoline, diesel fuel, and refined asphalt without any preprocessing. This is particularly common in areas such as the US [[Gulf coast]], where refineries were designed to process Venezuelan and Mexican oil, and in areas such as the US [[Midwest]] where refineries were rebuilt to process heavy oil as domestic light oil production declined. Given the choice, such heavy oil refineries usually prefer to buy bitumen rather than synthetic oil because the cost is lower, and in some cases because they prefer to produce more diesel fuel and less gasoline.<ref name=CAPP2015/> By 2015 Canadian production and exports of non-upgraded bitumen exceeded that of synthetic crude oil at over {{convert|1.3|Moilbbl}} per day, of which about 65% was exported to the United States.<ref name=NEBstats/> Because of the difficulty of moving crude bitumen through pipelines, non-upgraded bitumen is usually diluted with [[natural-gas condensate]] in a form called [[dilbit]] or with synthetic crude oil, called [[synbit]]. However, to meet international competition, much non-upgraded bitumen is now sold as a blend of multiple grades of bitumen, conventional crude oil, synthetic crude oil, and condensate in a standardized benchmark product such as [[Western Canadian Select]]. This sour, heavy crude oil blend is designed to have uniform refining characteristics to compete with internationally marketed heavy oils such as [[Petroleum industry in Mexico|Mexican Mayan]] or Arabian [[Dubai Crude]].<ref name=CAPP2015/> ===Other uses=== [[Asphalt shingle|Roofing shingle]]s account for most of the remaining asphalt/bitumen consumption. Other uses include cattle sprays, fence-post treatments, and waterproofing for fabrics. Asphalt/bitumen is used to make [[Japan black]], a [[lacquer]] known especially for its use on iron and steel, and it is also used in paint and marker inks by some graffiti supply companies to increase the weather resistance and permanence of the paint or ink, and to make the color much darker.{{Citation needed|date=April 2011}} Asphalt/bitumen is also used to seal some alkaline batteries during the manufacturing process. ==Production== [[File:Asphalt plant pic.jpg|200px|thumbnail|right|Picture of typical asphalt plant for making asphalt.]] About 40,000,000 tons were produced in 1984{{update inline|date=June 2014}}. It is obtained as the "heavy" (i.e., difficult to distill) fraction. Material with a [[boiling point]] greater than around 500&nbsp;°C is considered asphalt. Vacuum distillation separates it from the other components in crude oil (such as [[naphtha]], gasoline and [[Diesel fuel|diesel]]). The resulting material is typically further treated to extract small but valuable amounts of lubricants and to adjust the properties of the material to suit applications. In a [[de-asphalting unit]], the crude asphalt is treated with either [[propane]] or [[butane]] in a [[Supercritical fluid|supercritical]] phase to extract the lighter molecules, which are then separated. Further processing is possible by "blowing" the product: namely reacting it with [[oxygen]]. This step makes the product harder and more viscous.<ref name=Ullmann/> Asphalt/bitumen is typically stored and transported at temperatures around {{convert|150|°C|°F|abbr=on}}. Sometimes [[diesel oil]] or [[kerosene]] are mixed in before shipping to retain liquidity; upon delivery, these lighter materials are separated out of the mixture. This mixture is often called "bitumen feedstock", or BFS. Some [[dump truck]]s route the hot engine exhaust through pipes in the dump body to keep the material warm. The backs of tippers carrying asphalt/bitumen, as well as some handling equipment, are also commonly sprayed with a releasing agent before filling to aid release. Diesel oil is no longer used as a [[release agent]] due to environmental concerns. ===From oil sands=== {{see also | oil sands}} Naturally occurring crude asphalt/bitumen impregnated in sedimentary rock is the prime feed stock for petroleum production from "[[Oil sands]]", currently under development in Alberta, Canada. Canada has most of the world's supply of natural asphalt/bitumen, covering 140,000 square kilometres<ref name=oilsands/> (an area larger than England), giving it the second-largest proven [[oil reserves]] in the world. The [[Athabasca oil sands]] is the largest asphalt/bitumen deposit in Canada and the only one accessible to [[surface mining]], although recent technological breakthroughs have resulted in deeper deposits becoming producible by ''[[in-situ#Petroleum|in situ]]'' methods. Because of [[world oil market chronology from 2003|oil price increases after 2003]], producing bitumen became highly profitable, but as a result of the decline after 2014 it became uneconomic to build new plants again. By 2014, Canadian crude asphalt/bitumen production averaged about {{convert|2.3|Moilbbl|m3}} per day and was projected to rise to {{convert|4.4|Moilbbl|m3}} per day by 2020.<ref name="CAPP"/> The total amount of crude asphalt/bitumen in Alberta which could be extracted is estimated to be about {{convert|310|Goilbbl|e9m3|sigfig=1}},<ref name=ST98/> which at a rate of {{convert|4400000|oilbbl/d}} would last about 200 years. ===Alternatives and bioasphalt === {{Main|Peak oil|Global warming|Bioasphalt}} Although uncompetitive economically, asphalt/bitumen can be made from nonpetroleum-based renewable resources such as sugar, [[molasses]] and rice, corn and potato [[starch]]es. Asphalt/bitumen can also be made from waste material by [[fractional distillation]] of used [[motor oil]], which is sometimes otherwise disposed of by burning or dumping into landfills. Use of motor oil may cause premature cracking in colder climates, resulting in roads that need to be repaved more frequently.<ref>{{Cite journal| doi = 10.1080/10298436.2010.488729| issn = 1029-8436| volume = 11| issue = 6| pages = 541–553| last = Hesp| first = Simon A.M.|author2=Herbert F. Shurvell| title = X-ray fluorescence detection of waste engine oil residue in asphalt and its effect on cracking in service| journal = International Journal of Pavement Engineering| accessdate = 2014-03-24| year = 2010| url = http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/10298436.2010.488729}}</ref> Nonpetroleum-based asphalt/bitumen binders can be made light-colored. Lighter-colored roads absorb less heat from solar radiation, and have less surface heat than darker surfaces, reducing their contribution to the [[urban heat island]] effect.<ref>[http://www.epa.gov/heatisland/ Heat Island Effect]. From the website of the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.</ref> Parking lots that use asphalt alternatives are called [[green parking lots]]. ===Natural bitumen=== {{expand section|with=description of other natural sources of bitumen|date=May 2015}} Selenizza is a naturally occurring solid hydrocarbon bitumen found in the native asphalt deposit of [[Selenice]], in [[Albania]], the only European asphalt mine still in use. The rock asphalt is found in the form of veins, filling cracks in a more or less horizontal direction. The bitumen content varies from 83% to 92% (soluble in carbon disulphide), with a penetration value near to zero and a softening point (ring & ball) around 120&nbsp;°C. The insoluble matter, consisting mainly of silica ore, ranges from 8% to 17%. The Albanian bitumen extraction has a long history and was practiced in an organized way by the Romans. After centuries of silence, the first mentions of Albanian bitumen appeared only in 1868, when the Frenchman [[Henri Coquand|Coquand]] published the first geological description of the deposits of Albanian bitumen. In 1875, the exploitation rights were granted to the Ottoman government and in 1912, they were transferred to the Italian company Simsa. Since 1945, the mine was exploited by the Albanian government and from 2001 to date, the management passed to a French company, which organized the mining process for the manufacture of the natural bitumen on an industrial scale.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Giavarini|first1=Carlo|title=Six Thousand Years of Asphalt|date=March 2013|publisher=SITEB|isbn=978-88-908408-3-8|pages=71–78}}</ref> Today the mine is predominantly exploited in an open pit quarry but several of the many underground mines (deep and extending over several km) still remain viable. The bitumen Selenizza is produced primarily in granular form, after melting the asphalt pieces selected in the mine. Selenizza<ref name="Selenice Bitumi">[http://www.selenicebitumi.com/engindex.php], Selenice Bitumi for more information about Selenizza</ref> is mainly used as an additive in the road construction sector. It is mixed with traditional bitumen to improve both the viscoelastic properties and the resistance to ageing. It may be blended with the hot bitumen in tanks, but its granular form allows it to be fed in the mixer or in the recycling ring of normal asphalt plants. Other typical applications include the production of mastic asphalts for sidewalks, bridges, car-parks and urban roads as well as drilling fluid additives for the oil and gas industry. Selenizza is available in powder or in granular material of various particle sizes and is packaged in big bags or in thermal fusible polyethylene bags. A [[Life-cycle assessment|Life Cycle Assessment]] (LCA) study of the natural bitumen Selenizza compared with petroleum bitumen, has shown that the environmental impact of the natural bitumen is about half the impact of the road bitumen produced in oil refineries in terms of carbon dioxide emission.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Giavarini|first1=C.|last2=Pellegrini|first2=A.|title=Life cycle assessment of Selenice asphalt compared with petroleum bitumen|journal=The 1st Albanian Congress on Roads|pages=234–237}}</ref> === Occupational safety === People can be exposed to asphalt in the workplace by breathing in fumes or skin absorption. The [[National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health]] (NIOSH) has set a [[Recommended exposure limit]] (REL) of 5&nbsp;mg/m<sup>3</sup> over a 15-minute period.<ref>{{Cite web|title = CDC - NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards - Asphalt fumes|url = http://www.cdc.gov/niosh/npg/npgd0042.html|website = www.cdc.gov|accessdate = 2015-11-27}}</ref> Asphalt is basically an inert material that must be heated or diluted to a point where it becomes workable for the production of materials for paving, roofing, and other applications. In examining the potential health hazards associated with asphalt, the [[International Agency for Research on Cancer]] (IARC) determined that it is the application parameters, predominantly temperature, that effect occupational exposure and the potential bioavailable carcinogenic hazard/risk of the asphalt emissions.<ref>{{cite book |last=IARC |url=http://monographs.iarc.fr/ENG/Monographs/vol103/ |title=Bitumens and Bitumen Emissions, and Some N- and S-Heterocyclic Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons |volume=103 |location=Lyon, France |publisher=[[International Agency for Research on Cancer]] |year=2013 |isbn=978-92-832-1326-0 |accessdate=2015-12-07 }}</ref> In particular, temperatures greater than 199&nbsp;°C (390&nbsp;°F), were shown to produce a greater exposure risk than when asphalt was heated to lower temperatures, such as those typically used in asphalt pavement mix production and placement.<ref name="CavallariZwack2012">{{cite journal|last1=Cavallari|first1=J. M.|last2=Zwack|first2=L. M.|last3=Lange|first3=C. R.|last4=Herrick|first4=R. F.|last5=Mcclean|first5=M. D.|title=Temperature-Dependent Emission Concentrations of Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons in Paving and Built-Up Roofing Asphalts|journal=Annals of Occupational Hygiene|volume=56|issue=2|year=2012|pages=148–160|issn=0003-4878|doi=10.1093/annhyg/mer107}}</ref> ==Etymology== The word ''asphalt'' is derived from the late Middle English, in turn from French ''asphalte'', based on [[Late Latin]] ''asphalton'', ''asphaltum'', which is the [[Latinisation (literature)|latinisation]] of the [[Greek language|Greek]] ἄσφαλτος (''ásphaltos'', ''ásphalton''), a word meaning "asphalt/bitumen/[[Pitch (resin)|pitch]]",<ref>[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3Da%29%2Fsfaltos ἄσφαλτος], Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, ''A Greek-English Lexicon'', on Perseus</ref> which perhaps derives from ἀ-, "without" and σφάλλω (''sfallō''), "make fall".<ref>[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3Dsfa%2Fllw σφάλλω], Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, ''A Greek-English Lexicon'', on Perseus</ref> Note that in French, the term ''asphalte'' is used for naturally occurring bitumen-soaked limestone deposits, and for specialised manufactured products with fewer voids or greater bitumen content than the "asphaltic concrete" used to pave roads. It is a significant fact that the first use of asphalt by the ancients was in the nature of a cement for securing or joining together various objects, and it thus seems likely that the name itself was expressive of this application. Specifically [[Herodotus]] mentioned that bitumen was brought to Babylon to build its gigantic fortification wall.<ref>Herodotus, ''The Histories'', [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Hdt.+1.179.4&fromdoc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0126 1.179.4], on Perseus</ref> From the Greek, the word passed into late Latin, and thence into French (''asphalte'') and English ("asphaltum" and "asphalt"). The expression "bitumen" originated in the Sanskrit, where we find the words ''jatu'', meaning "pitch," and ''jatu-krit'', meaning "pitch creating", "pitch producing" (referring to coniferous or resinous trees). The Latin equivalent is claimed by some to be originally ''gwitu-men'' (pertaining to pitch), and by others, ''pixtumens'' (exuding or bubbling pitch), which was subsequently shortened to ''bitumen'', thence passing via French into English. From the same root is derived the Anglo Saxon word ''cwidu'' (mastix), the German word ''Kitt'' (cement or mastic) and the old Norse word ''kvada''.<ref name="Abraham19381">Abraham, Herbert (1938), p.1</ref> Neither of the terms asphalt or bitumen should be confused with [[tar]] or [[coal tars]]. === Modern usage === [[File:Asfaltna baza Ivanovec.1.jpg|thumb|An asphalt mixing plant for hot aggregate]] In [[British English]], the word 'asphalt' is used to refer to a mixture of mineral aggregate and asphalt/bitumen (also called [[tarmac]] in common parlance). When bitumen is mixed with clay it is usually called asphaltum.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Béguin|first1=André|title=A technical dictionary of printmaking - Bitumen|url=http://www.polymetaal.nl/beguin/mapb/bitumen.htm|website=www.polymetaal.nl|accessdate=27 January 2016}}</ref> The earlier word 'asphaltum' is now archaic and not commonly used.{{citation needed|date=January 2016}} In [[American English]], 'asphalt' is equivalent to the British 'bitumen'. However, 'asphalt' is also commonly used as a shortened form of '[[asphalt concrete]]' (therefore equivalent to the British 'asphalt' or 'tarmac'). In [[Australian English]], bitumen is often used as the generic term for road surfaces. In [[Canadian English]], the word bitumen is used to refer to the vast Canadian deposits of extremely heavy [[crude oil]],<ref name=oilsands>{{cite web | title = What is Oil Sands | publisher = Alberta Energy | year = 2007 | url = http://www.energy.gov.ab.ca/OilSands/793.asp | accessdate = 10 January 2008| archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20071221151828/http://www.qrpoil.com/site/?bitumen| archivedate= 21 December 2007 | deadurl= no}} </ref> while asphalt is used for the [[oil refinery]] product used to pave roads and manufacture [[roof shingle]]s and various waterproofing products. Diluted bitumen (diluted with [[naphtha]] to make it flow in pipelines) is known as [[dilbit]] in the Canadian petroleum industry, while bitumen "[[Upgrader|upgraded]]" to [[synthetic crude]] oil is known as syncrude and syncrude blended with bitumen as synbit.<ref name="CAPP">{{cite web | title = 2007 Canadian Crude Oil Forecast and Market Outlook | publisher = Canadian Association of Petroleum Producers |date=June 2007 | url = http://www.capp.ca/default.asp?V_DOC_ID=1220 | accessdate = 30 May 2008}} </ref> Bitumen is still the preferred geological term for naturally occurring deposits of the solid or semi-solid form of petroleum. Bituminous rock is a form of sandstone impregnated with bitumen. The [[tar sands]] of [[Alberta, Canada]] are a similar material. ==See also== {{colbegin|2}} *[[Asphalt plant]] *[[Alveodren]] *[[Blacktop]] *[[Duxit]] *[[Tarmac]] *[[Macadam]] *[[Edward J. de Smedt]] *[[International Grooving & Grinding Association]] * [[Bioasphalt]] * [[Asphaltene]] * [[Bitumen-based fuel]] * [[Bituminous coal]] * [[Bituminous rocks]] * [[Oil sands]] * [[Pitch (resin)]] * [[Tar]] * [[Sealcoat]] * [[Stamped asphalt]] * [[Cooper Research Technology]] {{colend}} ==Notes== {{reflist|group="note"}} ==References== {{reflist|30em}}<ref name=":0">[http://www.qrpoil.com/site/?bitumen]</ref><ref name=":0" />{{refbegin}} {{refend}} ==Sources== * Barth, Edwin J., ''Asphalt: Science and Technology'' Gordon and Breach (1962). ISBN 0-677-00040-5. * {{citation |date=1993|origyear=Reprint of 1964 ed. |author=Forbes, R.J. |title=Studies in Ancient Technology |volume=Volume 1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gLQnmxGjpjIC&pg=PA5&dq=chapter+introduction+%22petroleum+family%22#v=onepage&q=chapter%20introduction%20%22petroleum%20family%22&f=false |place=The Netherlands |publisher=E.J. Brill |isbn=90-04-00621-4}} *{{citation |year=1992 |author=Lay, Maxwell G |title=The Ways of the World: A History of the World's Roads and of the Vehicles that Used Them |place= |publisher=Rutgers University Press |isbn=0-8135-2691-4 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=flvS-nJga8QC&printsec=frontcover&dq=%22Ways+of+the+World%22#v=onepage&q&f=false}} ==External links== {{Commons category|Bitumen}} {{commons category|Asphalt}} {{wiktionary|asphalt}} {{Wikisource1911Enc}} *{{ICSC|0612|06}} *[http://pavementinteractive.org/index.php?title=Asphalt Pavement Interactive – Asphalt] *[http://www.asphaltmagazine.com/ Asphalt Magazine] *[http://ecs.csus.edu/~gordonvs/asphalt/asphalt.html CSU Sacramento, The World Famous Asphalt Museum!] *[http://www.cdc.gov/niosh/topics/asphalt/ National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health – Asphalt Fumes] *{{Cite NIE|wstitle=Bitumen|year=1905 |short=x}} <!-- BEFORE REMOVING LINKS PLEASE READ THE ARTICLES AND CHECK THAT THEY DO NOT DESCRIBE ASPHALT OR BITUMEN / PLEASE REMOVE LINKS TO ASPHALT CONCRETE SOME ARTICLES ARE POOR, UNCLEAR OR DESCRIBE BOTH, THEY MAY BECOME INVALID LINKS LATER AS THEY ARE IMPROVED --> {{Authority control}} [[Category:Asphalt| ]] [[Category:Amorphous solids]] [[Category:Chemical mixtures]] [[Category:IARC Group 2B carcinogens]] [[Category:Pavements]] [[Category:Petroleum products]] [[Category:Road construction materials]] 7gis3anc0j42h5lw9kzjatler7kxmtx 0 659 717932776 717822430 2016-04-30T15:46:31Z Maczkopeti 26240210 Pronunciation wikitext text/x-wiki {{Redirect2|American Standards Association|ANSI|the film speed scale|ASA film speed|other uses|ANSI (disambiguation)}} {{Use mdy dates|date=June 2013}} {{Infobox organization |name = American National Standards Institute |bgcolor = <!-- header background color --> |fgcolor = <!-- header text color --> |image = ANSI logo.svg |image_border = |size = <!-- default 200px --> |alt = <!-- alt text; see [[WP:ALT]] --> |caption = [[Logo]] of the American National Standards Institute |map = <!-- optional --> |msize = <!-- map size, optional, default 200px --> |malt = <!-- map alt text --> |mcaption = <!-- optional --> |abbreviation = ANSI |motto = |formation = {{Start date and age|1918|05|14|paren=yes}}<ref>14 May 1918, Minutes, American Engineering Standards Committee (AESC), p. 1</ref> |type = <!-- GO, NGO, IGO, INGO, etc --> |status = <!--(ad hoc, treaty, foundation, etc)--> |purpose = [[Standards organization|National standards]] |headquarters = [[Washington, D.C.]],<br/>United States |location = |region_served = |membership = 125,000 companies and 3.5 million professionals<ref name="membership"/> |language = [[English language|English]] |leader_title = <!--(position title for the leader of the org)--> |leader_name = <!--(name of leader)--> |main_organ = <!--(gral. assembly, board of directors, etc)--> |parent_organization = <!--(if one)--> |affiliations = <!--(if any)--> |num_staff = |num_volunteers = |budget = |website = {{URL|http://www.ansi.org/}} |remarks = }} The '''American National Standards Institute''' ('''ANSI''', {{IPAc-en|ˈ|æ|n|s|i}} {{respell|AN|see}}) is a private [[non-profit organization]] that oversees the development of [[Standardization|voluntary consensus standards]] for products, services, processes, systems, and personnel in the United States.<ref>RFC 4949</ref> The organization also coordinates U.S. standards with international standards so that American products can be used worldwide. ANSI accredits standards that are developed by representatives of other [[standards organization]]s, [[government agency|government agencies]], [[consumer organization|consumer groups]], companies, and others. These standards ensure that the characteristics and performance of products are consistent, that people use the same definitions and terms, and that products are tested the same way. ANSI also accredits organizations that carry out product or personnel certification in accordance with requirements defined in international standards.<ref>ANSI 2009 Annual Report</ref> The organization's headquarters are in [[Washington, DC]]. ANSI's operations office is located in [[New York City]]. The ANSI annual operating budget is funded by the sale of publications, membership dues and fees, accreditation services, fee-based programs, and international standards programs. == History == ANSI was originally formed in 1918, when six Stanton engineering societies and three government agencies founded the '''American Engineering Standards Committee''' ('''AESC'''). In 1928, the AESC became the '''American Standards Association''' ('''ASA'''). In 1966, the ASA was reorganized and became '''United States of America Standards Institute''' ('''USASI'''). The present name was adopted in 1969. Prior to 1918, these five founding engineering societies: *[[American Institute of Electrical Engineers]] (AIEE, now [[IEEE]]) *[[American Society of Mechanical Engineers]] (ASME) *[[American Society of Civil Engineers]] (ASCE) *American Institute of Mining Engineers (AIME, now [[American Institute of Mining, Metallurgical, and Petroleum Engineers]]) *American Society for Testing and Materials (now [[ASTM International]]) had been members of the United Engineering Society (UES). At the behest of the AIEE, they invited the U.S. government Departments of War, Navy (combined in 1947 to become the [[United States Department of Defense|Department of Defense]] or DOD) and Commerce<ref>[http://www.ansi.org/about_ansi/introduction/history.aspx?menuid=1 ANSI history]- Retrieved 2011-09-27</ref> to join in founding a national standards organization. According to Adam Stanton, the first permanent secretary and head of staff in 1919, AESC started as an ambitious program and little else. Staff for the first year consisted of one executive, Clifford B. LePage, who was on loan from a founding member, ASME. An annual budget of $7,500 was provided by the founding bodies. In 1931, the organization (renamed ASA in 1928) became affiliated with the U.S. National Committee of the [[International Electrotechnical Commission]] ([[International Electrotechnical Commission|IEC]]), which had been formed in 1904 to develop electrical and electronics standards.<ref>[http://www.iec.ch/ Welcome to IEC - International Electrotechnical Commission<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> ==Members== ANSI's membership comprises government agencies, organizations, corporations, academic and international bodies, and individuals. In total, the Institute represents the interests of more than 125,000 companies and 3.5 million professionals.<ref name="membership">ANSI membership page, [http://www.ansi.org/membership/overview/overview.aspx?menuid=2www.ansi.org/membership www.ansi.org/membership]</ref> ==Process== Though ANSI itself does not develop standards, the Institute oversees the development and use of standards by accrediting the procedures of standards developing organizations. ANSI accreditation signifies that the procedures used by standards developing organizations meet the Institute's requirements for openness, balance, consensus, and due process. ANSI also designates specific standards as American National Standards, or ANS, when the Institute determines that the standards were developed in an environment that is equitable, accessible and responsive to the requirements of various stakeholders.<ref>[http://publicaa.ansi.org/sites/apdl/Documents/News%20and%20Publications/Brochures/Value%20of%20the%20ANS.pdf ''Value of the ANS Designation'' brochure]</ref> Voluntary consensus standards quicken the market acceptance of products while making clear how to improve the safety of those products for the protection of consumers. There are approximately 9,500 American National Standards that carry the ANSI designation. The American National Standards process involves: *consensus by a group that is open to representatives from all interested parties *broad-based public review and comment on draft standards *consideration of and response to comments *incorporation of submitted changes that meet the same consensus requirements into a draft standard *availability of an appeal by any participant alleging that these principles were not respected during the standards-development process. ==International activities== In addition to facilitating the formation of standards in the United States, ANSI promotes the use of U.S. standards internationally, advocates U.S. policy and technical positions in international and regional standards organizations, and encourages the adoption of international standards as national standards where appropriate. The Institute is the official U.S. representative to the two major international standards organizations, the [[International Organization for Standardization]] (ISO), as a founding member,<ref>[http://www.ansi.org/about_ansi/introduction/introduction.aspx ISO founding member]- Retrieved 2011-09-27</ref> and the [[International Electrotechnical Commission]] (IEC), via the U.S. National Committee (USNC). ANSI participates in almost the entire technical program of both the ISO and the IEC, and administers many key committees and subgroups. In many instances, U.S. standards are taken forward to ISO and IEC, through ANSI or the USNC, where they are adopted in whole or in part as international standards. ===Standards panels=== <ref>[http://www.ansi.org/standards_activities/standards_boards_panels/overview.aspx?menuid=3 Overview]. Ansi.org. Retrieved on 2013-08-12.</ref> The Institute administers nine standards panels: *ANSI Homeland Defense and Security Standardization Collaborative (HDSSC) *ANSI Nanotechnology Standards Panel (ANSI-NSP) *ID Theft Prevention and ID Management Standards Panel (IDSP) *ANSI Energy Efficiency Standardization Coordination Collaborative (EESCC) *Nuclear Energy Standards Coordination Collaborative (NESCC) *Electric Vehicles Standards Panel (EVSP) *ANSI-NAM Network on Chemical Regulation *ANSI Biofuels Standards Coordination Panel *Healthcare Information Technology Standards Panel (HITSP) Each of the panels works to identify, coordinate, and harmonize voluntary standards relevant to these areas. In 2009, ANSI and the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) formed the Nuclear Energy Standards Coordination Collaborative (NESCC). NESCC is a joint initiative to identify and respond to the current need for standards in the nuclear industry. ===American national standards=== *The [[ASA film speed|ASA]] (as for American Standards Association) photographic exposure system, originally defined in ASA Z38.2.1 (since 1943) and ASA PH2.5 (since 1954), together with the [[DIN film speed|DIN system (DIN 4512 since 1934)]], became the basis for the [[ISO film speed|ISO]] system (since 1974), currently used worldwide ([[ISO 6]], [[ISO 2240]], [[ISO 5800]], [[ISO 12232]]). *A standard for the set of values used to represent characters in digital computers. The ANSI code standard extended the previously created [[ASCII]] seven bit code standard (ASA X3.4-1963), with additional codes for European alphabets (see also [[Extended Binary Coded Decimal Interchange Code]] or EBCDIC). In [[Microsoft Windows]], the phrase "ANSI" refers to the [[Windows code page|Windows ANSI code page]]s (even though they are not ANSI standards).<ref name=""ms" glossary">[http://www.microsoft.com/globaldev/reference/glossary.mspx Microsoft Glossary]</ref> Most of these are fixed width, though some characters for [[ideographic language]]s are variable width. Since these characters are based on a draft of the [[ISO-8859]] series, some of Microsoft's symbols are visually very similar to the ISO symbols, leading many to falsely assume that they are identical. *The first computer [[programming language]] standard was "American Standard [[Fortran]]" (informally known as "FORTRAN 66"), approved in March 1966 and published as ASA X3.9-1966. *The programming language [[COBOL]] had ANSI standards in 1968, 1974, and 1985. The COBOL 2002 standard was issued by [[International Organization for Standardization|ISO]]. *The original standard implementation of the programming language [[C (computer language)|C]] was standardized as ANSI X3.159-1989, becoming the well-known [[ANSI C]]. *A popular [[Unified Thread Standard]] for nuts and bolts is ANSI/ASME B1.1 which was defined in 1935, 1949, 1989, and 2003. *The ANSI-NSF International standards used for commercial kitchens, such as restaurants, cafeterias, delis, etc. *The ANSI/APSP (Association of Pool & Spa Professionals) standards used for pools, spas, hot tubs, barriers, and suction entrapment avoidance. *The ANSI/HI ([[Hydraulic Institute]]) standards used for pumps. *The ANSI for [[eye protection]] is Z87.1, which gives a specific impact resistance rating to the eyewear. This standard is commonly used for shop glasses, shooting glasses, and many other examples of protective eyewear. *The [[Paper size#ANSI paper sizes|ANSI paper sizes]] (ANSI/ASME Y14.1). ===Other initiatives=== *In 2008 ANSI, in partnership<ref>[http://www.citationtechnologies.com/alliances/ansi ] {{wayback|url=http://www.citationtechnologies.com/alliances/ansi |date=20081202011754 }}</ref> with [[Citation Technologies]], created the first dynamic, online web library for [[ISO 14000]] standards.<ref name=iPackages>[http://ansi.org/news_publications/news_story.aspx?menuid=7&articleid=1892 ANSI ISO 14000 Press Release]</ref> *On June 23, 2009 ANSI announced a product and services agreement with [[Citation Technologies]] to deliver all ISO Standards on a web-based platform. Through the ANSI-Citation partnership, 17,765 International Standards developed by more than 3,000 ISO technical bodies will be made available on the citation platform, arming subscribers with powerful search tools and collaboration, notification, and change-management functionality.<ref name="ANSI Press Release 07.23.09">[http://www.ansi.org/news_publications/news_story.aspx?menuid=7&articleid=2261 ANSI Press Release 07.23.09]</ref> *ANSI, in partnership with [[Citation Technologies]], [[Association for the Advancement of Medical Instrumentation|AAMI]], [[ASTM]], and [[DIN]], created a single, centralized database for medical device standards on September 9, 2009.<ref name="Medical Device Standards Press Release 09/09/09">[http://astmnewsroom.org/default.aspx?pageid=1881 Medical Device Standards Database Press Release 09/09/09]</ref> *In early 2009, ANSI launched a new Certificate Accreditation Program (ANSI-CAP) to provide neutral, third-party attestation that a given certificate program meets the American National Standard ASTM E2659-09. *In 2009, ANSI began accepting applications for certification bodies seeking accreditation according to requirements defined under the Toy Safety Certification Program (TSCP) as the official third-party accreditor of TSCP’s product certification bodies. *In 2006, ANSI launched [http://www.standardsportal.org/ www.StandardsPortal.org], an online resource for facilitating more open and efficient trade between international markets in the areas of standards, conformity assessment, and technical regulations. The site currently features content for China, India, and Korea, with additional countries and regions planned for future content. *ANSI design standards have also been incorporated into building codes encompassing several specific building sub-sets, such as the ANSI/SPRI ES-1, which pertains to "Wind Design Standard for Edge Systems Used With Low Slope Roofing Systems", for example.<ref name="The ANSI/SPRI ES-1 Standard Explained">[http://www.area-24.com/ANSI_SPRI_ES-1.html The ANSI/SPRI ES-1 Standard Explained]</ref> ==See also== * [[Accredited Crane Operator Certification]] * [[ANSI ASC X9]] * [[ANSI ASC X12]] * [[ANSI C]] * [[Institute of Environmental Sciences and Technology]] (IEST) * [[Institute of Nuclear Materials Management]] (INMM) * [[ISO]] (to which ANSI is the official US representative) * [[National Institute of Standards and Technology]] (NIST) * [[Open standard]]s ==References== {{Reflist|30em}} ==External links== * {{Official website|www.ansi.org}} * [http://webstore.ansi.org/ ANSI eStandardsStore] * [http://ansidotorg.blogspot.com ANSI Blog] * [http://www.ansi.org/about_ansi/introduction/introduction.aspx?menuid=1 ANSI Overview] * [http://www.ansi.org/about_ansi/introduction/history.aspx?menuid=1 ANSI Historical Overview] ** [http://publicaa.ansi.org/sites/apdl/Documents/News%20and%20Publications/Links%20Within%20Stories/ANSI%20-%20A%20Historical%20Overview.pdf Historical Overview Brochure] * Documents of interest: ** [http://publicaa.ansi.org/sites/apdl/Documents/Standards%20Activities/American%20National%20Standards/Procedures,%20Guides,%20and%20Forms/2009%20ANSI%20Essential%20Requirements%20and%20ANS%20related%20procedures%20in%20effect%20in%202009/2009%20ANSI%20Essential%20Requirements%200109.doc ''ANSI Essential Requirements: Due process requirements for American National Standards''] ** [http://publicaa.ansi.org/sites/apdl/Documents/Standards%20Activities/Critical%20Issues%20Papers/Open-Stds.pdf ANSI Critical Issue Paper: ''Current Attempts to Change Established Definition of “Open” Standards''] {{Authority control}} [[Category:1918 establishments in the United States]] [[Category:501(c)(3) nonprofit organizations]] [[Category:ANSI standards]] [[Category:ISO member bodies]] [[Category:Organizations established in 1918]] [[Category:Standards organizations]] [[Category:Technical specifications]] 4j2rt1iibrr7ijb6dbpnpngg1dxf1v3 0 661 682923535 660258488 2015-09-26T23:50:11Z Kethrus 22883165 clean up using [[Project:AWB|AWB]] wikitext text/x-wiki {{Wiktionary|argument}} In philosophy and logic, an '''[[argument]]''' is an attempt to persuade someone of something, or give evidence or reasons for accepting a particular conclusion. '''Argument''' may also refer to: {{TOC right}} {{anchor|Mathematics}} ==Mathematics and computer science== *[[Argument (complex analysis)]], a function which returns the polar angle of a complex number *[[Parameter (computer programming)]], a piece of data provided as input to a subroutine *[[Argument principle]], a theorem in complex analysis *An [[argument of a function]], also known as an independent variable ==Language and rhetoric== *[[Argument (literature)]], a brief summary, often in prose, of a poem or section of a poem or other work *[[Argument (linguistics)]], a phrase that appears in a syntactic relationship with the verb in a clause *[[Oral argument]], in US law, a spoken presentation to a judge or appellate court by a lawyer (or parties when representing themselves) of the legal reasons why they should prevail *[[Closing argument]], in law, the concluding statement of each party's counsel reiterating the important arguments in a court case ==Music== *[[Musical argument]], a concept in the theory of musical form ==Other uses== *[[Argument (ship)|''Argument'' (ship)]], an Australian sloop wrecked in 1809 *''[[The Argument]]'', the sixth studio album from the post-hardcore band Fugazi *[[Argument Clinic]], a Monty Python sketch *A [[Controversy|disagreement]] between two or more parties or the discussion of the disagreement {{disambiguation}} ths1wlhf6whv29oc9t29htw08kuetcr 0 662 716123666 716053066 2016-04-20T01:32:15Z Dawnseeker2000 1544984 /* External links */ drop dead links wikitext text/x-wiki {{About|the 1969 manned lunar mission}} {{pp-semi-indef}} {{pp-move-indef}} {{Use mdy dates|date=June 2013}} {{Good article}} {{Infobox spaceflight | name = Apollo 11 | image = Apollo 11 first step.jpg | image_caption = [[Neil Armstrong]] descends a ladder to become the first human to step onto the surface of the Moon | insignia = Apollo_11_insignia.png | insignia_alt = Circular insignia: Eagle with wings outstretched holds olive branch on Moon with Earth in background, in blue and gold border. | mission_type = Manned lunar landing | operator = [[NASA]]<ref name="Orloff">{{cite book |last=Orloff |first=Richard W. |title=Apollo by the Numbers: A Statistical Reference |url=http://history.nasa.gov/SP-4029/SP-4029.htm |accessdate=June 12, 2013 |series=NASA History Series |origyear=First published 2000 |date=September 2004 |work=NASA History Division, Office of Policy and Plans |publisher=[[NASA]] |location=Washington, D.C. |isbn=0-16-050631-X |lccn=00061677 |id=NASA SP-2000-4029 |chapter=Table of Contents |chapterurl=http://history.nasa.gov/SP-4029/Apollo_00g_Table_of_Contents.htm}}</ref> | COSPAR_ID = CSM: 1969-059A<br/>LM: 1969-059C | SATCAT = CSM: 4039<br/>LM: 4041 | mission_duration = 8&nbsp;days, 3&nbsp;hours, 18&nbsp;minutes, 35&nbsp;seconds | spacecraft = [[Apollo Command/Service Module|Apollo CSM]]-107<br/>[[Apollo Lunar Module|Apollo LM]]-5 | manufacturer = CSM: [[Rockwell International|North American Rockwell]]<br/>LM: [[Grumman]] | launch_mass = {{convert|100756|lb|kg}} | landing_mass = {{convert|10873|lb|kg}} | launch_date = {{start-date|July 16, 1969, 13:32:00|timezone=yes}}&nbsp;UTC | launch_rocket = [[Saturn V]] SA-506 | launch_site = [[Kennedy Space Center|Kennedy]] [[Kennedy Space Center Launch Complex 39|LC-39A]] | landing_date = {{end-date|July 24, 1969, 16:50:35|timezone=yes}}&nbsp;UTC<ref name="Apollo 11 Mission Report" /> | landing_site = North Pacific Ocean<br/>{{Coord|13|19|N|169|9|W|type:event|name=Apollo 11 splashdown}}<ref name="Apollo 11 Mission Report" /> | recovery_by = {{USS|Hornet|CV-12|6}} | orbit_epoch = July 19, 1969, 21:44&nbsp;UTC<ref name="orbit">{{cite web|url=http://airandspace.si.edu/explore-and-learn/topics/apollo/as11/a11sum.htm|title=Apollo 11 Mission Summary|publisher=Smithsonian National Air and Space Museum|work=The Apollo Program|accessdate=September 7, 2013}}</ref> | orbit_reference = [[selenocentric orbit|Selenocentric]] | orbit_periapsis = {{convert|54.5|nmi|km|disp=flip|sp=us}}<ref name="orbit"/> | orbit_apoapsis = {{convert|66.1|nmi|km|disp=flip|sp=us}}<ref name="orbit"/> | orbit_inclination = 1.25&nbsp;degrees<ref name="orbit"/> | orbit_period = 2&nbsp;hours<ref name="orbit"/> | apsis = selene |interplanetary = {{Infobox spaceflight/IP |type = orbiter |object = [[Moon|Lunar]] |component = [[Apollo Command/Service Module|Command/Service Module]] |orbits = 30 |arrival_date = July 19, 1969, 17:21:50&nbsp;UTC<ref name="A11timeline"/> |departure_date = July 22, 1969, 04:55:42&nbsp;UTC<ref name="A11timeline"/> }} {{Infobox spaceflight/IP |type = lander |object = [[Moon|Lunar]] |component = [[Apollo Lunar Module|Lunar Module]] |arrival_date = July 20, 1969, 20:18:04&nbsp;UTC<ref name="ALSJ 1" /> |departure_date = July 21, 1969, 17:54&nbsp;UTC |location = Mare Tranquillitatis<br/>{{Lunar coords and quad cat|0.67408|N|23.47297|E}}<ref>{{cite web|url=http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/planetary/lunar/lunar_sites.html|title=Apollo Landing Site Coordinates|publisher=US National Space Science Data Center|first=Ed|last=Grayzeck|date=December 11, 2003|accessdate=September 7, 2013}}</ref> |sample_mass = {{convert|47.51|lb|kg|disp=flip}} |surface_EVAs = 1 |surface_EVA_time = 2&nbsp;hours, 31&nbsp;minutes 40&nbsp;seconds }} | docking = {{Infobox spaceflight/Dock | docking_target = LM | docking_type = dock | docking_date = July 16, 1969, 16:56:03&nbsp;UTC<ref name="A11timeline"/> | undocking_date = July 20, 1969, 17:44:00&nbsp;UTC<ref name="A11timeline"/> | time_docked = }} {{Infobox spaceflight/Dock | docking_target = LM Ascent Stage | docking_type = dock | docking_date = July 21, 1969, 21:35:00&nbsp;UTC<ref name="A11timeline"/> | undocking_date = July 21, 1969, 23:41:31&nbsp;UTC<ref name="A11timeline"/> | time_docked = }} | crew_size = 3 | crew_members = [[Neil Armstrong|Neil A. Armstrong]]<br/>[[Michael Collins (astronaut)|Michael Collins]]<br/>[[Buzz Aldrin|Edwin E. "Buzz" Aldrin, Jr.]] | crew_callsign = CSM: ''Columbia''<br/>LM: ''Eagle''<br/>On surface: ''[[Tranquility Base]]'' | crew_photo = apollo_11.jpg | crew_photo_caption = Left to right: [[Neil Armstrong|Armstrong]], [[Michael Collins (astronaut)|Collins]], [[Buzz Aldrin|Aldrin]] | crew_photo_alt = Three astronauts in spacesuits without helmets sitting in front of a large photo of the Moon. | previous_mission = [[Apollo 10]] | next_mission = [[Apollo 12]] | programme = [[Apollo program]] }} '''Apollo 11''' was the first [[spaceflight]] that [[Moon landing|landed]] humans on the [[Moon]]. Americans [[Neil Armstrong]] and [[Buzz Aldrin]] landed on July 20, 1969, at 20:18 [[Coordinated Universal Time|UTC]] ({{age|1969|07|20}} years ago). Armstrong became the first to step onto the lunar surface six hours later on July 21 at 02:56 UTC; Aldrin joined him about 20 minutes later. They spent about two and a quarter hours together outside the spacecraft, and collected {{convert|47.5|lb|kg}} of lunar material for return to Earth. The third member of the mission, [[Michael Collins (astronaut)|Michael Collins]], piloted the [[Apollo Command/Service Module|command spacecraft]] alone in lunar orbit, until Armstrong and Aldrin returned to it just under a day later for the trip back to Earth. Launched by a [[Saturn V]] rocket from [[Kennedy Space Center]] in [[Merritt Island, Florida]], on July 16, Apollo 11 was the fifth manned mission of [[NASA]]'s [[Apollo program]]. The Apollo [[Apollo (spacecraft)|spacecraft]] had three parts: a [[Command Module#Command Module (CM)|Command Module]] (CM) with a cabin for the three astronauts, and the only part that landed back on Earth; a [[Command Module#Service Module (SM)|Service Module]] (SM), which supported the Command Module with propulsion, electrical power, oxygen, and water; and a [[Apollo Lunar Module|Lunar Module]] (LM) for landing on the Moon (which itself was composed of two parts). After being sent toward the Moon by the Saturn V's upper stage, the astronauts separated the spacecraft from it and traveled for three days until they entered into lunar orbit. Armstrong and Aldrin then moved into the Lunar Module and landed in the [[Mare Tranquillitatis|Sea of Tranquility]]. They stayed a total of about 21½ hours on the lunar surface. After lifting off in the upper part of the Lunar Module and rejoining Collins in the Command Module, they returned to Earth and landed in the Pacific Ocean on July 24. Broadcast on live TV to a world-wide audience, Armstrong stepped onto the lunar surface and described the event as "one small step for [a] man, one giant leap for mankind." Apollo 11 effectively ended the [[Space Race]] and fulfilled a national goal proposed in 1961 by the [[President of the United States|U.S. President]] [[John F. Kennedy]] in a speech before the [[United States Congress|U.S. Congress]]: "before this decade is out, of landing a man on the Moon and returning him safely to the Earth."<ref>{{Cite news |url=http://archives.cnn.com/2001/TECH/space/05/25/kennedy.moon/ |title=Man on the Moon: Kennedy speech ignited the dream |work=CNN |last=Stenger |first=Richard |date=May 25, 2001 |archiveurl=//web.archive.org/web/20100606035837/http://archives.cnn.com/2001/TECH/space/05/25/kennedy.moon/ |archivedate=June 6, 2010}}</ref> ==Framework== ===Crew=== {{Spaceflight crew |terminology = Astronaut |position1 = Commander |crew1_up = [[Neil Armstrong|Neil A. Armstrong]] |flights1_up = Second |position2 = Command Module Pilot |crew2_up = [[Michael Collins (astronaut)|Michael Collins]] |flights2_up = Second |position3 = Lunar Module Pilot |crew3_up = [[Buzz Aldrin|Edwin "Buzz" E. Aldrin, Jr.]] |flights3_up = Second }} Apollo 11 was the second all-veteran multi-person crew (the first being [[Apollo 10]]) in human spaceflight history.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Brooks |first1=Courtney G. |last2=Grimwood |first2=James M. |last3=Swenson |first3=Loyd S., Jr. |others=Foreword by [[Samuel C. Phillips]] |title=Chariots for Apollo: A History of Manned Lunar Spacecraft |url=http://history.nasa.gov/SP-4205/cover.html |accessdate=July 20, 2010 |series=NASA History Series |date=1979 |publisher=Scientific and Technical Information Branch, NASA |location=Washington, D.C. |isbn=978-0-486-46756-6 |oclc=4664449 |lccn=79001042 |id=NASA SP-4205 |chapter=Setting the Stage |chapterurl=http://history.nasa.gov/SP-4205/ch12-6.html}}</ref> A previous solo veteran flight had been made on Soyuz 1 in 1967 by [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] cosmonaut [[Vladimir Komarov]].<ref>Ryan, P. (1969) ''The Invasion of the Moon 1969: The Story of Apollo 11.'' Penguin Books. Middlesex, England.</ref> Collins was originally slated to be the Command Module Pilot (CMP) on [[Apollo 8]] but was removed when he required surgery on his back and was replaced by [[Jim Lovell]], his backup for that flight. After Collins was medically cleared, he took what would have been Lovell's spot on Apollo 11; as a veteran of Apollo 8, Lovell was transferred to Apollo 11's backup crew, but promoted to backup commander. ===Backup crew=== {{Spaceflight crew |terminology = Astronaut |position1 = Commander |crew1_up = [[Jim Lovell|James A. Lovell, Jr.]] |position2 = Command Module Pilot |crew2_up = [[William Anders|William A. Anders]] |position3 = Lunar Module Pilot |crew3_up = [[Fred Haise|Fred W. Haise, Jr.]] }} In early 1969, Anders accepted a job with the [[National Space Council]] effective August 1969 and announced that he would retire as an astronaut on that date. At that point [[Ken Mattingly]] was moved from the support crew into parallel training with Anders as backup Command Module Pilot in case Apollo 11 was delayed past its intended July launch (at which point Anders would be unavailable if needed) and would later join Lovell's crew and ultimately be assigned as the original [[Apollo 13]] CMP.<ref>{{cite book |title=Deke! U.S. Manned Space: From Mercury to the Shuttle |last1=Slayton |first1=Donald K. "Deke" |authorlink1=Deke Slayton |last2=Cassutt |first2=Michael |authorlink2=Michael Cassutt |date=1994 |edition=1st |publisher=Forge |location=New York |isbn=0-312-85503-6 |oclc=29845663 |lccn=94002463 |page=237}}</ref> ===Support crew=== *[[Charles Duke|Charlie Duke]], [[Capsule communicator|Capsule Communicator (CAPCOM)]] *[[Ronald Evans (astronaut)|Ronald Evans]] (CAPCOM) *[[Owen K. Garriott]] (CAPCOM) *[[Don L. Lind]] (CAPCOM) *[[Ken Mattingly]] (CAPCOM) *[[Bruce McCandless II]] (CAPCOM) *[[Harrison Schmitt]] (CAPCOM) *[[William R. Pogue|Bill Pogue]] *[[Jack Swigert]] ===Flight directors=== *Cliff Charlesworth (Green Team), launch and [[Extravehicular activity|EVA]] *[[Gene Kranz]] (White Team), lunar landing *[[Glynn Lunney]] (Black Team), lunar ascent ===Call signs=== [[File:Apollo 11 CSM photographed from Lunar Module (AS11-37-5445).jpg|thumb|Apollo 11 Command/Service Module ''Columbia'' in lunar orbit, photographed from the Lunar Module ''Eagle'']] After the crew of Apollo 10 named their spacecraft ''Charlie Brown'' and ''Snoopy'', assistant manager for public affairs Julian Scheer wrote to [[Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center|Manned Spacecraft Center]] director [[George M. Low]] to suggest the Apollo 11 crew be less flippant in naming their craft. During early mission planning, the names ''Snowcone'' and ''Haystack'' were used and put in the news release,<ref name="Snowcone">{{cite web |url=http://history.nasa.gov/ap11fj/pdf/a11-techsum.pdf |title=Technical Information Summary, Apollo-11 (AS-506) Apollo Saturn V Space Vehicle |date=June 25, 1969 |work=[[Marshall Space Flight Center|George C. Marshall Space Flight Center]] |publisher=NASA |location=Huntsvill, AL |page=8 |format=PDF |id=Document ID: 19700011707; Accession Number: 70N21012; Report Number: NASA-TM-X-62812; S&E-ASTR-S-101-69 |accessdate=June 12, 2013}}</ref> but the crew later decided to change them. The Command Module was named ''[[Columbia (name)|Columbia]]'' after the ''[[Columbiad#In fiction|Columbiad]]'', the giant cannon shell "spacecraft" fired by a giant cannon (also from Florida) in [[Jules Verne]]'s 1865 novel ''[[From the Earth to the Moon]]''.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Farmer |first1=Gene |last2=Hamblin |first2=Dora Jane |last3=Armstrong |first3=Neil |authorlink3=Neil Armstrong |last4=Collins |first4=Michael |last5=Aldrin |first5=Edwin E., Jr. |title=[[First on the Moon (1970 book)|First on the Moon: A Voyage with Neil Armstrong, Michael Collins, Edwin E. Aldrin, Jr.]] |others=Epilogue by [[Arthur C. Clarke]] |date=1970 |publisher=Little, Brown and Company |location=Boston |page=39 |isbn=0-7181-0736-5 |lccn=76103950}}</ref> The Lunar Module was named ''Eagle'' for the [[national bird]] of the United States, the [[bald eagle]], which is featured prominently on the mission insignia. ===Insignia=== <!--[[File:Apollo 11 insignia.png|thumb|upright=0.45|left|Mission insignia]] Shown in infobox--> [[File:Apollo 11 Flown Silver Robbins Medallion (SN-416).jpg|thumb|Apollo 11 space-flown silver [[NASA space-flown Robbins medallions of the Apollo missions|Robbins medallion]]]] The Apollo 11 mission insignia was designed by Collins, who wanted a symbol for "peaceful lunar landing by the United States". He chose an eagle as the symbol, put an [[olive branch]] in its beak, and drew a lunar background with the Earth in the distance. NASA officials said the talons of the eagle looked too "warlike" and after some discussion, the olive branch was moved to the claws. The crew decided the [[Roman numeral]] [[11 (number)|XI]] would not be understood in some nations and went with "Apollo 11"; they decided not to put their names on the patch, so it would "be representative of ''everyone'' who had worked toward a lunar landing".<ref>{{Cite book |last=Collins |first=Michael |authorlink=Michael Collins (astronaut) |others=Foreword by [[Charles Lindberg]] |origyear=Originally published 1974; New York: [[Farrar, Straus and Giroux]] |date=2001 |title=Carrying the Fire: An Astronaut's Journeys |publisher=Cooper Square Press |location=New York |isbn=0-8154-1028-X |lccn=2001017080 |pages=332–333}}</ref> All colors are natural, with blue and gold borders around the [[Mission patch|patch]]. When the [[Eisenhower Dollar|Eisenhower dollar coin]] was released in 1971, the patch design provided the eagle for its reverse side.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://coinsite.com/CoinSite-PF/pparticles/$1eisen.asp |title=1971–78 Dollar Eisenhower |work=CoinSite |publisher=ROKO Design Group, Inc. |date=1994 |accessdate=July 20, 2009}}</ref> The design was also used for the smaller [[Susan B. Anthony dollar]] unveiled in 1979, ten years after the Apollo 11 mission.<ref>{{cite web |title=Susan B. Anthony Dollar – 1979–1999 |url=http://www.usmint.gov/historianscorner/?action=coinDetail&id=347 |publisher=United States Mint |accessdate=August 12, 2014}}</ref> ===Mementos=== Neil Armstrong's personal preference kit carried a piece of wood from the [[Wright brothers]]' 1903 airplane's left propeller and a piece of fabric from its wing,<ref name="first man">{{cite book |last=Hansen |first=James R. |title=[[First Man: The Life of Neil A. Armstrong]] |date=2005 |publisher=Simon & Schuster |location=New York |isbn=978-0-7432-5631-5 |lccn=2005049992 |page=527}}</ref> along with a diamond-studded [[astronaut pin]] originally given to [[Deke Slayton]] by the widows of the [[Apollo 1]] crew. This pin had been intended to be flown on Apollo 1 and given to Slayton after the mission but following the disastrous launch pad fire and subsequent funerals, the widows gave the pin to Slayton and Armstrong took it on Apollo 11.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Slayton |first1=Donald K. |last2=Cassutt |first2=Michael |title=Deke!: An Autobiography |pages=191–192}}</ref> {{Clear}} ==Mission highlights== ===Launch and flight to lunar orbit=== {{multiple image | align = right | direction = horizontal | header = | header_align = center | image1 = Apollo 11 Launch2.jpg | width1 = 160 | caption1 = Saturn V carrying Apollo 11 rises past the [[Service structure|launch tower]] camera | image2 = Earth from Apollo 11 after translunar injection.jpg | width2 = 203 | caption2 = Earth seen from Apollo 11 just after leaving Earth orbit ([[Trans-lunar injection|translunar injection]]) | image3 = <!--Apollo 11 first stage separation.jpg--> | width3 = 168 | caption3 = The [[S-II]] second stage ignites after the spent [[S-IC]] first stage separates from the vehicle }} In addition to many people crowding highways and beaches near the launch site, millions watched the event on television, with NASA Chief of Public Information [[Jack King (NASA)|Jack King]] providing commentary. President [[Richard Nixon|Richard M. Nixon]] viewed the proceedings from the [[Oval Office]] of the [[White House]]. A [[Saturn V]] launched Apollo 11 from Launch Pad 39A, part of the Launch Complex 39 site at the [[Kennedy Space Center]] on July 16, 1969 at 13:32:00 UTC (9:32:00&nbsp;a.m. EDT local time). It entered Earth orbit, at an altitude of {{convert|100.4|nmi|km}} by {{convert|98.9|nmi|km}}, twelve minutes later.<ref name="Orloff" /> After one and a half orbits, the [[S-IVB]] third-stage engine pushed the spacecraft onto its trajectory toward the Moon with the [[trans-lunar injection]] (TLI) burn at 16:22:13 UTC. About 30 minutes later the [[Apollo Command/Service Module|command/service module]] pair separated from this last remaining Saturn V stage and docked with the Lunar Module still nestled in the [[Apollo spacecraft#Spacecraft Lunar Module Adapter (SLA)|Lunar Module Adaptor]]. After the Lunar Module was extracted, the combined spacecraft headed for the Moon, while the third stage booster flew on a trajectory past the Moon and into [[heliocentric orbit|orbit around the Sun]].<ref name="A11timeline">{{cite book |last=Orloff |first=Richard W. |title=Apollo by the Numbers: A Statistical Reference |url=http://history.nasa.gov/SP-4029/SP-4029.htm |accessdate=October 30, 2009 |series=NASA History Series |origyear=First published 2000 |date=September 2004 |work=NASA History Division, Office of Policy and Plans |publisher=NASA |location=Washington, D.C. |isbn=0-16-050631-X |lccn= 00061677 |id=NASA SP-2000-4029 |chapter=Apollo 11 Timeline |chapterurl=http://history.nasa.gov/SP-4029/Apollo_11i_Timeline.htm}}</ref> On July 19 at 17:21:50 UTC, Apollo 11 passed behind the Moon and fired its service propulsion engine to enter [[lunar orbit]]. In the thirty orbits<ref name="Apollo-11 (27)">{{cite web |url=http://science.ksc.nasa.gov/history/apollo/apollo-11/apollo-11.html |title=Apollo-11 (27) |work=Historical Archive for Manned Missions |publisher=NASA |accessdate=June 13, 2013}}</ref> that followed, the crew saw passing views of their landing site in the southern Sea of Tranquility ([[Mare Tranquillitatis]]) about {{convert|12|mi|km}} southwest of the crater [[Collins (crater)|Sabine D]] (0.67408N, 23.47297E). The landing site was selected in part because it had been characterized as relatively flat and smooth by the automated ''[[Ranger 8]]'' and ''[[Surveyor 5]]'' landers along with the ''[[Lunar Orbiter]]'' mapping spacecraft and unlikely to present major landing or [[extravehicular activity]] (EVA) challenges.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.hq.nasa.gov/alsj/a11/A11_PressKit.pdf |title=Apollo 11 Lunar Landing Mission |date=July 6, 1969 |publisher=NASA |location=Washington, D.C. |type=Press kit |format=PDF |id=Release No: 69-83K |accessdate=June 13, 2013}}</ref> ===Lunar descent=== [[File:Apollo 11 Lunar Module Eagle in landing configuration in lunar orbit from the Command and Service Module Columbia.jpg|thumb|The ''Eagle'' in [[lunar orbit]] after separating from ''Columbia'']] [[Image:Duke, Lovell and Haise at the Apollo 11 Capcom, Johnson Space Center, Houston, Texas - 19690720.jpg|thumb|CAPCOM Charles Duke, with backup pilots [[Jim Lovell|James Lovell]] and [[Fred Haise]] listening in during Apollo 11's descent]] On July 20, 1969, the Lunar Module ''Eagle'' separated from the Command Module ''Columbia''. Collins, alone aboard ''Columbia'', inspected ''Eagle'' as it pirouetted before him to ensure the craft was not damaged. As the descent began, Armstrong and Aldrin found that they were passing landmarks on the surface four seconds early and reported that they were "long"; they would land miles west of their target point. Five minutes into the descent burn, and {{convert|6000|ft|m|-2}} above the surface of the Moon, the [[Apollo Guidance Computer|LM navigation and guidance computer]] distracted the crew with the first of several unexpected "1202" and "1201" program alarms. Inside [[Christopher C. Kraft Jr. Mission Control Center|Mission Control Center]] in Houston, Texas, computer engineer [[Jack Garman]] told [[Flight controller#Guidance Officer (GUIDANCE or GUIDO)|guidance officer]] [[Steve Bales]] it was safe to continue the descent, and this was relayed to the crew. The program alarms indicated "executive overflows", meaning the guidance computer could not complete all of its tasks in real time and had to postpone some of them.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Collins |first1=Michael |last2=Aldrin |first2=Edwin E., Jr. |authorlink2=Buzz Aldrin |editor-last=Cortright |editor-first=Edgar M |editor-link=Edgar Cortright |title=Apollo Expeditions to the Moon |url=http://www.hq.nasa.gov/pao/History/SP-350/cover.html |accessdate=June 13, 2013 |date=1975 |publisher=NASA |location=Washington, D.C. |oclc=1623434 |id=NASA SP-350 |chapter=A Yellow Caution Light |chapterurl=http://history.nasa.gov/SP-350/ch-11-4.html}} Chapter 11.4.</ref> {{Quote|Due to an error in the checklist manual, the rendezvous radar switch was placed in the wrong position. This caused it to send erroneous signals to the computer. The result was that the computer was being asked to perform all of its normal functions for landing while receiving an extra load of spurious data which used up 15% of its time. The computer (or rather the software in it) was smart enough to recognize that it was being asked to perform more tasks than it should be performing. It then sent out an alarm, which meant to the astronaut, ''I'm overloaded with more tasks than I should be doing at this time and I'm going to keep only the more important tasks''; i.e., the ones needed for landing&nbsp;... Actually, the computer was programmed to do more than recognize error conditions. A complete set of recovery programs was incorporated into the software. The software's action, in this case, was to eliminate lower priority tasks and re-establish the more important ones&nbsp;... If the computer hadn't recognized this problem and taken recovery action, I doubt if Apollo 11 would have been the successful [M]oon landing it was.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Hamilton |first=Margaret H. |authorlink=Margaret Hamilton (scientist) |date=March 1, 1971 |title=Computer Got Loaded |journal=[[Datamation]] |publisher=Cahners Publishing Company |type=Letter |issn=0011-6963}}</ref>{{efn|During the mission, the cause was diagnosed as the rendezvous radar switch being in the wrong position, causing the computer to process data from both the rendezvous and landing radars at the same time, as stated in the letter.<ref name="Apollo 11 Mission Report">{{cite book |title=Apollo 11 Mission Report |url=http://history.nasa.gov/alsj/a11/A11_MissionReport.pdf |format=PDF |accessdate=July 10, 2013 |date=November 1969 |work=[[Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center|Manned Spacecraft Center]], Mission Evaluation Team |publisher=NASA |location=Houston, Texas |oclc=10970862 |id=MSC-00171}}</ref><ref name="Martin">{{cite web |url=http://www.hq.nasa.gov/alsj/a11/a11.1201-fm.html |title=Apollo 11: 25 Years Later |last=Martin |first=Fred H. |date=July 1994 |work=Apollo 11 Lunar Surface Journal |publisher=NASA |accessdate=June 13, 2013}}</ref> However, software engineer Don Eyles concluded in a 2005 Guidance and Control Conference paper that the problem was actually due to a hardware design bug previously seen during testing of the first unmanned LM for [[Apollo 5]]. Having the rendezvous radar on (so that it was warmed up in case of an emergency landing abort) should have been irrelevant to the computer, but an electrical phasing mismatch between two parts of the rendezvous radar system could cause the stationary antenna to appear to the computer as dithering back and forth between two positions, depending upon how the hardware randomly powered up. The extra spurious [[cycle stealing]], as the rendezvous radar updated an involuntary counter, caused the computer alarms.<ref name="Eyles">{{cite web |url=http://klabs.org/history/apollo_11_alarms/eyles_2004/eyles_2004.htm |title=Tales from the Lunar Module Guidance Computer |last=Eyles |first=Don |date=February 6, 2004 |work=27th annual Guidance and Control Conference |publisher=[[American Astronautical Society]] |location=Breckenridge, Colorado |accessdate=June 13, 2013}}</ref> The Apollo onboard flight software for both the CM and LM was developed using an asynchronous executive so that higher priority jobs could interrupt lower priority jobs. The sequence that occurred in the Apollo 11 landing was successful because of its global error detection and recovery system. This included the restart capability to "kill and start over again" and recompute and the display interface routines ("priority displays") providing the ability, in the case of an emergency, to interrupt nominal displays with higher priority alarm displays. Steps previously taken to create solutions that took advantage of this multiprogramming environment suggested solutions for multiprocessing. Although only one process is actively executing at a given time in a multiprogramming environment, other processes in the same system―sleeping or waiting―exist in parallel with the executing process. With this as a backdrop, the priority display mechanisms were created, essentially changing the man-machine interface between the astronauts and the onboard flight software from synchronous to asynchronous displays so that a mission could be reconfigured in real time should it become necessary to do so.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Hamilton |first1=Margaret H. |last2=Hackler |first2=William R. |date=December 2008 |title=Universal Systems Language: Lessons Learned from Apollo |volume=41 |issue=12 |pages=34–43 |journal=Computer |location=Washington, D.C. |publisher=[[IEEE Computer Society]] |issn=0018-9162 |doi=10.1109/MC.2008.541 |url=http://doi.ieeecomputersociety.org/10.1109/MC.2008.541 |accessdate=June 13, 2013}}</ref>}}|Letter from [[Margaret Hamilton (scientist)|Margaret H. Hamilton]], Director of Apollo Flight Computer Programming MIT Draper Laboratory, Cambridge, Massachusetts<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.nasa.gov/50th/50th_magazine/scientists.html |title=NASA Engineers and Scientists-Transforming Dreams Into Reality |last=Rayl |first=A.J.S. |date=2008 |work=50th Magazine |publisher=NASA |accessdate=June 9, 2014}}</ref>| titled "Computer Got Loaded", published in ''[[Datamation]]'', March 1, 1971 }} ===Landing=== [[File:AP11 FINAL APPROACH.ogv|thumb|right|Landing on the Moon, July 20, 1969]] [[File:Apollo-11-landing-site.png|thumb|Alt=image of the Moon showing landing site of Apollo 11 around center of the Moon|Landing site of Apollo 11 at Sea of Tranquility]] [[File:A New Look at the Apollo 11 Landing Site.ogg|thumb|The Apollo 11 landing site visualized in three dimensions using photography and a stereo digital elevation model from the [[Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter|LRO]] camera.]] When Armstrong again looked outside, he saw that the computer's landing target was in a boulder-strewn area just north and east of a {{convert|300|m|ft|adj=on|sp=us}} diameter crater (later determined to be [[West (lunar crater)|West crater]], named for its location in the western part of the originally planned landing ellipse). Armstrong took semi-automatic control<ref name="Digital Apollo">{{Cite book |last=Mindell |first=David A. |title=Digital Apollo: Human and Machine in Spaceflight |date=2008 |publisher=MIT Press |location=Cambridge, Massachusetts |pages= 195–197 |isbn=978-0-262-13497-2 |lccn=2007032255}}</ref> and, with Aldrin calling out altitude and velocity data, landed at 20:17:40 UTC on Sunday July 20 with about 25 seconds of fuel left.<ref name="ALSJ 1" /> Apollo 11 landed with less fuel than other missions, and the astronauts encountered a premature low fuel warning. This was later found to be the result of greater propellant 'slosh' than expected, uncovering a fuel sensor. On subsequent missions, extra anti-slosh baffles were added to the tanks to prevent this.<ref name="ALSJ 1" /> Throughout the descent Aldrin had called out navigation data to Armstrong, who was busy piloting the [[Apollo Lunar Module|LM]]. A few moments before the landing, a light informed Aldrin that at least one of the {{convert|67|in|cm|0|adj=on}} probes hanging from ''Eagle''{{'s}} footpads had touched the surface, and he said "Contact light!" Three seconds later, ''Eagle'' landed and Armstrong said "Shutdown." Aldrin immediately said "Okay, engine stop. ACA – out of [[detent]]." Armstrong acknowledged "Out of detent. Auto" and Aldrin continued "Mode control – both auto. Descent engine command override off. Engine arm – off. 413 is in." [[Charles Duke]], CAPCOM during the landing phase, acknowledged their landing by saying "We copy you down, Eagle." Armstrong acknowledged Aldrin's completion of the post landing checklist with "Engine arm is off", before responding to Duke with the words, "Houston, [[Tranquility Base]] here. The ''Eagle'' has landed." Armstrong's unrehearsed<ref name="failure">{{cite AV media |type=TV production|title=Failure is Not an Option |publisher=[[The History Channel]] |date=August 24, 2003 |oclc=54435670}}</ref> change of call sign from "Eagle" to "Tranquility Base" emphasized to listeners that landing was complete and successful. Duke mispronounced his reply as he expressed the relief at Mission Control: "Roger, Twan— Tranquility, we copy you on the ground. You got a bunch of guys about to turn blue. We're breathing again. Thanks a lot."<ref name="ALSJ 1">{{cite web |url=http://www.hq.nasa.gov/alsj/a11/a11.landing.html |title=The First Lunar Landing |date=1995 |editor-last= Jones |editor-first=Eric M. |work=Apollo 11 Lunar Surface Journal |publisher=NASA |accessdate=June 13, 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/archive/moonlandings/7630.shtml?all=2&id=7630 |title=James May speaks to Charles Duke |date=2009 |work=[[BBC Archives]] |location=Perivale |accessdate=June 7, 2009}}</ref> Two and a half hours after landing, before preparations began for the EVA, Aldrin radioed to Earth: {{quote|"This is the LM pilot. I'd like to take this opportunity to ask every person listening in, whoever and wherever they may be, to pause for a moment and contemplate the events of the past few hours and to give thanks in his or her own way."<ref name="ALSJ 2">{{cite web |url=http://www.hq.nasa.gov/alsj/a11/a11.postland.html |title=Post-landing Activities |date=1995 |editor-last=Jones |editor-first=Eric M. |work=Apollo 11 Lunar Surface Journal |publisher=NASA |accessdate=June 13, 2013}}</ref>}} He then took [[Eucharist|communion]] privately. At this time NASA was still fighting a lawsuit brought by atheist [[Madalyn Murray O'Hair]] (who had objected to the Apollo 8 crew reading from the [[Book of Genesis]]) demanding that their astronauts refrain from broadcasting religious activities while in space. As such, Aldrin chose to refrain from directly mentioning taking communion on the Moon. Aldrin was an elder at the [[Webster, Texas|Webster]] [[Presbyterianism|Presbyterian Church]], and his communion kit was prepared by the pastor of the church, the Rev. Dean Woodruff. Aldrin described communion on the Moon and the involvement of his church and pastor in the October 1970 edition of ''Guideposts'' magazine and in his book ''Return to Earth''. Webster Presbyterian possesses the chalice used on the Moon and commemorates the event each year on the Sunday closest to July 20.<ref name="chaikin">{{Cite book |last=Chaikin |first=Andrew |title=A Man on the Moon: The Triumphant Story Of The Apollo Space Program |date=1994 |publisher=Penguin Group |location=New York |pages=204, 623 |isbn=0-14-027201-1}}</ref> The schedule for the mission called for the astronauts to follow the landing with a five-hour sleep period, since they had been awake since early morning. However, they elected to forgo the sleep period and begin the preparations for the EVA early, thinking that they would be unable to sleep. {{Clear}} ===Lunar surface operations=== {{See also|Neil Armstrong#First Moon walk|l1=First Moon walk}} [[File:Apollo 11 first step.jpg|thumb|right|A [[Apollo TV camera|mounted slowscan TV camera]] shows Armstrong as he climbs down the ladder to surface]] [[File:As11-40-5886.jpg|thumb|right|Armstrong near the [[Lunar module|LM]]. Most photographs taken during the surface operations were by Armstrong and do not include him in the frame]] The astronauts planned placement of the Early Apollo Scientific Experiment Package (EASEP)<ref>{{cite web |url=http://ares.jsc.nasa.gov/HumanExplore/Exploration/EXLibrary/docs/ApolloCat/Part1/EASEP.htm |title=Experiment: Early Apollo Scientific Experiment Package |publisher=NASA |accessdate=July 18, 2009}}</ref> and the [[Flag of the United States|U.S. flag]] by studying their landing site through ''Eagle''{{'s}} twin triangular windows, which gave them a 60° field of view. Preparation required longer than the two hours scheduled. Armstrong initially had some difficulties squeezing through the hatch with his [[Primary Life Support System|Portable Life Support System]] (PLSS). According to veteran Moon-walker [[John Young (astronaut)|John Young]], a redesign of the LM to incorporate a smaller hatch had not been followed by a redesign of the PLSS backpack, so some of the highest heart rates recorded from Apollo astronauts occurred during LM egress and ingress.<ref name="ALSJ 3">{{cite web |url=http://www.hq.nasa.gov/alsj/a11/a11.summary.html |title=First Steps |date=1995 |editor1-last=Jones |editor1-first=Eric M. |editor2-last=Glover |editor2-first=Ken |work=Apollo 11 Lunar Surface Journal |publisher=NASA |accessdate=September 23, 2006}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Waligora |first1=J.M. |last2=Horrigan |first2=D.J. |editor-last1=Johnston |editor-first1=Richard S. |editor-last2=Dietlein |editor-first2=Lawrence F. |editor-last3=Berry |editor-first3=Charles A. |others=Foreword by [[Christopher C. Kraft, Jr.]] |title=Biomedical Results of Apollo |url=http://lsda.jsc.nasa.gov/books/apollo/cover.htm |accessdate=September 23, 2006 |date=1975 |publisher=NASA |location=Washington, D.C. |id=NASA SP-368 |chapter=Metabolism and Heat Dissipation During Apollo EVA Periods |chapterurl=http://lsda.jsc.nasa.gov/books/apollo/s2ch4.htm}}</ref> Several books indicate early mission timelines had Buzz Aldrin rather than Neil Armstrong as the first man on the Moon.<ref>{{cite book | last = Chaikin | first = Andrew | title = A Man on the Moon | publisher = Penguin Group | date = 1998 | isbn = 0-14-027201-1 }}</ref> At 02:39 UTC on Monday July 21, 1969, Armstrong opened the hatch, and at 02:51 UTC began his descent to the lunar surface. The Remote Control Unit controls on his chest kept him from seeing his feet. Climbing down the nine-rung ladder, Armstrong pulled a D-ring to deploy the Modular Equipment Stowage Assembly (MESA) folded against ''Eagle''{{'s}} side and activate the TV camera, and at 02:56:15 UTC he set his left foot on the surface.<ref name="neil82">{{cite news |title=Neil Armstrong, first man to step on the Moon, dies at 82 |first=Paul |last=Duggan |url=http://www.washingtonpost.com/national/health-science/neil-armstrong-first-man-to-step-on-the-moon-dies-at-82/2012/08/25/7091c8bc-412d-11e0-a16f-4c3fe0fd37f0_story.html |work=[[The Washington Post]] |date=August 25, 2012 |accessdate=May 25, 2013}}</ref><ref name="ALSJ 4">{{cite web |url=http://www.hq.nasa.gov/alsj/a11/a11.step.html |title=One Small Step |date=1995 |editor-last=Jones |editor-first=Eric M. |work=Apollo 11 Lunar Surface Journal |publisher=NASA |accessdate=June 13, 2013}}</ref> The first landing used [[slow-scan television]] incompatible with commercial TV, so it was displayed on a special monitor and a conventional TV camera viewed this monitor, significantly reducing the quality of the picture.<ref name="Blunder 5">{{cite news |title=One giant blunder for mankind: how NASA lost Moon pictures |last=Macey |first=Richard |url=http://www.smh.com.au/news/national/one-giant-blunder-for-mankind-how-nasa-lost-moon-pictures/2006/08/04/1154198328978.html |work=[[The Sydney Morning Herald]] |location=Sydney |date=August 5, 2006 |accessdate=June 13, 2013}}</ref> The signal was received at [[Goldstone Deep Space Communications Complex|Goldstone]] in the United States but with better fidelity by [[Honeysuckle Creek Tracking Station]] in Australia. Minutes later the feed was switched to the more sensitive [[Parkes Observatory|Parkes radio telescope]] in Australia.<ref name="tvbroadcasts">{{cite journal |last=Sarkissian |first=John M. |title=On Eagle's Wings: The Parkes Observatory's Support of the Apollo 11 Mission |date=2001 |journal=Publications of the Astronomical Society of Australia |volume=18 |issue=3 |pages=287–310 |location=Collingwood, Victoria |publisher=[[CSIRO Publishing]] for the [[Astronomical Society of Australia]] |doi=10.1071/AS01038 |accessdate=May 24, 2013 |url=http://www.parkes.atnf.csiro.au/news_events/apollo11/tv_broadcasts.html|bibcode = 2001PASA...18..287S }} October 2000 website version, part 10 of 12: "The Television Broadcasts." Original version available from [http://www.parkes.atnf.csiro.au/news_events/apollo11/pasa/on_eagles_wings.pdf CSIRO Parkes Observatory] (PDF).</ref> Despite some technical and weather difficulties, ghostly black and white images of the first lunar EVA were received and broadcast to at least 600 million people on Earth.<ref name="Parkes">{{cite journal |last=Sarkissian |first=John M. |title=On Eagle's Wings: The Parkes Observatory's Support of the Apollo 11 Mission |date=2001 |journal=Publications of the Astronomical Society of Australia |volume=18 |issue=3 |pages=287–310 |location=Collingwood, Victoria |publisher=CSIRO Publishing for the Astronomical Society of Australia |format=PDF |doi=10.1071/AS01038 |accessdate=September 22, 2006 |url=http://www.parkes.atnf.csiro.au/news_events/apollo11/pasa/on_eagles_wings.pdf|bibcode = 2001PASA...18..287S }}</ref> Although copies of this video in broadcast format were saved and are widely available, [[Apollo 11 missing tapes|recordings of the original slow scan source transmission from the lunar surface]] were accidentally destroyed during routine magnetic tape re-use at NASA. [[File:Apollo 11 plaque closeup on Moon.jpg|left|thumb|The plaque left on the ladder of ''Eagle'']] While still on the ladder, Armstrong uncovered a [[lunar plaque|plaque]] mounted on the LM Descent Stage bearing two drawings of Earth (of the Western and Eastern Hemispheres), an inscription, and signatures of the astronauts and President Nixon. The inscription read: {{quote|''Here men from the planet Earth first set foot upon the Moon, July 1969 A.D. We came in peace for all mankind.''}} After describing the surface dust as "very fine-grained" and "almost like a powder,"<ref name="ALSJ 4" /> six and a half hours after landing,<ref name="Orloff"/> Armstrong stepped off ''Eagle''{{'s}} footpad and declared, "That's one small step for [a] man, one giant leap for mankind."{{efn|A NASA transcript explains that the "a" article was intended, whether or not it was said;<ref name="ALSJ 4" /> the intention was to contrast ''a man'' (an individual's action) and ''mankind'' (as a species).}}<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.nasa.gov/audience/forstudents/5-8/features/F_Apollo_35th_Anniversary.html |title=Apollo Moon Landing -- 35th Anniversary |date=July 15, 2004 |origyear=updated December 9, 2007 |editor-last=Canright |editor-first=Shelley |work=NASA Education |publisher=NASA |accessdate=June 13, 2013}} Includes the "a" article as intended.</ref><ref>{{Cite news |title=Armstrong 'got Moon quote right' |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/5398560.stm |date=October 2, 2006 |work=[[BBC News]] |location=London |accessdate=June 13, 2013}} News story on reanalysis which suggests the line was said correctly (with the "a" article).</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Armstrong's 'poetic' slip on Moon |first=Pallab |last=Ghosh |authorlink=Pallab Ghosh |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/8081817.stm |date=June 3, 2009 |work=BBC News |location=London |accessdate=June 13, 2013}} News story on later reanalysis which suggests the line was said incorrectly.</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Hear what Neil Armstrong really said on the moon |first=Mark |last=Carreau |url=http://www.chron.com/news/nation-world/article/Hear-what-Neil-Armstrong-really-said-on-the-moon-1862496.php |work=[[Houston Chronicle]] |date=September 30, 2006 |accessdate=June 13, 2013}}</ref> Armstrong intended to say "That's one small step for a man", but the word "''a''" is not audible in the transmission, and thus was not initially reported by most observers of the live broadcast. When later asked about his quote, Armstrong said he believed he said "for a man", and subsequent printed versions of the quote included the "a" in square brackets. One explanation for the absence may be that his accent caused him to slur the words "for a" together; another is the intermittent nature of the audio and video links to Earth, partly because of storms near [[Parkes Observatory]]. More recent digital analysis of the tape claims to reveal the "a" may have been spoken but obscured by static.<ref name="Straight Dope">{{cite web | url = http://www.straightdope.com/classics/a3_362.html | last = Adams | first = Cecil | title = Did astronaut Neil Armstrong muff his historic "one small step" line? }}</ref><ref name="snopes a">{{snopes | link = http://www.snopes.com/quotes/onesmall.asp | title = One Small Step }}</ref> {{Listen|pos=left|filename=Frase de Neil Armstrong.ogg|title="That's one small step&nbsp;..."|description=|format=[[Ogg]]}} {{Clear}} About seven minutes after stepping onto the Moon's surface, Armstrong collected a contingency soil sample using a sample bag on a stick. He then folded the bag and tucked it into a pocket on his right thigh. This was to guarantee there would be some lunar soil brought back in case an emergency required the astronauts to abandon the EVA and return to the LM.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://curator.jsc.nasa.gov/lunar/lsc/10010.pdf |title=Lunar Sample Compendium: Contingency Soil (10010) |last=Meyer |first=Charles |date=2009 |work=Astromaterials Research & Exploration Science |publisher=NASA |format=PDF |accessdate=June 13, 2013}}</ref> Twelve minutes after the contingency sample was collected,<ref name="Orloff"/> Aldrin joined Armstrong on the surface, and described the view with the simple phrase, "Magnificent desolation."<ref name="ALSJ 4" /> [[File:Aldrin Apollo 11 original.jpg|thumb|Aldrin poses on the Moon, allowing Armstrong to photograph both of them using the visor's reflection]] In addition to fulfilling President Kennedy's mandate to land a man on the Moon before the end of the 1960s,<ref>{{cite news |title=Events of 1969: Apollo 11 |url=http://www.upi.com/Archives/Audio/Events-of-1969/Apollo-11/ |work=UPI.com |publisher=[[United Press International]] |date=1969 |accessdate=June 13, 2013}}</ref> Apollo 11 was an engineering test of the Apollo system; therefore, Armstrong snapped photos of the LM so engineers would be able to judge its post-landing condition. He removed the TV camera from the MESA and made a panoramic sweep, then mounted it on a tripod {{convert|68|ft|m}} from the LM. The TV camera cable remained partly coiled and presented a tripping hazard throughout the EVA. Armstrong said that moving in the [[Gravitation of the Moon|lunar gravity]], one-sixth of Earth's, was "even perhaps easier than the simulations&nbsp;... It's absolutely no trouble to walk around."<ref name="ALSJ 4"/> Aldrin joined him on the surface and tested methods for moving around, including two-footed kangaroo hops. The PLSS backpack created a tendency to tip backwards, but neither astronaut had serious problems maintaining balance. Loping became the preferred method of movement. The astronauts reported that they needed to plan their movements six or seven steps ahead. The fine soil was quite slippery. Aldrin remarked that moving from sunlight into ''Eagle''{{'s}} shadow produced no temperature change inside the suit, though the helmet was warmer in sunlight, so he felt cooler in shadow.<ref name="ALSJ 4"/> The astronauts planted a [[Lunar Flag Assembly|specially designed U.S. flag]] on the lunar surface, in clear view of the TV camera. Some time later, President Richard Nixon spoke to them through a telephone-radio transmission which Nixon called "the most historic phone call ever made from the White House."<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.archives.gov/exhibits/american_originals/apollo11.html |title=Exhibit: Apollo 11 and Nixon |date=March 1996 |work=American Originals |publisher=[[National Archives and Records Administration]] |location=Washington, D.C. |accessdate=April 13, 2008}}</ref> Nixon originally had a long speech prepared to read during the phone call, but [[Frank Borman]], who was at the White House as a NASA liaison during Apollo 11, convinced Nixon to keep his words brief, to respect the lunar landing as Kennedy's legacy.<ref>This was related by Frank Borman during the 2008 documentary ''[[When We Left Earth: The NASA Missions]]'', part 2.</ref> Armstrong thanked the President, and gave a brief reflection on the significance of the moment: [[File:Nixon Telephones Armstrong on the Moon - GPN-2000-001672.jpg|thumb|left|President Nixon speaks to Armstrong and Aldrin on the Moon]] '''Nixon:''' Hello, Neil and Buzz. I'm talking to you by telephone from the Oval Room at the White House. And this certainly has to be the most historic telephone call ever made. I just can't tell you how proud we all are of what you've done. For every American, this has to be the proudest day of our lives. And for people all over the world, I am sure they too join with Americans in recognizing what an immense feat this is. Because of what you have done, the heavens have become a part of man's world. And as you talk to us from the Sea of Tranquility, it inspires us to redouble our efforts to bring peace and tranquility to Earth. For one priceless moment in the whole history of man, all the people on this Earth are truly one: one in their pride in what you have done, and one in our prayers that you will return safely to Earth. '''Armstrong:''' Thank you Mr. President. It's a great honor and privilege for us to be here, representing not only the United States, but men of peace of all nations, and with interest and curiosity, and men with a vision for the future. It's an honor for us to be able to participate here today. {{clear}} [[File:Apollo 11 bootprint.jpg|thumb|right|Aldrin bootprint; part of an experiment to test the properties of the lunar [[regolith]]]] The MESA failed to provide a stable work platform and was in shadow, slowing work somewhat. As they worked, the moonwalkers kicked up gray dust which soiled the outer part of their suits, the integrated thermal meteoroid garment. They deployed the EASEP, which included a passive seismograph and a [[Lunar Laser Ranging experiment|Lunar Ranging]] [[Retroreflector#Retroreflectors on the Moon|Retroreflector]] (LRRR). Then Armstrong walked {{convert|196|ft|m}} from the LM to snap photos at the rim of Little West Crater <!-- There is no "East Crater", see http://history.nasa.gov/alsj/a11/a11EastCraterRIP.html --> while Aldrin collected two core tubes. He used the [[geological hammer]] to pound in the tubes – the only time the hammer was used on Apollo 11. The astronauts then collected rock samples using scoops and tongs on extension handles. Many of the surface activities took longer than expected, so they had to stop documenting sample collection halfway through the allotted 34 minutes. [[File:Apollo 11 photo map.pdf|thumb|Map showing landing site and photos taken]] Three new minerals were discovered in the rock samples collected by the astronauts: [[armalcolite]], [[tranquillityite]], and [[pyroxferroite]]. Armalcolite was named after Armstrong, Aldrin, and Collins. During this period Mission Control used a coded phrase to warn Armstrong that his metabolic rates were high and that he should slow down. He was moving rapidly from task to task as time ran out. However, as metabolic rates remained generally lower than expected for both astronauts throughout the walk, Mission Control granted the astronauts a 15-minute extension.<ref name="ALSJ 5">{{cite web |url=http://www.hq.nasa.gov/alsj/a11/a11.clsout.html |title=EASEP Deployment and Closeout |editor-last=Jones |editor-first=Eric M. |date=1995 |work=Apollo 11 Lunar Surface Journal |publisher=NASA |accessdate=June 13, 2013}}</ref> In a 2010 interview, Armstrong, who had walked a maximum of {{convert|196|ft|m}} from the LM, explained that NASA limited the first moonwalk's time and distance because there was no empirical proof of how much cooling water the astronauts' PLSS backpacks would consume to handle their body heat generation while working on the Moon.<ref name="neilmoonwalk">{{cite web |url=http://www.space.com/10469-neil-armstrong-explains-famous-apollo-11-moonwalk.html |title=Neil Armstrong Explains His Famous Apollo 11 Moonwalk |date=December 10, 2010 |work=[[space.com]] |publisher=[[TechMediaNetwork, Inc.]] |location=New York |accessdate=May 25, 2013}}</ref> ===Lunar ascent and return=== [[File:Aldrin with experiment.jpg|thumb|Aldrin next to the Passive Seismic Experiment Package with ''Eagle'' in the background]] Aldrin entered ''Eagle'' first. With some difficulty the astronauts lifted film and two sample boxes containing {{convert|21.55|kg|lb}} of lunar surface material to the LM hatch using a flat cable pulley device called the Lunar Equipment Conveyor. Armstrong reminded Aldrin of a bag of memorial items in his suit pocket sleeve, and Aldrin tossed the bag down; Armstrong then jumped to the ladder's third rung and climbed into the LM. After transferring to LM [[life support]], the explorers lightened the ascent stage for return to lunar orbit by tossing out their PLSS backpacks, lunar overshoes, one [[Hasselblad]] camera, and other equipment. They then pressurized the LM, and settled down to sleep.<ref name="ALSJ 6">{{cite web |url=http://www.hq.nasa.gov/alsj/a11/a11.posteva.html |title=Trying to Rest |editor-last=Jones |editor-first=Eric M. |date=1995 |work=Apollo 11 Lunar Surface Journal |publisher=NASA |accessdate=June 13, 2013}}</ref> {{wikisource|In Event of Moon Disaster}} President Nixon's speech writer [[William Safire]] had prepared ''In Event of Moon Disaster'' for the President to read on television in the event the Apollo 11 astronauts were stranded on the Moon.<ref name="lostinspace">{{cite web |url=http://www.thesmokinggun.com/documents/crime/white-house-lost-space-scenarios |title=White House 'Lost In Space' Scenarios |date=August 8, 2005 |work=[[The Smoking Gun]] |location=New York |accessdate=May 25, 2013}} Scanned copy of the "In Event of Moon Disaster" memo.</ref> The contingency plan originated in a memo from Safire to Nixon's [[White House Chief of Staff]] [[H. R. Haldeman]], in which Safire suggested a protocol the administration might follow in reaction to such a disaster.<ref>{{cite news |title=The Story of a Tragedy That Was Not to Be |first=Jim |last=Mann |url=http://articles.latimes.com/1999/jul/07/news/mn-53678 |work=[[Los Angeles Times]] |date=July 7, 1999 |accessdate=May 25, 2013}}</ref><ref name="safire">{{cite news |title=Essay; Disaster Never Came |first=William |last=Safire |authorlink=William Safire |url=http://www.nytimes.com/1999/07/12/opinion/essay-disaster-never-came.html |work=[[New York Times]] |date=July 12, 1999 |accessdate=May 25, 2013}}</ref> According to the plan, Mission Control would "close down communications" with the LM, and a clergyman would "commend their souls to the deepest of the deep" in a public ritual likened to [[burial at sea]]. The last line of the prepared text contained an allusion to [[Rupert Brooke]]'s First World War poem, "[[The Soldier (poem)|The Soldier]]".<ref name="safire"/> The plan included presidential telephone calls to the astronauts' wives. While moving within the cabin, Aldrin accidentally damaged the [[circuit breaker]] that would arm the main engine for lift off from the Moon. There was concern this would prevent firing the engine, stranding them on the Moon. Fortunately a felt-tip pen was sufficient to activate the switch.<ref name="ALSJ 6" /> Had this not worked, the Lunar Module circuitry could have been reconfigured to allow firing the ascent engine.<ref name="Murray">{{Cite book |last1=Murray |first1=Charles A. |authorlink1=Charles Murray (political scientist) |last2=Cox |first2=Catherine Bly | title=Apollo: The Race to the Moon |date=1989 |publisher=Simon & Schuster |location=New York|isbn=0-671-61101-1 |lccn=89006333}}</ref> After about seven hours of rest, the crew was awakened by Houston to prepare for the return flight. Two and a half hours later, at 17:54 UTC, they lifted off in ''Eagle''{{'s}} ascent stage to rejoin Collins aboard ''Columbia'' in lunar orbit. After more than 21½ total hours on the lunar surface, they had left behind scientific instruments that included a [[Retroreflector#Retroreflectors on the Moon|retroreflector]] array used for the [[Lunar Laser Ranging experiment|Lunar Laser Ranging Experiment]] and a Passive Seismic Experiment Package used to measure [[Quake (natural phenomenon)#Moonquake|moonquakes]]. They also left an Apollo 1 mission patch, and a memorial bag containing a gold replica of an olive branch as a traditional symbol of peace and a silicon message disk. The disk carries the [[Apollo 11 goodwill messages|goodwill statements]] by Presidents [[Dwight D. Eisenhower|Eisenhower]], Kennedy, [[Lyndon B. Johnson|Johnson]], and Nixon and messages from leaders of 73 countries around the world. The disc also carries a listing of the leadership of the US Congress, a listing of members of the four committees of the House and Senate responsible for the NASA legislation, and the names of NASA's past and present top management.<ref>{{cite press release |title=Apollo 11 Goodwill Messages |date=July 13, 1969 |publisher=NASA |location=Washington, D.C. |url=http://history.nasa.gov/ap11-35ann/goodwill/Apollo_11_material.pdf |format=PDF |id=Release No: 69-83F |accessdate=June 14, 2013}}</ref> (In his 1989 book, ''Men from Earth'', Aldrin says that the items included Soviet medals commemorating [[Cosmonaut]]s [[Vladimir Mikhaylovich Komarov|Vladimir Komarov]] and [[Yuri Gagarin]].) Also, according to Deke Slayton's book ''Moonshot'', Armstrong carried with him a special diamond-studded astronaut pin from Slayton. [[File:Apollo 11 lunar module.jpg|thumb|''Eagle''{{'s}} ascent stage approaching ''Columbia'']] Film taken from the LM Ascent Stage upon liftoff from the Moon reveals the American flag, planted some {{Convert|25|ft|m|0}} from the descent stage, whipping violently in the exhaust of the ascent stage engine. Aldrin looked up in time to witness the flag topple:<ref name="Orloff" /> "The ascent stage of the LM separated&nbsp;... I was concentrating on the computers, and Neil was studying the [[attitude indicator]], but I looked up long enough to see the flag fall over."<ref name="Apollo-11 (27)" /> Subsequent Apollo missions usually planted the American flags at least {{Convert|100|ft|m|sigfig=1}} from the LM to prevent them being blown over by the ascent engine exhaust. After rendezvous with ''Columbia'', ''Eagle''{{'}}s ascent stage was jettisoned into lunar orbit on July 21, 1969, at 23:41 UTC. Just before the [[Apollo 12]] flight, it was noted that ''Eagle'' was still likely to be orbiting the Moon. Later NASA reports mentioned that ''Eagle''{{'s}} orbit had decayed, resulting in it impacting in an "uncertain location" on the lunar surface.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/planetary/lunar/apollo_tables.html |title=Apollo Tables |last=Williams |first=David R. |work=[[National Space Science Data Center]] |publisher=NASA |accessdate=September 23, 2006}}</ref> The location is uncertain because the ''Eagle'' ascent stage was not tracked after it was jettisoned, and the lunar gravity field is sufficiently non-uniform to make the orbit of the spacecraft unpredictable after a short time. NASA estimated that the orbit had decayed within months and would have impacted on the Moon. On July 23, the last night before splashdown, the three astronauts made a television broadcast in which Collins commented: <blockquote>...&nbsp;The Saturn V rocket which put us in orbit is an incredibly complicated piece of machinery, every piece of which worked flawlessly&nbsp;... We have always had confidence that this equipment will work properly. All this is possible only through the blood, sweat, and tears of a number of a people&nbsp;... All you see is the three of us, but beneath the surface are thousands and thousands of others, and to all of those, I would like to say, "Thank you very much."</blockquote> Aldrin added: <blockquote>This has been far more than three men on a mission to the Moon; more, still, than the efforts of a government and industry team; more, even, than the efforts of one nation. We feel that this stands as a symbol of the insatiable curiosity of all mankind to explore the unknown&nbsp;... Personally, in reflecting on the events of the past several days, a verse from Psalms comes to mind. "When I consider the heavens, the work of Thy fingers, the Moon and the stars, which Thou hast ordained; What is man that Thou art mindful of him?"</blockquote> Armstrong concluded: <blockquote>The responsibility for this flight lies first with history and with the giants of science who have preceded this effort; next with the American people, who have, through their will, indicated their desire; next with four administrations and their Congresses, for implementing that will; and then, with the agency and industry teams that built our spacecraft, the Saturn, the Columbia, the Eagle, and the little [[Extravehicular Mobility Unit|EMU]], the spacesuit and backpack that was our small spacecraft out on the lunar surface. We would like to give special thanks to all those Americans who built the spacecraft; who did the construction, design, the tests, and put their hearts and all their abilities into those craft. To those people tonight, we give a special thank you, and to all the other people that are listening and watching tonight, God bless you. Good night from Apollo 11.<ref name="Apollo-11 (27)" /></blockquote> On the return to Earth, a bearing at the Guam tracking station failed, potentially preventing communication on the last segment of the Earth return. A regular repair was not possible in the available time but the station director, Charles Force, had his ten-year-old son Greg use his small hands to reach into the housing and pack it with grease. Greg later was thanked by Armstrong.<ref>{{cite news |title=The 10-year-old who helped Apollo 11, 40 years later |last=Rodriguez |first=Rachel |url=http://www.cnn.com/2009/TECH/space/07/20/apollo11.irpt/index.html |work=CNN |date=July 20, 2009 |accessdate=January 10, 2011}}</ref> ===Splashdown and quarantine=== [[File:Splashdown 3.jpg|thumb|221px|''Columbia'' floats on the ocean as Navy divers assist in retrieving the astronauts]] [[File:Apollo-11-quarantine-7.jpg|right|thumb|The astronauts in their Biological Isolation Garments aboard the {{USS|Hornet|CV-12|6}}]] On July 24, the astronauts returned home aboard the Command Module ''Columbia'' just before dawn local time (16:51 UTC<ref name="A11timeline" />) at {{Coord|13|19|N|169|9|W|type:event|name=Apollo 11 splashdown}}, in the Pacific Ocean {{convert|2660|km|nmi|abbr=on}} east of [[Wake Island]], {{convert|380|km|nmi|abbr=on}} south of [[Johnston Atoll]], and {{convert|24|km|nmi|abbr=on}} from the recovery ship, {{USS|Hornet|CV-12|6}}.<ref name="Orloff" /> At 16:44 UTC the [[drogue parachute]]s had been deployed and seven minutes later the Command Module struck the water forcefully. During [[splashdown]], the Command Module landed upside down but was righted within 10 minutes by flotation bags triggered by the astronauts. "Everything's okay. Our checklist is complete. Awaiting swimmers", was Armstrong's last official transmission from the ''Columbia''. A diver from the Navy helicopter hovering above attached a sea anchor to the Command Module to prevent it from drifting. Additional divers attached flotation collars to stabilize the module and position rafts for astronaut extraction. Though the chance of bringing back [[pathogen]]s from the lunar surface was considered remote, it was considered a possibility and NASA took great precautions at the recovery site. Divers provided the astronauts with Biological Isolation Garments (BIGs) which were worn until they reached isolation facilities on board the ''Hornet''. Additionally astronauts were rubbed down with a [[sodium hypochlorite]] solution and the Command Module wiped with [[Betadine]] to remove any lunar dust that might be present. The raft containing decontamination materials was then intentionally sunk.<ref name="hornet">{{Cite book |last=Fish |first=Bob |others=Foreword by [[Richard F. Gordon, Jr.|Richard Gordon]] |title=Hornet Plus Three: The Story of the Apollo 11 Recovery |edition=1st |date=2009 |publisher=Creative Minds Press |location=Reno, Nevada |isbn=978-0-9749610-7-1}}</ref> A second [[Sikorsky SH-3 Sea King|Sea King]] helicopter hoisted the astronauts aboard one by one, where a NASA [[flight surgeon]] gave each a brief physical check during the {{convert|0.5|nmi|m}} trip back to the ''Hornet''. [[File:President Nixon welcomes the Apollo 11 astronauts aboard the U.S.S. Hornet.jpg|thumb|left|The crew of Apollo 11 in [[quarantine]] after returning to Earth, visited by Richard Nixon]] After touchdown on the ''Hornet'', the astronauts exited the helicopter, leaving the flight surgeon and three crewmen. The helicopter was then lowered into hangar bay #2 where the astronauts walked the {{convert|30|ft|m}} to the [[Mobile Quarantine Facility]] (MQF) where they would begin their 21 days of quarantine. This practice would continue for two more Apollo missions, Apollo 12 and [[Apollo 14]], before the Moon was proven to be barren of life and the quarantine process dropped.<ref name="hornet" /><ref name="Smithsonian ">{{cite web |url=http://airandspace.si.edu/exhibitions/apollo-to-the-moon/online/a11.jh.3.html |title=After Splashdown |date=July 1999 |work=Apollo to the Moon |publisher=[[National Air and Space Museum]] |location=Washington, D.C. |accessdate=August 15, 2013}}</ref> President Richard Nixon was aboard ''Hornet'' to personally welcome the astronauts back to Earth. He told the astronauts, "As a result of what you've done, the world has never been closer together before."<ref>{{cite web |url=http://thenewnixon.org/2008/07/23/24-july-1969-home-from-the-moon/ |title=24 July 1969: Home From The Moon |last=Gannon |first=Frank |date=July 23, 2008 |work=The New Nixon |publisher=[[Richard Nixon Foundation]] |accessdate=July 20, 2009}}</ref> After Nixon departed, the ''Hornet'' was brought alongside the five-ton Command Module where it was placed aboard by the ship's crane, placed on a dolly and moved next to the MQF. The ''Hornet'' sailed for [[Naval Station Pearl Harbor|Pearl Harbor]] where the Command Module and MQF were airlifted to the [[Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center|Manned Spacecraft Center]].<ref name="hornet" /> In accordance with the recently passed [[Extra-Terrestrial Exposure Law]], the astronauts were placed in quarantine for fear that the Moon might contain undiscovered [[pathogen]]s and that the astronauts might have been exposed to them during their Moon walks. However, after almost three weeks in confinement (first in their trailer and later in the [[Lunar Receiving Laboratory]] at the Manned Spacecraft Center), the astronauts were given a clean bill of health.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.nasaexplores.com/extras/apollo11/hirasaki.html |title=A Front Row Seat For History |date=July 15, 2004 |work=NASAexplores |publisher=NASA |archiveurl=//web.archive.org/web/20060319184027/http://www.nasaexplores.com/extras/apollo11/hirasaki.html |archivedate=March 19, 2006 |accessdate=June 14, 2013}}</ref> On August 10, 1969, the astronauts exited quarantine. ===Celebration=== [[File:New York City Welcomes the Apollo 11 Astronauts - GPN-2002-000034.jpg|thumb|Parade in New York City]] On August 13, they rode in parades in their honor in New York, Chicago, and Los Angeles. On the same evening in Los Angeles there was an official [[State dinner|State Dinner]] to celebrate the flight, attended by members of Congress, 44 governors, the [[Chief Justice of the United States]], and ambassadors from 83 nations at the [[Century Plaza Hotel]]. President Richard Nixon and [[Vice President of the United States|Vice President]] [[Spiro Agnew|Spiro T. Agnew]] honored each astronaut with a presentation of the [[Presidential Medal of Freedom]]. This celebration was the beginning of a 45-day "Giant Leap" tour that brought the astronauts to 25 foreign countries and included visits with prominent leaders such as [[Elizabeth II|Queen Elizabeth II]] of the United Kingdom. Many nations honored the first manned [[Moon landing]] with special features in magazines or by issuing Apollo 11 commemorative postage stamps or coins.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Wilson |first=Bill |title=Families Wait for Moon Men |date=July 23, 1969 |url=http://trove.nla.gov.au/ndp/del/article/43460781 |journal=[[The Australian Women's Weekly]] |location=Sydney |volume=37 |number=8 |pages=2–4 |accessdate=July 19, 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.lunarhall.org/missions/apollo/11.html |title=Lunar Missions: Apollo 11 |date=2008 |website=Lunar Hall of Fame |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20081024222503/http://www.lunarhall.org/missions/apollo/11.html |archivedate=2008-10-24 |deadurl=yes |accessdate=June 9, 2014}}</ref> On September 16, 1969, the three astronauts spoke before a [[joint session of the United States Congress|joint session of Congress]] on [[Capitol Hill]]. They presented two US flags, one to the House of Representatives and the other to the Senate, that had been carried to the surface of the Moon with them. ==Moon race== [[File:Luna-16.jpg|thumb|180px|Artist's impression of Luna 15]] The Soviet Union was secretly attempting to compete with the US in landing a man on the Moon but had been hampered by repeated failures in development of [[N1 (rocket)|a launcher comparable to the Saturn V]].<ref name="sovlun">{{cite web |url=http://ocw.mit.edu/courses/science-technology-and-society/sts-471j-engineering-apollo-the-moon-project-as-a-complex-system-spring-2007/readings/soviet_mand_lunr.pdf |title=The Soviet Manned Lunar Program |last=Lindroos |first=Marcus |work=[[MIT OpenCourseWare]] |publisher=[[Massachusetts Institute of Technology]] |format=PDF |accessdate=October 4, 2011}}</ref> Meanwhile, they tried to beat the US to return lunar material to the Earth by means of [[Unmanned spacecraft|unmanned probes]]. On July 13, three days before Apollo 11's launch, they launched [[Luna 15]], which reached lunar orbit before Apollo 11. During descent, a malfunction caused Luna 15 to crash in [[Mare Crisium]] about two hours before Armstrong and Aldrin took off from the surface. The [[Jodrell Bank Observatory]] radio telescope in England was later discovered to have recorded transmissions from Luna 15 during its descent, and this was published in July 2009 on the 40th anniversary of Apollo 11.<ref>{{cite news |title=Recording tracks Russia's Moon gatecrash attempt |first=Jonathan |last=Brown |url=http://www.independent.co.uk/news/science/recording-tracks-russias-moon-gatecrash-attempt-1730851.html |work=[[The Independent]] |location=London |date=July 3, 2009 |accessdate=January 10, 2011}}</ref> ==Spacecraft location== {{multiple image | align = left | direction = horizontal | header = | header_align = center | image1 = NASA Apollo 11 command module.jpg | width1 = 240 | caption1 = Command Module at the [[National Air and Space Museum]] | image2 = Apollo11-LRO-March2012.jpg | width2 = 180 | caption2 = Lunar Module landing site photographed by the [[Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter|LRO]] in 2012 }} The Command Module is displayed at the [[National Air and Space Museum]], Washington, D.C. It is in the central ''Milestones of Flight'' exhibition hall in front of the Jefferson Drive entrance, sharing the main hall with other pioneering flight vehicles such as the [[Wright Flyer]], the ''[[Spirit of St. Louis]]'', the [[Bell X-1]], the [[North American X-15]], [[Project Mercury|Mercury]] spacecraft ''[[Friendship 7]]'', and [[Gemini 4]]. Armstrong's and Aldrin's space suits are displayed in the museum's ''Apollo to the Moon'' exhibit. The quarantine trailer, the flotation collar, and the righting spheres are displayed at the Smithsonian's [[Steven F. Udvar-Hazy Center]] annex near [[Washington Dulles International Airport]] in Virginia. In 2009 the [[Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter]] (LRO) imaged the various Apollo landing sites on the surface of the Moon, for the first time with sufficient resolution to see the descent stages of the lunar modules, scientific instruments, and foot trails made by the astronauts. In March 2012 [[Amazon.com|Amazon]] founder [[Jeff Bezos]] located the [[F-1 (rocket engine)|F-1 engines]] that launched Apollo 11 into space. The engines were found below the Atlantic Ocean's surface through the use of advanced sonar scanning. His team brought at least one of the five engines to the surface.<ref>{{cite news |title=Amazon boss Jeff Bezos 'finds Apollo 11 Moon engines' |url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-us-canada-17544565 |work=BBC News |location=London |date=March 28, 2012 |accessdate=June 14, 2013}}</ref> In July 2013, it was confirmed through serial numbers (2044) that F-1 engine parts brought up from the depths of the Atlantic Ocean were from the Apollo 11 launch.<ref>{{cite news |title=Apollo 11 rocket engines that put man on the moon discovered at bottom of the Atlantic and confirmed a day before the 44th anniversary of Armstrong's first steps |first=Ryan |last=Gorman |url=http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-2371494/Apollo-11-rocket-engines-moon-landing-mission-confirmed-ocean.html |work=[[Mail Online]] |location=London |date=July 20, 2013 |accessdate=July 20, 2013}}</ref> ==40th anniversary events== [[File:Mike Simons, Director of the National Electronic Museum in Baltimore assembles an Apollo TV camera for display.jpg|thumb|270px|Mike Simons, director of the [[National Electronics Museum]], assembles an Apollo TV camera for display at the [[Newseum]]]] On July 15, 2009, [[Life (magazine)|Life.com]] released a photo gallery of previously unpublished photos of the astronauts taken by ''Life'' photographer [[Ralph Morse]] prior to the Apollo 11 launch.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://life.time.com/history/photos-up-close-with-apollo-11/#1 |title=LIFE: Up Close With Apollo 11 |work=[[Life (magazine)|Life]] |accessdate=June 14, 2013}}</ref> From July 16–24, 2009, NASA streamed the original mission audio on its website in real time 40 years to the minute after the events occurred.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/apollo/40th/apollo11_audio.html |title=Apollo 11 Onboard Audio |work=Apollo 40th Anniversary |publisher=NASA |accessdate=June 14, 2013}}</ref> In addition, it is in the process of restoring the video footage and has released a preview of key moments.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.nasa.gov/multimedia/hd/apollo11_hdpage.html |title=Apollo 11 Partial Restoration HD Videos (Downloads) |editor-last=Garner |editor-first=Robert |publisher=NASA |accessdate=June 14, 2013}}</ref> On July 20, 2009, the crew of Armstrong, Aldrin, and Collins met with U.S. President [[Barack Obama]] at the White House.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.nasa.gov/multimedia/imagegallery/image_feature_1422.html |title=Apollo 11 Crew Meets With President Obama |date=July 20, 2009 |work=Image of the Day Gallery |publisher=NASA |accessdate=June 9, 2014}}</ref> "We expect that there is, as we speak, another generation of kids out there who are looking up at the sky and are going to be the next Armstrong, Collins and Aldrin", Obama said. "We want to make sure that NASA is going to be there for them when they want to take their journey."<ref>{{cite news| url=http://www.nytimes.com/2009/07/21/science/space/21obama.html | work=The New York Times | first=Jeff | last=Zeleny | title=Obama Hails Apollo Crew From a Lens of Childhood | date=July 21, 2009}}</ref> The [[John F. Kennedy Presidential Library and Museum]] set up a [[Adobe Flash|Flash]] website that rebroadcasts the transmissions of Apollo 11 from launch to landing on the Moon.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://wechoosethemoon.org/|title=We Choose the Moon|publisher=[[John F. Kennedy Presidential Library and Museum]]|accessdate=July 19, 2009| archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20090721164241/http://wechoosethemoon.org/| archivedate= July 21, 2009 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}</ref> A group of British scientists interviewed as part of the anniversary events reflected on the significance of the Moon landing: <blockquote> It was carried out in a technically brilliant way with risks taken&nbsp;... that would be inconceivable in the risk-averse world of today&nbsp;... The Apollo programme is arguably the greatest technical achievement of mankind to date&nbsp;... nothing since Apollo has come close [to] the excitement that was generated by those astronauts – Armstrong, Aldrin and the 10 others who followed them.<ref>{{Cite news |title=Moon landings: British scientists salute space heroes |url=http://www.telegraph.co.uk/science/space/5848707/Moon-landings-British-scientists-salute-space-heroes.html |work=[[The Daily Telegraph]] |location=London |date=July 17, 2009 |accessdate=June 14, 2013}}</ref></blockquote> {{Wikinews|Fortieth anniversary of first manned Moon landing}} On August 7, 2009, an act of Congress awarded the three astronauts a [[Congressional Gold Medal]], the highest civilian award in the United States. The bill was sponsored by Florida Sen. [[Bill Nelson]] and Florida Rep. [[Alan Grayson]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.opencongress.org/bill/111-s951/text |title=Text of S.951 as Engrossed in Senate: New Frontier Congressional Gold Medal Act – U.S. Congress – OpenCongress |publisher=OpenCongress.org |accessdate=June 14, 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.opencongress.org/bill/111-h2245/text |title=Text of H.R.2245 as Enrolled Bill: New Frontier Congressional Gold Medal Act – U.S. Congress – OpenCongress |publisher=OpenCongress.org |accessdate=June 14, 2013}}</ref> In July 2010, air-to-ground voice recordings and film footage shot in Mission Control during the Apollo 11 powered descent and landing was re-synchronised and released for the first time.<ref>{{Cite news |title=Sound restored to mission control film shot during Apollo 11 moon landing |first=Christopher |last=Riley |authorlink=Christopher Riley |url=http://www.guardian.co.uk/science/blog/2010/jul/20/sound-apollo-11-moon-landing |work=[[The Guardian]] |location=London |date=July 20, 2010 |accessdate=July 11, 2013}}</ref> ==Gallery== <gallery class="center" widths="180"> File:Apollo 11 Liftoff Spectators - GPN-2000-001852.jpg|Spectators camp out to watch the launch File:Invite to Apollo 11 launch.png|Seating credential issued to viewers of the Apollo 11 launch File:Engineers Working apollo 11.png|[[Launch Control Center]] before liftoff File:Guenter Wendt and the Apollo 11 Crew.jpg|Collins, Aldrin and Armstrong consult with pad leader [[Guenter Wendt]] after Countdown Demonstration Test File:Ap11-KSC-69PC-241HR.jpg|Roll-out of Saturn V AS-505 from the Vehicle Assembly Building to the launch pad File:Apollo 11 Earth.jpg|The Earth as seen from Apollo 11 on the third day out File:Apollo 11 Landing - first steps on the moon.ogv|Neil Armstrong describes the Moon's surface before setting foot on it File:President Nixon telephones the Apollo 11 crew on the Moon.ogg|President Nixon speaks to Armstrong and Aldrin from the Oval Office File:Land on the Moon 7 21 1969-repair.jpg|''[[The Washington Post]]'' on Monday, July 21, 1969: "'The Eagle Has Landed'—Two Men Walk on the Moon" File:NASA Armstrong 1969 scout.png|Neil Armstrong's certification: "I certify that this World Scout Badge was carried to the surface of the Moon on man's first lunar landing, Apollo XI, July 20, 1969." File:First Man on Moon 1969 Issue-10c.jpg|[[US space exploration history on US stamps|First Man on the Moon Commemorative Issue of 1969]] File:Apollo 11 - Crew at the White House.jpg|Apollo 11 crew at the White House in 2004 </gallery> ==See also== {{Portal|Spaceflight|Houston|Space}} *[[commons:Apollo 11 flight|Apollo 11 flight, artist concept]] (an illustrated timeline) *[[Apollo 11 in popular culture]] *[[Apollo 11 missing tapes]] *[[Apollo Guidance Computer]] *[[Google Moon]] *[[List of man-made objects on the Moon]] *[[List of spacewalks and moonwalks 1965–1999]] *[[Moon landing conspiracy theories]] *[[Wernher von Braun]] ==Notes== {{Notes}} ==References== {{Include-NASA}} {{Reflist|30em}} ==Further reading== *{{Cite book |last=Cappellari |first=J.O. Jr. |title=Where on the Moon? An Apollo Systems Engineering Problem |series=''[[Bell System Technical Journal]]'' |volume=51 |number=5 |date=May–June 1972 |publisher=[[AT&T Corporation|American Telephone and Telegraph Company]] |location=New York |oclc=17779623 |pages=955–1127}} *{{Cite book |last=Barbour |first=John Andrews |others=Writers and editors of the [[Associated Press]]. Manuscript by John Barbour |title=Footprints on the Moon |date=1969 |agency=Associated Press |location=New York |oclc=26341}} *{{Cite book |last1=French |first1=Francis |authorlink1=Francis French |last2=Burgess |first2=Colin |authorlink2=Colin Burgess (author) |others=Foreword by [[Walter Cunningham]] |title=[[In the Shadow of the Moon (book)|In the Shadow of the Moon: A Challenging Journey to Tranquility, 1965–1969]] |series=Outward Odyssey: A People's History of Spaceflight |date=2007 |publisher=University of Nebraska Press |location=Lincoln, Nebraska |isbn=978-0-8032-1128-5}} *{{Cite book |last=Rahman |first=Tahir |title=We Came in Peace for All Mankind: The Untold Story of the Apollo 11 Silicon Disc |edition=1st |publisher=Leathers Publishing |location=Overland Park, Kansas |date=2008 |isbn=978-1-58597-441-2}} '''For young readers''' *{{Cite book |last=Aldrin |first=Buzz |authorlink=Buzz Aldrin |others=Paintings by Wendell Minor |title=Reaching for the Moon |edition=1st |date=2005 |publisher=HarperCollins |location=New York |pages=40 pages |nopp=y |isbn=0-06-055446-0}} *{{Cite book |last=Floca |first=Brian |authorlink=Brian Floca |title=Moonshot: The Flight of Apollo 11 |date=2009 |publisher=Atheneum Books for Young Readers |location=New York |pages=48 pages |nopp=y |isbn=978-1-4169-5046-2}} *{{Cite book |last=Thimmesh |first=Catherine |title=Team Moon: How 400,000 People Landed Apollo 11 on the Moon |date=2006 |publisher=Houghton Mifflin Company |location=New York |pages=80 pages |nopp=y |isbn=978-0-618-50757-3}} ==External links== {{External links|date=January 2015}} {{commons category|Apollo 11}} *[http://apollo11.spacelog.org/ "Apollo 11 transcripts"] at [http://spacelog.org/ Spacelog] *[http://www.hq.nasa.gov/alsj/a11/a11_eva_thumbs.html "Magnificent Desolation: The Apollo 11 Moonwalk Pictures"] by [http://www.hq.nasa.gov/alsj Apollo Lunar Surface Journal] contributor Joseph O'Dea. Complete gallery of Apollo 11 EVA pictures. *[http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/planetary/lunar/apollo11info.html "Apollo 11"] Detailed mission information by Dr. David R. Williams, NASA [[Goddard Space Flight Center]] *[http://blaisephoto.fr/photographies-de-la-mission-apollo-11-nasa.php "Apollo 11"] Photographer Blaise Thirard's presentation of Apollo 11 photographs *{{cite news |title=Men on the Moon |url=http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/system/topicRoot/Men_on_the_moon/ |newspaper=[[The Times]] |location=London |accessdate=May 24, 2013 |archiveurl=//web.archive.org/web/20100531095612/http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/system/topicRoot/Men_on_the_moon/ |archivedate=May 31, 2010 |first1=Rachel |last1=Sylvester |first2=Sam |last2=Coates}} Original reports from ''The Times'' (London) *{{cite web|url=http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/apollo/40th/|title=Apollo 40th Anniversary|publisher=NASA|date=July 2009|accessdate=July 18, 2009| archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20090718120003/http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/apollo/40th/| archivedate= July 18, 2009 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}} NASA website honoring the mission *[http://www.collectspace.com/news/news-111507a.html "The untold story: how one small silicon disc delivered a giant message to the Moon"] at collectSPACE.com *[http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2004/07/0714_040714_moonlanding.html "Apollo Anniversary: Moon Landing 'Inspired World'"] National Geographic News, July 16, 2004 – 35th anniversary of Apollo 11; Steven Dick, NASA's chief historian: "...&nbsp;a thousand years from now, that step may be considered the crowning achievement of the 20th century." *[http://www.popsci.com/military-aviation-amp-space/article/2009-06/40-years-later-ten-things-you-didnt-know-about-apollo-ii-moon-landing "Ten Things You Didn't Know About the Apollo 11 Moon Landing"] by Craig Nelson, ''[[Popular Mechanics]]'', July 13, 2009 *[http://www.radiotapes.com/specialpostings.html#Apollo11 "Coverage of the Flight of Apollo 11 – (1969)"] provided by Todd Kosovich for RadioTapes.com. Radio station recordings (airchecks) covering the flight of Apollo 11. *[http://buzzaldrin.com/the-man/space-missions/ "Space Missions"] at Buzz Aldrin's official website '''NASA reports''' *[http://www.hq.nasa.gov/alsj/a11/A11_PressKit.pdf "Apollo 11 Lunar Landing Mission"] (PDF) – NASA press kit, Release No: 69-83K, July 6, 1969 *{{cite web |url=http://history.nasa.gov/apsr/apsr.ht.|title=Apollo Program Summary Report |work=NASA History Program Office |publisher=NASA |date=April 1975 |accessdate=September 23, 2006 |archiveurl=//web.archive.org/web/20060929004340/http://history.nasa.gov/apsr/apsr.htm |archivedate= September 29, 2006 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}} – 200+ pages *{{cite book |last=Ertel |first=Ivan |others= Morse, M.L.; Bays, J.K.; Brooks, C.G.; Newkirk, R.W. |title=The Apollo Spacecraft: A Chronology |url=http://www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/History/SP-4009/cover.htm |accessdate=September 23, 2006 |volume=I–IV |date=1969–1978 |publisher=NASA |location=Washington, D.C. |oclc=23818 |lccn=69060008 |id=NASA SP-4009}} *{{cite web|url=http://www.hq.nasa.gov/alsj/a11/a11MIssionReport_1971015566.pdf|title=Apollo 11 Mission Report|format=PDF |date=1971|publisher=NASA}} – 230 pages *{{cite web|url=http://history.nasa.gov/ap11-35ann/apollo11_log/log.htm|title=EP-72 Log of Apollo 11|work=NASA History Program Office|publisher=NASA|accessdate=January 16, 2006}} – Timeline of the mission, from [http://history.nasa.gov/ap11-35ann/index.htm "One Giant Leap for Mandkind,"] 2004. *[http://ntrs.nasa.gov/search.jsp NASA Technical Reports Server] '''Multimedia''' *{{cite news |url=http://life.time.com/history/apollo-11-to-the-moon-and-back-life-covers-the-1969-lunar-landing/#1 |title='To the Moon and Back': LIFE Covers the Apollo 11 Mission |accessdate=July 20, 2013 | work=Time}} – ''[[Life (magazine)|Life]]'' magazine Special Edition, August 11, 1969 *{{cite web |url=http://www.life.com/image/first/in-gallery/23232/apollo-11-scenes-from-the-moon |title=Apollo 11: Scenes From the Moon |archiveurl=//web.archive.org/web/20090717195032/http://www.life.com/image/first/in-gallery/23232/apollo-11-scenes-from-the-moon |archivedate=July 17, 2009 |accessdate=June 13, 2013}} – slideshow by ''Life'' magazine *{{cite web |url=http://www.nasa.gov/multimedia/hd/apollo11_hdpage.html |title=Apollo 11 Partial Restoration HD Videos (Downloads) |editor-last=Garner |editor-first=Robert |publisher=NASA |accessdate=June 13, 2013}} – Remastered videos of the original landing. *{{cite web |url=http://www.hq.nasa.gov/alsj/a11/a11.html |title=Apollo 11 Lunar Surface Journal |date=1995 |editor-last=Jones |editor-first=Eric M. Jones |work=Apollo 11 Lunar Surface Journal |publisher=NASA |accessdate=September 23, 2006}} – Transcripts and audio clips of important parts of the mission *{{cite web |url=http://www.hq.nasa.gov/alsj/a11/images11.html |title=Apollo 11 Image Library |editor1-last=Jones |editor1-first=Eric M. |editor2-last=Glover |editor2-first=Ken |date=1995–2009 |work=Apollo 11 Lunar Surface Journal |publisher=NASA |accessdate=September 23, 2006}} – Hundreds of high-resolution images of the mission, including assembled panoramas. *{{cite web |url=http://astrogeology.usgs.gov/Projects/LunarAtlas/maps/ |title=''Apollo'' Mission Traverse Maps |publisher=[[United States Geological Survey|USGS]] |accessdate=September 23, 2006 |archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20060924151815/http://astrogeology.usgs.gov/Projects/LunarAtlas/maps/ |archivedate=September 24, 2006}} – Several maps showing routes of moonwalks *[http://moon.google.com/ Google Moon] – with lunar landing sites tagged *[http://moonpans.com/vr Apollo Lunar Surface VR Panoramas] at moonpans.com *[http://apollo.sese.asu.edu/ Apollo Image Archive] at [[Arizona State University]] *[http://www.apollotv.net/ Apollo launch and mission videos] at ApolloTV.net *[http://www.firstmenonthemoon.com/ Real-time audiovisual recreation of the lunar module landing] with audio feeds from the crew of Apollo 11 and Ground Control *{{YouTube|id=JC-cyoqKjpQ|title=Moonwalk One – Apollo 11 : Neil Armstrong – The First Man on the Moon – 1969 NASA Documentary}} *{{YouTube|id=keoF8YmTjWg|title=The Eagle Has Landed : The Flight of Apollo 11 & Neil Armstrong Landing on the Moon – NASA Documentary}} *{{YouTube|id=yeG8QUs5I0I|title=Apollo 11 "For All of Mankind" : Neil Armstrong Landing On The Moon – NASA Documentary}} *{{YouTube|id=7H1QIGscePs|title=Video of Apollo 11 launch}} {{Project Apollo| before=''[[Apollo 10]]''| after=''[[Apollo 12]]''}} {{Moon spacecraft}} {{The Moon}} {{Orbital launches in 1969}} {{NASA navbox}} {{Use American English|date=January 2014}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:1969 in the United States]] [[Category:Apollo 11| ]] [[Category:Apollo program]] [[Category:Articles containing video clips]] [[Category:Extravehicular activity]] [[Category:Individual spacecraft in the collection of the Smithsonian Institution]] [[Category:Manned missions to the Moon]] [[Category:Missions to the Moon]] [[Category:Neil Armstrong]] [[Category:Sample return missions]] [[Category:Soft landings on the Moon]] [[Category:Spacecraft launched in 1969]] [[Category:Spacecraft which reentered in 1969]] c40iwqi9dkzbtkm19c9q84wodlyevve 0 663 716637143 714867636 2016-04-22T21:55:10Z Solomonfromfinland 11874933 [[Category:Apollo 8| ]] wikitext text/x-wiki {{Use mdy dates|date=June 2013}} {{Infobox spaceflight | name = Apollo 8 | image = NASA-Apollo8-Dec24-Earthrise.jpg | image_caption = The crew of Apollo 8 were the first humans to witness Earthrise, on December 24, 1968 | insignia = Apollo-8-patch.png | mission_type = Manned Lunar orbiter | operator = [[NASA]]<ref name="Orloff">{{cite book |last=Orloff |first=Richard W. |title=Apollo by the Numbers: A Statistical Reference |url=http://history.nasa.gov/SP-4029/SP-4029.htm |accessdate=June 28, 2013 |series=NASA History Series |origyear=First published 2000 |date=September 2004 |work=NASA History Division, Office of Policy and Plans |publisher=[[NASA]] |location=Washington, D.C. |isbn=0-16-050631-X |lccn=00061677 |id=NASA SP-2000-4029 |chapter=Table of Contents |chapterurl=http://history.nasa.gov/SP-4029/Apollo_00g_Table_of_Contents.htm}}</ref> | COSPAR_ID = 1968-118A | SATCAT = 3626 | mission_duration = 6&nbsp;days, 3&nbsp;hours, 42&nbsp;minutes | spacecraft = [[Apollo Command/Service Module|Apollo CSM]]-103<br/>Apollo LTA-B | manufacturer = [[Rockwell International|North American Rockwell]] | launch_mass = CSM: {{convert|63650|lb|kg|order=flip}}<ref>{{cite web |url=http://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/19690003059_1969003059.pdf |title=Apollo 8 Press Kit |date=December 15, 1968 |publisher=NASA |pages=33–34 |type=Press kit |format=PDF |id=Release No. 68-208 |accessdate=June 28, 2013}} – The spacecraft mass at launch includes the CM and SM, but excludes the {{convert|8900|lb|kg|order=flip}} Launch Escape System (LES), which was discarded before reaching Earth orbit.</ref><br/>CM:{{convert|12392|lb|kg|order=flip}}<br/>SM:{{convert|51258|lb|kg|order=flip}}<br/>LTA: {{convert|19900|lb|kg|order=flip}}<ref>{{cite web |url=http://history.nasa.gov/ap08fj/pdf/a08-missionreport.pdf |title=Apollo 8 Mission Report |date=February 1969 |publisher=NASA |page=A-14 |format=PDF |id=MSC-PA-R-69-1 |accessdate=June 28, 2013}} – The mass for LTA-B was less than that of a flying LM, because it was essentially a boilerplate descent stage. A fully loaded, flight-ready LM, like the ''Eagle'' from Apollo 11, had a mass of {{convert|33278|lb|kg|order=flip}}, including propellants.</ref> | landing_mass = {{convert|10977|lb|kg|order=flip}} | launch_date = {{start-date|December 21, 1968, 12:51:00|timezone=yes}}&nbsp;UTC | launch_rocket = [[Saturn V]] SA-503 | launch_site = [[Kennedy Space Center|Kennedy]] [[Kennedy Space Center Launch Complex 39|LC-39A]] | landing_date = {{end-date|December 27, 1968, 15:51:42|timezone=yes}}&nbsp;UTC<ref name="MissionReport">{{cite web |url=http://www.hq.nasa.gov/alsj/a410/A08_MissionReport.pdf |title=Apollo 8 Mission Report |date=February 1969 |publisher=NASA |page=3-2 |format=PDF |id=MSC-PA-R-69-1|accessdate=June 28, 2013}}</ref> | landing_site = {{Coord|8|8|N|165|1|W|type:event|name=Apollo 8 landing}}<ref name="MissionReport"/> | recovery_by = {{USS|Yorktown|CV-10|6}} | orbit_epoch = December 24, 1968, ~02:30&nbsp;UTC | orbit_reference = [[Selenocentric orbit|Selenocentric]] | orbit_periapsis = {{convert|59.7|nmi|km|order=flip|sp=us}} | orbit_apoapsis = {{convert|60.7|nmi|km|order=flip|sp=us}} | orbit_inclination = 12&nbsp;degrees | orbit_period = 2&nbsp;hours | apsis = selene |interplanetary = {{Infobox spaceflight/IP |type = orbiter |object = [[Moon|Lunar]] |orbits = 10 |component = CSM |arrival_date = December 24, 1968, 9:59:20&nbsp;UTC<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.hq.nasa.gov/alsj/a410/A08_MissionReport.pdf |title=Apollo 8 Mission Report |date=February 1969 |publisher=NASA |page=3-1 |format=PDF |id=MSC-PA-R-69-1|accessdate=May 8, 2015}}</ref> |departure_date = December 25, 1968, 6:10:17&nbsp;UTC<ref name="MissionReport"/> }} | crew_size = 3 | crew_members = [[Frank Borman|Frank F. Borman, II]]<br/>[[Jim Lovell|James A. Lovell, Jr.]]<br/>[[William Anders|William A. Anders]] | crew_callsign = Apollo 8 | crew_photo = Apollo 8 Crewmembers - GPN-2000-001125.jpg | crew_photo_caption = Left to right: Lovell, Anders, Borman | previous_mission = [[Apollo 7]] | next_mission = [[Apollo 9]] | programme = [[Apollo program]] }} '''Apollo 8''', the second [[human spaceflight]] mission in the United States [[Apollo program|Apollo space program]], was launched on December 21, 1968, and became the first manned [[spacecraft]] to leave [[Earth]] [[orbit]], reach the Earth's [[Moon]], orbit it and return safely to Earth. The three-[[astronaut]] crew — Commander [[Frank Borman]], Command Module Pilot [[Jim Lovell|James Lovell]], and Lunar Module Pilot [[William Anders]] — became the first humans to travel beyond [[low Earth orbit]], the first to see Earth as a whole planet, the first to directly see the [[far side of the Moon]], and then the first to witness [[Earthrise]]. The 1968 mission, the third flight of the [[Saturn V|Saturn&nbsp;V]] rocket and that rocket's first manned launch, was also the first human spaceflight launch from the [[Kennedy Space Center]], Florida, located adjacent to [[Cape Canaveral Air Force Station]]. The mission was originally planned as Apollo 9, to be performed in early 1969 as the second test of the complete [[Apollo spacecraft]], including the [[Apollo Lunar Module|Lunar Module]] and the [[Apollo Command/Service Module|Command/Service Module]] in an elliptical [[medium Earth orbit]]. But when the Lunar Module proved unready to make [[Apollo 9|its first test in a lower Earth orbit]] in December 1968, it was decided in August to fly Apollo 8 in December as a more ambitious lunar orbital flight without the Lunar Module. This meant Borman's crew was scheduled to fly two to three months sooner than originally planned, leaving them a shorter time for training and preparation, thus placing more demands than usual on their time and discipline. Apollo 8 took three days to travel to the Moon. It orbited ten times over the course of 20 hours, during which the crew made a Christmas Eve [[Apollo TV camera|television broadcast]] where they [[Apollo 8 Genesis reading|read the first 10 verses from]] the [[Book of Genesis]]. At the time, the broadcast was the most watched TV program ever. Apollo 8's successful mission paved the way for [[Apollo 11]] to fulfill U.S. President [[John F. Kennedy]]'s goal of landing a man on the Moon before the end of the 1960s. The Apollo 8 astronauts returned to Earth on December 27, 1968, when their spacecraft splashed down in the Northern Pacific Ocean. The crew was named [[Time (magazine)|''Time'' magazine]]'s "Men of the Year" for 1968 upon their return. ==Crew== {{Spaceflight crew |terminology = Astronaut |position1 = Commander |crew1_up = [[Frank Borman|Frank F. Borman, II]] |flights1_up = Second and last |position2 = Command Module Pilot |crew2_up = [[Jim Lovell|James A. Lovell, Jr.]] |flights2_up = Third |position3 = Lunar Module Pilot |crew3_up = [[William Anders|William A. Anders]] |flights3_up = Only |notes = '''Lunar Module Pilot''' was the official title used for the third pilot position in Block II missions, regardless of whether the [[Apollo Lunar Module|LM spacecraft]] was present or not. }} Lovell was originally the CMP on the back-up crew, with [[Michael Collins (astronaut)|Michael Collins]] as the prime crew's CMP. However, Collins was replaced in July 1968, after suffering a [[intervertebral disc|cervical]] [[Spinal disc herniation|disc herniation]] that required surgery to repair.<ref>[[#Collins|Collins 2001]], pp. 288–294</ref> This crew was unique among pre-shuttle era missions in that the commander was not the most experienced member of the crew, as Lovell had flown twice before, on [[Gemini 7|Gemini VII]] and [[Gemini 12|Gemini XII]]. This was also the first case of the rarity of an astronaut who had commanded a spaceflight mission subsequently flying as a non-commander, as Lovell had previously commanded Gemini XII. ===Backup crew=== {{Spaceflight crew |terminology = Astronaut |position1 = Commander |crew1_up = [[Neil Armstrong|Neil A. Armstrong]] |flights1_up = |position2 = Command Module Pilot |crew2_up = [[Buzz Aldrin|Edwin E. Aldrin, Jr.]] |position3 = Lunar Module Pilot |crew3_up = [[Fred Haise|Fred W. Haise, Jr.]] }} On a lunar mission, the Command Module Pilot (CMP) was assigned the role of [[Celestial navigation|navigator]], while the Lunar Module Pilot (LMP) was assigned the role of [[flight engineer]], responsible for monitoring all spacecraft systems, even if the flight didn't include a Lunar Module.<ref name="Baker 1981">[[#Baker|Baker 1981]]</ref> Edwin Aldrin was originally the backup LMP. When Lovell was rotated to the prime crew, no one with experience on [[Apollo Command/Service Module|CSM]]-103 (the specific spacecraft used for the mission) was available, so Aldrin was moved to CMP and Fred Haise brought in as backup LMP. Neil Armstrong went on to command Apollo 11, where Aldrin was returned to the LMP position and Collins was assigned as CMP. Haise was rotated out of the crew and onto the backup crew of Apollo 11 as LMP. ===Mission control=== The Earth-based mission control teams for Apollo&nbsp;8 consisted of astronauts assigned to the support crew, as well as non-astronaut flight directors and their staffs. The support crew members were not trained to fly the mission, but were able to stand in for astronauts in meetings and be involved in the minutiae of mission planning, while the prime and backup crews trained. They also served as [[Flight controller#Capsule Communicator (CAPCOM)|CAPCOMs]] during the mission. For Apollo&nbsp;8, these crew members included astronauts [[John S. Bull]], [[Vance D. Brand]], [[Gerald P. Carr]], and [[Ken Mattingly]].<ref name="chronapp6">{{cite book |last1=Ertel |first1=Ivan D. |last2=Newkirk |first2=Roland W. |last3=Brooks |first3=Courtney G. |others=Compiled by Sally D, Gates, History Office, [[Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center|JSC]], with Cyril E. Baker, Astronaut Office, JSC |title=The Apollo Spacecraft: A Chronology |url=http://www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/History/SP-4009/contents.htm#Volume%20IV |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080205020128/http://www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/History/SP-4009/contents.htm |archivedate=February 5, 2008 |accessdate=January 29, 2008 |volume=IV |year=1969–1978 |publisher=NASA |location=Washington, D.C. |id=NASA SP-4009 |oclc=23818 |lccn=69060008 |chapter=Appendix 6: Crews and Support for Manned Apollo Flights |chapterurl=http://www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/History/SP-4009/v4app6.htm |display-authors=2<!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}</ref> The mission control teams on Earth rotated in three shifts, each led by a flight director. The directors for Apollo&nbsp;8 included Clifford E. Charlesworth (Green team), [[Glynn Lunney]] (Black team), and Milton Windler (Maroon team).<ref name="expeditions1">{{cite book |last=Phillips |first=Samuel C. |authorlink=Samuel C. Phillips |editor-last=Cortright |editor-first=Edgar M |editor-link=Edgar Cortright |title=Apollo Expeditions to the Moon |url=http://www.hq.nasa.gov/pao/History/SP-350/cover.html |archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20080219204538/http://history.nasa.gov/SP-350/ch-9-5.html |archivedate=February 19, 2008 |deadurl=no |accessdate=January 28, 2008 |year=1975 |publisher=NASA |location=Washington, D.C. |oclc=1623434 |id=NASA SP-350 |chapter=Lifting From a Sea of Flame |chapterurl=http://history.nasa.gov/SP-350/ch-9-5.html}} Chapter 9.5.</ref> ===Mission insignia=== [[File:Apollo 8 Flown Silver Robbins Medallion (SN-264).jpg|thumb|Apollo 8 space-flown silver [[NASA space-flown Robbins medallions of the Apollo missions|Robbins medallion]]]] The triangular shape of the insignia symbolizes the shape of the Apollo Command Module (CM). It shows a red figure-8 looping around the Earth and Moon representing the mission number as well as the circumlunar nature of the mission. On the red number 8 are the names of the three astronauts.<ref name="Lattimer 1985">[[#Lattimer|Lattimer 1985]]</ref> The initial design of the insignia was developed by Jim Lovell. Lovell reportedly sketched the initial design while riding in the backseat of a [[Northrop T-38 Talon|T-38]] flight from [[California]] to [[Houston]], shortly after learning of the re-designation of the flight to become a lunar-orbital mission. The graphic design of the insignia was done by Houston artist and animator William Bradley.<ref name="Lattimer 1985"/> ==Planning== {{Main|List of Apollo mission types}} [[Apollo 4]] and [[Apollo 6]] had been "A" missions, unmanned tests of the Saturn V launch vehicle using an unmanned Block&nbsp;I production model of the Apollo Command and Service Module in Earth orbit. {{nowrap|[[Apollo 7]]}}, scheduled for October 1968, would be a manned Earth-orbit flight of the CSM, completing the objectives for Mission&nbsp;"C". [[File:Apollo-linedrawing.png|thumb|Apollo CSM diagram]] Further missions depended on the readiness of the Lunar Module. Apollo 8 was planned as the "D" mission, to test the LM in a low Earth orbit in December 1968 by [[James McDivitt]], [[David Scott]] and [[Rusty Schweickart|Russell Schweickart]], while Borman's crew would fly the "E" mission, a more rigorous LM test in an elliptical medium Earth orbit as Apollo 9, in early 1969. But production of the LM fell behind schedule, and when Apollo 8's LM arrived at [[Cape Canaveral]] in June 1968, significant defects were discovered, leading [[Grumman]], the lead contractor for the LM, to predict that the first mission-ready LM would not be ready until at least February 1969. This would mean delaying the "D" and subsequent missions, endangering the program's goal of a lunar landing before the end of 1969.<ref name="Baker 1981"/><ref name="augsep1968">{{cite book |last1=Ertel |first1=Ivan D. |last2=Newkirk |first2=Roland W. |last3=Brooks |first3=Courtney G. |title=The Apollo Spacecraft: A Chronology |url=http://www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/History/SP-4009/contents.htm#Volume%20IV |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080205020128/http://www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/History/SP-4009/contents.htm |archivedate=February 5, 2008 |accessdate=January 29, 2008 |volume=IV |year=1969–1978 |publisher=NASA |location=Washington, D.C. |id=NASA SP-4009 |oclc=23818 |lccn=69060008 |chapter=Part 2 (N): Recovery, Spacecraft Redefinition, and First Manned Apollo Flight: August through September 1968 |chapterurl=http://www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/History/SP-4009/v4p2n.htm |display-authors=2 |deadurl=no}}</ref> [[George Low]], the Manager of the Apollo Spacecraft Program Office, proposed a solution in August to keep the program on track despite the LM delay. Since the [[Apollo Command/Service Module|Command/Service Module]] (CSM) would be ready three months before the Lunar Module, a CSM-only mission could be flown in December 1968. Instead of just repeating the "C" mission flight of Apollo&nbsp;7, this CSM could be sent all the way to the Moon, with the possibility of entering a lunar orbit. The new mission would also allow NASA to test lunar landing procedures that would otherwise have to wait until [[Apollo 10]], the scheduled "F" mission.<ref name="augsep1968" /> This also meant that the medium Earth orbit "E" mission could be dispensed with. The net result was that only the "D" mission had to be delayed. [[File:Apollo 8 first stage in the Vehicle Assembly Building.jpg|thumb|upright|The first stage of AS-503 being erected in the [[Vehicle Assembly Building|Vertical Assembly Building]] (VAB) on February 1, 1968]] Almost every senior manager at NASA agreed with this new mission, citing both confidence in the hardware and personnel, and the potential for a significant morale boost provided by a circumlunar flight. The only person who needed some convincing was [[James E. Webb]], the NASA administrator. With the rest of his agency in support of the new mission, Webb eventually approved the mission change. The mission was officially changed from a "D" mission to a "C-Prime" lunar-orbit mission, but was still referred to in press releases as an Earth-orbit mission at Webb's direction.<ref name="chariots11-5">{{cite book |last1=Brooks |first1=Courtney G. |last2=Grimwood |first2=James M. |last3=Swenson |first3=Loyd S., Jr. |others=Foreword by Samuel C. Phillips |title=Chariots for Apollo: A History of Manned Lunar Spacecraft |url=http://www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/History/SP-4205/cover.html |accessdate=January 29, 2008 |series=NASA History Series |year=1979 |publisher=Scientific and Technical Information Branch, NASA |location=Washington, D.C. |isbn=978-0-486-46756-6 |oclc=4664449 |id=NASA SP-4205 |chapter=The Apollo 8 Decision |chapterurl=http://www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/History/SP-4205/ch11-5.html}}</ref> No public announcement was made about the change in mission until November 12, three weeks after Apollo 7's successful Earth-orbit mission and less than 40 days before launch.<ref name="chariots11-2">{{cite book |last1=Brooks |first1=Courtney G. |last2=Grimwood |first2=James M. |last3=Swenson |first3=Loyd S., Jr. |others=Foreword by Samuel C. Phillips |title=Chariots for Apollo: A History of Manned Lunar Spacecraft |url=http://www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/History/SP-4205/cover.html |accessdate=January 29, 2008 |series=NASA History Series |year=1979 |publisher=Scientific and Technical Information Branch, NASA |location=Washington, D.C. |isbn=978-0-486-46756-6 |oclc=4664449 |id=NASA SP-4205 |chapter=Proposal for a Lunar Orbit Mission |chapterurl=http://www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/History/SP-4205/ch11-2.html}}</ref> With the change in mission for Apollo&nbsp;8, Director of Flight Crew Operations [[Deke Slayton]] decided to swap the crews of the D and E missions. This swap also meant a swap of spacecraft, requiring Borman's crew to use CSM-103, while McDivitt's crew would use CSM-104.<ref name="augsep1968" /><ref name="chariots11-3">{{cite book |last1=Brooks |first1=Courtney G. |last2=Grimwood |first2=James M. |last3=Swenson |first3=Loyd S., Jr. |others=Foreword by Samuel C. Phillips |title=Chariots for Apollo: A History of Manned Lunar Spacecraft |url=http://www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/History/SP-4205/cover.html |accessdate=January 29, 2008 |series=NASA History Series |year=1979 |publisher=Scientific and Technical Information Branch, NASA |location=Washington, D.C. |isbn=978-0-486-46756-6 |oclc=4664449 |id=NASA SP-4205 |chapter=Selecting and Training Crews |chapterurl=http://www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/History/SP-4205/ch11-3.html}}</ref> On September 9, the crew entered the [[Space simulator|simulators]] to begin their preparation for the flight. By the time the mission flew, the crew had spent seven&nbsp;hours training for every actual hour of flight. Although all crew members were trained in all aspects of the mission, it was necessary to specialize. Borman, as commander, was given training on controlling the spacecraft during the [[Atmospheric entry|re-entry]]. Lovell was trained on [[Celestial navigation|navigating]] the spacecraft in case communication was lost with the Earth. Anders was placed in charge of checking that the spacecraft was in working order.<ref name="Baker 1981"/> Added pressure on the Apollo program to make its 1969 landing goal was provided by the [[Soviet Union]]'s flight of some living creatures, including [[Russian tortoise]]s, in a [[cislunar]] loop around the Moon on [[Zond 5]] and return to Earth on September 21.<ref>[[#Chaikin|Chaikin 1994]], p. 76</ref> There was speculation within NASA and the press that they might be preparing to launch [[astronaut#Russian|cosmonauts]] on a similar [[Zond program#Circumlunar missions|circumlunar mission]] before the end of 1968.<ref name="Moon Race 1968">{{cite news |title=Poised for the Leap |url=http://www.time.com/time/subscriber/article/0,33009,844661-1,00.html |accessdate=December 15, 2011 |work=[[Time (magazine)|Time]] |date=December 6, 1968 |location=New York}}</ref> The Apollo 8 crew, now living in the crew quarters at Kennedy Space Center, received a visit from [[Charles Lindbergh]] and his wife, [[Anne Morrow Lindbergh]], the night before the launch.<ref name="Benke">{{cite news |title=Astronauts look back 30 years after historic lunar launch |first=Richard |last=Benke |url=http://cgi.canoe.ca/SpaceArchive/981221_30.html |agency=[[Associated Press]] |work=[[The Augusta Chronicle]] |publisher=[[Morris Communications]] |location=[[Augusta, Georgia|Augusta, GA]] |date=December 21, 1998 |accessdate=June 28, 2013}}</ref> They talked about how, before his [[Spirit of St. Louis|1927 flight]], Lindbergh had used a piece of string to measure the distance from New York City to Paris on a globe and from that calculated the fuel needed for the flight. The total was a tenth of the amount that the Saturn&nbsp;V would burn every second.<ref name="zimmerman1">[[#Zimmerman|Zimmerman 1998]]</ref> The next day, the Lindberghs watched the launch of Apollo&nbsp;8 from a nearby dune.<ref name="zimmerman1" /> ==Saturn V== {{Main|Saturn V}} [[File:Ap8-KSC-68PC-147.jpg|thumb|The Apollo&nbsp;8 Saturn V being rolled out to [[Kennedy Space Center Launch Complex 39|Pad 39A]]]] The Saturn&nbsp;V rocket used by Apollo&nbsp;8 was designated SA-503, or the "03rd" model of the Saturn&nbsp;V ("5") Rocket to be used in the Saturn-Apollo ("SA") program. When it was erected in the [[Vehicle Assembly Building|Vertical Assembly Building]] on December 20, 1967, it was thought that the rocket would be used for an unmanned Earth-orbit test flight carrying a [[Boilerplate (spaceflight)|boilerplate]] Command/Service Module. Apollo&nbsp;6 had suffered several major problems during its April 1968 flight, including severe [[pogo oscillation]] during its first stage, two second stage engine failures, and a third stage that failed to reignite in orbit. Without assurances that these problems had been rectified, NASA administrators could not justify risking a manned mission until additional unmanned test flights proved that the Saturn&nbsp;V was ready.<ref name="stages1">[[#Bilstein|Bilstein 1996]], pp. 360–370</ref><ref name="chariots10-5">{{cite book |last1=Brooks |first1=Courtney G. |last2=Grimwood |first2=James M. |last3=Swenson |first3=Loyd S., Jr. |others=Foreword by Samuel C. Phillips |title=Chariots for Apollo: A History of Manned Lunar Spacecraft |url=http://www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/History/SP-4205/cover.html |accessdate=February 1, 2008 |series=NASA History Series |year=1979 |publisher=Scientific and Technical Information Branch, NASA |location=Washington, D.C. |isbn=978-0-486-46756-6 |oclc=4664449 |id=NASA SP-4205 |chapter=''Apollo 6:'' Saturn V's Shaky Dress Rehearsal |chapterurl=http://www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/History/SP-4205/ch10-5.html}}</ref> Teams from the [[Marshall Space Flight Center]] (MSFC) went to work on the problems. Of primary concern was the pogo oscillation, which would not only hamper engine performance, but could exert significant g-forces on a crew. A task force of contractors, NASA agency representatives, and MSFC researchers concluded that the engines vibrated at a frequency similar to the frequency at which the spacecraft itself vibrated, causing a resonance effect that induced oscillations in the rocket. A system using helium gas to absorb some of these vibrations was installed.<ref name="stages1" /> Of equal importance was the failure of three engines during flight. Researchers quickly determined that a leaking hydrogen fuel line ruptured when exposed to vacuum, causing a loss of fuel pressure in engine two. When an automatic shutoff attempted to close the liquid hydrogen valve and shut down engine two, it accidentally shut down engine three's liquid oxygen due to a miswired connection. As a result, engine three failed within one second of engine two's shutdown. Further investigation revealed the same problem for the third-stage engine—a faulty igniter line. The team modified the igniter lines and fuel conduits, hoping to avoid similar problems on future launches.<ref name="stages1" /> The teams tested their solutions in August 1968 at the Marshall Space Flight Center. A Saturn stage IC was equipped with shock absorbing devices to demonstrate the team's solution to the problem of pogo oscillation, while a Saturn Stage&nbsp;II was retrofitted with modified fuel lines to demonstrate their resistance to leaks and ruptures in vacuum conditions. Once NASA administrators were convinced that the problems were solved, they gave their approval for a manned mission using SA-503.<ref name="stages1" /><ref name="orloff1">{{cite book |last=Orloff |first=Richard W. |title=Apollo by the Numbers: A Statistical Reference |url=http://history.nasa.gov/SP-4029/SP-4029.htm |accessdate=June 28, 2013 |series=NASA History Series |origyear=First published 2000 |date=September 2004 |work=NASA History Division, Office of Policy and Plans |publisher=NASA |location=Washington, D.C. |isbn=0-16-050631-X |lccn=00061677 |id=NASA SP-2000-4029 |chapter=Apollo 8 - The Second Mission: Testing the CSM in Lunar Orbit |chapterurl=http://history.nasa.gov/SP-4029/Apollo_08a_Summary.htm}}</ref> The Apollo&nbsp;8 spacecraft was placed on top of the rocket on September 21 and the rocket made the slow 3-mile (5&nbsp;km) journey to the launch pad on October 9.<ref name="'satVillust'">{{cite book |last=Akens |first=David S. |title=Saturn Illustrated Chronology |url=http://history.nasa.gov/MHR-5/cover.htm |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080307132427/http://history.nasa.gov/MHR-5/app_h.htm |archivedate=March 7, 2008 |accessdate=February 1, 2008 |year=1971 |publisher=[[Marshall Space Flight Center]] |location=Huntsville, AL |id=MSFC MHR-5 |chapter=Appendix H - Saturn at the Cape |chapterurl=http://history.nasa.gov/MHR-5/app_h.htm |deadurl=no}}</ref> Testing continued all through December until the day before launch, including various levels of readiness testing from December 5 through 11. Final testing of modifications to address the problems of pogo oscillation, ruptured fuel lines, and bad igniter lines took place on December 18, a mere three days before the scheduled launch.<ref name="stages1" /> ==Mission== ===Parameter summary=== [[File:Apollo-8-mission-profile.png|thumb|upright=1.5| Dec 21, 1968, 12:51 (UTC): Launch<br />—15:47 (2h56m): Translunar injection<br />Dec 24, 09:59 (2d21h08m): Lunar orbit insertion (10 orbits)<br />Dec 25, 06:10 (3d17h19m): Transearth injection<br />Dec 27, 15:37 (6d02h46m): Reentry<br />—15:51 (6d03h00m): Splashdown.<ref name="orloff2">{{cite book |last=Orloff |first=Richard W. |title=Apollo by the Numbers: A Statistical Reference |url=http://history.nasa.gov/SP-4029/SP-4029.htm |accessdate=June 28, 2013 |series=NASA History Series |origyear=First published 2000 |date=September 2004 |work=NASA History Division, Office of Policy and Plans |publisher=NASA |location=Washington, D.C. |isbn=0-16-050631-X |lccn=00061677 |id=NASA SP-2000-4029 |chapter=Apollo 8 Timeline |chapterurl=http://history.nasa.gov/SP-4029/Apollo_08i_Timeline.htm}}</ref>{{refn | group = n | [[Service Propulsion System|SPS]] is the rocket engine of the SM. [[Apollo CSM#Reaction Control System|RCS]] are the small thrusters on its side.}}]] As the first manned spacecraft to orbit more than one celestial body, Apollo 8's profile had two different sets of orbital parameters, separated by a translunar injection maneuver. Apollo lunar missions would begin with a nominal {{convert|100|nmi|km|sigfig=3|adj=on}} circular Earth parking orbit. Apollo 8 was launched into an initial orbit with an [[apogee]] of {{convert|99.99|nmi|km}} and a [[perigee]] of {{convert|99.57|nmi|km}}, with an [[inclination]] of 32.51° to the [[Equator]], and an [[orbital period]] of 88.19&nbsp;minutes. Propellant venting increased the apogee by {{convert|6.4|nmi|km}} over the 2&nbsp;hours, 44&nbsp;minutes and 30&nbsp;seconds spent in the parking orbit.<ref name="orloff1" /> This was followed by a [[Trans-lunar injection|Trans-Lunar Injection]] (TLI) burn of the [[S-IVB]] third stage for 318&nbsp;seconds, accelerating the {{convert|63531|lb|kg|abbr=on}} spacecraft from an orbital velocity of {{convert|25567|ft/s|m/s}} to the injection velocity of {{convert|35505|ft/s|m/s|abbr=on}},<ref name="orloff1" /> which set a record for the highest speed, relative to Earth, that humans had ever traveled.<ref name="chariots11-6">{{cite book |last1=Brooks |first1=Courtney G. |last2=Grimwood |first2=James M. |last3=Swenson |first3=Loyd S., Jr. |others=Foreword by Samuel C. Phillips |title=Chariots for Apollo: A History of Manned Lunar Spacecraft |url=http://www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/History/SP-4205/cover.html |accessdate=January 29, 2008 |series=NASA History Series |year=1979 |publisher=Scientific and Technical Information Branch, NASA |location=Washington, D.C. |isbn=978-0-486-46756-6 |oclc=4664449 |id=NASA SP-4205 |chapter=Apollo 8: The First Lunar Voyage |chapterurl=http://www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/History/SP-4205/ch11-6.html}}</ref> This speed was slightly less than the Earth's [[escape velocity]] of {{convert|36747|ft/s|m/s}}, but put Apollo 8 into an elongated elliptical Earth orbit, to a point where the Moon's gravity would capture it.<ref name="woods">[[#Woods|Woods 2008]], pp. 108–109</ref> The standard lunar orbit for Apollo missions was planned as a nominal {{convert|60|nmi|km|adj=on}} circular orbit above the Moon's surface. Initial lunar orbit insertion was an ellipse with a [[perilune]] of {{convert|60.0|nmi|km}} and an [[apolune]] of {{convert|168.5|nmi|km}}, at an inclination of 12° from the lunar equator. This was then circularized at {{convert|60.7|nmi|km}} by {{convert|59.7|nmi|km}}, with an orbital period of 128.7&nbsp;minutes. The effect of lunar [[mass concentration (astronomy)|mass concentrations]] ("masscons") on the orbit was found to be greater than initially predicted; over the course of the twenty-hour mission, the orbit was perturbated to {{convert|63.6|nmi|km}} by {{convert|58.6|nmi|km}}.<ref name="orloff1" /> Apollo 8 achieved a maximum distance from Earth of {{convert|203,752|nmi|smi km|abbr=off|sp=us}}.<ref name="orloff1" /> ===Launch and trans-lunar injection=== [[File:Ap8-KSC-68PC-329.jpg|thumb|upright|Apollo&nbsp;8 during launch, with a [[Multiple exposure|double exposure]] of the Moon, which was not visible at the time]] Apollo&nbsp;8 launched at 7:51:00&nbsp;a.m. [[Eastern Time Zone (North America)|Eastern Standard Time]] on December 21, 1968, using the Saturn&nbsp;V's [[Multistage rocket|three stages]] to achieve Earth orbit.<ref name="orloff1" /> The [[S-IC]] first stage impacted the [[Atlantic Ocean]] at {{Coord|30|12|N|74|7|W|name=Apollo 8 S-IC impact}} and the [[S-II]] second stage at {{Coord|31|50|N|37|17|W|name=Apollo 8 S-II impact}}.<ref name="zimmerman1" /><ref name="orloff1" /> The [[S-IVB]] third stage injected the craft into Earth orbit, but remained attached to later perform the [[trans-lunar injection]] (TLI) burn that put the spacecraft on a trajectory to the Moon. The [[Titan II]] launch vehicle used for the [[Project Gemini|Gemini program]] had been notoriously rough-riding, and technicians promised the astronauts that the Saturn V, which was designed for the Apollo program rather than adapted from a missile, would have a much smoother ride. Lovell and Borman, both Gemini veterans, found this promise did not disappoint. During liftoff, they reported feeling nothing but a dull, muted rumble in the distance. Once the [[space vehicle|vehicle]] reached Earth orbit, both the crew and [[Christopher C. Kraft Jr. Mission Control Center|Houston]] [[flight controller]]s spent the next 2&nbsp;hours and 38&nbsp;minutes checking that the spacecraft was in proper working order and ready for TLI. The proper operation of the S-IVB third stage of the rocket was crucial: in the last unmanned test, it had failed to re-ignite for TLI.<ref name="chariots11-6" /> During the flight, three fellow astronauts served on the ground as [[Flight controller#Capsule Communicator (CAPCOM)|Capsule Communicator]]s (usually referred to as "CAPCOMs") on a rotating schedule. The CAPCOMs were the only people who regularly communicated with the crew. Michael Collins was the first CAPCOM on duty and at 2&nbsp;hours, 27&nbsp;minutes and 22&nbsp;seconds after launch radioed, "Apollo&nbsp;8. You are Go for TLI."<ref name="journal day 1 TLI">{{cite web |url=http://history.nasa.gov/ap08fj/02earth_orbit_tli.htm |title=Day 1: Earth Orbit and Translunar Injection |last1=Woods |first1=W. David |last2=O'Brien |first2=Frank |date=April 22, 2006 |work=Apollo 8 Flight Journal |publisher=NASA |accessdate=February 7, 2008 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080218181006/http://history.nasa.gov/ap08fj/02earth_orbit_tli.htm |archivedate=February 18, 2008 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl=no}}</ref> This communication signified that Mission Control had given official permission for Apollo&nbsp;8 to go to the Moon. Over the next 12&nbsp;minutes before the TLI burn, the Apollo&nbsp;8 crew continued to monitor the spacecraft and the S-IVB. The engine ignited on time and performed the TLI burn perfectly. After the S-IVB had performed its required tasks, it was jettisoned. The crew then rotated the spacecraft to take some photographs of the spent stage and then practiced flying in formation with it. As the crew rotated the spacecraft, they had their first views of the Earth as they moved away from it. This marked the first time humans could view the whole Earth at once.<ref name="chariots11-6" /> Borman became worried that the S-IVB was staying too close to the Command/Service Module and suggested to Mission Control that the crew perform a separation maneuver. Mission Control first suggested pointing the spacecraft towards Earth and using the [[Apollo CSM#Reaction Control System|Reaction Control System]] (RCS) thrusters on the [[Apollo Command/Service Module#Service Module (SM)|Service Module]] (SM) to add {{convert|3|ft/s|m/s|abbr=on}} away from the Earth, but Borman did not want to lose sight of the S-IVB. After discussion, the crew and Mission Control decided to burn in this direction, but at {{convert|9|ft/s|m/s|abbr=on}} instead.<ref name="orloff1" /> These discussions put the crew an hour behind their flight plan.<ref name="chariots11-6" /> [[File:As8-16-2583.jpg|thumb|Apollo 8 [[S-IVB]] rocket stage, shortly after separation]] Five&nbsp;hours after launch, Mission Control sent a command to the S-IVB booster to vent its remaining fuel through its engine bell to change the booster's trajectory. This S-IVB would then pass the Moon and enter into a solar orbit, posing no further hazard to Apollo&nbsp;8. The S-IVB subsequently went into a {{convert|0.99|by|0.92|AU|Gm|lk=on|adj=on}} solar orbit with an [[inclination]] of 23.47° from the [[Ecliptic|plane of the ecliptic]], and an orbital period of 340.80&nbsp;days.<ref name="orloff1" /> After the [[translunar injection|insertion]] into trans-Lunar orbit, the [[S-IVB|Saturn IVB]] [[third stage]] became a [[:Category:Derelict satellites in heliocentric orbit|derelict]] [[space debris|object]]. It will continue to [[heliocentric orbit|orbit the Sun]] for many years.<ref name=ha20130923>{{cite web |title=Saturn S-IVB-503N - Satellite Information |url=http://www.heavens-above.com/SatInfo.aspx?satid=3627&lat=0&lng=0&loc=Unspecified&alt=0&tz=UCT |work=Satellite database |publisher=Heavens-Above |accessdate=2013-09-23 }}</ref> The Apollo&nbsp;8 crew were the first humans to pass through the [[Van Allen radiation belt]]s, which extend up to {{convert|15000|mi|km}} from Earth. Scientists predicted that passing through the belts quickly at the spacecraft's high speed would cause a radiation dosage of no more than a chest [[X-ray]], or 1 [[Gray (unit)|milligray]] (during a year, the average human receives a dose of 2&nbsp;to&nbsp;3&nbsp;mGy). To record the actual radiation dosages, each crew member wore a Personal Radiation [[Dosimeter]] that transmitted data to Earth as well as three passive film dosimeters that showed the cumulative radiation experienced by the crew. By the end of the mission, the crew experienced an average radiation dose of 1.6 mGy.<ref name="Biomedical">{{cite book |last=Bailey |first=J. Vernon |title=Biomedical Results of Apollo |url=http://lsda.jsc.nasa.gov/books/apollo/eboard2.htm |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080117135912/http://lsda.jsc.nasa.gov/books/apollo/S2ch3.htm |archivedate=January 17, 2008 |accessdate=January 28, 2008 |year=1975 |publisher=[[Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center]] |id=[http://history.nasa.gov/SP-368/sp368.htm NASA SP-368] |chapter=Radiation Protection and Instrumentation |chapterurl=http://lsda.jsc.nasa.gov/books/apollo/S2ch3.htm |deadurl=no}} Sec.2, Ch.3.</ref> ===Lunar trajectory=== [[File:As08-16-2593.jpg|thumb|The first image ever taken by humans of the whole Earth, probably photographed by [[William Anders]];<ref name="Apollo8FlightJournalDay1">{{cite web |url=http://history.nasa.gov/ap08fj/03day1_green_sep.htm |title=Day 1: The Green Team and Separation |last1=Woods |first1=W. David |last2=O'Brien |first2=Frank |year=2006 |work=Apollo 8 Flight Journal |publisher=NASA |accessdate=October 29, 2008}} TIMETAG 003:42:55.</ref> South is up with South America in the middle]] Jim Lovell's main job as Command Module Pilot was as [[flight officer|navigator]]. Although Mission Control performed all the actual navigation calculations, it was necessary to have a crew member serving as navigator so that the crew could successfully return to Earth in case of communication loss with Mission Control. Lovell navigated by star sightings using a [[sextant]] built into the spacecraft, measuring the angle between a star and the Earth's (or the Moon's) [[horizon]]. This task proved to be difficult, as a large cloud of debris around the spacecraft formed by the venting S-IVB made it hard to distinguish the stars. By seven&nbsp;hours into the mission, the crew was about one hour and 40&nbsp;minutes behind flight plan due to the issues of moving away from the S-IVB and Lovell's obscured star sightings. The crew now placed the spacecraft into Passive Thermal Control (PTC), also known as "barbecue" roll. PTC involved the spacecraft rotating about once per hour along its long axis to ensure even heat distribution across the surface of the spacecraft. In direct sunlight, the spacecraft could be heated to over {{convert|200|C|F}} while the parts in shadow would be {{convert|-100|C|F}}. These temperatures could cause the [[atmospheric reentry#Thermal protection systems|heat shield]] to crack or propellant lines to burst. As it was impossible to get a perfect roll, the spacecraft actually swept out a [[Conical surface|cone]] as it rotated. The crew had to make minor adjustments every half-hour as the cone pattern got larger and larger.<ref name="journal day 1 Maroon">{{cite web |url=http://history.nasa.gov/ap08fj/04day1_maroon.htm |title=Day 1: Maroon Team |last1=Woods |first1=W. David |last2=O'Brien |first2=Frank |work=Apollo 8 Flight Journal |publisher=NASA |date=April 22, 2006 |accessdate=February 4, 2008 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080107002315/http://history.nasa.gov/ap08fj/04day1_maroon.htm |archivedate=January 7, 2008 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl=no}}</ref> The first mid-course correction came 11&nbsp;hours into the flight. Testing on the ground had shown that the [[Apollo Command/Service Module#Service Propulsion System|Service Propulsion System]] (SPS) engine had a small chance of exploding when burned for long periods unless its [[combustion chamber]] was "coated" first. Burning the engine for a short period would accomplish coating. This first correction burn was only 2.4&nbsp;seconds and added about {{convert|20.4|ft/s|m/s|abbr=on}} velocity [[Retrograde and prograde motion|prograde]] (in the direction of travel).<ref name="orloff1" /> This change was less than the planned {{convert|24.8|ft/s|m/s|abbr=on}} due to a bubble of [[helium]] in the [[nitrogen tetroxide|oxidizer]] lines causing lower than expected propellant pressure. The crew had to use the small RCS thrusters to make up the shortfall. Two later planned mid-course corrections were canceled as the Apollo&nbsp;8 trajectory was found to be perfect.<ref name='journal day 1 Maroon' /> Eleven hours into the flight, the crew had been awake for over 16&nbsp;hours. Before launch, NASA had decided that at least one crew member should be awake at all times to deal with any issues that might arise. Borman started the first sleep shift, but between the constant radio chatter and mechanical noises, he found sleep difficult.<ref name='journal day 1 Maroon' /> About an hour after starting his sleep shift, Borman requested clearance to take a [[Secobarbital|Seconal]] [[Barbiturate|sleeping pill]]. However, the pill had little effect. Borman eventually fell asleep but then awoke feeling ill. He vomited twice and had a bout of diarrhea that left the spacecraft full of small globules of vomit and feces that the crew cleaned up to the best of their ability. Borman initially decided that he did not want everyone to know about his medical problems, but Lovell and Anders wanted to inform Mission Control. The crew decided to use the Data Storage Equipment (DSE), which could tape voice recordings and telemetry and dump them to Mission Control at high speed. After recording a description of Borman's illness they requested that Mission Control check the recording, stating that they "would like an evaluation of the voice comments".<ref name="journal day 2 green">{{cite web |url=http://history.nasa.gov/ap08fj/06day2_green.htm |title=Day 2: Green Team |last1=Woods |first1=W. David |last2=O'Brien |first2=Frank |date=April 22, 2006 |work=Apollo 8 Flight Journal |publisher=NASA |accessdate=January 30, 2008 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080311114001/http://history.nasa.gov/ap08fj/06day2_green.htm |archivedate=March 11, 2008 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl=no}}</ref> The Apollo&nbsp;8 crew and Mission Control medical personnel held a conference using an unoccupied second floor control room (there were two identical control rooms in Houston on the second and third floor, only one of which was used during a mission). The conference participants decided that there was little to worry about and that Borman's illness was either a [[Gastroenteritis|24-hour flu]], as Borman thought, or a reaction to the sleeping pill.<ref>[[#Collins|Collins 2001]], p. 306</ref> Researchers now believe that he was suffering from [[space adaptation syndrome]], which affects about a third of astronauts during their first day in space as their [[Labyrinth (inner ear)|vestibular system]] adapts to [[weightlessness]].<ref>{{cite journal |last=Quine |first=Tony |date=April 2007|title=Addicted to space: An appreciation of Anousheh Ansari, Part II |journal= Spaceflight|volume=49 |issue=4 |page=144|issn=0038-6340 |publisher=[[British Interplanetary Society]]}}</ref> Space adaptation syndrome had not been an issue on previous spacecraft ([[Project Mercury|Mercury]] and [[Project Gemini|Gemini]]), as those astronauts were unable to move freely in the comparatively smaller cabins of those spacecraft. The increased cabin space in the Apollo Command Module afforded astronauts greater freedom of movement, contributing to symptoms of space sickness for Borman and, later, astronaut Russell Schweickart during [[Apollo 9]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://lsda.jsc.nasa.gov/scripts/experiment/exper.aspx?exp_index=747 |title=The Effects of Long-Duration Space Flight on Eye, Head, and Trunk Coordination During Locomotion |last1=Kozlovskaya |first1=Inessa B |last2=Bloomberg |first2=Jacob J. |last3=Layne |first3=Charles S. |year=2004 |work=Life Sciences Data Archive |publisher=Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center |id=LSDA Exp ID: 9307191 |accessdate=June 28, 2013 |display-authors=2}}</ref> [[File:Ap8-S68-56531.jpg|thumb|right|In-flight footage of the crew taken while they were in orbit around the Moon; Frank Borman is in the center]] The cruise phase was a relatively uneventful part of the flight, except for the crew checking that the spacecraft was in working order and that they were on course. During this time, NASA scheduled a television broadcast at 31&nbsp;hours after launch. The Apollo&nbsp;8 crew used a 2&nbsp;kg camera that broadcast in [[black-and-white]] only, using a [[Video camera tube|Vidicon]] tube. The camera had two [[lens (optics)|lenses]], a very [[wide-angle lens|wide-angle (160°) lens]], and a [[telephoto lens|telephoto (9°) lens]].<ref name="chariots11-6" /> During this first broadcast, the crew gave a tour of the spacecraft and attempted to show how the Earth appeared from space. However, difficulties aiming the narrow-angle lens without the aid of a monitor to show what it was looking at made showing the Earth impossible. Additionally, the Earth image became saturated by any bright source without proper [[Optical filter|filters]]. In the end, all the crew could show the people watching back on Earth was a bright blob. After broadcasting for 17&nbsp;minutes, the rotation of the spacecraft took the [[high-gain antenna]] out of view of the receiving stations on Earth and they ended the transmission with Lovell wishing his mother a happy birthday.<ref name="chariots11-6" /> By this time, the crew had completely abandoned the planned sleep shifts. Lovell went to sleep 32½&nbsp;hours into the flight—3½&nbsp;hours before he had planned to. A short while later, Anders also went to sleep after taking a sleeping pill.<ref name="chariots11-6" /> The crew was unable to see the Moon for much of the outward cruise. Two factors made the Moon almost impossible to see from inside the spacecraft: three of the five windows fogging up due to out-gassed oils from the [[silicone]] [[sealant]], and the [[Orientation (geometry)|attitude]] required for the PTC. It was not until the crew had gone behind the Moon that they would be able to see it for the first time.<ref name="zimmerman1" /> The Apollo&nbsp;8 made a second television broadcast at 55&nbsp;hours into the flight. This time, the crew rigged up filters meant for the still cameras so they could acquire images of the Earth through the telephoto lens. Although difficult to aim, as they had to maneuver the entire spacecraft, the crew was able to broadcast back to Earth the first television pictures of the Earth. The crew spent the transmission describing the Earth and what was visible and the colors they could see. The transmission lasted 23&nbsp;minutes.<ref name="chariots11-6" /> ===Lunar sphere of influence=== At about 55&nbsp;hours and 40&nbsp;minutes into the flight, the crew of Apollo&nbsp;8 became the first humans to enter the gravitational sphere of influence of another celestial body.<ref name="orloff1" /> In other words, the effect of the Moon's [[Newton's law of universal gravitation|gravitational force]] on Apollo&nbsp;8 became stronger than that of the Earth. At the time it happened, Apollo&nbsp;8 was {{convert|38759|mi|km}} from the Moon and had a speed of {{convert|3990|ft/s|m/s|abbr=on}} relative to the Moon.<ref name="orloff1" /> This historic moment was of little interest to the crew since they were still calculating their [[trajectory]] with respect to the launch pad at Kennedy Space Center. They would continue to do so until they performed their last mid-course correction, switching to a [[Frame of reference|reference frame]] based on ideal orientation for the second engine burn they would make in lunar orbit. It was only 13&nbsp;hours until they would be in lunar orbit.<ref name="lostmoon">[[#Lovell & Kluger|Lovell & Kluger 1994]]</ref> The last major event before Lunar Orbit Insertion (LOI) was a second mid-course correction. It was in [[Retrograde and direct motion|retrograde]] (against direction of travel) and slowed the spacecraft down by {{convert|2.0|ft/s|m/s|abbr=on}}, effectively lowering the closest distance that the spacecraft would pass the moon.<ref name="orloff1" /> At exactly 61&nbsp;hours after launch, about {{convert|24200|mi|km}} from the Moon, the crew burned the RCS for 11&nbsp;seconds. They would now pass {{convert|71.7|mi|km}} from the [[Geology of the Moon#Lunar landscape|lunar surface]].<ref name="zimmerman1" /><ref name="orloff1" /> At 64&nbsp;hours into the flight, the crew began to prepare for Lunar Orbit Insertion-1 (LOI-1). This maneuver had to be performed perfectly, and due to [[orbital mechanics]] had to be on the far side of the Moon, out of contact with the Earth. After Mission Control was polled for a "[[Launch status check|go/no go]]" decision, the crew was told at 68&nbsp;hours, they were Go and "riding the best bird we can find".<ref name="journal day 3 LOI">{{cite web |url=http://history.nasa.gov/ap08fj/11day3_black_approach.htm |title=Day 3: The Black Team - Approaching the Moon |last1=Woods |first1=W. David |last2=O'Brien |first2=Frank |date=April 22, 2006 |work=Apollo 8 Flight Journal |publisher=NASA |accessdate= February 7, 2008 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080204015340/http://history.nasa.gov/ap08fj/11day3_black_approach.htm |archivedate=February 4, 2008 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl=no}}</ref> At 68&nbsp;hours and 58&nbsp;minutes, the spacecraft went behind the Moon and out of radio contact with the Earth.<ref name="lostmoon" /><ref name='journal day 3 LOI' /> With 10&nbsp;minutes before the LOI-1, the crew began one last check of the spacecraft systems and made sure that every switch was in the correct place. At that time, they finally got their first glimpses of the Moon. They had been flying over the unlit side, and it was Lovell who saw the first shafts of sunlight [[wiktionary:oblique|oblique]]ly illuminating the lunar surface. The LOI burn was only two&nbsp;minutes away, so the crew had little time to appreciate the view.<ref name="lostmoon" /> ===Lunar orbit=== The SPS ignited at 69&nbsp;hours, 8&nbsp;minutes, and 16&nbsp;seconds after launch and burned for 4&nbsp;minutes and 13&nbsp;seconds, placing the Apollo&nbsp;8 spacecraft in orbit around the Moon. The crew described the burn as being the longest four minutes of their lives. If the burn had not lasted exactly the correct amount of time, the spacecraft could have ended up in a highly [[ellipse|elliptical]] lunar orbit or even flung off into space. If it lasted too long they could have struck the Moon. After making sure the spacecraft was working, they finally had a chance to look at the Moon, which they would orbit for the next 20&nbsp;hours.<ref name="nssdc orbit">{{cite web |url=http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/masterCatalog.do?sc=1968-118A |title=Apollo 8 |work=[[National Space Science Data Center]] |publisher=NASA |accessdate=June 28, 2013}}</ref> On Earth, Mission Control continued to wait. If the crew had not burned the engine or the burn had not lasted the planned length of time, the crew would appear early from behind the Moon. However, this time came and went without Apollo&nbsp;8 reappearing. Exactly at the calculated moment, the signal was received from the spacecraft, indicating it was in a {{convert|193.3|by|69.5|mi|km|adj=on}} orbit about the Moon.<ref name="nssdc orbit" /> After reporting on the status of the spacecraft, Lovell gave the first description of what the lunar surface looked like: {{quote|The Moon is essentially grey, no color; looks like [[plaster of Paris]] or sort of a grayish beach sand. We can see quite a bit of detail. The [[Mare Fecunditatis|Sea of Fertility]] doesn't stand out as well here as it does back on Earth. There's not as much contrast between that and the surrounding craters. The craters are all rounded off. There's quite a few of them, some of them are newer. Many of them look like—especially the round ones—look like hit by [[meteorite]]s or projectiles of some sort. [[Langrenus (crater)|Langrenus]] is quite a huge crater; it's got a central cone to it. The walls of the crater are terraced, about six or seven different [[wiktionary:terrace|terraces]] on the way down.<ref name="journal day 4-123">{{cite web |url=http://history.nasa.gov/ap08fj/13day4_orbits123.htm |title=Day 4: Lunar Orbits 1, 2 and 3 |last1=Woods |first1=W. David |last2=O'Brien |first2=Frank |date=April 22, 2006 |work=Apollo 8 Flight Journal |publisher=NASA |accessdate= September 20, 2007 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070922045003/http://history.nasa.gov/ap08fj/13day4_orbits123.htm |archivedate=September 22, 2007 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl=no}}</ref>}} [[File:The Lunar Farside - GPN-2000-001127.jpg|thumb|A portion of the [[Far side of the Moon|lunar far side]] as seen from Apollo 8]] Lovell continued to describe the terrain they were passing over. One of the crew's major tasks was [[reconnaissance]] of planned future landing sites on the Moon, especially one in [[Mare Tranquillitatis]] that would be the Apollo&nbsp;11 landing site. The launch time of Apollo&nbsp;8 had been chosen to give the best lighting conditions for examining the site. A [[film camera]] had been set up in one of the spacecraft windows to record a frame every second of the Moon below. Bill Anders spent much of the next 20&nbsp;hours taking as many photographs as possible of targets of interest. By the end of the mission the crew had taken 700 photographs of the Moon and 150 of the Earth.<ref name="zimmerman1" /> Throughout the hour that the spacecraft was in contact with Earth, Borman kept asking how the data for the SPS looked. He wanted to make sure that the engine was working and could be used to return early to the Earth if necessary. He also asked that they receive a "go/no go" decision before they passed behind the Moon on each orbit.<ref name="journal day 4-123" /> As they reappeared for their second pass in front of the Moon, the crew set up the equipment to broadcast a view of the lunar surface. Anders described the craters that they were passing over. At the end of this second orbit they performed the 11-second LOI-2 burn of the SPS to circularize the orbit to {{convert|70.0|by|71.3|mi|km}}.<ref name="nssdc orbit" /><ref name="journal day 4-123" /> Through the next two orbits, the crew continued to keep check of the spacecraft and to observe and photograph the Moon. During the third pass, Borman read a small prayer for his church. He had been scheduled to participate in a service at St. Christopher's [[Episcopal Church (United States)|Episcopal Church]] near [[Seabrook, Texas]], but due to the Apollo&nbsp;8 flight he was unable to. A fellow parishioner and engineer at Mission Control, Rod Rose, suggested that Borman read the prayer which could be recorded and then replayed during the service.<ref name="zimmerman1" /><ref name="journal day 4-123" /> In the foreword to the Millennial Edition of his novel ''[[2001: A Space Odyssey (novel)|2001: A Space Odyssey]]'' [[Arthur C. Clarke]] says the crew had told him that "they had been tempted to radio back the discovery of a [[Monolith (Space Odyssey)|large black monolith]]", but discretion prevailed.<ref>[[#Clarke|Clarke 2000]], p. xvi</ref> ====Earthrise==== {{main|Earthrise}} When the spacecraft came out from behind the Moon for its fourth pass across the front, the crew witnessed "Earthrise" for the first time in human history (NASA's [[Lunar Orbiter 1]] took the very first picture of an Earthrise from the vicinity of the Moon, on August 23, 1966).<ref>[[#Poole|Poole 2008]]</ref> Borman saw the Earth emerging from behind the lunar horizon and called in excitement to the others, taking a black-and-white photo as he did so. In the ensuing scramble Anders took the [[Earthrise|more famous color photo]], later picked by ''[[Life (magazine)|Life]]'' magazine as one of its hundred photos of the century.<ref name="journal day 4-456">{{cite web |url=http://history.nasa.gov/ap08fj/14day4_orbits456.htm |title=Day 4: Lunar Orbits 4, 5 and 6 |last1=Woods |first1=W. David |last2=O'Brien |first2=Frank |date=April 22, 2006 |work=Apollo 8 Flight Journal |publisher=NASA |accessdate=September 20, 2007 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20071002204030/http://history.nasa.gov/ap08fj/14day4_orbits456.htm |archivedate=October 2, 2007 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl=no}}</ref> Due to the [[tidal locking|synchronous rotation]] of the Moon about the Earth, Earthrise is not generally visible from the lunar surface. Earthrise is generally only visible when orbiting the Moon, other than at selected places near the Moon's [[lunar limb|limb]], where [[libration]] carries the Earth slightly above and below the lunar horizon. Anders continued to take photographs while Lovell assumed control of the spacecraft so Borman could rest.<ref name="journal day 4-456"/> Despite the difficulty resting in the cramped and noisy spacecraft, Borman was able to sleep for two orbits, awakening periodically to ask questions about their status.<ref name="journal day 4-456"/> Borman awoke fully, however, when he started to hear his fellow crew members make mistakes. They were beginning to not understand questions and would have to ask for the answers to be repeated. Borman realized that everyone was extremely tired having not had a good night's sleep in over three days. Taking command, he ordered Anders and Lovell to get some sleep and that the rest of the flight plan regarding observing the Moon be scrubbed. At first Anders protested saying that he was fine, but Borman would not be swayed. At last Anders agreed as long as Borman would set up the camera to continue to take automatic shots of the Moon. Borman also remembered that there was a second television broadcast planned, and with so many people expected to be watching he wanted the crew to be alert. For the next two orbits Anders and Lovell slept while Borman sat at the helm. On subsequent Apollo missions, crews would avoid this situation by sleeping on the same schedule. [[File:Apollo 8 genesis reading.ogg|left|thumb|The Apollo 8 Genesis reading.]] As they rounded the Moon for the ninth time, the second television transmission began. Borman introduced the crew, followed by each man giving his impression of the lunar surface and what it was like to be orbiting the Moon. Borman described it as being "a vast, lonely, forbidding expanse of nothing".<ref>[[#De Groot|De Groot 2006]], p. 229</ref> Then, after talking about what they were flying over, Anders said that the crew had a message for all those on Earth. Each man on board [[Apollo 8 Genesis reading|read a section from the Biblical creation story]] from the Book of Genesis. Borman finished the broadcast by wishing a Merry Christmas to everyone on Earth. His message appeared to sum up the feelings that all three crewmen had from their vantage point in lunar orbit. Borman said, "And from the crew of Apollo 8, we close with good night, good luck, a Merry Christmas and God bless all of you—all of you on the good Earth."<ref name="moonport">{{cite book |last1=Benson |first1=Charles D. |last2=Faherty |first2=William Barnaby |title=Moonport: A History of Apollo Launch Facilities and Operations |url=http://www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/History/SP-4204/contents.html |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080123133438/http://www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/History/SP-4204/contents.html |archivedate=January 23, 2008 |accessdate=February 7, 2008 |year=1978 |publisher=NASA |id=NASA SP-4204 |chapter=Apollo 8 - A Christmas Gift |chapterurl=http://www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/History/SP-4204/ch20-9.html |deadurl=no}} Ch.20-9.</ref> The only task left for the crew at this point was to perform the [[Trans-Earth injection|Trans-Earth Injection]] (TEI), which was scheduled for 2½&nbsp;hours after the end of the television transmission. The TEI was the most critical burn of the flight, as any failure of the SPS to ignite would strand the crew in lunar orbit, with little hope of escape. As with the previous burn, the crew had to perform the maneuver above the far side of the Moon, out of contact with Earth. The burn occurred exactly on time. The spacecraft telemetry was reacquired as it re-emerged from behind the Moon at 89&nbsp;hours, 28&nbsp;minutes, and 39&nbsp;seconds, the exact time calculated. When voice contact was regained, Lovell announced, "Please be informed, there is a [[Santa Claus]]", to which Ken Mattingly, the current CAPCOM, replied, "That's affirmative, you are the best ones to know."<ref name="journal day 4 TEI">{{cite web |url=http://history.nasa.gov/ap08fj/16day4_final_orbit_tei.htm |title=Day 4: Final Orbit and Trans-Earth Injection |last1=Woods |first1=W. David |last2=O'Brien |first2=Frank |date=April 22, 2006 |work=Apollo 8 Flight Journal |publisher=NASA |accessdate= February 7, 2008 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080116172357/http://history.nasa.gov/ap08fj/16day4_final_orbit_tei.htm |archivedate=January 16, 2008 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl=no}}</ref> The spacecraft began its journey back to Earth on December 25, [[Christmas Day]]. ===Unplanned manual re-alignment=== Later, Lovell used some otherwise idle time to do some navigational sightings, maneuvering the module to view various stars by using the computer keyboard. However, he accidentally erased some of the computer's memory, which caused the [[Apollo PGNCS#Inertial Measurement Unit|Inertial Measurement Unit]] (IMU) to think the module was in the same relative position it had been in before lift-off and fire the thrusters to "correct" the module's attitude.<ref name="Benke" /> Once the crew realized why the computer had changed the module's attitude, they realized they would have to re-enter data that would tell the computer its real position. It took Lovell ten&nbsp;minutes to figure out the right numbers, using the thrusters to get the stars [[Rigel]] and [[Sirius]] aligned, and another 15&nbsp;minutes to enter the corrected data into the computer.<ref name="lostmoon" /> Sixteen months later, Lovell would once again have to perform a similar manual re-alignment, under more critical conditions, during the [[Apollo 13]] mission, after that module's IMU had to be turned off to conserve energy. In his 1994 book, ''[[Lost Moon|Lost Moon: The Perilous Voyage of Apollo 13]]'', Lovell wrote, "My training &#91;on Apollo 8&#93; came in handy!" In that book he dismissed the incident as a "planned experiment", requested by the ground crew.<ref name="lostmoon" /> In subsequent interviews Lovell has acknowledged that the incident was an accident, caused by his mistake.<ref name="Benke" /><ref name="zimmerman1" /> ===Cruise back to Earth and re-entry=== [[File:Apollo 8 reentry, December 27, 1968.jpg|thumb|Reentry, December 27, 1968, photographed from a [[KC-135]] at 40,000 feet]] The cruise back to Earth was mostly a time for the crew to relax and monitor the spacecraft. As long as the trajectory specialists had calculated everything correctly, the spacecraft would re-enter two-and-half days after TEI and [[splashdown (spacecraft landing)|splashdown]] in the Pacific. On Christmas afternoon, the crew made their fifth television broadcast.<ref> {{cite video | date = 2003 | title = Apollo 8: Leaving the Cradle | url = http://www.collectspace.com/resources/reviews/dvd/apollo8_leaving_the_cradle.html | time = Chapter 5, Disk 2 | medium = DVD | publisher = Spacecraft Films/[[20th Century Fox Home Entertainment]] }} </ref> This time they gave a tour of the spacecraft, showing how an astronaut lived in space. When they finished broadcasting they found a small present from Deke Slayton in the food locker: a real turkey dinner with stuffing, in the same kind of pack that the troops in Vietnam received.<ref>[[#Wilford|Wilford 1973]], p. 68</ref> Another Slayton surprise was a gift of three [[Miniature (alcohol)|miniature bottles]] of [[brandy]], that Borman ordered the crew to leave alone until after they landed. They remained unopened, even years after the flight.<ref name="Unopened minis of brandy">[[#Schefter|Schefter 1999]], p. 275</ref> There were also small presents to the crew from their wives. The next day, at about 124&nbsp;hours into the mission, the sixth and final TV transmission showed the mission's best video images of the earth, in a four-minute broadcast.<ref> {{cite video | date = 2003 | title = Apollo 8: Leaving the Cradle | url = http://www.collectspace.com/resources/reviews/dvd/apollo8_leaving_the_cradle.html |time = Chapter 6, Disk 2 |medium = DVD |publisher = Spacecraft Films/20th Century Fox Home Entertainment }} </ref> [[File:Ap8-S68-56310.jpg|thumb|Command Module on the deck of [[USS Yorktown (CV-10)|USS ''Yorktown'']]]] After two uneventful days the crew prepared for re-entry. The computer would control the re-entry and all the crew had to do was put the spacecraft in the correct attitude, blunt end forward.<ref name="Chaikin 127-128">[[#Chaikin 1998|Chaikin 1998]], pp. 127–128</ref> If the computer broke down, Borman would take over.<ref name="Chaikin 127-128" /> Once the Command Module was separated from the Service Module, the astronauts were committed to re-entry.<ref name="Chaikin 127-128" /> Six&nbsp;minutes before they hit the top of the atmosphere, the crew saw the Moon rising above the Earth's horizon, just as had been predicted by the trajectory specialists.<ref name="splashdown1">{{cite web |url=http://history.nasa.gov/ap08fj/22day6_maroon_splash.htm |title=Day 6: The Maroon Team - Splashdown |last1=Woods |first1=W. David |last2=O'Brien |first2=Frank |date=April 22, 2006 |work=Apollo 8 Flight Journal | publisher=NASA |accessdate=February 4, 2008 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080206092307/http://history.nasa.gov/ap08fj/22day6_maroon_splash.htm |archivedate=February 6, 2008 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl=no}}</ref> As they hit the thin outer atmosphere they noticed it was becoming hazy outside as glowing [[Plasma (physics)|plasma]] formed around the spacecraft. The spacecraft started slowing down and the deceleration peaked at 6&nbsp;g (59&nbsp;m/s<sup>2</sup>).<ref name="orloff1" /> With the computer controlling the descent by changing the [[Flight dynamics (fixed-wing aircraft)|attitude]] of the spacecraft, Apollo&nbsp;8 rose briefly like a skipping stone before descending to the ocean. At {{convert|30000|ft|km}} the drogue parachute stabilized the spacecraft and was followed at {{convert|10000|ft|km}} by the three main parachutes. The spacecraft splashdown position was officially reported as {{Coord|8|8|N|165|1|W|name=Apollo 8 estimated splashdown}} in the North Pacific Ocean south of Hawaii.<ref name="MissionReport" /> When it hit the water, the parachutes dragged the spacecraft over and left it upside down, in what was termed Stable&nbsp;2 position.<ref name="orloff1" /> About six minutes later the Command Module was righted into its normal apex-up splashdown orientation by the inflatable bag uprighting system.<ref name="orloff1" /> As they were buffeted by a {{convert|10|ft|m|adj=on}} swell, Borman was sick, waiting for the three flotation balloons to right the spacecraft.<ref name="chariots11-6" /> It was 43&nbsp;minutes after splashdown before the first [[frogman]] from the [[USS Yorktown (CV-10)|USS ''Yorktown'']] arrived, as the spacecraft had landed before sunrise.<ref name="orloff1" /> Forty-five&nbsp;minutes later, the crew was safe on the deck of the aircraft carrier.<ref name="orloff1" /><ref name="splashdown1" /> ==Historical importance== Apollo&nbsp;8 came at the end of 1968, a year that had seen much upheaval in the United States and most of the world.<ref name="Men of the Year">{{cite news |url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,900486,00.html |title=Nation: Men of the Year |date=January 3, 1969 |work=Time |location=New York |accessdate=February 13, 2008| archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080108120930/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,900486,00.html |archivedate=January 8, 2008 |deadurl=no}}</ref> Even though the year saw political assassinations, political unrest in the streets of Europe and America, and the [[Prague Spring]], ''[[Time (magazine)|Time]]'' magazine chose the crew of Apollo&nbsp;8 as their [[Time Person of the Year|Men of the Year]] for 1968, recognizing them as the people who most influenced events in the preceding year.<ref name="Men of the Year"/> They had been the first people ever to leave the gravitational influence of the Earth and orbit another celestial body.<ref name="Apollo 8 Firsts">{{cite web|title=Apollo 8 Firsts|url=http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/moon/peopleevents/e_firsts.html|work=American Experience: Race to the Moon|publisher=PBS|accessdate=December 15, 2011|archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/63xszRXVh|archivedate=December 15, 2011|location=Boston|date=September 22, 2005|deadurl=no}}</ref> They had survived a mission that even the crew themselves had rated as only having a fifty-fifty chance of fully succeeding. The effect of Apollo&nbsp;8 can be summed up by a telegram from a stranger, received by Borman after the mission, that simply stated, "Thank you Apollo&nbsp;8. You saved 1968."<ref>[[#Chaikin|Chaikin 1994]], p. 134</ref> One of the most famous aspects of the flight was the [[Earthrise]] picture that was taken as they came around for their fourth orbit of the Moon.<ref name="Poole 2008, pp. 8, 32">[[#Poole|Poole 2008]], pp. 8, 32</ref> This was the first time that humans had taken such a picture whilst actually behind the camera, and it has been credited with a role in inspiring the first [[Earth Day]] in 1970.<ref>{{cite journal | journal=Technology Innovation | url=http://ipp.nasa.gov/innovation/Innovation_84/wnewview.html | title=New Views for A New Century | last=Peggy | first=Wilhide | date=July–August 2000 | volume=8 | issue=4 | publisher=NASA Innovative Partnerships Program |accessdate=November 8, 2007}}</ref> It was selected as the first of ''Life'' magazine's ''100 Photographs That Changed the World''.<ref name="Life100">{{cite book |editor-last=Sullivan |editor-first=Robert |title=[[100 Photographs that Changed the World|100 Photographs That Changed the World]] |year=2003 |publisher=Time, Inc. Home Entertainment |location=New York |isbn=1-931933-84-7 |lccn=2003104204}}</ref> Apollo 11 astronaut Michael Collins said, "Eight's momentous historic significance was foremost";<ref>[[#Murray & Cox|Murray & Cox 1990]], p. 333</ref> while many space historians, such as Robert K. Poole, see Apollo 8 as the most historically significant of all the Apollo missions.<ref name="Poole 2008, pp. 8, 32"/> The mission was the most widely covered by the media since the first American orbital flight, [[Mercury-Atlas 6]] by [[John Glenn]] in 1962. There were 1200 journalists covering the mission, with the [[BBC]] coverage being broadcast in 54 countries in 15 different languages. The Soviet newspaper ''[[Pravda]]'' featured a quote from Boris Nikolaevich Petrov, Chairman of the Soviet [[Interkosmos]] program, who described the flight as an "outstanding achievement of American space sciences and technology".<ref name="Pravda">{{cite news |first=Boris Nikolaevich |last=Petrov |title=O polete Apollona-8 |newspaper=[[Pravda]] |publisher=[[Communist Party of the Soviet Union]] |location=Moscow, USSR |date=December 30, 1968 |language=ru |trans_title=On the flight of Apollo-8}}</ref> It is estimated that a quarter of the people alive at the time saw—either live or delayed—the Christmas Eve transmission during the ninth orbit of the Moon.<ref>[[#Chaikin|Chaikin 1994]], 120</ref> The Apollo 8 broadcasts won an [[Emmy Award]], the highest honor given by the [[Academy of Television Arts & Sciences]].<ref name="PBS Emmy Award">{{cite web|title=Telecasts from Apollo 8|url=http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/moon/peopleevents/e_telecasts.html|work=American Experience: Race to the Moon|publisher=PBS|accessdate=December 15, 2011|archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/63xrogvaG|archivedate=December 15, 2011 |location=Boston |date=September 22, 2005|deadurl=no}}</ref> [[File:Scott 1371, Apollo 8.jpg|thumb|right|120px|Apollo 8 commemorative stamp]][[Madalyn Murray O'Hair]], an [[Atheism|atheist]], later caused controversy by bringing a lawsuit against NASA over the reading from Genesis.<ref name="prayer">[[#Chaikin|Chaikin 1994]], p. 623</ref> O'Hair wished the courts to ban American astronauts—who were all government employees—from public prayer in space.<ref name="prayer" /> Though the case was rejected by the [[Supreme Court of the United States]] for lack of jurisdiction,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://caselaw.lp.findlaw.com/cgi-bin/getcase.pl?court=US&vol=397&invol=531&friend=nytimes|title=O'Hair v. Paine, 397 U.S. 531|year=1970|publisher=[[FindLaw]]|accessdate=February 13, 2008}}</ref> it caused NASA to be skittish about the issue of religion throughout the rest of the Apollo program. Buzz Aldrin, on Apollo 11, self-communicated [[Presbyterianism|Presbyterian]] [[Eucharist|Communion]] on the surface of the Moon after landing;<ref name = "aldrin">[[#Chaikin|Chaikin 1994]], pp. 204, 623</ref> he refrained from mentioning this publicly for several years, and only obliquely referred to it at the time.<ref name = "aldrin"/> In 1969, the [[United States Postal Service]] issued a postage stamp ([[Scott catalogue]] #1371) commemorating the Apollo&nbsp;8 flight around the Moon. The stamp featured a detail of the famous photograph of the [[Earthrise]] over the Moon taken by Anders on Christmas Eve, and the words, "In the beginning God&nbsp;..."<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.1847usa.com/ByYear/1969.htm |title=1969 U.S. Postage Stamp Issues |publisher=1847usa |accessdate=June 30, 2013}}</ref> Just 18 days after the crew's return to Earth, they were featured during the [[Super Bowl III|1969 Super Bowl]] pre-game show reciting the [[Pledge of Allegiance]] prior to the [[The Star-Spangled Banner|national anthem]] being performed by [[Anita Bryant]].<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.nfl.com/superbowl/history/entertainment | title=Super Bowl Entertainment | publisher=[[National Football League]] | accessdate=February 21, 2012}}</ref> ==Spacecraft location== In January 1970, the spacecraft was delivered to [[Osaka]], Japan, for display in the U.S. pavilion at [[Expo '70]].<ref>{{cite book |title=Shanghai Expo: An International Forum on the Future of Cities |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hd75bRY2jvAC&pg=PA33&lpg=PA33 |year=2012 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-415-52462-9 |oclc=778424843 |page=33 |editor=Winter, Tim |accessdate=February 21, 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last= Tareen |first=Sophia |date= December 23, 2013 |title=Apollo 8 astronaut marks 1968 Christmastime broadcast to Earth (12 photos) |url=http://www.deseretnews.com/article/765644112/Apollo-8-astronaut-marks-1968-broadcast-to-Earth.html |newspaper=Deseret News |agency=Associated Press |accessdate=December 9, 2015 }}</ref> It is now displayed at the Chicago [[Museum of Science and Industry (Chicago)|Museum of Science and Industry]], along with a collection of personal items from the flight donated by Lovell and the [[space suit]] worn by Frank Borman.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.msichicago.org/exhibit/apollo/index.html|title=The Apollo 8 Command Module|publisher=[[Museum of Science and Industry (Chicago)|Museum of Science and Industry]]|accessdate=February 4, 2008| archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20071014061744/http://msichicago.org/exhibit/apollo/index.html| archivedate = October 14, 2007}}</ref> Jim Lovell's Apollo 8 space suit is on public display in the Visitor Center at NASA's [[Glenn Research Center]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://ns.cuyahoga.lib.oh.us/researchinfo/specialists/family_fun.htm#NASA |title=NASA Glenn Visitor Center|publisher=[[Cuyahoga County Public Library]]|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090313082506/http://ns.cuyahoga.lib.oh.us/researchinfo/specialists/family_fun.htm |archivedate=March 13, 2009 |accessdate=June 30, 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite press release |last=Keith |first=Sallie A. |title=Heroes in Space Honored at NASA |date=February 20, 2004 |publisher=[[Glenn Research Center|NASA Glenn Research Center]] |location=Cleveland, OH |url=http://www.nasa.gov/centers/glenn/news/pressrel/2004/04-012.html |accessdate=February 4, 2008}}</ref> Bill Anders's space suit is on display at the [[Science Museum (London)|Science Museum]] in [[London]], [[United Kingdom]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Wood |first=W.David |title=How Apollo Flew to the Moon |year=2011 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-1-4419-7179-1 |oclc=747105616 |page=203 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=x-taL4N0sjIC&pg=PA203&lpg=PA203}}</ref> ==In film== Apollo&nbsp;8's historic mission has been shown and referred to in several forms, both documentary and fiction. The various television transmissions and [[16 mm film|16 mm]] footage shot by the crew of Apollo&nbsp;8 was compiled and released by NASA in the 1969 documentary, ''Debrief: Apollo 8'', which was hosted by [[Burgess Meredith]].<ref>{{cite AV media |year=2008 |title=[[When We Left Earth: The NASA Missions]] |medium=DVD |publisher=[[Discovery Communications]] |location=Silver Spring, MD |oclc=232161899}} ''Debrief: Apollo 8'' was released as a bonus feature for the [[Discovery Channel]]'s miniseries DVD release.</ref> In addition, Spacecraft Films released, in 2003, a three-disc DVD set containing all of NASA's TV and 16&nbsp;mm film footage related to the mission including all TV transmissions from space, training and launch footage, and motion pictures taken in flight.<ref>{{cite video |year=2003 |title=Apollo 8: Leaving the Cradle |url=http://www.collectspace.com/resources/reviews/dvd/apollo8_leaving_the_cradle.html |medium=DVD |publisher=Spacecraft Films/20th Century Fox Home Entertainment |accessdate=June 23, 2010 |archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20100703011003/http://www.collectspace.com/resources/reviews/dvd/apollo8_leaving_the_cradle.html |archivedate=July 3, 2010 |deadurl=no}}</ref> Portions of the Apollo&nbsp;8 Mission can be seen in the 1989 documentary ''[[For All Mankind]]'', which won the [[List of Sundance Film Festival award winners|Grand Jury Prize Documentary]] at the [[Sundance Film Festival]]. The Apollo 8 mission was well-covered in the 2007 British documentary ''[[In the Shadow of the Moon (film)|In the Shadow of the Moon]]''.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://history.sundance.org/films/3669/in_the_shadow_of_the_moon |title=In the Shadow of the Moon |work=[[Sundance Institute]] |accessdate=June 30, 2013}}</ref> Portions of the Apollo&nbsp;8 mission are dramatized in the 1998 miniseries ''[[From the Earth to the Moon (TV miniseries)|From the Earth to the Moon]]'' episode [[From the Earth to the Moon (miniseries)#Episodes|"1968"]].<ref>{{cite episode |title=1968 |series=[[From the Earth to the Moon (TV miniseries)|From the Earth to the Moon]] |credits=[[Ron Howard]], [[Brian Grazer]], [[Tom Hanks]], and Michael Bostick&nbsp;– Producers |network=[[HBO]] |airdate=April 1998}}</ref> The S-IVB stage of Apollo&nbsp;8 was also portrayed as the location of an alien device in the 1970 ''[[UFO (TV series)|UFO]]'' episode "Conflict".<ref>{{cite episode |title=Conflict |series=[[UFO (TV series)|UFO]] |network=[[ITV (TV network)|ITV]] |number=1-05 |airdate=October 7, 1970}}</ref> At the [[Kennedy Space Center Visitor Complex]]'s [[Kennedy Space Center Visitor Complex#Apollo.2FSaturn V Center|Apollo/Saturn V Center]], the history of the U.S. space program leading up to the launch of Apollo 8 is the subject of a multi-screen multimedia presentation which also features the actual control panels used in the [[Launch Control Center#Firing room|Firing Room]] for the launch. ==See also== <!-- Please keep entries in alphabetical order & add a short description. Also, please do not add duplicates already wikilinked in the text [[WP:SEEALSO]] --> {{div col||20em|small=yes}} * [[List of Apollo astronauts]] * [[Space Race]] {{div col end}} <!-- please keep entries in alphabetical order --> ==Notes== {{reflist | group = n | colwidth = | refs = }} ==References== {{NASA}} {{Reflist|30em}} ==Bibliography== {{Refbegin|2}} *{{cite book |last=Baker |first=David |title=The History of Manned Space Flight |edition=1st |year=1981 |publisher=Crown Publishers |location=New York |isbn=0-517-54377-X |lccn=81003101 |ref=Baker}} *{{cite book |last=Bilstein |first=Roger E. |title=Stages to Saturn: A Technological History of the Apollo/Saturn Launch Vehicles |url=http://catalog.hathitrust.org/Record/003130142 |accessdate=June 28, 2013 |series=The NASA History Series |origyear=First published 1980 |year=1996 |publisher=NASA |location=Washington, D.C. |isbn=0-16-048909-1 |lccn=97149850 |id=NASA SP-4206 |ref=Bilstein}} *{{cite book |last=Chaikin |first=Andrew |authorlink=Andrew Chaikin |title=[[A Man on the Moon]]: The Voyages of the Apollo Astronauts |year=1994 |publisher=Viking |location=New York |isbn=978-0-670-81446-6 |lccn=93048680 |ref=Chaikin}} *{{cite book |last=Chaikin |first=Andrew |others=Foreword by [[Tom Hanks]] |title = A Man on the Moon |origyear=First published 1994 |year=1998 |publisher=Penguin Books |location=New York |isbn=978-0-14-027201-7 |ref=Chaikin 1998}} *{{cite book |last=Clarke |first=Arthur C. |authorlink=Arthur C. Clarke |others=New introduction by author |title=[[2001: A Space Odyssey (novel)|2001: A Space Odyssey]] |origyear=Originally published 1999; New York: [[New American Library]]. First edition published 1968. |year=2000 |publisher=[[Roc Books]] |location=New York |isbn=978-0-451-45799-8 |ref=Clarke}} *{{cite book |last=Collins |first=Michael |authorlink=Michael Collins (astronaut) |others=Foreword by [[Charles Lindbergh]] |title=Carrying the Fire: An Astronaut's Journeys |origyear=Originally published 1974; New York: [[Farrar, Straus and Giroux]] |year=2001 |publisher=Cooper Square Press |location=New York |isbn=978-0-8154-1028-7 |lccn=2001017080 |ref=Collins}} *{{cite book |last=De Groot |first=Gerard J. |title=Dark Side of the Moon: The Magnificent Madness of the American Lunar Quest |year=2006 |publisher=[[New York University Press]] |location=New York |isbn=978-0-8147-1995-4 |lccn=2006016116 |ref=De Groot}} *{{cite book |last=Lattimer |first=Dick |others=Foreword by [[James A. Michener]] |title=All We Did Was Fly to the Moon |edition=1st |series=History-alive series |volume=1 |year=1985 |publisher=Whispering Eagle Press |location=Alachua, FL |isbn=978-0-9611228-0-5 |lccn=85222271 |ref=Lattimer}} *{{cite book |last1=Lovell |first1=Jim |authorlink1=Jim Lovell |last2=Kluger |first2=Jeffery |authorlink2=Jeffrey Kluger |title=[[Lost Moon]]: The Perilous Voyage of Apollo 13 |year=1994 |publisher=[[Houghton Mifflin Harcourt|Houghton Mifflin]] |location=Boston |isbn=0-395-67029-2 |lccn=94028052 |ref=Lovell & Kluger}} *{{cite book |last1=Murray |first1=Charles |authorlink1=Charles Murray (political scientist) |last2=Cox |first2=Catherine Bly |title=Apollo: The Race to the Moon |year=1990 |publisher=Simon & Schuster |location=New York |isbn=978-0-671-70625-8 |ref=Murray & Cox}} *{{cite book |last=Poole |first=Robert K. |authorlink=Robert Poole (historian) |title=Earthrise: How Man First Saw the Earth |year=2008 |publisher=[[Yale University Press]] |location=New Haven, CT |isbn=978-0-300-13766-8 |lccn=2008026764 |ref=Poole}} *{{cite book |last=Schefter |first=James |title=The Race: The Uncensored Story of How America Beat Russia to the Moon |year=1999 |publisher=Doubleday |location=New York |isbn=978-0-385-49253-9 |lccn=98054430 |ref=Schefter}} *{{cite book |last=Wilford |first=John Noble |authorlink=John Noble Wilford |title=We Reach the Moon |year=1973 |publisher=[[G. P. Putnam's Sons|Putnam Publishing Group]] |isbn=978-0-448-26152-2 |ref=Wilford}} *{{cite book |last=Woods |first=W. David |title=How Apollo Flew to the Moon |year= 2008 |publisher=[[Springer Science+Business Media|Springer]] |location=Brelin; New York |isbn=978-0-387-71675-6 |lccn=2007932412 |ref=Woods }} *{{cite book |last=Zimmerman |first=Robert |title=Genesis: The Story of Apollo 8: The First Manned Flight to Another World |year=1998 |publisher=[[Four Walls Eight Windows]] |location=New York |isbn=1-56858-118-1 |lccn=98029963 |ref=Zimmerman}} {{Refend}} ==External links== {{Commons|Apollo 8}} * [http://www.astronautix.com/flights/apollo8.htm "Apollo 8"] at Encyclopedia Astronautica * {{cite journal |last=Jackson |first=Albert A. |date=Winter 2008–2009 |title=The Essence of the Human Spirit: Apollo 8 |journal=Horizons |volume=34 |issue=1 |pages=24–28 |location=Reston, VA |publisher=[[American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics]] (AIAA) |format=PDF |type=Newsletter, AIAA Houston Section |accessdate=July 1, 2013 |url=http://www.aiaahouston.org/Horizons/december2008.pdf}} – Article about the 40th Anniversary of Apollo 8 ;NASA reports * [http://history.nasa.gov/alsj/a410/A08_PressKit.pdf Apollo 8 Press Kit] (PDF), NASA, Release No. 68-208, December 15, 1968 * [http://history.nasa.gov/ap08fj/pdf/a08-missionreport.pdf "Apollo 8 Mission Report"] (PDF), NASA, MSC-PA-R-69-1, February 1969 ;Multimedia * [https://archive.org/details/Apollo_8_-_Go_For_TLI ''Apollo 8: Go for TLI''] – 1969 NASA film at the [[Internet Archive]] * [http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/planetary/lunar/apollo8_xmas.html "The Apollo 8 Christmas Eve Broadcast"] – NASA audio of Christmas Genesis transmission * [https://archive.org/details/debrief_apollo_8 ''Debrief: Apollo 8''] – 1969 NASA film at the Internet Archive * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=aW5ozq4Tqew Apollo Atmospheric Entry Phase], 1968, NASA Mission Planning and Analysis Division, Project Apollo. video (25:14). * [https://archive.org/details/Apollo07And0816mmOnboardFilm "APOLLO 07 and 08 16MM ONBOARD FILM (1968)"] – raw footage taken from Apollos 7 and 8 at the Internet Archive * [http://www.apollotv.net Apollo launch and mission videos] at ApolloTV.net * [http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/IOTD/view.php?id=36019 "Earth Viewed by Apollo 8"] at NASA * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TBvYctZsuyw&list=PLNxwX7r4A557deayljDNLqVA7Pl9Y8K9Z&index=5 Recovery - 23min video] {{Apollo program}} {{Moon spacecraft}} {{Orbital launches in 1968}} {{NASA space program}} {{Time Persons of the Year 1951–1975}} {{NASA}} {{Portal bar|Spaceflight}} {{Featured article}} {{Use American English|date=January 2014}} {{Authority control}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Apollo 08}} [[Category:Apollo 8| ]] [[Category:Spacecraft launched in 1968]] [[Category:1968 in the United States]] [[Category:Apollo program]] [[Category:Manned missions to the Moon]] [[Category:Spacecraft which reentered in 1968]] 2wd36x863rdn4bro702ekfyrinwncog 0 664 713907058 713904258 2016-04-06T13:47:21Z JustinTime55 11561890 /* External links */ America's astronauts were introduced in 1959 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Other uses}} {{Redirect|Cosmonaut|other uses|Cosmonaut (disambiguation)}} {{pp-semi-indef|small=yes}} {{Use mdy dates|date=November 2014}} [[File:Astronaut-EVA.jpg|thumb|250px|[[NASA]] Astronaut [[Bruce McCandless II]] using a [[Manned Maneuvering Unit]] outside {{OV|099}} on shuttle mission [[STS-41-B]] in 1984.]] An '''astronaut''' or '''cosmonaut''' is a person trained by a [[List of human spaceflight programs|human spaceflight program]] to command, pilot, or serve as a crew member of a [[spacecraft]]. Although generally reserved for professional space travelers, the terms are sometimes applied to anyone who travels into space, including scientists, politicians, journalists, and tourists.<ref name="fact">{{cite web|url=http://spaceflight.nasa.gov/spacenews/factsheets/pdfs/astro.pdf|title=Astronaut Fact Book|accessdate=October 4, 2007 |publisher=[[NASA|National Aeronautics and Space Administration]]|year=2006|author=[[NASA]]|format=PDF| archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070926023336/http://spaceflight.nasa.gov/spacenews/factsheets/pdfs/astro.pdf| archivedate= September 26, 2007 | deadurl=no}}</ref><ref name="utah">{{cite web|url=http://www.utahstatesman.com/campus_news/1.563784|title=Former astronaut visits USU|accessdate=October 4, 2007 |publisher=The Utah Statesman|year=2005|author=Marie MacKay}}</ref> Starting in the 1950s up to 2002, astronauts were sponsored and trained exclusively by governments, either by the military or by civilian space agencies. With the suborbital flight of the privately funded [[SpaceShipOne]] in 2004, a new category of astronaut was created: the [[commercial astronaut]]. ==Definition== [[File:Alan Shepard in capsule aboard Freedom 7 before launch.jpg|upright|thumb|[[Alan Shepard]] aboard [[Mercury-Redstone 3|Freedom&nbsp;7]]]] The criteria for what constitutes [[human spaceflight]] vary. The [[Fédération Aéronautique Internationale]] (FAI) Sporting Code for astronautics recognizes only flights that exceed an [[Edge of space|altitude of {{convert|100|km|mi|sp=us}}]].<ref>[ftp://www.fai.org/sporting_code/sc08_20012.pdf FAI Sporting Code, Section 8, Paragraph 2.12.1]</ref> In the United States, professional, military, and commercial astronauts who travel above an altitude of {{convert|50|mi|km}}<ref>[http://www.nasa.gov/centers/dryden/news/NewsReleases/2005/05-57.html NASA – X-15 Space Pioneers Now Honored as Astronauts<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> are awarded [[Astronaut Badge|astronaut wings]]. {{As of|2013|June|8}}, a total of 532 people from [[Timeline of space travel by nationality|36 countries]] have reached {{convert|100|km|0|abbr=on}} or more in altitude, of which 529 reached [[low Earth orbit]] or beyond.<ref name="CBSQL">{{cite web|url=http://www.cbsnews.com/network/news/space/democurrent.html|title=Current Space Demographics|accessdate=September 27, 2009 |publisher=CBS News|year=2009|author=William Harwood}}</ref><ref name="astr">{{cite web|url=http://www.astronautix.com/articles/womspace.htm|title=Women of Space |accessdate=October 4, 2007 |publisher=Encyclopedia Astronautica|year=2007|author=Encyclopedia Astronautica| archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20071018022814/http://www.astronautix.com/articles/womspace.htm| archivedate= October 18, 2007 | deadurl=no}}</ref> Of these, [[List of Apollo astronauts|24 people]] have traveled beyond Low Earth orbit, to either lunar or trans-lunar orbit or to the surface of the moon; three of the 24 did so twice: [[Jim Lovell]], [[John Watts Young|John Young]] and [[Eugene Cernan]].<ref name="hundred">{{cite web|url=http://www-pao.ksc.nasa.gov/kscpao/factoids/hundred.htm|title=NASA's First 100 Human Space Flights|accessdate=October 4, 2007 |publisher=NASA|author=NASA |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070827140010/http://www-pao.ksc.nasa.gov/kscpao/factoids/hundred.htm <!--DASHBot--> |archivedate = August 27, 2007}}</ref> The three astronauts who have not reached low Earth orbit are [[spaceplane]] pilots [[Joseph A. Walker|Joe Walker]], [[Mike Melvill]], and [[Brian Binnie]]. {{As of|2011|June|20}}, under the U.S. definition 538 people qualify as having reached space, above {{convert|50|mi|km}} altitude. Of eight [[X-15]] pilots who exceeded {{convert|50|mi|km}} in altitude, only one exceeded 100 kilometers (about 62 miles).<ref name="stats">{{cite web|url=http://www.astronautix.com/articles/aststics.htm|title=Astronaut Statistics – as of 14 November 2008|accessdate=October 4, 2007 |publisher=Encyclopedia Astronautica|year=2007|author=Encyclopedia Astronautica| archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070930195311/http://www.astronautix.com/articles/aststics.htm| archivedate= September 30, 2007 | deadurl=no}}</ref> Space travelers have spent over 41,790 [[Man hour|man-days]] (114.5 man-years) in space, including over 100 astronaut-days of [[extravehicular activity|spacewalks]].<ref name="stats"/><ref name="void">{{cite web|url=http://www.nasa.gov/vision/space/workinginspace/eva_stats.html|title=Walking in the Void|accessdate=October 4, 2007 |publisher=NASA|year=2004|author=NASA}}</ref> As of 2008, the man with the longest cumulative time in space is [[Sergei Krikalev|Sergei K. Krikalev]], who has spent 803 days, 9 hours and 39 minutes, or 2.2 years, in space.<ref name="skk">{{cite web|url=http://www.jsc.nasa.gov/Bios/htmlbios/krikalev.html|title=Sergei Konstantinovich Krikalev Biography|accessdate=October 4, 2007 | publisher=NASA| year=2005| author=NASA| archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20071031135208/http://www.jsc.nasa.gov/Bios/htmlbios/krikalev.html| archivedate= October 31, 2007 | deadurl=no}}</ref><ref name="skk2">{{cite web |url=http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/station/expeditions/expedition11/krikalev_record.html| title=Krikalev Sets Time-in-Space Record| accessdate=October 4, 2007 |publisher=NASA|year=2005 |author=NASA | archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070910020401/http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/station/expeditions/expedition11/krikalev_record.html| archivedate= September 10, 2007 | deadurl=no}}</ref> [[Peggy Whitson|Peggy A. Whitson]] holds the record for the most time in space by a woman, 377 days.<ref name="paw">{{cite web |url=http://www.jsc.nasa.gov/Bios/htmlbios/whitson.html | title = Peggy A. Whitson (Ph.D.) | work = Biographical Data | publisher = [[NASA|National Aeronautics and Space Administration]] | author=NASA| accessdate = May 13, 2008| archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080509130749/http://www.jsc.nasa.gov/Bios/htmlbios/whitson.html| archivedate= May 9, 2008 | deadurl=no}}</ref> ==Terminology== {{See also|Astronaut ranks and positions}} In 1959, when both the United States and [[Soviet Union]] were planning, but had yet to launch humans into space, [[NASA]] Administrator [[T. Keith Glennan]] and his Deputy Administrator, Dr. [[Hugh Latimer Dryden|Hugh Dryden]], discussed whether spacecraft crew members should be called ''astronauts'' or ''cosmonauts''. Dryden preferred "cosmonaut", on the grounds that flights would occur in the ''cosmos'' (near space), while the "astro" prefix suggested flight to the stars. Most NASA [[Space Task Group]] members preferred "astronaut", which survived by common usage as the preferred American term.<ref>{{cite book | last=Dethloff | first=Henry C. | title=Suddenly Tomorrow Came... A History of the Johnson Space Center| publisher=National Aeronautics and Space Administration | year=1993 | authorlink= Henry C. Dethloff | pages=23–24| chapter=Chapter 2: The Commitment to Space| isbn=978-1502753588 | url=http://www.jsc.nasa.gov/history/suddenly_tomorrow/suddenly.htm | ref = harv}}</ref> When the Soviet Union launched the first man into space, [[Yuri Gagarin]] in 1961, they chose a term which [[Anglicization|anglicizes]] to "cosmonaut". ===English=== In English-speaking nations, a professional space traveler is called an ''astronaut''.<ref>[http://www.thespacerace.com/glossary/index.php?term=54 TheSpaceRace.com – Glossary of Space Exploration Terminology<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> The term derives from the Greek words ''ástron'' (ἄστρον), meaning "star", and ''nautes'' (ναύτης), meaning "sailor". The first known use of the term "astronaut" in the modern sense was by [[Neil R. Jones]] in his short story "The Death's Head Meteor" in 1930. The word itself had been known earlier. For example, in [[Percy Greg]]'s 1880 book ''Across the Zodiac'', "astronaut" referred to a spacecraft. In ''Les Navigateurs de l'Infini'' (1925) of [[J.-H. Rosny aîné]], the word ''astronautique'' (astronautic) was used. The word may have been inspired by "aeronaut", an older term for an air traveler first applied (in 1784) to [[balloon (aircraft)|balloon]]ists. An early use in a non-fiction publication is [[Eric Frank Russell]]'s poem "The Astronaut" in the November 1934 ''Bulletin of the [[British Interplanetary Society]]''.<ref>Ingham, John L.: ''Into Your Tent'', Plantech (2010): page 82.</ref> The first known formal use of the term [[astronautics]] in the scientific community was the establishment of the annual [[International Astronautical Congress]] in 1950 and the subsequent founding of the [[International Astronautical Federation]] the following year.<ref name="IAFpage">{{cite web | title = IAF History | publisher = [[International Astronautical Federation]] |author=IAF |date = August 16, 2010|url=http://www.iafastro.org/index.html?title=History| accessdate = August 16, 2010 }}</ref> [[NASA]] applies the term astronaut to any crew member aboard NASA spacecraft bound for Earth orbit or beyond. NASA also uses the term as a title for those selected to join its [[NASA Astronaut Corps|Astronaut Corps]].<ref name="biopage">{{cite web | last = Dismukes |first = Kim – NASA Biography Page Curator | title = Astronaut Biographies | publisher = [[Johnson Space Center]], NASA |date = December 15, 2005|url=http://www.jsc.nasa.gov/Bios/| accessdate = March 6, 2007 | archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070307132816/http://www.jsc.nasa.gov/Bios/| archivedate= March 7, 2007 | deadurl=no}}</ref> The European Space Agency similarly uses the term astronaut for members of its [[European Astronaut Corps|Astronaut Corps]].<ref name="ESApage">{{cite web | title = The European Astronaut Corps | publisher = [[ESA]] |author=ESA |date = April 10, 2008|url=http://www.esa.int/esaHS/ESA75G0VMOC_astronauts_0.html| accessdate = December 28, 2008 | archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20081220054618/http://www.esa.int/esaHS/ESA75G0VMOC_astronauts_0.html| archivedate= December 20, 2008 | deadurl=no}}</ref> ===Russian=== {{Main|Soviet space program}} {{see also|List of cosmonauts}} By convention, an astronaut employed by the [[Russian Federal Space Agency]] (or its [[Soviet space program|Soviet]] predecessor) is called a ''cosmonaut'' in English texts.<ref name="biopage"/> The word is an anglicisation of the Russian word ''kosmonavt'' ({{lang-ru|космонавт}} {{IPA-ru|kəsmɐˈnaft}}), one who works in space outside the Earth's atmosphere, a space traveler,<ref name = "space traveller">{{cite book| last1 = Kotlyakov| first1 = Vladimir| last2 = Komarova| first2 = Anna| title = Elsevier's Dictionary of Geography: in English, Russian, French, Spanish and German|url=https://books.google.com/?id=6DhWw_cYLicC| year = 2006| publisher = Elsevier| isbn = 978-0-08-048878-3 | page = 49}}</ref> which derives from the Greek words ''kosmos'' (κόσμος), meaning "universe", and ''nautes'' (ναύτης), meaning "sailor". Other countries of the former [[Eastern Bloc]] use variations of the Russian word ''kosmonavt'', such as the [[Poland|Polish]] ''kosmonauta''. Coinage of the term ''kosmonavt'' has been credited to Soviet aeronautics pioneer [[Mikhail Tikhonravov]] (1900–1974).<ref>{{Cite book |last=Brzezinski |first=Matthew |authorlink=Matthew Brzezinski |year=2007 |title=Red Moon Rising: Sputnik and the Hidden Rivalries That Ignited the Space Age |url= |location=New York |publisher=Henry Holt & Co. |page=108 |isbn=978-0-8050-8147-3 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Gruntman |first=Mike |authorlink= |year=2004 |title=Blazing the Trail: The Early History of Spacecraft and Rocketry |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2XY9KXxF8OEC&pg=PA326 |location=Reston, VA |publisher=[[AIAA]] |page=326 |isbn=9781563477058 }}</ref> The first cosmonaut was [[Soviet Air Force]] pilot [[Yuri Gagarin]], also the first person in space. [[Valentina Tereshkova]], a Russian factory worker, was the first woman in space, as well as the first civilian among the Soviet cosmonaut or NASA astronaut corps to make a spaceflight. On March 14, 1995, [[Norman Thagard]] became the first American to ride to space on board a Russian launch vehicle, and thus became the first "American cosmonaut". ===Chinese=== {{Main|Chinese space program}} {{see also|List of Chinese astronauts}} Official English-language texts issued by the government of [[China]] use ''astronaut'' while texts in Russian use космонавт (''cosmonaut'').<ref name="rus">{{cite web|url=http://www.fmprc.gov.cn/ce/ceka/rus/xwdt/t216370.htm|trans-title= Yang Liwei, the first Chinese astronaut who has made China's first manned space flight|title=Ян Ливэй – первый китайский космонавт, совершивший первый в Китае пилотируемый космический полет|date=13 October 2005|accessdate=4 October 2007 |publisher=fmprc.gov.cn|author=реконмендовать другому|language=Russian| archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070929125754/http://www.fmprc.gov.cn/ce/ceka/rus/xwdt/t216370.htm| archivedate= 29 September 2007}}</ref><ref name="rus2">{{cite web|url=http://ru.china-embassy.org/rus/xwdt/t73142.htm|title=Chinese embassy in Russia press-release|accessdate=October 4, 2007 |publisher=ru.china-embassy.org|author=ru.china-embassy.org|language=Russian| archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070927002145/http://ru.china-embassy.org/rus/xwdt/t73142.htm| archivedate= September 27, 2007 | deadurl=no}}</ref> In official Chinese-language texts, "yǔ háng yuán" ({{lang|zh-cn|宇航员}}, "space navigating personnel") is used for astronauts and cosmonauts, and "háng tiān yuán" ({{lang|zh-cn|航天员}}, "space navigating personnel") is used for Chinese astronauts. The phrase "tài kōng rén" ({{lang|zh-tw|太空人}}, "spaceman") is often used in [[Hong Kong]] and [[Taiwan]].<ref>[https://chinese.yabla.com/chinese-english-pinyin-dictionary.php?define=%E5%A4%AA%E7%A9%BA%E4%BA%BA Definition of spaceman in Chinese]</ref> The term ''taikonaut'' is used by some English-language news media organizations for professional [[Chinese space program|space travelers from China]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/2008-01/26/content_7500262.htm|title=Chinese taikonaut dismisses environment worries about new space launch center|date=January 26, 2008|accessdate=September 25, 2008|publisher=[[China View]]| archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20081003201652/http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/2008-01/26/content_7500262.htm| archivedate= October 3, 2008 | deadurl= no}}</ref> The word has featured in the [[Longman]] and [[Oxford English Dictionary|Oxford English]] dictionaries, the latter of which describes it as "a hybrid of the Chinese term ''taikong'' (space) and the Greek ''naut'' (sailor)"; the term became more common in 2003 when China sent its first astronaut [[Yang Liwei]] into space aboard the ''[[Shenzhou 5]]'' spacecraft.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/2008-09/25/content_10111749.htm|title="Taikonauts" a sign of China's growing global influence|date=September 25, 2008|accessdate=September 25, 2008|publisher=[[China View]]| archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20080928044453/http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/2008-09/25/content_10111749.htm| archivedate= September 28, 2008 | deadurl= no}}</ref> This is the term used by [[Xinhua News Agency]] in the English version of the Chinese ''[[People's Daily]]'' since the advent of the Chinese space program.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://english.peopledaily.com.cn/90001/90776/90881/6507790.html|title=Chinese taikonaut debuts spacewalk|accessdate=September 28, 2008 |publisher=People's Daily Online|author=Xinhua|year=2008| archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20080930071226/http://english.peopledaily.com.cn/90001/90776/90881/6507790.html| archivedate= September 30, 2008 | deadurl= no}}</ref> The origin of the term is unclear; as early as May 1998, Chiew Lee Yih ({{lang|zh|趙裡昱}}) from [[Malaysia]], used it in [[newsgroup]]s.<ref name="chiew">{{cite web | first=Lee Yih | last=Chiew |date=May 19, 1998| title=Google search of "taikonaut" sort by date |url= http://groups.google.com/groups/search?hl=en&safe=off&q=taikonaut&btnG=Search&as_mind=1&as_minm=1&as_miny=1981&as_maxd=24&as_maxm=5&as_maxy=1998&as_drrb=b&sitesearch= | work = Usenet posting | publisher = Chiew Lee Yih | accessdate = September 27, 2008}}</ref><ref name="chiew2">{{cite web | first=Lee Yih | last=Chiew |date=March 10, 1996| title=Chiew Lee Yih misspelled "taikonaut" 2 years before it first appear |url= http://groups.google.com/group/alt.chinese.text/browse_thread/thread/a7f02b9489c59c5b/dd9e7a1b78d7d5c7?hl=en&lnk=st&q=taikonout#dd9e7a1b78d7d5c7 | work = Usenet posting | publisher = Chiew Lee Yih | accessdate = September 27, 2008}}</ref> ===Other terms=== With the rise of [[space tourism]], [[NASA]] and the [[Russian Federal Space Agency]] agreed to use the term "[[spaceflight participant]]" to distinguish those space travelers from professional astronauts on missions coordinated by those two agencies. While no nation other than the Russian Federation (and previously the former Soviet Union), the United States, and China have launched a manned spacecraft, several other nations have sent people into space in cooperation with one of these countries. Inspired partly by these missions, other synonyms for astronaut have entered occasional English usage. For example, the term ''spationaut'' (French spelling: ''spationaute'') is sometimes used to describe French space travelers, from the [[Latin]] word ''spatium'' for "space", the [[Malay language|Malay]] term ''angkasawan'' was used to describe participants in the [[Angkasawan program]], and the [[Indian Space Research Organisation]] hope to launch a [[ISRO Orbital Vehicle|spacecraft]] in 2018 that would carry ''[[Indian human spaceflight programme#Terminology|vyomanauts]]'', coined from the [[Sanskrit]] word for space. ==Space travel milestones== <!--First Man, First Woman, First on the Moon, in chronological order.--> [[File:Gagarin in Sweden.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Yuri Gagarin]], first human in space (1961)]] [[File:RIAN archive 612748 Valentina Tereshkova.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Valentina Tereshkova]], first woman in space (1963)]] [[File:Neil Armstrong pose.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Neil Armstrong]], first human to walk on the Moon (1969)]] [[File:Ride-s.jpg|thumb|right|175px|Dr. [[Sally Ride]], the first American female astronaut (1980s)]] [[File:Yang Liwei.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Yang Liwei]], first person sent into space by [[China]] (2003)]] {{See also|Spaceflight records|Timeline of space travel by nationality}} The first human in space was Soviet [[Yuri Gagarin]], who was launched on April 12, 1961 aboard [[Vostok 1]] and orbited around the Earth for 108 minutes. The first woman in space was Soviet [[Valentina Tereshkova]], who launched on June 16, 1963 aboard [[Vostok 6]] and orbited Earth for almost three days. [[Alan Shepard]] became the first American and second person in space on May 5, 1961 on a 15-minute sub-orbital flight. The first American woman in space was [[Sally Ride]], during [[Space Shuttle Challenger]]'s mission [[STS-7]], on June 18, 1983.<ref name="ride1">{{cite web|url=http://www.jsc.nasa.gov/Bios/htmlbios/ride-sk.html|title=Sally K. Ride, Ph.D. Biography|accessdate=October 4, 2007 |publisher=NASA|year=2006|author=NASA| archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20071016072450/http://www.jsc.nasa.gov/Bios/htmlbios/ride-sk.html| archivedate= October 16, 2007 | deadurl= no}}</ref> In 1992 [[Mae Jemison]] became the first African American woman to travel in space aboard [[STS-47]]. Cosmonaut [[Alexei Leonov]] was the first person to conduct an [[extravehicular activity]] (EVA), (commonly called a "spacewalk"), on March 18, 1965, on the Soviet Union's Voskhod 2 mission. This was followed two and a half months later by astronaut [[Edward Higgins White|Ed White]] who made the first American EVA on NASA's Gemini 4 mission.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nasa.gov/audience/foreducators/k-4/features/F_Going_Out.html|title=Educator Features: Going Out for a Walk|work=NASA|accessdate=27 November 2015}}</ref> The first manned mission to orbit the Moon, ''[[Apollo 8]]'', included American [[William Anders]] who was born in Hong Kong, making him the first Asian-born astronaut in 1968. The Soviet Union, through its [[Intercosmos]] program, allowed people from other "[[socialism|socialist]]" (i.e. [[Warsaw Pact]] and other Soviet-allied) countries to fly on its missions, with the notable exception of [[France]] participating in [[Soyuz TM-7]]. An example is [[Czechoslovak]] [[Vladimír Remek]], the first cosmonaut from a country other than the [[Soviet space program|Soviet Union]] or the [[NASA|United States]], who flew to space in 1978 on a [[Soyuz-U]] rocket.<ref name="enc">{{cite web|url=http://www.astronautix.com/astros/remek.htm|title=Vladimir Remek Czech Pilot Cosmonaut|accessdate=October 4, 2007 |publisher=Encyclopedia Astronautica|year=2007|author=Encyclopedia Astronautica| archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20071013100622/http://astronautix.com/astros/remek.htm| archivedate= October 13, 2007 | deadurl= no}}</ref> On July 23, 1980, [[Pham Tuan]] of [[Vietnam]] became the first [[Asian people|Asian]] in space when he flew aboard [[Soyuz 37]].<ref name="tuan">{{cite web|url=http://www.astronautix.com/flights/salt6ep7.htm|title=Salyut 6 EP-7|accessdate=October 4, 2007 |publisher=Encyclopedia Astronautica|year=2007|author=Encyclopedia Astronautica| archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20070930195347/http://www.astronautix.com/flights/salt6ep7.htm| archivedate= September 30, 2007 | deadurl= no}}</ref> Also in 1980, [[Cubans|Cuban]] [[Arnaldo Tamayo Méndez]] became the first person of [[Hispanic]] and black African descent to fly in space, and in 1983, [[Guion Bluford]] became the first African American to fly into space. In April 1985, [[Taylor Wang]] became the first ethnic Chinese person in space.<ref name="taylorbio">{{cite web |url=http://www.jsc.nasa.gov/Bios/htmlbios/wang-t.html|title=Taylor G. Wang Biography| accessdate=October 4, 2007 | publisher=NASA| year=1985| author=NASA| archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20070919003409/http://www.jsc.nasa.gov/Bios/htmlbios/wang-t.html| archivedate= September 19, 2007 | deadurl= no}}</ref><ref name="taylor">{{cite web|url=http://www.astronautix.com/astros/wang.htm|title=Taylor Wang| accessdate=October 4, 2007 |publisher=Encyclopedia Astronautica|year=2007|author=Encyclopedia Astronautica| archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20070827132048/http://www.astronautix.com/astros/wang.htm| archivedate= August 27, 2007 | deadurl= no}}</ref> The first person born in Africa to fly in space was [[Patrick Baudry]] (France), in 1985.<ref name="mendez">{{cite web|url=http://www.astronautix.com/astros/tamendez.htm|title=Tamayo-Mendez|accessdate=October 4, 2007 |publisher=Encyclopedia Astronautica|year=2007|author=Encyclopedia Astronautica| archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20070930214432/http://www.astronautix.com/astros/tamendez.htm| archivedate= September 30, 2007 | deadurl= no}}</ref><ref name="baudry">{{cite web|url=http://www.astronautix.com/astros/baudry.htm|title=Baudry|accessdate=October 4, 2007 |publisher=Encyclopedia Astronautica|year=2007|author=Encyclopedia Astronautica| archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20071013100617/http://astronautix.com/astros/baudry.htm| archivedate= October 13, 2007 | deadurl= no}}</ref> In 1985, [[Saudi arabia|Saudi Arabian]] [[Sultan Salman al-Saud|Prince Sultan Bin Salman Bin AbdulAziz Al-Saud]] became the first Arab Muslim astronaut in space.<ref name="MC">{{cite web|url=http://www.jsc.nasa.gov/Bios/htmlbios/al-saud.html|title=Sultan Bin Salman Al-Saud Biography|accessdate=May 1, 2011 |publisher=NASA|year=2006|author=NASA| archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20110525174947/http://www.jsc.nasa.gov/Bios/htmlbios/al-saud.html| archivedate= May 25, 2011 | deadurl= no}}</ref> In 1988, [[Abdul Ahad Mohmand]] became the first [[Afghanistan|Afghan]] to reach space, spending nine days aboard the [[Mir]] space station.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.spacefacts.de/bios/international/english/mohmand_abdol.htm|title=Biographies of International Astronauts|accessdate=August 11, 2007 |publisher=Space Facts|year=2007|author=Joachim Wilhelm Josef Becker and Heinz Hermann Janssen| archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20070812133400/http://www.spacefacts.de/bios/international/english/mohmand_abdol.htm| archivedate= August 12, 2007 | deadurl= no}}</ref> With the larger number of seats available on the Space Shuttle, the U.S. began taking international astronauts. In 1983, [[Ulf Merbold]] of West Germany became the first non-US citizen to fly in a US spacecraft. In 1984, [[Marc Garneau]] became the first of 8 [[Canadian astronauts]] to fly in space (through 2010).<ref>[http://www.asc-csa.gc.ca/eng/missions/default.asp Canadian Space Agency, retrieved October 9, 2010.]</ref> In 1985, [[Rodolfo Neri Vela]] became the first Mexican-born person in space.<ref name="vela">{{cite web|url=http://www.jsc.nasa.gov/Bios/htmlbios/nerivela-r.html|title=Rodolfo Neri Vela (Ph.D.) Biography|accessdate=October 4, 2007 |publisher=NASA|year=1985|author=NASA| archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20071027235759/http://www.jsc.nasa.gov/Bios/htmlbios/nerivela-r.html| archivedate= October 27, 2007 | deadurl= no}}</ref> In 1991, [[Helen Sharman]] became the first Briton to fly in space.<ref name="bbcsharmon">{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/may/18/newsid_2380000/2380649.stm|title=1991: Sharman becomes first Briton in space|accessdate=October 4, 2007 |publisher=BBC News|author=BBC News | date=May 18, 1991| archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20070905072027/http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/may/18/newsid_2380000/2380649.stm| archivedate= September 5, 2007 | deadurl= no}}</ref> In 2002, [[Mark Shuttleworth]] became the first citizen of an African country to fly in space, as a paying spaceflight participant.<ref name="mark">{{cite web|url=http://www.africaninspace.com/home/mission/logs/1/20020610.shtml|title=First African in Space|accessdate=October 4, 2007 |publisher=HBD|year=2002|author=africaninspace.com| archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20071013043906/http://africaninspace.com/home/mission/logs/1/20020610.shtml| archivedate= October 13, 2007 | deadurl= no}}</ref> In 2003, [[Ilan Ramon]] became the first Israeli to fly in space, although he died during a [[Space Shuttle Columbia disaster|re-entry accident]]. On October 15, 2003, [[Yang Liwei]] became China's first astronaut on the [[Shenzhou 5]] spacecraft. ===Age milestones=== The youngest person to fly in space is [[Gherman Titov]], who was 25 years old when he flew [[Vostok 2]]. (Titov was also the first person to suffer [[space sickness]]).<ref name="age">{{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/august/6/newsid_2944000/2944638.stm |title=1961: Russian cosmonaut spends day in space |accessdate=October 4, 2007 |publisher=BBC News |author=BBC News |date=August 6, 2007}}</ref><ref name="titov">{{cite web |url=http://articles.latimes.com/2000/sep/22/local/me-25219 |title=Obituaries—Gherman S. Titov; Cosmonaut Was Second Man to Orbit Earth |accessdate=February 4, 2015 |publisher=Los Angeles Times |date=September 22, 2000|author=Robyn Dixon}}</ref> The oldest person who has flown in space is [[John Glenn]], who was 77 when he flew on [[STS-95]].<ref name="glenn">{{cite web |url=http://www.nasa.gov/centers/glenn/about/bios/glennbio.html |title=John Herschel Glenn, Jr. (Colonel, USMC, Ret.) NASA Astronaut |accessdate=October 4, 2007 |publisher=NASA |year=2007 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20071014013832/http://www.nasa.gov/centers/glenn/about/bios/glennbio.html |archivedate=October 14, 2007 |deadurl=no}}</ref> ===Duration and distance milestones=== The longest stay in space thus far has been 438 days, by Russian [[Valeri Polyakov]].<ref name="stats"/> As of 2006, the most spaceflights by an individual astronaut is seven, a record held by both [[Jerry L. Ross]] and [[Franklin Chang-Diaz]]. The farthest distance from Earth an astronaut has traveled was {{convert|401056|km|0|abbr=on}}, when [[Jim Lovell]], [[Jack Swigert]], and [[Fred Haise]] went around the Moon during the [[Apollo 13]] emergency.<ref name="stats"/> ===Civilian and non-government milestones=== The first civilian in space was [[Valentina Tereshkova]]<ref name="Valentina Vladimirovna TERESHKOVA">{{cite web|url=http://www.adm.yar.ru/english/section.aspx?section_id=74|title=Valentina Vladimirovna TERESHKOVA}}</ref> aboard [[Vostok 6]] (she also became the first woman in space on that mission). Tereshkova was only honorarily inducted into the USSR's Air Force, which had no female pilots whatsoever at that time. A month later, [[Joseph Albert Walker]] became the first American civilian in space when his [[X-15 Flight 90]] crossed the {{convert|100|km|nmi|sp=us|abbr=off}} line, qualifying him by the international definition of spaceflight.<ref name="Civilians in Space">{{cite web|url=http://www.fourmilab.ch/fourmilog/archives/2006-08/000736.html|title=Civilians in Space}}</ref><ref name="Space.com Joseph A Walker">{{cite web|url=http://www.space.com/adastra/adastra_joewalker_061127.html|title=Space.com Joseph A Walker}}</ref> Walker had joined the US Army Air Force but was not a member during his flight. The first people in space who had never been a member of any country's armed forces were both [[Konstantin Feoktistov]] and [[Boris Yegorov]] aboard [[Voskhod 1]]. The first non-governmental space traveler was [[Byron K. Lichtenberg]], a researcher from the [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology]] who flew on [[STS-9]] in 1983.<ref name="lichten">{{cite web|url=http://www.jsc.nasa.gov/Bios/htmlbios/lichtenberg-bk.html|title=Byron K. Lichtenberg Biography|accessdate=October 4, 2007 |publisher=NASA|year=2002|author=NASA| archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20070919000449/http://www.jsc.nasa.gov/Bios/htmlbios/lichtenberg-bk.html| archivedate= September 19, 2007 | deadurl= no}}</ref> In December 1990, [[Toyohiro Akiyama]] became the first paying space traveler as a reporter for [[Tokyo Broadcasting System]], a visit to [[Mir]] as part of an estimated $12 million ([[USD]]) deal with a Japanese TV station, although at the time, the term used to refer to Akiyama was "Research Cosmonaut".<ref name="smith">{{cite web|url=http://www.nasm.si.edu/exhibitions/GAL114/SpaceRace/sec500/sec535.htm|title=Paying for a Ride|accessdate=October 4, 2007 |publisher=Smithsonian National Air and Space Museum|year=2007|author=Smithsonian National Air and Space Museum| archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20071026073942/http://www.nasm.si.edu/exhibitions/gal114/SpaceRace/sec500/sec535.htm| archivedate= October 26, 2007 | deadurl= no}}</ref><ref name="bbc1">{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/hi/english/static/in_depth/sci_tech/2001/mir/1990.stm|title=Mir Space Station 1986–2001|accessdate=October 4, 2007 |publisher=BBC News|year=1990|author=BBC News}}</ref><ref name="de">{{cite web|url=http://www.spacefacts.de/bios/international/english/akiyama_toyohiro.htm|title=Akiyama|accessdate=October 4, 2007 |publisher=Spacefacts|year=1990|author=Spacefacts| archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20070930033534/http://www.spacefacts.de/bios/international/english/akiyama_toyohiro.htm| archivedate= September 30, 2007 | deadurl= no}}</ref> Akiyama suffered severe [[space adaptation syndrome|space sickness]] during his mission, which affected his productivity.<ref name="bbc1"/> The first self-funded [[space tourist]] was [[Dennis Tito]] on board the Russian spacecraft Soyuz TM-3 on April 28, 2001. ===Self-funded travelers=== {{Main|Space tourism}} The first person to fly on an entirely privately funded mission was [[Mike Melvill]], piloting [[SpaceShipOne flight 15P]] on a suborbital journey, although he was a [[test pilot]] employed by [[Scaled Composites]] and not an actual paying space tourist.<ref name="eve">{{cite web|url=http://www.space.com/missionlaunches/SS1_pilot_040620.html |title=Pilot Announced on Eve of Private Space Mission |accessdate=October 4, 2007 |publisher=Space.com |year=2004 |author=Leonard David |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/20060213031153/http://www.space.com:80/missionlaunches/SS1_pilot_040620.html |archivedate=13 February 2006 }}</ref><ref name="rci">{{cite web|url=http://www.roycecarlton.com/speakers/melvill.html|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20071011134507/http://www.roycecarlton.com/speakers/melvill.html|archivedate=October 11, 2007|title=Michael Melvill, First Civilian Astronaut, SpaceShipOne|accessdate=October 4, 2007 |publisher=Royce Carlton Inc.|year=2007|author=Royce Carlton Inc}}</ref> Seven others have paid the [[Russian Space Agency]] to fly into space: # [[Dennis Tito]] (American): April 28 – May 6, 2001 ([[International Space Station|ISS]]) # [[Mark Shuttleworth]] (South African): April 25 – May 5, 2002 (ISS) # [[Gregory Olsen]] (American): October 1–11, 2005 (ISS) # [[Anousheh Ansari]] (Iranian / American): September 18–29, 2006 (ISS) # [[Charles Simonyi]] (Hungarian / American): April 7–21, 2007 (ISS), March 26 – April 8, 2009 (ISS) # [[Richard Garriott]] (British / American): October 12–24, 2008 (ISS) # [[Guy Laliberté]] (Canadian): September 30, 2009 – October 11, 2009 (ISS) ==Training== [[File:Gemini 5 Elliot See water egress training.jpg|right|thumb|[[Elliot See]] during water egress training with NASA (1965)]] {{Main|Astronaut Training}} {{See also|Astronaut ranks and positions}} The first NASA astronauts were selected for training in 1959.<ref name="comet">{{cite web|url=http://aerospacescholars.jsc.nasa.gov/HAS/cirr/ss/3/3.cfm|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070819111027/http://aerospacescholars.jsc.nasa.gov/HAS/cirr/ss/3/3.cfm|archivedate=August 19, 2007|title=Astronaut Candidate Training|accessdate=October 4, 2007 |publisher=NASA|year=2006|author=NASA}}</ref> Early in the space program, military jet test piloting and engineering training were often cited as prerequisites for selection as an astronaut at NASA, although neither John Glenn nor Scott Carpenter (of the [[Mercury Seven]]) had any university degree, in engineering or any other discipline at the time of their selection. Selection was initially limited to military pilots.<ref name="training">{{cite web|url=http://liftoff.msfc.nasa.gov/academy/astronauts/training.html|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070910124735/http://liftoff.msfc.nasa.gov/academy/astronauts/training.html|archivedate=September 10, 2007|title=Selection and Training of Astronauts|accessdate=October 4, 2007 |publisher=NASA|year=1995|author=NASA}}</ref><ref name="nolen">{{cite book| last = Nolen| first = Stephanie| title = Promised The Moon: The Untold Story of the First Women in the Space Race| year = 2002| publisher = Penguin Canada| location = Toronto| isbn = 0-14-301347-5| page = 235 }}</ref> The earliest astronauts for both America and the USSR tended to be [[fighter aircraft|jet fighter]] pilots, and were often test pilots. Once selected, NASA astronauts go through twenty months of training in a variety of areas, including training for [[extravehicular activity]] in a facility such as NASA's [[Neutral Buoyancy Laboratory]].<ref name="fact"/><ref name="training"/> Astronauts-in-training may also experience short periods of [[weightlessness]] in aircraft called the "[[vomit comet]]", the nickname given to a pair of modified [[KC-135]]s (retired in 2000 and 2004 respectively, and replaced in 2005 with a [[McDonnell Douglas C-9|C-9]]) which perform [[Parabola|parabolic]] flights.<ref name="comet"/> Astronauts are also required to accumulate a number of flight hours in high-performance jet aircraft. This is mostly done in [[T-38 Talon|T-38 jet aircraft]] out of [[Ellington Field]], due to its proximity to the [[Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center|Johnson Space Center]]. Ellington Field is also where the [[Shuttle Training Aircraft]] is maintained and developed, although most flights of the aircraft are done out of [[Edwards Air Force Base]]. ===NASA candidacy requirements=== * Be citizens of the United States.<ref name="comet"/><ref name="program">{{cite web|url=http://nasajobs.nasa.gov/astronauts/content/broch00.htm|title=Astronaut Candidate Program|accessdate=October 4, 2007 |publisher=NASA|year=2007|author=NASA| archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20071011074934/http://nasajobs.nasa.gov/astronauts/content/broch00.htm| archivedate= October 11, 2007 | deadurl= no}}</ref> * Pass a strict physical examination, and have a near and distant visual acuity correctable to 20/20 (6/6). Blood pressure, while sitting, must be no greater than 140 over 90. ====Commander and Pilot==== * A [[bachelor's degree]] in [[engineering]], [[biology|biological science]], [[physical science]] or [[mathematics]] is required. * At least 1,000 hours' flying time as pilot-in-command in jet aircraft. Experience as a test pilot is desirable. * Height must be 5&nbsp;ft 2 in to 6&nbsp;ft 2 in (1.58&nbsp;m to 1.88&nbsp;m). * Distant visual acuity must be correctable to 20/20 in each eye. * The refractive surgical procedures of the eye, PRK ([[Photorefractive keratectomy]]) and [[LASIK]], are now allowed, providing at least 1 year has passed since the date of the procedure with no permanent adverse after effects. For those applicants under final consideration, an operative report on the surgical procedure will be requested. ====Mission Specialist==== * A bachelor's degree in [[engineering]], [[biological science]], [[physical science]] or [[mathematics]], as well as at least three years of related professional experience (graduate work or studies) and an advanced degree, such as a master's degree (one to three years) or a doctoral degree (three years or more). * Applicant's height must be between 4&nbsp;ft 10.5 in and 6&nbsp;ft 4 in (1.49&nbsp;m and 1.93&nbsp;m). ====Mission Specialist Educator==== {{Main|Educator Astronaut Project}} * Applicants must have a bachelor's degree with teaching experience, including work at the kindergarten through twelfth grade level. An advanced degree, such as a master's degree or a doctoral degree, is not required, but is strongly desired.<ref name="announce">{{cite web|url=http://www.nasa.gov/home/hqnews/2007/sep/HQ_07196_astronaut_recruitment.html|title=NASA Opens Applications for New Astronaut Class|accessdate=October 4, 2007 |publisher=NASA|year=2007|author=NASA| archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20070927081538/http://www.nasa.gov/home/hqnews/2007/sep/HQ_07196_astronaut_recruitment.html| archivedate= September 27, 2007 | deadurl= no}}</ref> [[Educator Astronaut Project|Mission Specialist Educators]], or "Educator Astronauts", were first selected in 2004, and as of 2007, there are three NASA Educator astronauts: [[Joseph M. Acaba]], [[Richard R. Arnold]], and [[Dorothy Metcalf-Lindenburger]].<ref name="nexgen">{{cite web|url=http://www.nasa.gov/vision/space/preparingtravel/ascan2004.html|title='Next Generation of Explorers' Named|accessdate=October 4, 2007 |publisher=NASA|year=2004|author=NASA}}</ref><ref name="ed">{{cite web|url=http://www.nasa.gov/home/hqnews/2004/oct/HQ_n04160_new_ascans.html|title=NASA's New Astronauts Meet The Press|accessdate=October 4, 2007 | publisher=NASA| year=2004| author=NASA}}</ref> [[Barbara Morgan]], selected as back-up teacher to [[Christa McAuliffe]] in 1985, is considered to be the first Educator astronaut by the media, but she trained as a mission specialist.<ref name="morgan1">{{cite web|url=http://www.jsc.nasa.gov/Bios/htmlbios/morgan.html|title=Barbara Radding Morgan – NASA Astronaut biography|accessdate=October 4, 2007 |publisher=NASA|year=2007|author=NASA| archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20071002195136/http://www.jsc.nasa.gov/Bios/htmlbios/morgan.html| archivedate= October 2, 2007 | deadurl= no}}</ref> The Educator Astronaut program is a successor to the [[Teacher in Space]] program from the 1980s.<ref name="fly">{{cite web|url=http://www.space.com/missionlaunches/space_educator_030203.html |title=NASA Assures That Teachers Will Fly in Space |accessdate=October 4, 2007 |publisher=Space.com |year=2007 |author=Tariq Malik |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/20061125035402/http://www.space.com/missionlaunches/space_educator_030203.html |archivedate=25 November 2006 }}</ref><ref name="autogenerated1">{{cite web|url=http://wwwedu.ssc.nasa.gov/neap.asp|title=Educator Astronaut Program|accessdate=October 4, 2007 |publisher=NASA|year=2005|author=NASA}}</ref> ==Health risks of space travel== {{See also|Effect of spaceflight on the human body|Space medicine}} Astronauts are susceptible to a variety of health risks including [[decompression sickness]], [[barotrauma]], immunodeficiencies, loss of bone and muscle, loss of eyesight, [[orthostatic intolerance]], sleep disturbances, and radiation injury.<ref name="NYT-20140127">{{cite news |last=Chang |first=Kenneth |title=Beings Not Made for Space |url=http://www.nytimes.com/2014/01/28/science/bodies-not-made-for-space.html |date=January 27, 2014 |work=[[New York Times]] |accessdate=January 27, 2014 }}</ref><ref name="Wired-20120723">{{cite web |last=Mann |first=Adam |title=Blindness, Bone Loss, and Space Farts: Astronaut Medical Oddities|url=http://www.wired.com/wiredscience/2012/07/medicine-psychology-space/ |date=July 23, 2012|publisher=[[Wired (magazine)|Wired]] |accessdate=July 23, 2012 }}</ref><ref name="Mader-2011">{{cite journal |author=Mader, T. H. |title=Optic Disc Edema, Globe Flattening, Choroidal Folds, and Hyperopic Shifts Observed in Astronauts after Long-duration Space Flight|url=http://www.ophsource.org/periodicals/ophtha/article/S0161-6420(11)00564-1/abstract|year=2011 |journal=[[Ophthalmology (journal)]] |volume=118 |issue=10 |pages=2058–2069|doi=10.1016/j.ophtha.2011.06.021 |pmid=21849212|display-authors=etal}}</ref><ref name="Puiu-20111109">{{cite web |last=Puiu|first=Tibi |title=Astronauts’ vision severely affected during long space missions|url=http://www.zmescience.com/medicine/astronaut-eyesight-damage-weightlessness-3214143/|date=November 9, 2011 |publisher=zmescience.com |accessdate=February 9, 2012 }}</ref><ref name="CNN-20120109">{{cite web|url=http://www.cnn.com/video/#/video/us/2012/02/09/pkg-zarrella-astronaut-vision.cnn |title=Male Astronauts Return With Eye Problems (video) |date=February 9, 2012 |publisher=CNN News|accessdate=April 25, 2012 }}</ref><ref name="Space-20120313">{{cite web |author=Space Staff|title=Spaceflight Bad for Astronauts' Vision, Study Suggests|url=http://www.space.com/14876-astronaut-spaceflight-vision-problems.html |date=March 13, 2012|publisher=[[Space.com]] |accessdate=March 14, 2012 }}</ref><ref name="Radiology-20120313">{{cite journal |author=Kramer, Larry A. |title=Orbital and Intracranial Effects of Microgravity: Findings at 3-T MR Imaging|url=http://radiology.rsna.org/content/early/2012/03/07/radiol.12111986.abstract?sid=8682af1e-b07f-4ad9-8453-ee319bad639e |journal=[[Radiology (journal)]]|doi=10.1148/radiol.12111986 |date=March 13, 2012 |accessdate=March 14, 2012 |volume=263 |issue=3 |pages=819 |display-authors=etal}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://english.pravda.ru/science/earth/17-12-2008/106841-soviet_cosmonaut-0/ |title=Soviet cosmonauts burnt their eyes in space for USSR’s glory |date=December 17, 2008 |publisher=Pravda.Ru|accessdate=April 25, 2012 }}</ref><ref name="WIRED-20140212">{{cite web |last=Fong, MD |first=Kevin |title=The Strange, Deadly Effects Mars Would Have on Your Body |url=http://www.wired.com/opinion/2014/02/happens-body-mars/ |date=February 12, 2014 |work=[[Wired (magazine)]] |accessdate=February 12, 2014 }}</ref> A variety of large scale medical studies are being conducted in space via the National Space and Biomedical Research Institute (NSBRI) to address these issues. Prominent among these is the [[Advanced Diagnostic Ultrasound in Microgravity]] Study in which astronauts (including former ISS commanders [[Leroy Chiao]] and [[Gennady Padalka]]) perform ultrasound scans under the guidance of remote experts to diagnose and potentially treat hundreds of medical conditions in space. This study's techniques are now being applied to cover professional and Olympic sports injuries as well as ultrasound performed by non-expert operators in medical and high school students. It is anticipated that remote guided ultrasound will have application on Earth in emergency and rural care situations, where access to a trained physician is often rare.<ref>[http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/station/science/experiments/ADUM.html NASA - Advanced Diagnostic Ultrasound in Microgravity<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref><ref>A Pilot Study of Comprehensive Ultrasound Education at the Wayne State University School of Medicine: http://www.jultrasoundmed.org/cgi/content/abstract/27/5/745</ref><ref>Evaluation of Shoulder Integrity in Space: First Report of Musculoskeletal US on the International Space Station: http://radiology.rsna.org/content/234/2/319.abstract</ref> On December 31, 2012, a [[NASA]]-supported study reported that [[manned spaceflight]] may harm the brain and accelerate the onset of [[Alzheimer's disease]].<ref name="PLOS-20121231">{{cite journal |last=Cherry |first=Jonathan D. |last2=Frost |first2=Jeffrey L. |last3=Lemere |first3=Cynthia A. |last4=Williams |first4=Jacqueline P. |last5=Olschowka |first5=John A. |last6=O'Banion |first6=M. Kerry |last7=Liu |first7=Bin |title=Galactic Cosmic Radiation Leads to Cognitive Impairment and Increased Aβ Plaque Accumulation in a Mouse Model of Alzheimer's Disease |url=http://www.plosone.org/article/info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0053275 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0053275 |volume=7 |page=e53275 |journal=[[Plos One]] |accessdate=January 7, 2013 |issue=12 |year=2012 |editor1-last=Feinstein |editor1-first=Douglas L |pmid=23300905 |pmc=3534034|bibcode = 2012PLoSO...753275C }}</ref><ref name="SpaceRef-20130101">{{cite web |author=Staff |title=Study Shows that Space Travel is Harmful to the Brain and Could Accelerate Onset of Alzheimer's |url=http://spaceref.com/news/viewpr.html?pid=39650 |date=January 1, 2013 |publisher=SpaceRef |accessdate=January 7, 2013 }}</ref><ref name="NasaWatch-20130103">{{cite web |last=Cowing |first=Keith |authorlink=Keith Cowing |title=Important Research Results NASA Is Not Talking About (Update) |url=http://nasawatch.com/archives/2013/01/important-resea.html |date=January 3, 2013 |publisher=NASA Watch |accessdate=January 7, 2013 }}</ref> In October 2015, the [[NASA Office of Inspector General]] issued a [[Effect of spaceflight on the human body|health hazards report]] related to [[human space exploration|space exploration]], including a [[human mission to Mars|human mission]] to [[Mars]].<ref name="AP-20151029">{{cite news |last=Dunn |first=Marcia |title=Report: NASA needs better handle on health hazards for Mars |url=http://apnews.excite.com/article/20151029/us-sci-space-travel-health-6dfd5b2c76.html |date=October 29, 2015 |work=[[AP News]] |accessdate=October 30, 2015 }}</ref><ref name="NASA-20151029oig">{{cite web |author=Staff |title=NASA's Efforts to Manage Health and Human Performance Risks for Space Exploration (IG-16-003) |url=https://oig.nasa.gov/audits/reports/FY16/IG-16-003.pdf |format=[[PDF]] |date=October 29, 2015 |work=[[NASA]] |accessdate=October 29, 2015 }}</ref> ==Food and drink== {{main|space food}} An astronaut on the International Space Station requires about 0.83 kilograms (1.83 pounds) weight of food inclusive of food packaging per meal each day. (The packaging for each meal weighs around 0.12 kilograms - 0.27 pounds) Longer-duration missions require more food. Shuttle astronauts worked with nutritionists to select menus that appeal to their individual tastes. Five months before flight, menus are selected and analyzed for nutritional content by the shuttle dietician. Foods are tested to see how they will react in a reduced gravity environment. Caloric requirements are determined using a basal energy expenditure (BEE) formula. On Earth, the average American uses about 35 gallons (132 liters) of water every day. On board the ISS astronauts limit water use to only about three gallons (11 liters) per day.<ref>{{cite web|title=Human Needs: Sustaining Life During Exploration|url=http://www.nasa.gov/vision/earth/everydaylife/jamestown-needs-fs.html|website=www.nasa.gov}}</ref> ==Insignia== In Russia, cosmonauts are awarded [[Pilot-Cosmonaut of the Russian Federation]] upon completion of their missions, often accompanied with the award of [[Hero of the Russian Federation]]. This follows the practice established in the USSR where cosmonauts were usually awarded the title [[Hero of the Soviet Union]]. At NASA, those who complete astronaut candidate training receive a silver [[Astronaut Badge#NASA Astronaut Pins|lapel pin]]. Once they have flown in space, they receive a gold pin. U.S. astronauts who also have active-duty military status receive a special qualification badge, known as the [[Astronaut Badge]], after participation on a spaceflight. The [[United States Air Force]] also presents an Astronaut Badge to its pilots who exceed {{convert|50|mi|km}} in altitude. [[File:amf space mirror.jpg|right|250px|thumb|Space Mirror Memorial]] ==Deaths== {{Main|List of spaceflight-related accidents and incidents#Astronaut fatalities}} Eighteen astronauts (fourteen men and four women) have lost their lives during four space flights. By nationality, thirteen were American (including one of Indian origin), four were Russian ([[Soviet Union]]), and one was Israeli. Eleven people (all men) have lost their lives training for spaceflight: eight Americans and three Russians. Six of these were in crashes of training jet aircraft, one drowned during water recovery training, and four were due to fires in pure oxygen environments. The [[Space Mirror Memorial]], which stands on the grounds of the [[John F. Kennedy Space Center]] Visitor Complex, commemorates the lives of the men and women who have died during spaceflight and during training in the space programs of the United States. In addition to twenty NASA career astronauts, the memorial includes the names of a [[U.S. Air Force]] [[X-15]] test pilot, a U.S. Air Force officer who died while training for a then-classified military space program, and a civilian [[spaceflight participant]]. ==See also== {{Portal|Spaceflight}} {{Columns-list|2| * [[Outer space#Boundary|Boundary of Space]] * [[Commercial astronaut]] * [[Cosmonautics Day]] * [[Fallen Astronaut]] * [[J-Wear]] * [[List of astronauts by name]] * [[List of astronauts by year of selection]] * [[List of cosmonauts]] * [[List of fictional astronauts]] * [[List of human spaceflights]] * [[List of space travelers by name]] * [[List of space travelers by nationality]] * [[Lists of spacewalks and moonwalks]] * [[Mercury 13]] - 13 inactive women astronauts * [[North American X-15]] program * [[Shirley Thomas (USC professor)|Shirley Thomas]] - author, ''Men of Space'' (1960–1968) * [[List of spaceflight records]] * [[Space food]] * [[Space suit]] * [[Timeline of space travel by nationality]] * [[U.S. space exploration history on U.S. stamps]] * [[United States Astronaut Hall of Fame]] * [[Women in space]] * [[Yuri's Night]] }} ==References== {{Reflist|2}} ==External links== {{Wiktionary|cosmonaut|spationaut|astronaut|taikonaut}} {{Commons category|Astronauts}} * [http://spaceflight.nasa.gov/outreach/jobsinfo/astronaut101.html NASA: How to become an astronaut 101] * [http://astronauts.nasa.gov/content/InternationalSpaceAgencies.htm List of International partnership organizations] * [http://www.astronautix.com/fam/phaonaut.htm Encyclopedia Astronautica: Phantom cosmonauts] * [http://www.collectspace.com/sightings/ collectSPACE: Astronaut appearances calendar] * [http://www.spacefacts.de/ spacefacts Spacefacts.de] * [http://space.kursknet.ru/cosmos/english/other/stat_kk.sht Manned astronautics: facts and figures] * [http://astronauts.nasa.gov/content/broch00.htm Astronaut Candidate Brochure online] {{Spaceflight}} {{Portal bar|Spaceflight|Space|Solar System|Astronomy}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Astronauts| ]] [[Category:Science occupations]] [[Category:1959 introductions]] kv7vr7t68ri48yo4lpuuznmxy2ol6og 0 665 713534992 713534970 2016-04-04T16:22:15Z ClueBot NG 13286072 Reverting possible vandalism by [[Special:Contribs/72.10.126.196|72.10.126.196]] to version by Rich Farmbrough. [[WP:CBFP|Report False Positive?]] Thanks, [[WP:CBNG|ClueBot NG]]. (2608909) (Bot) wikitext text/x-wiki {{EngvarB|date=August 2014}} {{Use dmy dates|date=January 2015}} {{Infobox book | name = A Modest Proposal | image = File:A Modest Proposal 1729 Cover.jpg | author = [[Jonathan Swift]] | language = English | subject = | genre = [[Satire|Satirical essay]] | pub_date = 1729 }} '''''A Modest Proposal for Preventing the Children of Poor People From Being a Burthen to Their Parents or Country, and for Making Them Beneficial to the Publick<!-- NOTE: This is the original spelling. Please do not modify it. Thank you. -->''''',<ref name="gutenberg">{{cite web | url=http://www.gutenberg.org/files/1080/1080-h/1080-h.htm | title=A Modest Proposal, by Dr. Jonathan Swift | publisher=[[Project Gutenberg]] | date=27 July 2008 | accessdate=10 January 2012}}</ref> commonly referred to as '''''A Modest Proposal''''', is a [[Juvenal]]ian [[Satire|satirical]] [[essay]] written and published anonymously by [[Jonathan Swift]] in 1729. Swift suggests that the impoverished Irish might ease their economic troubles by selling their children as food for rich gentlemen and ladies. This satirical [[hyperbole]] mocks heartless attitudes towards the poor, as well as British policy toward Ireland in general. In English writing, the phrase "a modest proposal" is now conventionally an allusion to this style of straight-faced satire. ==Details== Swift goes to great lengths to support his argument, including a list of possible preparation styles for the children, and calculations showing the financial benefits of his suggestion. He uses methods of argument throughout his essay which lampoon the then-influential [[William Petty]] and the [[Social engineering (political science)|social engineering]] popular among followers of [[Francis Bacon]]. These lampoons include [[appeal to authority|appealing to the authority]] of "a very knowing American of my acquaintance in London" and "the famous [[George Psalmanazar|Psalmanazar]], a native of the island [[Taiwan|Formosa]]" (who had already confessed to ''not'' being from Formosa in 1706). This essay is widely held to be one of the greatest examples of sustained irony in the history of the English language. Much of its shock value derives from the fact that the first portion of the essay describes the plight of starving beggars in Ireland, so that the reader is unprepared for the surprise of Swift's solution when he states, "A young healthy child well nursed, is, at a year old, a most delicious nourishing and wholesome food, whether stewed, roasted, baked, or boiled; and I make no doubt that it will equally serve in a [[fricassee]], or a [[ragout]]."<ref name="gutenberg" /> In the tradition of Roman satire, Swift introduces the reforms he is actually suggesting by [[paralipsis]]: {{quote|Therefore let no man talk to me of other expedients: Of taxing our absentees at five shillings a pound: Of using neither clothes, nor household furniture, except what is of our own growth and manufacture: Of utterly rejecting the materials and instruments that promote foreign luxury: Of curing the expensiveness of pride, vanity, idleness, and gaming in our women: Of introducing a vein of parsimony, prudence and temperance: Of learning to love our country, wherein we differ even from [[Sami people|Laplanders]], and the [[Tupi people|inhabitants of Topinamboo]]: Of quitting our animosities and factions, nor acting any longer like the Jews, who were [[Zealot Temple Siege|murdering one another]] at the very moment [[Siege of Jerusalem (70)|their city was taken]]: Of being a little cautious not to sell our country and consciences for nothing: Of teaching landlords to have at least one degree of mercy towards their tenants. Lastly, of putting a spirit of honesty, industry, and skill into our shop-keepers, who, if a resolution could now be taken to buy only our native goods, would immediately unite to cheat and exact upon us in the price, the measure, and the goodness, nor could ever yet be brought to make one fair proposal of just dealing, though often and earnestly invited to it. Therefore I repeat, let no man talk to me of these and the like expedients, 'till he hath at least some glympse of hope, that there will ever be some hearty and sincere attempt to put them into practice.}} ==Population solutions== George Wittkowsky argued that Swift’s main target in ''A Modest Proposal'' was not the conditions in Ireland, but rather the can-do spirit of the times that led people to devise a number of illogical schemes that would purportedly solve social and economic ills.<ref name="Wittkowsky_p76">Wittkowsky, ''Swift’s Modest Proposal'', p76</ref> Swift was especially insulted by projects that tried to fix population and labour issues with a simple cure-all solution.<ref name="Wittkowsky_p85">Wittkowsky, ''Swift’s Modest Proposal'', p85</ref> A memorable example of these sorts of schemes "involved the idea of running the poor through a [[joint-stock company]]".<ref name="Wittkowsky_p85"/> In response, Swift's ''Modest Proposal'' was "a burlesque of projects concerning the poor"<ref name="Wittkowsk_p88">Wittkowsky, ''Swift's Modest Proposal'', p88</ref> that were in vogue during the early 18th century. ''A Modest Proposal'' also targets the calculating way people perceived the poor in designing their projects. The pamphlet targets reformers who "regard people as commodities".<ref name="Wittkowsky_p101">Wittkowsky, ''Swift's Modest Proposal'', p101</ref> In the piece, Swift adopts the "technique of a political arithmetician"<ref name="Wittkowsky_p95">Wittkowsky, ''Swift's Modest Proposal'', p95</ref> to show the utter ridiculousness of trying to prove any proposal with dispassionate statistics. Critics differ about Swift's intentions in using this faux-mathematical philosophy. Edmund Wilson argues that statistically "the logic of the 'Modest proposal' can be compared with defense of crime (arrogated to Marx) in which he argues that crime takes care of the superfluous population".<ref name="Wittkowsky_p95"/> Wittkowsky counters that Swift's satiric use of statistical analysis is an effort to enhance his satire that "springs from a spirit of bitter mockery, not from the delight in calculations for their own sake".<ref name="Wittkowsky_p98">Wittkowsky, ''Swift's Modest Proposal'', p98</ref> ==Rhetoric== Charles K. Smith argues that Swift's rhetorical style persuades the reader to detest the speaker and pity the Irish. Swift's specific strategy is twofold, using a "trap"<ref name="Smith_p135">Smith, ''Toward a Participatory Rhetoric'', p. 135</ref> to create sympathy for the Irish and a dislike of the narrator who, in the span of one sentence, "details vividly and with rhetorical emphasis the grinding poverty" but feels emotion solely for members of his own class.<ref name="Smith_p136">Smith, ''Toward a Participatory Rhetoric'', p. 136</ref> Swift's use of gripping details of poverty and his narrator's cool approach towards them create "two opposing points of view" that "alienate the reader, perhaps unconsciously, from a narrator who can view with 'melancholy' detachment a subject that Swift has directed us, rhetorically, to see in a much less detached way."<ref name="Smith_p136"/> Swift has his proposer further degrade the Irish by using language ordinarily reserved for animals. Lewis argues that the speaker uses "the vocabulary of animal husbandry"<ref name="Smith_p138">Smith, ''Toward a Participatory Rhetoric'', p. 138</ref> to describe the Irish. Once the children have been commodified, Swift's rhetoric can easily turn "people into animals, then meat, and from meat, logically, into tonnage worth a price per pound".<ref name="Smith_p138"/> Swift uses the proposer's serious tone to highlight the absurdity of his proposal. In making his argument, the speaker uses the conventional, text book approved order of argument from Swift's time (which was derived from the Latin rhetorician [[Quintilian]]).<ref name="Smith_p139">Smith, ''Toward a Participatory Rhetoric'', p. 139</ref> The contrast between the "careful control against the almost inconceivable perversion of his scheme" and "the ridiculousness of the proposal" create a situation in which the reader has "to consider just what perverted values and assumptions would allow such a diligent, thoughtful, and conventional man to propose so perverse a plan".<ref name="Smith_p139"/> ==Influences== Scholars have speculated about which earlier works Swift may have had in mind when he wrote ''A Modest Proposal''. ===Tertullian's ''Apology''=== James Johnson argued that ''A Modest Proposal'' was largely influenced and inspired by [[Tertullian]]'s ''[[Apologeticus|Apology]]'': a satirical attack against early Roman persecution of Christianity. James William Johnson believes that Swift saw major similarities between the two situations.<ref name="Johnson_p563">Johnson, ''Tertullian and A Modest Proposal'', p563</ref> Johnson notes Swift's obvious affinity for Tertullian and the bold stylistic and structural similarities between the works ''A Modest Proposal'' and ''Apology''.<ref name="Johnson_p562">Johnson, ''Tertullian and A Modest Proposal'', p562</ref> In structure, Johnson points out the same central theme, that of cannibalism and the eating of babies as well as the same final argument, that "human depravity is such that men will attempt to justify their own cruelty by accusing their victims of being lower than human."<ref name="Johnson_p563"/> Stylistically, Swift and Tertullian share the same command of sarcasm and language.<ref name="Johnson_p563"/> In agreement with Johnson, Donald C. Baker points out the similarity between both authors' tones and use of irony. Baker notes the uncanny way that both authors imply an ironic "justification by ownership" over the subject of sacrificing children—Tertullian while attacking pagan parents, and Swift while attacking the English mistreatment of the Irish poor.<ref name="Baker_p219">Baker, ''Tertullian and Swift's A Modest Proposal'', p219</ref> ===Defoe's ''The Generous Projector''=== It has also been argued that ''A Modest Proposal'' was, at least in part, a response to the 1728 essay ''The Generous Projector or, A Friendly Proposal to Prevent Murder and Other Enormous Abuses, By Erecting an Hospital for Foundlings and Bastard Children'' by Swift's rival [[Daniel Defoe]].<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.montrealmirror.com/2009/021909/books1.html | title=A modest but failed proposal | work=[[Montreal Mirror]] | date=19 February 2009 | accessdate=10 January 2012 | last=Waters | first=Juliet}}</ref> ==Economic themes== Robert Phiddian's article "Have you eaten yet? The Reader in A Modest Proposal" focuses on two aspects of ''A Modest Proposal'': the voice of Swift and the voice of the Proposer. Phiddian stresses that a reader of the pamphlet must learn to distinguish between the satiric voice of Jonathan Swift and the apparent economic projections of the Proposer. He reminds readers that "there is a gap between the narrator's meaning and the text's, and that a moral-political argument is being carried out by means of parody".<ref name="Phiddian_p6">Phiddian, ''Have You Eaten Yet?'', p6</ref> While Swift's proposal is obviously not a serious economic proposal, George Wittkowsky, author of "Swift's Modest Proposal: The Biography of an Early Georgian Pamphlet", argues that to understand the piece fully, it is important to understand the economics of Swift’s time. Wittowsky argues that not enough critics have taken the time to focus directly on the mercantilism and theories of labour in 18th century England. "[I]f one regards the ''Modest Proposal'' simply as a criticism of condition, about all one can say is that conditions were bad and that Swift's irony brilliantly underscored this fact".<ref name="Phiddian_p3">Phiddian, ''Have You Eaten Yet?'', p3</ref> ==="People are the riches of a nation"=== At the start of a new industrial age in the 18th century, it was believed that "people are the riches of the nation", and there was a general faith in an economy that paid its workers low wages because high wages meant workers would work less.<ref name="Phiddian_p4">Phiddian, ''Have You Eaten Yet?'', p4</ref> Furthermore, "in the mercantilist view no child was too young to go into industry". In those times, the "somewhat more humane attitudes of an earlier day had all but disappeared and the laborer had come to be regarded as a commodity".<ref name="Phiddian_p6"/> Louis A. Landa presents Swift's ''A Modest Proposal'' as a critique of the popular and unjustified maxim of mercantilism in the 18th century that "people are the riches of a nation".<ref name="Landa_p161">Landa, ''A Modest Proposal and Populousness'', p161</ref> Swift presents the dire state of Ireland and shows that mere population itself, in Ireland's case, did not always mean greater wealth and economy.<ref name="Landa_p165">Landa, ''A Modest Proposal and Populousness'', p165</ref> The uncontrolled maxim fails to take into account that a person who does not produce in an economic or political way makes a country poorer, not richer.<ref name="Landa_p165"/> Swift also recognises the implications of such a fact in making mercantilist philosophy a paradox: the wealth of a country is based on the poverty of the majority of its citizens.<ref name="Landa_p165"/> Swift however, Landa argues, is not merely criticising economic maxims but also addressing the fact that England was denying Irish citizens their natural rights and dehumanising them by viewing them as a mere commodity.<ref name="Landa_p165"/> ==Modern usage== ''A Modest Proposal'' is included in many literature programs as an example of [[Satire#Early modern western satire|early modern western satire]]. It also serves as an exceptional introduction to the concept and use of argumentative language, lending itself well to secondary and post-secondary essay courses. Outside of the realm of English studies, ''A Modest Proposal'' is a relevant piece included in many comparative and global literature and history courses, as well as those of numerous other disciplines in the arts, humanities, and even the social sciences. The essay has been emulated many times. In his book ''A Modest Proposal'' (1984), evangelical author [[Frank Schaeffer]] emulated Swift's work in social conservative polemic against abortion and [[euthanasia]] in a future [[dystopia]] that advocated [[recycling]] of aborted [[embryos]] and [[fetuses]], as well as some disabled infants with compound intellectual, physical and physiological difficulties. (Such [[Baby Doe Rules]] cases were then a major concern of the [[pro-life]] movement of the early 1980s, which viewed selective treatment of those infants as [[disability discrimination]].) In his book ''A Modest Proposal for America'' (2013), statistician [[Howard Friedman]] opens with a satirical reflection of the extreme drive to fiscal stability by ultra-conservatives. [[Hunter S. Thompson]]'s ''[[Fear and Loathing in America|Fear and Loathing in America: The Brutal Odyssey of an Outlaw Journalist]]'', which contains hundreds of private letters written by Thompson over the years, contains a letter in which he uses ''A Modest Proposal'''s satire technique against the [[Vietnam War]]. Thompson writes a letter to a local [[Aspen, Colorado|Aspen]] newspaper informing them that, on Christmas Eve, he was going to use [[napalm]] to burn a number of dogs and hopefully any humans they find. This letter protests the burning of Vietnamese people occurring overseas. ==Notes== {{Reflist|2}} ==References== * {{citation | last = Baker | first = Donald C | title = Tertullian and Swift's ''A Modest Proposal'' | journal = The Classical Journal | volume = 52 | year = 1957 | pages = 219–220}} * {{citation | last = Johnson | first = James William | title = Tertullian and ''A Modest Proposal'' | journal = Modern Language and Notes | volume = 73 | year = 1958 | pages = 561–563 | doi = 10.2307/3043246 | issue = 8 | format = | jstor = 3043246 | publisher = The Johns Hopkins University Press }} (subscription needed) * {{citation | last = Landa | first = Louis A | title = ''A Modest Proposal'' and Populousness | journal = Modern Philology | volume = 40 | year = 1942 | issue = 2 | pages = 161–170 | doi = 10.1086/388567}} * {{citation | last = Phiddian | first = Robert | title = Have You Eaten Yet? The Reader in ''A Modest Proposal'' | journal = Studies in English Literature, 1500–1900 | pages = 603–621 | volume = 36 | issue = 3 | year = 1996 | doi = 10.2307/450801 | jstor = 450801 | publisher = Rice University}} * {{citation | last = Smith | first = Charles Kay | title = Toward a Participatory Rhetoric: Teaching Swift's ''Modest Proposal'' | journal = College English | volume = 30 | issue = 2 | year = 1968 | pages = 135–149 | doi = 10.2307/374449 | jstor = 374449 | publisher = National Council of Teachers of English}} * {{citation | last = Wittkowsky | first = George | title = Swift's ''Modest Proposal'': The Biography of an Early Georgian Pamphlet | journal = Journal of the History of Ideas | volume = 4 | issue = 1 | year = 1943 | pages = 75–104 | doi = 10.2307/2707237 | jstor = 2707237 | publisher = University of Pennsylvania Press}} ==External links== {{wikisource|A Modest Proposal}} * [http://www.ucc.ie/celt/online/E700001-022 ''A Modest Proposal'' (CELT)] * [http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/1080 ''A Modest Proposal'' (Gutenberg)] * {{librivox book | title= A Modest Proposal | author=H. Jonathan Swift}} * [http://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b00h3650 ''A Modest Proposal''] BBC Radio 4 ''[[In Our Time (BBC Radio 4)|In Our Time]]'' with [[Melvyn Bragg]] * '[http://books.google.it/books?id=t1MJAAAAQAAJ ''A modest proposal For preventing the children of poor people From being a Burthen to their Parents or the Country, And for making them Beneficial to the publick'']. The Third Edition, Dublin, Printed: And Reprinted at London, for Weaver Bickerton, in Devereux-Court near the Middle-Temple, 1730. {{Jonathan Swift|state=expanded}} {{Population}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Modest Proposal, A}} [[Category:Essays by Jonathan Swift]] [[Category:Satirical works]] [[Category:Pamphlets]] [[Category:18th-century essays]] [[Category:Works published anonymously]] [[Category:British satire]] [[Category:1729 in Great Britain]] [[Category:Cannibalism in fiction]] [[Category:1729 works]] rq61cmfzdl65xx2lmvfiplsctxtaoyt 0 666 717054770 714200576 2016-04-25T13:22:34Z Petergans 3878156 /* Biological role and precautions */ reference to new book wikitext text/x-wiki {{distinguish|Alkaline earth metal}} {{good article}} {{Periodic table (alkali metals)}} The '''alkali metals''' are a [[group (periodic table)|group]] (column) in the [[periodic table]] consisting of the [[chemical element]]s [[lithium]] (Li), [[sodium]] (Na), [[potassium]] (K),<ref group=note>The symbols '''Na''' and '''K''' for sodium and potassium are derived from their [[Latin name]]s, ''natrium'' and ''kalium''; these are still the names for the elements in some languages, such as German and Russian.</ref> [[rubidium]] (Rb), [[caesium]] (Cs),{{refn|''Caesium'' is the spelling recommended by the [[International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry]] (IUPAC).<ref>{{RedBook2005|pages=248–49}}.</ref> The [[American Chemical Society]] (ACS) has used the spelling ''cesium'' since 1921,<ref>{{Cite book | editor1-first = Anne M. | editor1-last = Coghill | editor2-first = Lorrin R. | editor2-last = Garson | year = 2006 | title = The ACS Style Guide: Effective Communication of Scientific Information | edition = 3rd | publisher = American Chemical Society | location = Washington, D.C. | isbn = 0-8412-3999-1 | page = 127}}.</ref><ref>{{Cite journal | journal=Pure Appl. Chem. | volume=70 | issue=1 | last1=Coplen | pages = 237–257 | year = 1998 | first1=T. B. | url = http://old.iupac.org/reports/1998/7001coplen/history.pdf | last2=Peiser | first2=H. S. | title = History of the recommended atomic-weight values from 1882 to 1997: a comparison of differences from current values to the estimated uncertainties of earlier values | doi = 10.1351/pac199870010237}}.</ref> following ''Webster’s Third New International Dictionary''.|group=note}} and [[francium]] (Fr). This group lies in the [[s-block]] of the periodic table of elements as all alkali metals have their outermost electron in an [[atomic orbital|s-orbital]]: this element/electron configuration results in their characteristic properties. The alkali metals provide the best example of [[periodic trends|group trends]] in properties in the periodic table, with elements exhibiting well-characterized [[homology (chemistry)|homologous]] behaviour. The alkali metals have very similar properties: they are all shiny, [[hardness|soft]], highly [[reactivity (chemistry)|reactive]] metals at [[standard temperature and pressure]] and readily lose their [[valence electron|outermost electron]] to form [[cation]]s with [[electric charge|charge]] +1. They can all be cut easily with a knife due to their softness, exposing a shiny surface that tarnishes rapidly in air due to [[redox|oxidation]] by atmospheric moisture and [[oxygen]]. Because of their high reactivity, they must be stored under oil to prevent reaction with air, and are found naturally only in [[salt (chemistry)|salts]] and never as the free element. In the modern [[International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry|IUPAC]] nomenclature, the alkali metals comprise the '''group 1 elements''',{{refn|In both the old IUPAC and the [[Chemical Abstracts Service|CAS]] systems for group numbering, this group is known as '''group IA''' (pronounced as "group one A", as the "I" is a [[Roman numeral]]).<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Fluck |first1=E. |year=1988 |title=New Notations in the Periodic Table |journal=[[Pure and Applied Chemistry|Pure Appl. Chem.]] |volume=60 |issue=3 |pages=431–436 |publisher=[[International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry|IUPAC]] |doi=10.1351/pac198860030431 |url=http://www.iupac.org/publications/pac/1988/pdf/6003x0431.pdf |accessdate=24 March 2012 }}</ref>|name=group-numbering|group=note}} excluding [[hydrogen]] (H), which is nominally a group 1 element but not normally considered to be an alkali metal as it rarely exhibits behaviour comparable to that of the alkali metals. All the alkali metals react with water, with the heavier alkali metals reacting more vigorously than the lighter ones. All of the discovered alkali metals occur in nature: in order of [[abundance of the chemical elements|abundance]], sodium is the most abundant, followed by potassium, lithium, rubidium, caesium, and finally francium, which is very rare due to its extremely high [[radioactivity]]; francium occurs only in [[trace radioisotope|traces]], the product of natural [[decay chain]]s. Experiments have been conducted to attempt the synthesis of [[ununennium]] (Uue), which is likely to be the next member of the group, but they have all met with failure. However, ununennium may not be an alkali metal due to [[relativistic quantum chemistry|relativistic effects]], which are predicted to have a large influence on the chemical properties of [[superheavy element]]s; even if it does turn out to be an alkali metal, it is predicted to have some differences in physical and chemical properties from its lighter homologues. Most alkali metals have many different applications. One of the best-known applications of the pure elements the use of rubidium and caesium in [[atomic clock]]s, of which caesium atomic clocks are the most accurate and precise representation of time. A common application of the compounds of sodium is the [[sodium-vapour lamp]], which emits very efficient light. [[Salt|Table salt]], or sodium chloride, has been used since antiquity. Sodium and potassium are also [[essential element]]s, having major biological roles as [[electrolyte]]s, and although the other alkali metals are not essential, they also have various effects on the body, both beneficial and harmful. __TOC__ {{clear left}} ==Properties== ===Physical and chemical=== The physical and chemical properties of the alkali metals can be readily explained by their having an ns<sup>1</sup> valence [[electron configuration]], which results in weak [[metallic bonding]]. Hence, all the alkali metals are soft and have low [[density|densities]],<ref name="rsc"/> [[melting point|melting]]<ref name="rsc"/> and [[boiling point]]s,<ref name="rsc"/> as well as [[heat of sublimation|heats of sublimation]], [[heat of vaporization|vaporisation]], and [[heat of dissociation|dissociation]]<ref name="Greenwood&Earnshaw"/>{{rp|74}} They all crystallize in the [[body-centered cubic]] crystal structure,<ref name=Greenwood&Earnshaw/>{{rp|73}} and have distinctive [[flame test|flame colours]] because their outer s electron is very easily excited.<ref name=Greenwood&Earnshaw/>{{rp|75}} The ns<sup>1</sup> configuration also results in the alkali metals having very large [[atomic radius|atomic]] and [[ionic radius|ionic radii]], as well as high [[thermal conductivity|thermal]] and [[electrical conductivity]].<ref name=Greenwood&Earnshaw/>{{rp|75}} Their chemistry is dominated by the loss of their lone valence electron to form the +1 oxidation state, due to the ease of ionizing this electron and the very high second ionization energy.<ref name=Greenwood&Earnshaw/>{{rp|76}} Most of the chemistry has been observed only for the first five members of the group. The chemistry of francium is not well established due to its extreme [[radioactive decay|radioactivity]];<ref name="rsc" /> thus, the presentation of its properties here is limited. <div style="float: right; margin: 1px; font-size:85%;"> {| class="wikitable" |+ Properties of the alkali metals<ref name=Greenwood&Earnshaw/>{{rp|75}}<ref name=generalchemistry/> ! Name ! Lithium ! Sodium ! Potassium ! Rubidium ! Caesium ! Francium |- | style="background:lightgrey; text-align:left;"|Atomic number | 3 || 11 || 19 || 37 || 55 || 87 |- | style="background:lightgrey; text-align:left;"|Standard [[atomic weight]]&nbsp;([[unified atomic mass unit|u]]){{refn|The number given in [[bracket|parentheses]] refers to the [[Standard uncertainty|measurement uncertainty]]. This uncertainty applies to the [[significant figure|least significant figure]](s) of the number prior to the parenthesized value (ie. counting from rightmost digit to left). For instance, {{val|1.00794|(7)}} stands for {{val|1.00794|0.00007}}, while {{val|1.00794|(72)}} stands for {{val|1.00794|0.00072}}.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://physics.nist.gov/cgi-bin/cuu/Info/Constants/definitions.html|title=Standard Uncertainty and Relative Standard Uncertainty|work=[[CODATA]] reference|publisher=[[National Institute of Standards and Technology]]|accessdate=26 September 2011}}</ref>|group=note}}<ref name="atomicweights2007">{{cite journal |last1=Wieser |first1=Michael E. |last2=Berglund |first2=Michael |year=2009 |title=Atomic weights of the elements 2007 (IUPAC Technical Report) |journal=[[Pure and Applied Chemistry|Pure Appl. Chem.]] |volume=81 |issue=11 |pages= 2131–2156 |publisher=[[International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry|IUPAC]] |doi=10.1351/PAC-REP-09-08-03 |url=http://iupac.org/publications/pac/pdf/2009/pdf/8111x2131.pdf |accessdate=7 February 2012 }}</ref><ref name="atomicweights2009">{{cite journal |last1=Wieser |first1=Michael E. |last2=Coplen |first2=Tyler B. |year=2011 |title=Atomic weights of the elements 2009 (IUPAC Technical Report) |journal=[[Pure and Applied Chemistry|Pure Appl. Chem.]] |volume=83 |issue=2 |pages=359–396 |publisher=[[International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry|IUPAC]] |doi=10.1351/PAC-REP-10-09-14 |url=http://iupac.org/publications/pac/pdf/2011/pdf/8302x0359.pdf |accessdate=11 February 2012 }}</ref> | 6.94(1){{refn|The value listed is the conventional value suitable for trade and commerce; the actual value may range from 6.938 to 6.997 depending on the isotopic composition of the sample.<ref name="atomicweights2009"/>|group=note}} || 22.98976928(2) || 39.0983(1) || 85.4678(3) || 132.9054519(2) || [223]{{refn|The element does not have any stable [[nuclide]]s, and a value in brackets indicates the [[mass number]] of the longest-lived [[isotope]] of the element.<ref name="atomicweights2007"/><ref name="atomicweights2009"/>|group=note}} |- | style="background:lightgrey; text-align:left;"|[[Electron configuration]] | &#91;[[Helium|He]]&#93; 2s<sup>1</sup> || &#91;[[Neon|Ne]]&#93; 3s<sup>1</sup> || &#91;[[Argon|Ar]]&#93; 4s<sup>1</sup> || &#91;[[Krypton|Kr]]&#93; 5s<sup>1</sup> || &#91;[[Xenon|Xe]]&#93; 6s<sup>1</sup> || &#91;[[Radon|Rn]]&#93; 7s<sup>1</sup> |- | style="background:lightgrey; text-align:left;"|[[Melting point]] | 453.69&nbsp;[[Kelvin|K]]<br>180.54&nbsp;[[Celsius|°C]]<br>356.97&nbsp;[[Fahrenheit|°F]] || 370.87&nbsp;K<br>97.72&nbsp;°C<br>207.9&nbsp;°F || 336.53&nbsp;K,<br>63.38&nbsp;°C,<br>146.08&nbsp;°F || 312.467&nbsp;K,<br>39.31&nbsp;°C,<br>102.76&nbsp;°F || 301.59&nbsp;K,<br>28.44&nbsp;°C,<br>83.19&nbsp;°F || ?&nbsp;300&nbsp;K,<br>?&nbsp;27&nbsp;°C,<br>?&nbsp;80&nbsp;°F{{refn|Francium's melting point was claimed to have been calculated to be around 27&nbsp;°C (80&nbsp;°F, 300&nbsp;K).<ref name="losalamos">{{cite web| title = Francium| publisher = Los Alamos National Laboratory|date = 15 December 2003| url = http://periodic.lanl.gov/87.shtml|accessdate =19 February 2012}}</ref> However, the melting point is uncertain because of the element's extreme rarity and radioactivity. Thus, the estimated boiling point value of 677&nbsp;°C (1250&nbsp;°F, 950&nbsp;K) is also uncertain.|name=Fr-melt|group=note}} |- | style="background:lightgrey; text-align:left;"|[[Boiling point]] | 1615&nbsp;K,<br>1342&nbsp;°C,<br>2448&nbsp;°F || 1156&nbsp;K,<br>883&nbsp;°C,<br>1621&nbsp;°F || 1032&nbsp;K,<br>759&nbsp;°C,<br>1398&nbsp;°F || 961&nbsp;K,<br>688&nbsp;°C,<br>1270&nbsp;°F || 944&nbsp;K,<br>671&nbsp;°C,<br>1240&nbsp;°F || ?&nbsp;950&nbsp;K,<br>?&nbsp;677&nbsp;°C,<br>?&nbsp;1250&nbsp;°F<ref name="apsidium-Fr">{{cite web |url=http://www.apsidium.com/elements/087.htm |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080509155648/http://www.apsidium.com/elements/087.htm |archivedate=9 May 2008 |title=Francium |author=Klehr, Wolfram |date=21 May 2007 |work=apsidium.com |accessdate=25 April 2012}}</ref><ref name="Fr-melt" group="note"/> |- | style="background:lightgrey; text-align:left;"|[[Density]]&nbsp;(g·cm<sup>−3</sup>) | 0.534 || 0.968 || 0.89 || 1.532 || 1.93 || ? 1.87 |- | style="background:lightgrey; text-align:left;"|[[Heat of fusion]]&nbsp;(kJ·mol<sup>−1</sup>) | 3.00 || 2.60 || 2.321 || 2.19 || 2.09 || ? 2 |- | style="background:lightgrey; text-align:left;"|[[Heat of vaporization|Heat of vaporisation]]&nbsp;(kJ·mol<sup>−1</sup>) | 136 || 97.42 || 79.1 || 69 || 66.1 || ? 65 |- | style="background:lightgrey; text-align:left;"|[[Heat of formation]]&nbsp;of&nbsp;monatomic&nbsp;gas&nbsp;(kJ·mol<sup>−1</sup>) | 162 || 108 || 89.6 || 82.0 || 78.2 || ? |- | style="background:lightgrey; text-align:left;"|[[Electrical resistivity]]&nbsp;at&nbsp;298&nbsp;K&nbsp;(n[[ohm|Ω]]·[[centimeter|cm]]) | 94.7 || 48.8 || 73.9 || 131 || 208 || ? |- | style="background:lightgrey; text-align:left;"|[[Atomic radius]]&nbsp;([[picometer|pm]]) | 152 || 186 || 227 || 248 || 265 || ? |- | style="background:lightgrey; text-align:left;"|[[Ionic radius]] of M<sup>+</sup> ion&nbsp;(pm)<ref group="note">The quoted values are for the [[coordination number|tetracoordinate]] ions, except for Rb<sup>+</sup> and Cs<sup>+</sup> where they are for the hexacoordinate ion.</ref> | 76 || 102 || 138 || 152 || 167 || ? 180 |- | style="background:lightgrey; text-align:left;"|First [[ionization energy|ionisation energy]]&nbsp;([[kilojoule per mole|kJ·mol<sup>−1</sup>]]) | 520.2 || 495.8 || 418.8 || 403.0 || 375.7 || 392.8<ref name="andreev">{{cite journal | author = Andreev, S.V.; Letokhov, V.S.; Mishin, V.I., | title = Laser resonance photoionization spectroscopy of Rydberg levels in Fr | url = http://link.aps.org/abstract/PRL/v59/p1274 | journal = [[Physical Review Letters|Phys. Rev. Lett.]] | year = 1987 | volume = 59 | pages = 1274–76 | doi = 10.1103/PhysRevLett.59.1274 | pmid=10035190 | bibcode=1987PhRvL..59.1274A | issue = 12}}</ref> |- | style="background:lightgrey; text-align:left;"|[[Electron affinity]]&nbsp;(kJ·mol<sup>−1</sup>) | 59.62 || 52.87 || 48.38 || 46.89 || 45.51 || ? 47.2<ref name=Landaualkalis>{{cite journal | last1 = Landau | first1 = A. | last2 = Eliav | first2 = E. | last3 = Ishikawa | first3 = Y. | last4 = Kaldor | first4 = U. | year = 2001 | title = Benchmark calculations of electron affinities of the alkali atoms sodium to eka-francium (element 119) | url = | journal = J. Chem. Phys. | volume = 115 | issue = | page = 2389 | doi = 10.1063/1.1386413 }}</ref> |- | style="background:lightgrey; text-align:left;"|[[Enthalpy of dissociation]]&nbsp;of&nbsp;M<sub>2</sub>&nbsp;(kJ·mol<sup>−1</sup>) | 106.5 || 73.6 || 57.3 || 45.6 || 44.77 || ? 42.1<ref name=Liddle>{{cite book |last1=Jones |first1=Cameron |last2=Mountford |first2=Philip |last3=Stasch |first3=Andreas |last4=Blake |first4=Matthew P. |editor-last=Liddle |editor-first=Stephen T. |title=Molecular Metal-Metal Bonds: Compounds, Synthesis, Properties |publisher=John Wiley and Sons |date=22 June 2015 |pages=23–24 |chapter=s-block Metal-Metal Bonds |isbn=9783527335411}}</ref> |- | style="background:lightgrey; text-align:left;"|Pauling [[electronegativity]] | 0.98 || 0.93 || 0.82 || 0.82 || 0.79 || ? 0.7{{refn|[[Linus Pauling]] estimated the electronegativity of francium at 0.7 on the [[Pauling scale]], the same as caesium;<ref>{{cite book| last = Pauling| first = Linus| title = The Nature of the Chemical Bond|edition = Third| authorlink = Linus Pauling| publisher = Cornell University Press| year = 1960| isbn = 978-0-8014-0333-0| page = 93}}</ref> the value for caesium has since been refined to 0.79, although there are no experimental data to allow a refinement of the value for francium.<ref>{{cite journal |author= Allred, A. L. |year= 1961 |journal= J. Inorg. Nucl. Chem.|volume= 17 |issue= 3–4 |pages= 215–221 |title= Electronegativity values from thermochemical data |doi= 10.1016/0022-1902(61)80142-5}}</ref> Francium has a slightly higher ionization energy than caesium,<ref name="andreev"/> 392.811(4)&nbsp;kJ/mol as opposed to 375.7041(2)&nbsp;kJ/mol for caesium, as would be expected from [[Relativistic quantum chemistry|relativistic effects]], and this would imply that caesium is the less electronegative of the two.|name=Fr-electronegativity|group=note}} |- | style="background:lightgrey; text-align:left;"|[[Standard electrode potential]] (''E''°(M<sup>+</sup>→M<sup>0</sup>); [[volt|V]]) | −3.0405 || −2.714 || −2.925 || −2.925 || −2.923 || ? |- | style="background:lightgrey; text-align:left;"|[[Flame test]] colour<br/>Principal emission/absorption wavelength&nbsp;([[nanometer|nm]]) | Crimson<br>670.8 || Yellow<br>589.2 || Violet<br>766.5 || [[Red-violet]]<br>780.0 || Blue<br>455.5 || ? |} </div> The alkali metals are more similar to each other than the elements in any other [[group (periodic table)|group]] are to each other.<ref name="rsc" /> For instance, when moving down the table, all known alkali metals show increasing [[atomic radius]],<ref name="chemguide"/> decreasing [[electronegativity]],<ref name="chemguide">{{cite web |url=http://www.chemguide.co.uk/inorganic/group1/properties.html |title=Atomic and Physical Properties of the Group 1 Elements |author=Clark, Jim |year=2005 |work=chemguide |accessdate=30 January 2012}}</ref> increasing [[Reactivity (chemistry)|reactivity]],<ref name="rsc" /> and decreasing melting and boiling points<ref name="chemguide" /> as well as heats of fusion and vaporisation.<ref name="Greenwood&Earnshaw"/>{{rp|75}} In general, their [[density|densities]] increase when moving down the table, with the exception that potassium is less dense than sodium.<ref name="chemguide" /> One of the very few properties of the alkali metals that does not display a very smooth trend is their [[reduction potential]]s: lithium's value is anomalous, being more negative than the others.<ref name="Greenwood&Earnshaw"/>{{rp|75}} This is because the Li<sup>+</sup> ion has a very high [[hydration energy]] in the gas phase: though the lithium ion disrupts the structure of water significantly, causing a higher change in entropy, this high hydration energy is enough to make the reduction potentials indicate it as being the most electropositive alkali metal, despite the difficulty of ionizing it in the gas phase.<ref name="Greenwood&Earnshaw"/>{{rp|75}} The stable alkali metals are all silver-coloured metals except for caesium, which has a golden tint:<ref name="theodoregray-caesium">{{cite web |url=http://www.theodoregray.com/periodictable/Elements/055/index.s7.html |title=Facts, pictures, stories about the element Cesium in the Periodic Table |author=[[Theodore Gray|Gray, Theodore]] |work=The Wooden Periodic Table Table |accessdate=13 January 2012}}</ref> it is one of only three metals that are clearly coloured (the other two being copper and gold).<ref name=Greenwood&Earnshaw/>{{rp|74}} Additionally, the heavy [[alkaline earth metal]]s [[calcium]], [[strontium]], and [[barium]], as well as the divalent [[lanthanide]]s [[europium]] and [[ytterbium]], are pale yellow, though the colour is much less prominent than it is for caesium.<ref name=Greenwood&Earnshaw/>{{rp|74}} Their lustre tarnishes rapidly in air due to oxidation.<ref name="rsc"/> They all crystallize in the [[body-centered cubic]] crystal structure,<ref name=Greenwood&Earnshaw/>{{rp|73}} and have distinctive [[flame test|flame colours]] because their outer s electron is very easily excited.<ref name=Greenwood&Earnshaw/>{{rp|75}} [[File:Cesium water.theora.ogv|thumb|right|Caesium reacts explosively with water even at low temperatures]] All the alkali metals are highly reactive and are never found in elemental forms in nature.<ref name="krebs" /> Because of this, they are usually stored in [[mineral oil]] or [[kerosene]] (paraffin oil).<ref name="OU">{{cite web |url=http://www.open.edu/openlearn/science-maths-technology/science/chemistry/alkali-metals |title=Alkali metals |author=The OpenLearn team |year=2012 |work=OpenLearn |publisher=The Open University |accessdate=9 July 2012}}</ref> They react aggressively with the [[halogen]]s to form the [[alkali metal halide]]s, which are white [[ionic crystal|ionic crystalline compounds]] that are all [[solubility|soluble]] in water except [[lithium fluoride]] ([[lithium|Li]][[fluorine|F]]).<ref name="rsc"/> The alkali metals also react with water to form strongly [[alkali]]ne [[hydroxide]]s and thus should be handled with great care. The heavier alkali metals react more vigorously than the lighter ones; for example, when dropped into water, caesium produces a larger explosion than potassium.<ref name="rsc"/><ref name="alkalibangs">{{cite web|last=Gray|first=Theodore|title=Alkali Metal Bangs|url=http://www.theodoregray.com/periodictable/AlkaliBangs/index.html|publisher=[[Theodore Gray]]|accessdate=13 May 2012}}</ref><ref name="pubs.usgs" /> The alkali metals have the lowest first [[ionization energy|ionisation energies]] in their respective periods of the [[periodic table]]<ref name="RubberBible84th">{{cite book | editor = Lide, D. R. | title = CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics | edition = 84th | location = Boca Raton, FL | publisher = CRC Press | year = 2003 }}</ref> because of their low [[effective nuclear charge]]<ref name="rsc"/> and the ability to attain a [[noble gas]] configuration by losing just one [[electron]]. The second ionisation energy of all of the alkali metals is very high<ref name="rsc"/><ref name="RubberBible84th" /><!--the second ionisation energy for francium is not given in [[ionization energies of the elements (data page)]]--> as it is in a full shell that is also closer to the nucleus;<ref name="rsc"/> thus, they almost always lose a single electron, forming cations.<ref name="Greenwood&Earnshaw"/>{{rp|28}} The [[alkalide]]s are an exception: they are unstable compounds which contain alkali metals in a −1 oxidation state, which is very unusual as before the discovery of the alkalides, the alkali metals were not expected to be able to form [[anion]]s and were thought to be able to appear in [[salt (chemistry)|salts]] only as cations. The alkalide anions have filled [[s-orbital|s-subshells]], which gives them more stability and allows them to exist. All the stable alkali metals except lithium are known to be able to form alkalides,<ref>{{cite journal | journal = [[J. Am. Chem. Soc.]] | author = J. L. Dye, J. M. Ceraso, Mei Lok Tak, B. L. Barnett, F. J. Tehan | title = Crystalline salt of the sodium anion (Na<sup>−</sup>) | year = 1974 | volume = 96 | issue = 2 | pages = 608–609 | doi = 10.1021/ja00809a060 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | author = F. J. Tehan, B. L. Barnett, J. L. Dye | title = Alkali anions. Preparation and crystal structure of a compound which contains the cryptated sodium cation and the sodium anion | journal = [[J. Am. Chem. Soc.]] | year = 1974 | volume = 96 | issue = 23 | pages = 7203–7208 | doi = 10.1021/ja00830a005 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | journal = [[Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. Engl.]] | year = 1979 | author = J. L. Dye | title = Compounds of Alkali Metal Anions | volume = 18 | issue = 8 | pages = 587–598 | doi = 10.1002/anie.197905871 }}</ref> and the alkalides have much theoretical interest due to their unusual [[stoichiometry]] and low [[ionization potential|ionisation potentials]]. Alkalides are chemically similar to the [[electride]]s, which are salts with trapped [[electron]]s acting as anions.<ref name="Redko">{{cite journal | author = M. Y. Redko, R. H. Huang, J. E. Jackson, J. F. Harrison, J. L. Dye | year = 2003 | title = Barium azacryptand sodide, the first alkalide with an alkaline Earth cation, also contains a novel dimer, (Na<sub>2</sub>)<sup>2−</sup> | journal = [[Journal of the American Chemical Society|J. Am. Chem. Soc.]] | volume = 125 | issue = 8 | pages = 2259–2263 | doi = 10.1021/ja027241m | pmid = 12590555 }}</ref> A particularly striking example of an alkalide is "inverse [[sodium hydride]]", H<sup>+</sup>Na<sup>−</sup> (both ions being [[coordination complex|complexed]]), as opposed to the usual sodium hydride, Na<sup>+</sup>H<sup>−</sup>:<ref name="HNa">{{cite journal | author = M. Y. Redko, M. Vlassa, J. E. Jackson, A. W. Misiolek, R. H. Huang RH, J. L. Dye | year = 2002 | title = "Inverse sodium hydride": a crystalline salt that contains H<sup>+</sup> and Na<sup>−</sup> | journal = [[Journal of the American Chemical Society|J. Am. Chem. Soc.]] | volume = 124 | issue = 21 | pages = 5928–5929 | doi = 10.1021/ja025655 }}</ref> it is unstable in isolation, due to its high energy resulting from the displacement of two electrons from hydrogen to sodium, although several derivatives are predicted to be [[metastability|metastable]] or stable.<ref name="HNa"/><ref name="HNa-theory">{{cite journal|url=http://simons.hec.utah.edu/papers/266.pdf|title=Inverse Sodium Hydride: A Theoretical Study|author=Agnieszka Sawicka, Piotr Skurski, and Jack Simons|journal=J. Am. Chem. Soc.|year=2003|volume=125|pages=3954–3958|doi=10.1021/ja021136v|pmid=12656631|issue=13}}</ref> In aqueous solution, the alkali metal ions form [[metal ions in aqueous solution|aqua ions]] of the formula [M(H<sub>2</sub>O)<sub>''n''</sub>]<sup>+</sup>, where ''n'' is the solvation number. Their [[coordination number]]s and shapes agree well with those expected from their ionic radii. In aqueous solution the water molecules directly attached to the metal ion are said to belong to the [[first coordination sphere]], also known as the first, or primary, solvation shell. The bond between a water molecule and the metal ion is a [[dative covalent bond]], with the oxygen atom donating both electrons to the bond. Each coordinated water molecule may be attached by [[hydrogen bond]]s to other water molecules. The latter are said to reside in the second coordination sphere. However, for the alkali metal cations, the second coordination sphere is not well-defined as the +1 charge on the cation is not high enough to [[Polarizability|polarize]] the water molecules in the primary solvation shell enough for them to form strong hydrogen bonds with those in the second coordination sphere, producing a more stable entity.<ref>{{cite book |last=Burgess |first=John |title=Metal Ions in Solution |year=1978 |publisher=Ellis Horwood |location=Chichester |page=20 |isbn=0-85312-027-7}}</ref><ref name=Richens/>{{rp|25}} The solvation number for Li<sup>+</sup> has been experimentally determined to be 4, forming the [[tetrahedron|tetrahedral]] [Li(H<sub>2</sub>O)<sub>4</sub>]<sup>+</sup>: while solvation numbers of 3 to 6 have been found for lithium aqua ions, solvation numbers less than 4 may be the result of the formation of contact [[ion-pair]]s, and the higher solvation numbers may be interpreted in terms of water molecules that approach [Li(H<sub>2</sub>O)<sub>4</sub>]<sup>+</sup> through a face of the tetrahedron, though molecular dynamic simulations may indicate the existence of an [[octahedron|octahedral]] hexaaqua ion. There are also probably six water molecules in the primary solvation sphere of the sodium ion, forming the octahedral [Na(H<sub>2</sub>O)<sub>6</sub>]<sup>+</sup> ion.<ref name=generalchemistry/><ref name=Richens>{{cite book |last=Richens |first=David. T. |title=The Chemistry of Aqua Ions |year=1997 |publisher=Wiley |isbn=0-471-97058-1}}</ref>{{rp|126–127}} While it was previously thought that the heavier alkali metals also formed octahedral hexaaqua ions, it has since been found that potassium and rubidium probably form the [K(H<sub>2</sub>O)<sub>8</sub>]<sup>+</sup> and [Rb(H<sub>2</sub>O)<sub>8</sub>]<sup>+</sup> ions, which have the [[square antiprism]]atic structure, and that caesium forms the 12-coordinate [Cs(H<sub>2</sub>O)<sub>12</sub>]<sup>+</sup> ion.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Persson |first=Ingmar |date=2010 |title=Hydrated metal ions in aqueous solution: How regular are their structures? |url=http://pac.iupac.org/publications/pac/pdf/2010/pdf/8210x1901.pdf |journal=Pure Appl. Chem. |volume=82 |issue=10 |pages=1901–1917 |doi=10.1351/PAC-CON-09-10-22 |accessdate=23 August 2014}}</ref> {{clear left}} ====Lithium==== The chemistry of lithium shows several differences from that of the rest of the group as the small Li<sup>+</sup> cation [[chemical polarity|polarises]] [[anion]]s and gives its compounds a more [[covalent bond|covalent]] character.<ref name="rsc" /> Lithium and [[magnesium]] have a [[diagonal relationship]] due to their similar atomic radii,<ref name="rsc" /> so that they show some similarities. For example, lithium forms a stable [[nitride]], a property common among all the [[alkaline earth metal]]s (magnesium's group) but unique among the alkali metals.<ref name="alkalireact"/> In addition, among their respective groups, only lithium and magnesium form [[covalent bond|covalent]] [[organometallic compound]]s (e.g. Li[[methyl group|Me]] and MgMe<sub>2</sub>).<ref name="Shriver&Atkins">{{cite book |title=Inorganic Chemistry |first1=Duward |last1=Shriver |first2=Peter |last2=Atkins |publisher=W. H. Freeman |year=2006 |isbn=978-0716748786 |page=259 |accessdate=10 November 2012 |url=http://www.google.com/books?id=NwOTQAAACAAJ}}</ref> Lithium fluoride is the only alkali metal halide that is not soluble in water,<ref name="rsc"/> and [[lithium hydroxide]] is the only alkali metal hydroxide that is not [[deliquescent]].<ref name="rsc"/> Conversely, [[lithium perchlorate]] and other lithium salts with large anions that cannot be polarized are much more stable than the analogous compounds of the other alkali metals, probably because Li<sup>+</sup> has a high [[solvation energy]].<ref name=Greenwood&Earnshaw/>{{rp|76}} This effect also means that most simple lithium salts are commonly encountered in hydrated form, because the anhydrous forms are extremely [[hygroscopic]]: this allows salts like [[lithium chloride]] and [[lithium bromide]] to be used in [[dehumidifier]]s and [[air-conditioner]]s.<ref name=Greenwood&Earnshaw/>{{rp|76}} ====Francium==== Francium is also predicted to show some differences due to its high [[atomic weight]], causing its electrons to travel at considerable fractions of the speed of light and thus making [[relativistic quantum chemistry|relativistic effects]] more prominent. In contrast to the trend of decreasing [[electronegativity|electronegativities]] and [[ionisation energy|ionisation energies]] of the alkali metals, francium's electronegativity and ionisation energy are predicted to be higher than caesium's due to the relativistic stabilisation of the 7s electrons; also, its [[atomic radius]] is expected to be abnormally low.<!--Haire says this happens for Uue because of the analogous effect for 8s - seems likely for Fr too--><ref name="andreev"/><ref name="Uue">{{cite book| title = The Chemistry of the Actinide and Transactinide Elements| editor1-last = Morss|editor2-first = Norman M.| editor2-last = Edelstein| editor3-last = Fuger|editor3-first = Jean| last1 = Hoffman|first1 = Darleane C.| last2=Lee|first2=Diana M. |last3=Pershina|first3=Valeria | chapter = Transactinides and the future elements| publisher = [[Springer Science+Business Media]]| year = 2006| isbn = 1-4020-3555-1| location = Dordrecht, The Netherlands| edition = 3rd| ref = CITEREFHaire2006}}</ref>{{rp|1729}}<ref name=Thayer/> All known physical properties of francium also deviate from the clear trends going from lithium to caesium, such as the first ionisation energy, electron affinity, and anion polarizability.<ref name=Thayer/> The CsFr molecule is also polarized as Cs<sup>+</sup>Fr<sup>−</sup>, showing that the 7s subshell of francium is much more strongly affected by relativistic effects than the 6s subshell of caesium.<ref name=Thayer/> Additionally, francium superoxide (FrO<sub>2</sub>) is expected to have covalent character, unlike the other alkali metal superoxides, because of bonding contributions from the 6p electrons of francium.<ref name=Thayer/> ===Nuclear=== <div style="float: right; margin: 5px;"> {|class="sortable wikitable" align="top" style="text-align:center" |+Primordial isotopes of the alkali metals |- ! Z<br> ! Alkali metal<br> ! <small>[[stable isotope|Stable]]</small><br> ! <small>''[[primordial element|Decays]]''</small><br> ! class="unsortable" colspan="3"|<small>''unstable: italics''<div style="background:pink">odd–odd isotopes coloured pink</div></small> |- | 3 ||[[lithium]] || [[isotopes of lithium|2]] || — || {{SimpleNuclide2|lithium|7}}||bgcolor="pink"|{{SimpleNuclide2|lithium|6}}||&nbsp; |- | 11 ||[[sodium]] || [[isotopes of sodium|1]] || — ||{{SimpleNuclide2|sodium|23}}||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |- | 19 ||[[potassium]] || [[isotopes of potassium|2]] || 1 ||{{SimpleNuclide2|potassium|39}}||{{SimpleNuclide2|potassium|41}}||bgcolor="pink"|''{{SimpleNuclide2|potassium|40}}'' |- | 37 ||[[rubidium]] || [[isotopes of rubidium|1]] || 1 ||{{SimpleNuclide2|rubidium|85}}|||''{{SimpleNuclide2|rubidium|87}}''||&nbsp; |- | 55 ||[[caesium]] || [[isotopes of caesium|1]] || — ||{{SimpleNuclide2|caesium|133}}||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |- | 87 ||[[francium]] || [[isotopes of francium|—]] || — ||colspan="3"|''No primordial isotopes''<br/>(''{{SimpleNuclide2|francium|223}}'' is a [[trace radioisotope]]) |- | colspan="7"|<small>Radioactive: {{nowrap|<sup>40</sup>K, [[half-life|t<sub>1/2</sub>]] 1.25 × 10<sup>9</sup> years;}} {{nowrap|<sup>87</sup>Rb, t<sub>1/2</sub> 4.9 × 10<sup>10</sup> years;}} {{nowrap|<sup>223</sup>Fr, t<sub>1/2</sub> 22.0 min.}}</small> |}</div> All the alkali metals have odd atomic numbers; hence, their isotopes must be either [[odd–odd nuclei|odd–odd]] (both proton and [[neutron number]] are odd) or [[odd–even nuclei|odd–even]] ([[proton number]] is odd, but neutron number is even). Odd–odd nuclei have even [[mass number]]s, whereas odd–even nuclei have odd mass numbers. Odd–odd [[primordial nuclide]]s are rare because most odd–odd nuclei are highly unstable with respect to [[beta decay]], because the decay products are even–even, and are therefore more strongly bound, due to [[Semi-empirical mass formula#Pairing term|nuclear pairing effects]].<ref name="Lide02">{{cite book | author=Various authors|editor-last=Lide |editor-first=David R. | year=2002 | title=Handbook of Chemistry & Physics | edition=88th | publisher=CRC | url=http://www.hbcpnetbase.com/ | accessdate=2008-05-23 | isbn=0-8493-0486-5 | oclc=179976746 }}</ref> Due to the great rarity of odd–odd nuclei, almost all the primordial isotopes of the alkali metals are odd–even (the exceptions being the light stable isotope lithium-6 and the long-lived [[radioisotope]] potassium-40). For a given odd mass number, there can be only a single [[beta-decay stable isobars|beta-stable nuclide]], since there is not a difference in binding energy between even–odd and odd–even comparable to that between even–even and odd–odd, leaving other nuclides of the same mass number ([[isobar (nuclide)|isobar]]s) free to [[beta decay]] toward the lowest-mass nuclide. An effect of the instability of an odd number of either type of nucleons is that odd-numbered elements, such as the alkali metals, tend to have fewer stable isotopes than even-numbered elements. Of the 26 [[monoisotopic element]]s that have only a single stable isotope, all but one have an odd atomic number and all but one also have an even number of neutrons. [[Beryllium]] is the single exception to both rules, due to its low atomic number.<ref name="Lide02"/> All of the alkali metals except lithium and caesium have at least one naturally occurring [[radioisotope]]: [[sodium-22]] and [[sodium-24]] are [[trace radioisotope]]s produced [[cosmogenic]]ally,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.nucleonica.net/unc.aspx |title=Universal Nuclide Chart |date=2007–2012 |work=Nucleonica |publisher=Institute for Transuranium Elements |accessdate=2011-04-17}}</ref> potassium-40 and [[rubidium-87]] have very long [[half-life|half-lives]] and thus occur naturally,<ref name="nuclideschart"/> and all [[isotopes of francium]] are [[radioactive decay|radioactive]].<ref name="nuclideschart"/> Caesium was also thought to be radioactive in the early 20th century,<ref name="Patt1926">{{cite journal | doi = 10.1021/cr60009a003 | title = The Radioactivity of the Alkali Metals | year = 1926 | last1 = Patton | first1 = I. Jocelyn | last2 = Waldbauer | first2 = L. J. | journal = Chemical Reviews | volume = 3 | pages = 81–93}}</ref><ref name="Kenn1908">{{cite journal | doi =10.1080/14786440908636519 | title = On the radioactivity of potassium and other alkali metals | year = 1908 | last1 = McLennan | first1 = J. C. | last2 = Kennedy | first2 = W. T. | journal = Philosophical Magazine | series = 6 | volume = 16 | issue = 93 | pages = 377–395}}</ref> although it has no naturally occurring radioisotopes.<ref name="nuclideschart">{{cite web|url=http://www.nndc.bnl.gov/chart/ |title=Interactive Chart of Nuclides|publisher=Brookhaven National Laboratory|author=Sonzogni, Alejandro|location=National Nuclear Data Center|accessdate=4 October 2012}}</ref> (Francium had not been discovered yet at that time.) The natural radioisotope of potassium, potassium-40, makes up about 0.012% of natural potassium,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ead.anl.gov/pub/doc/potassium.pdf |title=Potassium-40 |date=August 2005 |work=Human Health Fact Sheet |publisher=[[Argonne National Laboratory]], Environmental Science Division |accessdate=7 February 2012}}</ref> and thus natural potassium is weakly radioactive. This natural radioactivity became a basis for a mistaken claim of the discovery for element 87 (the next alkali metal after caesium) in 1925.<ref name="fontani" /><ref name="vanderkrogt-Fr">{{cite web| last = Van der Krogt| first = Peter| title = Francium| work = Elementymology & Elements Multidict| date = 10 January 2006| url = http://elements.vanderkrogt.net/element.php?sym=Fr| accessdate =8 April 2007}}</ref> [[Caesium-137]], with a half-life of 30.17&nbsp;years, is one of the two principal [[medium-lived fission product]]s, along with [[strontium-90]], which are responsible for most of the [[radioactivity]] of [[spent nuclear fuel]] after several years of cooling, up to several hundred years after use. It constitutes most of the radioactivity still left from the [[Chernobyl accident]]. <sup>137</sup>Cs undergoes high-energy beta decay and eventually becomes stable [[barium-137]]. It is a strong emitter of gamma radiation. <sup>137</sup>Cs has a very low rate of neutron capture and cannot be feasibly disposed of in this way, but must be allowed to decay.<ref name="Cs-137">{{cite web|title=Radionuclide Half-Life Measurements|url=http://www.nist.gov/pml/data/halflife-html.cfm|author=National Institute of Standards and Technology|accessdate=2011-11-07}}</ref> <sup>137</sup>Cs has been used as a [[Flow tracer|tracer]] in hydrologic studies, analogous to the use of [[tritium]].<ref>http://www.bt.cdc.gov/radiation/isotopes/cesium.asp</ref> Small amounts of [[caesium-134]] and caesium-137 were released into the environment during nearly all [[nuclear weapon test]]s and some [[nuclear accident]]s, most notably the [[Goiânia accident]] and the [[Chernobyl disaster]]. As of 2005, caesium-137 is the principal source of radiation in the [[zone of alienation]] around the [[Chernobyl nuclear power plant]].<ref name="IAEA">{{cite book |title=The Radiological Accident in Goiânia |publisher=[[IAEA]] |year=1988 |url=http://www-pub.iaea.org/MTCD/publications/PubDetAR.asp?pubId=3684}}</ref> ==Periodic trends== The alkali metals are more similar to each other than the elements in any other [[group (periodic table)|group]] are to each other.<ref name="rsc">{{cite web |url=http://www.rsc.org/chemsoc/visualelements/PAGES/data/intro_groupi_data.html |title=Visual Elements: Group 1 – The Alkali Metals |author=[[Royal Society of Chemistry]] |work=Visual Elements |publisher=Royal Society of Chemistry |accessdate=13 January 2012}}</ref> For instance, when moving down the table, all known alkali metals show increasing [[atomic radius]],<ref name="chemguide"/> decreasing [[electronegativity]],<ref name="chemguide"/> increasing [[Reactivity (chemistry)|reactivity]],<ref name="rsc" /> and decreasing melting and boiling points<ref name="chemguide" /> as well as heats of fusion and vaporisation.<ref name="Greenwood&Earnshaw">{{Greenwood&Earnshaw2nd}}</ref>{{rp|75}} In general, their [[density|densities]] increase when moving down the table, with the exception that potassium is less dense than sodium.<ref name="chemguide" /> ===Atomic and ionic radii=== {{main|Atomic radius}} [[File:Effective Nuclear Charge.svg|thumb|250px|[[Effective nuclear charge]] on an atomic electron]] The atomic radii of the alkali metals increase going down the group.<ref name="chemguide"/> Because of the [[shielding effect]], when an atom has more than one [[electron shell]], each electron feels electric repulsion from the other electrons as well as electric attraction from the nucleus.<ref name=shielding>{{cite book|first=Theodore |last=L. Brown |first2=H. Eugene |last2=LeMay, Jr. |first3=Bruce E. |last3=Bursten |first4=Julia R. |last4=Burdge |year=2003 |title=Chemistry: The Central Science |edition=8th |publisher=Pearson Education |location=US |isbn=0-13-061142-5 |url=http://www.pearsoneducation.net/brown |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/20110724003145/http://www.pearsoneducation.net/brown/ |archivedate=24 July 2011 }}</ref> In the alkali metals, the [[valence electron|outermost electron]] only feels a net charge of +1, as some of the [[nuclear charge]] (which is equal to the [[atomic number]]) is cancelled by the inner electrons; the number of inner electrons of an alkali metal is always one less than the nuclear charge. Therefore, the only factor which affects the atomic radius of the alkali metals is the number of electron shells. Since this number increases down the group, the atomic radius must also increase down the group.<ref name="chemguide"/> The [[ionic radius|ionic radii]] of the alkali metals are much smaller than their atomic radii. This is because the outermost electron of the alkali metals is in a different [[electron shell]] than the inner electrons, and thus when it is removed the resulting atom has one fewer electron shell and is smaller. Additionally, the [[effective nuclear charge]] has increased, and thus the electrons are attracted more strongly towards the nucleus and the ionic radius decreases.<ref name="rsc"/> ===First ionisation energy=== {{main|Ionisation energy}} [[File:First Ionization Energy.svg|thumb|300px|right|Periodic trend for ionisation energy: each period begins at a minimum for the alkali metals, and ends at a maximum for the [[noble gas]]es.]] The first ionisation energy of an [[chemical element|element]] or [[molecule]] is the energy required to move the most loosely held electron from one [[mole (unit)|mole]] of gaseous atoms of the element or molecules to form one mole of gaseous ions with [[electric charge]] +1. The factors affecting the first ionisation energy are the [[nuclear charge]], the amount of [[shielding effect|shielding]] by the inner electrons and the distance from the most loosely held electron from the nucleus, which is always an outer electron in [[main group element]]s. The first two factors change the effective nuclear charge the most loosely held electron feels. Since the outermost electron of alkali metals always feels the same effective nuclear charge (+1), the only factor which affects the first ionisation energy is the distance from the outermost electron to the nucleus. Since this distance increases down the group, the outermost electron feels less attraction from the nucleus and thus the first ionisation energy decreases.<ref name="chemguide"/> (This trend is broken in francium due to the [[relativistic quantum chemistry|relativistic]] stabilization and contraction of the 7s orbital, bringing francium's valence electron closer to the nucleus than would be expected from non-relativistic calculations. This makes francium's outermost electron feel more attraction from the nucleus, increasing its first ionisation energy slightly beyond that of caesium.)<ref name="Uue"/>{{Rp|1729}}<!--Also explain why the alkali metals have the lowest ionization energies in their period.--> The second ionisation energy of the alkali metals is much higher than the first as the second-most loosely held electron is part of a fully filled [[electron shell]] and is thus difficult to remove.<ref name="rsc"/> ===Reactivity=== {{main|Reactivity (chemistry)}} The reactivities of the alkali metals increase going down the group. This is the result of a combination of two factors: the first ionisation energies and [[atomisation energy|atomisation energies]] of the alkali metals. Because the first ionisation energy of the alkali metals decreases down the group, it is easier for the outermost electron to be removed from the atom and participate in [[chemical reaction]]s, thus increasing reactivity down the group. The atomisation energy measures the strength of the [[metallic bond]] of an element, which falls down the group as the atoms increase in [[atomic radius|radius]] and thus the metallic bond must increase in length, making the delocalised electrons further away from the attraction of the nuclei of the heavier alkali metals. Adding the atomisation and first ionisation energies gives a quantity closely related to (but not equal to) the [[activation energy]] of the reaction of an alkali metal with another substance. This quantity decreases going down the group, and so does the activation energy; thus, chemical reactions can occur faster and the reactivity increases down the group.<ref name="alkaliwater">{{cite web |url=http://www.chemguide.co.uk/inorganic/group1/reacth2o.html#top |title=Reaction of the Group 1 Elements with Water |author=Clark, Jim |year=2005 |work=chemguide |accessdate=18 June 2012}}</ref> ===Electronegativity=== {{main|Electronegativity}} [[File:Periodic variation of Pauling electronegativities.png|thumb|300px|right|The variation of Pauling electronegativity (y-axis) as one descends the [[main group element|main groups]] of the periodic table from the [[period 2 element|second]] to the [[period 6 element|sixth period]]]] Electronegativity is a [[chemical property]] that describes the tendency of an [[atom]] or a [[functional group]] to attract [[electron]]s (or [[electron density]]) towards itself.<ref name="definition">{{GoldBookRef|file=E01990|title=Electronegativity}}</ref> If the bond between [[sodium]] and [[chlorine]] in [[sodium chloride]] were [[covalent bond|covalent]], the pair of shared electrons would be attracted to the chlorine because the effective nuclear charge on the outer electrons is +7 in chlorine but is only +1 in sodium. The electron pair is attracted so close to the chlorine atom that they are practically transferred to the chlorine atom (an [[ionic bond]]). However, if the sodium atom was replaced by a lithium atom, the electrons will not be attracted as close to the chlorine atom as before because the lithium atom is smaller, making the electron pair more strongly attracted to the closer effective nuclear charge from lithium. Hence, the larger alkali metal atoms (further down the group) will be less electronegative as the bonding pair is less strongly attracted towards them.<ref name="chemguide"/> Because of the higher electronegativity of lithium, some of its compounds have a more covalent character. For example, [[lithium iodide]] ([[lithium|Li]][[iodine|I]]) will dissolve in [[organic solvent]]s, a property of most covalent compounds.<ref name="chemguide"/> [[Lithium fluoride]] (Li[[fluorine|F]]) is the only [[alkali halide]] that is not soluble in water,<ref name="rsc"/> and [[lithium hydroxide]] (Li[[hydroxide|OH]]) is the only alkali metal hydroxide that is not [[deliquescent]].<ref name="rsc"/> ===Melting and boiling points=== {{main|Melting point|Boiling point}} The melting point of a substance is the point where it changes [[states of matter|state]] from [[solid]] to [[liquid]] while the boiling point of a substance (in liquid state) is the point where the [[vapor pressure|vapour pressure]] of the liquid equals the environmental pressure surrounding the liquid<ref>{{cite book|author=David. E. Goldberg|title=3,000 Solved Problems in Chemistry|edition=1st|publisher=McGraw-Hill|year=1988|isbn=0-07-023684-4}} Section 17.43, page 321</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Louis Theodore, R. Ryan Dupont and Kumar Ganesan (Editors)|title=Pollution Prevention: The Waste Management Approach to the 21st Century|publisher=CRC Press|year=1999|isbn=1-56670-495-2}} Section 27, p. 15</ref> and all the liquid changes state to [[gas]]. As a metal is heated to its melting point, the [[metallic bond]]s keeping the atoms in place weaken so that the atoms can move around, and the metallic bonds eventually break completely at the metal's boiling point.<ref name="chemguide"/><ref name="metallic-bonding">{{cite web |url=http://www.chemguide.co.uk/atoms/bonding/metallic.html |title=Metallic Bonding |author=Clark, Jim |year=2000 |work=chemguide |accessdate=23 March 2012}}</ref> Therefore, the falling melting and boiling points of the alkali metals indicate that the strength of the metallic bonds of the alkali metals decreases down the group.<ref name="chemguide"/> This is because metal atoms are held together by the electromagnetic attraction from the positive ions to the delocalised electrons.<ref name="chemguide"/><ref name="metallic-bonding"/> As the atoms increase in size going down the group (because their atomic radius increases), the nuclei of the ions move further away from the delocalised electrons and hence the metallic bond becomes weaker so that the metal can more easily melt and boil, thus lowering the melting and boiling points.<ref name="chemguide"/> (The increased nuclear charge is not a relevant factor due to the shielding effect.)<ref name="chemguide"/> ===Density=== {{main|Density}} The alkali metals all have the same [[crystal structure]] ([[body-centered cubic|body-centred cubic]])<ref name="Greenwood&Earnshaw"/> and thus the only relevant factors are the number of atoms that can fit into a certain volume and the mass of one of the atoms, since density is defined as mass per unit volume. The first factor depends on the volume of the atom and thus the atomic radius, which increases going down the group; thus, the volume of an alkali metal atom increases going down the group. The mass of an alkali metal atom also increases going down the group. Thus, the trend for the densities of the alkali metals depends on their atomic weights and atomic radii; if figures for these two factors are known, the ratios between the densities of the alkali metals can then be calculated. The resultant trend is that the densities of the alkali metals increase down the table, with an exception at potassium. Due to having the lowest atomic weight of all the elements in their period and having the largest atomic radius for their periods, the alkali metals are the least dense metals in the periodic table.<ref name="chemguide"/> Lithium, sodium, and potassium are the only three metals in the periodic table that are less dense than water:<ref name="rsc"/> in fact, lithium is the least dense known solid at [[room temperature]].<ref name="Greenwood&Earnshaw"/>{{rp|75}} ==Compounds== ===Hydroxides=== {{external media | align = left | video1 = [http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QSZ-3wScePM Reactions of the alkali metals with water], conducted by The [[Open University]] }}<!--mention things like MIT's Sodium Drop and perhaps Brainiac's faked explosions with Gray's tests--> [[File:Large Sodium Explosion.jpg|thumb|right|alt=A large orange-yellow explosion|A reaction of 3 [[pound (mass)|pounds]] (≈ 1.4 kg) of sodium with water]] All the alkali metals react vigorously or explosively with cold water, producing an [[aqueous solution]] of a strongly [[base (chemistry)|basic]] alkali metal [[hydroxide]] and releasing hydrogen gas.<ref name="alkaliwater"/> This reaction becomes more vigorous going down the group: lithium reacts steadily with [[effervescence]], but sodium and potassium can ignite and rubidium and caesium sink in water and generate hydrogen gas so rapidly that shock waves form in the water that may shatter glass containers.<ref name="rsc"/> When an alkali metal is dropped into water, it produces an explosion, of which there are two separate stages. The metal reacts with the water first, breaking the hydrogen bonds in the water and producing [[hydrogen]] gas; this takes place faster for the more reactive heavier alkali metals. Second, the heat generated by the first part of the reaction often ignites the hydrogen gas, causing it to burn explosively into the surrounding air. This secondary hydrogen gas explosion produces the visible flame above the bowl of water, lake or other body of water, not the initial reaction of the metal with water (which tends to happen mostly under water).<ref name="alkalibangs"/> The alkali metal hydroxides are the most basic known hydroxides.<ref name=Greenwood&Earnshaw/>{{rp|87}} Recent research has suggested that the explosive behavior of alkali metals in water is driven by a [[Coulomb explosion]] rather than solely by rapid generation of hydrogen itself.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nature.com/nchem/journal/vaop/ncurrent/full/nchem.2161.html|title=Coulomb explosion during the early stages of the reaction of alkali metals with water|work=Nature Chemistry|doi=10.1038/nchem.2161|date=26 Jan 2015}}</ref> All alkali metals melt as a part of the reaction with water. Water molecules ionize the bare metallic surface of the liquid metal, leaving a positively charged metal surface and negatively charged water ions. The attraction between the charged metal and water ions will rapidly increase the surface area, causing an exponential increase of ionization. When the repulsive forces within the liquid metal surface exceeds the forces of the surface tension, it vigorously explodes. ===Compounds with the group 14 elements=== {{double image|right|Potassium-graphite-xtal-3D-SF-A.png|150|Potassium-graphite-xtal-3D-SF-B.png|150|Side ''(left)'' and top ''(right)'' views of the [[graphite intercalation compound]] KC<sub>8</sub>}} Lithium and sodium react with [[carbon]] to form [[acetylide]]s, Li<sub>2</sub>C<sub>2</sub> and Na<sub>2</sub>C<sub>2</sub>, which can also be obtained by reaction of the metal with [[acetylene]]. Potassium, rubidium, and caesium react with [[graphite]]; their atoms are [[intercalation (chemistry)|intercalated]] between the hexagonal graphite layers, forming [[graphite intercalation compound]]s of formulae MC<sub>60</sub> (dark grey, almost black), MC<sub>48</sub> (dark grey, almost black), MC<sub>36</sub> (blue), MC<sub>24</sub> (steel blue), and MC<sub>8</sub> (bronze) (M = K, Rb, or Cs). These compounds are over 200 times more electrically conductive than pure graphite, suggesting that the valence electron of the alkali metal is transferred to the graphite layers (e.g. {{chem|M|+|C|8|-}}).<ref name=generalchemistry/> Upon heating of KC<sub>8</sub>, the elimination of potassium atoms results in the conversion in sequence to KC<sub>24</sub>, KC<sub>36</sub>, KC<sub>48</sub> and finally KC<sub>60</sub>. KC<sub>8</sub> is a very strong [[reducing agent]] and is pyrophoric and explodes on contact with water.<ref name="InorgChem">{{cite book| title = Inorganic Chemistry, 3rd Edition| chapter = Chapter 14: The group 14 elements| author1 = Catherine E. Housecroft| author2 = Alan G. Sharpe| publisher = Pearson| year = 2008| isbn = 978-0-13-175553-6| page = 386}}</ref><ref>[http://physics.nist.gov/TechAct.2001/Div846/div846h.html NIST Ionizing Radiation Division 2001 - Technical Highlights]</ref> While the large alkali metals (K, Rb, and Cs) initially form MC<sub>8</sub>, the smaller ones initially form MC<sub>6</sub>.<ref name=cac6>{{cite journal|author=N. Emery |displayauthors=1|title=Review: Synthesis and superconducting properties of CaC6|journal=Sci. Technol. Adv. Mater.|volume=9|year=2008|pages=044102|doi=10.1088/1468-6996/9/4/044102|bibcode=2008STAdM...9d4102E|issue=4|first2=Claire|last2=Hérold|first3=Jean-François|last3=Marêché|first4=Philippe|last4=Lagrange}}</ref> When the alkali metals react with the heavier elements in the [[carbon group]], ionic substances with cage-like structures are formed, such as the [[silicide]] M<sub>4</sub>[[silicon|Si]]<sub>4</sub> (M = K, Rb, or Cs), which contains M<sup>+</sup> and tetrahedral {{chem|Si|4|4-}} ions.<ref name=generalchemistry/> The chemistry of alkali metal [[germanide]]s, involving the germanide ion [[germanium|Ge]]<sup>4−</sup> and other cluster ([[Zintl ion|Zintl]]) ions such as {{chem|Ge|4|2-}}, {{chem|Ge|9|4-}}, {{chem|Ge|9|2-}}, and [(Ge<sub>9</sub>)<sub>2</sub>]<sup>6−</sup>, is largely analogous to that of the corresponding silicides.<ref name="Greenwood&Earnshaw"/> Alkali metal [[stannide]]s are mostly ionic, sometimes with the stannide ion ([[tin|Sn]]<sup>4−</sup>),<ref name = "Kauzlarich">S.M. Kauzlarich,(1994), Zintl Compounds, Encyclopedia of Inorganic Chemistry, John Wiley & sons, ISBN 0-471-93620-0</ref> and sometimes with more complex Zintl ions such as {{chem|Sn|9|4-}}, which appears in tetrapotassium nonastannide (K<sub>4</sub>Sn<sub>9</sub>).<ref name = "Hoch">{{cite journal|doi=10.1107/S0108270102002032|title=Tetrapotassium nonastannide, K4Sn9|year=2002|last1=Hoch|first1=Constantin|last2=Wendorff|first2=Marco|last3=Röhr|first3=Caroline|journal=Acta Crystallographica Section C Crystal Structure Communications|volume=58|issue=4|pages=i45}}</ref> The monatomic [[plumbide]] ion ([[lead|Pb]]<sup>4−</sup>) is unknown, and indeed its formation is predicted to be energetically unfavourable; alkali metal plumbides have complex Zintl ions, such as {{chem|Pb|9|4-}}.<ref name="Greenwood&Earnshaw"/> ===Nitrides and pnictides=== [[File:Lithium-nitride-xtal-CM-3D-polyhedra.png|thumb|right|[[Unit cell]] [[ball-and-stick model]] of [[lithium nitride]]<ref>{{cite journal|title=Structure of Lithium Nitride and Transition-Metal-Doped Derivatives, Li<sub>3−''x''−''y''</sub>M<sub>''x''</sub>N (M = Ni, Cu): A Powder Neutron Diffraction Study|author=Duncan H. Gregory, Paul M. O'Meara, Alexandra G. Gordon, Jason P. Hodges, Simine Short, and James D. Jorgensen|journal=Chem. Mater.|year=2002|volume=14|issue=5|pages=2063–2070|doi=10.1021/cm010718t}}</ref> On the basis of size a [[tetrahedron|tetrahedral]] structure would be expected, but that would be geometrically impossible: thus lithium nitride takes on this unique crystal structure.<ref name=Greenwood&Earnshaw/>{{rp|76}}]] Lithium, the lightest of the alkali metals, is the only alkali metal which reacts with [[nitrogen]] at [[standard conditions]], and its [[nitride]] is the only stable alkali metal nitride. Nitrogen is an [[reactivity (chemistry)|unreactive]] gas because breaking the strong [[triple bond]] in the [[dinitrogen]] molecule (N<sub>2</sub>) requires a lot of energy. The formation of an alkali metal nitride would consume the ionisation energy of the alkali metal (forming M<sup>+</sup> ions), the energy required to break the triple bond in N<sub>2</sub> and the formation of N<sup>3−</sup> ions, and all the energy released from the formation of an alkali metal nitride is from the [[lattice energy]] of the alkali metal nitride. The lattice energy is maximised with small, highly charged ions; the alkali metals do not form highly charged ions, only forming ions with a charge of +1, so only lithium, the smallest alkali metal, can release enough lattice energy to make the reaction with nitrogen [[exothermic]], forming [[lithium nitride]]. The reactions of the other alkali metals with nitrogen would not release enough lattice energy and would thus be [[endothermic]], so they do not form nitrides at standard conditions.<ref name="alkalireact">{{cite web |url=http://www.chemguide.co.uk/inorganic/group1/reacto2.html#top |title=Reaction of the Group 1 Elements with Oxygen and Chlorine |author=Clark, Jim |year=2005 |work=chemguide |accessdate=27 June 2012}}</ref> ([[Sodium nitride]] (Na<sub>3</sub>N) and [[potassium nitride]] (K<sub>3</sub>N), while existing, are extremely unstable, being prone to decomposing back into their constituent elements, and cannot be produced by reacting the elements with each other at standard conditions.)<ref name=Jansen1>{{cite journal|title=Synthesis and structure of Na<sub>3</sub>N|author=Fischer, D., Jansen, M.|journal= Angew Chem|volume=41|issue=10|pages=1755–1756|year=2002|doi=10.1002/1521-3773(20020517)41:10<1755::AID-ANIE1755>3.0.CO;2-C}}</ref><ref name="Jansen2">{{cite journal|title=Synthesis and structure of K<sub>3</sub>N|author=Fischer, D.; Cancarevic, Z.; Schön, J. C.; Jansen, M. Z. |journal=Z. anorg allgem Chemie|volume= 630|issue=1|pages=156–160|doi=10.1002/zaac.200300280|year=2004}}. [http://pubs.acs.org/cen/topstory/8020/8020notw9.html 'Elusive Binary Compound Prepared'] ''Chemical & Engineering News'' '''80''' No. 20 (20 May 2002)</ref> All the alkali metals react readily with [[phosphorus]] and [[arsenic]] to form phosphides and arsenides with the formula M<sub>3</sub>Pn (where M represents an alkali metal and Pn represents a [[pnictogen]]). This is due to the greater size of the P<sup>3−</sup> and As<sup>3−</sup> ions, so that less lattice energy needs to be released for the salts to form.<ref name=generalchemistry/> These are not the only phosphides and arsenides of the alkali metals: for example, potassium has nine different known phosphides, with formulae K<sub>3</sub>P, K<sub>4</sub>P<sub>3</sub>, K<sub>5</sub>P<sub>4</sub>, KP, K<sub>4</sub>P<sub>6</sub>, K<sub>3</sub>P<sub>7</sub>, K<sub>3</sub>P<sub>11</sub>, KP<sub>10.3</sub>, and KP<sub>15</sub>.<ref name = "Schnering">H.G. Von Schnering, W. Hönle ''Phosphides - Solid-state Chemistry'' Encyclopedia of Inorganic Chemistry Ed. R. Bruce King (1994) John Wiley & Sons ISBN 0-471-93620-0</ref> While most metals form arsenides, only the alkali and alkaline earth metals form mostly ionic arsenides. The structure of Na<sub>3</sub>As is complex with unusually short Na–Na distances of 328–330 pm which are shorter than in sodium metal, and this indicates that even with these electropositive metals the bonding cannot be straightforwardly ionic.<ref name="Greenwood&Earnshaw"/> Other alkali metal arsenides not conforming to the formula M<sub>3</sub>As are known, such as LiAs, which has a metallic lustre and electrical conductivity indicating the presence of some [[metallic bond]]ing.<ref name="Greenwood&Earnshaw"/> The [[antimonide]]s are unstable and reactive as the [[antimony|Sb]]<sup>3−</sup> ion is a strong reducing agent; reaction of them with acids form the toxic and unstable gas [[stibine]] (SbH<sub>3</sub>).<ref>{{cite book|title=Outlines of Chemistry&nbsp;– A Textbook for College Students|author=Kahlenberg, Louis|publisher=READ BOOKS|year=2008|isbn=1-4097-6995-X|pages=324–325}}</ref> [[Bismuth]]ides are not even wholly ionic; they are [[intermetallic compound]]s containing partially metallic and partially ionic bonds.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://xray.chem.ualberta.ca/mar/ |title=Welcome to Arthur Mar's Research Group |date=1999–2013 |work=University of Alberta |publisher=University of Alberta |accessdate=24 June 2013}}</ref> ===Oxides and chalcogenides=== {{see also|Alkali metal oxide}} {{double image|right|Rb9O2 cluster.png|150|Cs11O3 cluster.png|150|{{chem|Rb|9|O|2}} cluster, composed of two regular [[octahedron|octahedra]] connected to each other by one face|{{chem|Cs|11|O|3}} cluster, composed of three regular octahedra where each octahedron is connected to both of the others by one face each. All three octahedra have one edge in common.|The ball-and-stick diagram shows two regular octahedra which are connected to each other by one face. All nine vertices of the structure are purple spheres representing rubidium, and at the centre of each octahedron is a small red sphere representing oxygen.|The ball-and-stick diagram shows three regular octahedra where each octahedron is connected to both of the others by one face each. All three octahedra have one edge in common. All eleven vertices of the structure are violet spheres representing caesium, and at the centre of each octahedron is a small red sphere representing oxygen.}} All the alkali metals react vigorously with [[oxygen]] at standard conditions. They form various types of oxides, such as simple [[oxide]]s (containing the O<sup>2−</sup> ion), [[peroxide]]s (containing the {{chem|O|2|2-}} ion, where there is a [[single bond]] between the two oxygen atoms), [[superoxide]]s (containing the {{chem|O|2|-}} ion), and many others. Lithium burns in air to form [[lithium oxide]], but sodium reacts with oxygen to form a mixture of [[sodium oxide]] and [[sodium peroxide]]. Potassium forms a mixture of [[potassium peroxide]] and [[potassium superoxide]], while rubidium and caesium form the superoxide exclusively. Their reactivity increases going down the group: while lithium, sodium and potassium merely burn in air, rubidium and caesium are [[pyrophoric]] (spontaneously catch fire in air).<ref name="alkalireact"/> The smaller alkali metals tend to polarise the more complex anions (the peroxide and superoxide) due to their small size. This attracts the electrons in the more complex anions towards one of its constituent oxygen atoms, forming an oxide ion and an oxygen atom. This causes lithium to form the oxide exclusively on reaction with oxygen at room temperature. This effect becomes drastically weaker for the larger sodium and potassium, allowing them to form the less stable peroxides. Rubidium and caesium, at the bottom of the group, are so large that even the least stable superoxides can form. Because the superoxide releases the most energy when formed, the superoxide is preferentially formed for the larger alkali metals where the more complex anions are not polarised. (The oxides and peroxides for these alkali metals do exist, but do not form upon direct reaction of the metal with oxygen at standard conditions.)<ref name="alkalireact"/> In addition, the small size of the Li<sup>+</sup> and O<sup>2−</sup> ions contributes to their forming a stable ionic lattice structure. Under controlled conditions, however, all the alkali metals, with the exception of francium, are known to form their oxides, peroxides, and superoxides. The alkali metal peroxides and superoxides are powerful [[oxidizing agent]]s. [[Sodium peroxide]] and [[potassium superoxide]] react with [[carbon dioxide]] to form the alkali metal carbonate and oxygen gas, which allows them to be used in [[submarine]] air purifiers; the presence of [[water vapour]], naturally present in breath, makes the removal of carbon dioxide by potassium superoxide even more efficient.<ref name=generalchemistry/><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Lindsay |first1=D. M. |last2=Garland |first2=D. A. |year=1987 |title=ESR spectra of matrix-isolated lithium superoxide |journal=The Journal of Physical Chemistry |volume=91 |issue=24 |pages=6158–61 |doi=10.1021/j100308a020}}</ref> All the stable alkali metals except lithium can form red [[ozonide]]s (MO<sub>3</sub>) through low-temperature reaction of the powdered anhydrous hydroxide with [[ozone]]: the ozonides may be then extracted using liquid [[ammonia]].<ref name=Greenwood&Earnshaw/>{{rp|85}} Rubidium and caesium can form even more complicated oxides than the superoxides. Rubidium can form Rb<sub>6</sub>O and Rb<sub>9</sub>O<sub>2</sub> upon oxidation in air, while caesium forms an immense variety of oxides, such as the ozonide CsO<sub>3</sub><ref>{{cite journal|doi =10.1007/BF00845494|title =Synthesis of cesium ozonide through cesium superoxide|year =1963|last1 =Vol'nov|first1 =I. I.|last2 =Matveev|first2 =V. V.|journal =Bulletin of the Academy of Sciences, USSR Division of Chemical Science|volume =12|pages =1040–1043|issue =6}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|doi =10.1070/RC1971v040n02ABEH001903|title =Alkali and Alkaline Earth Metal Ozonides|year =1971|last1 =Tokareva|first1 =S. A.|journal =Russian Chemical Reviews|volume =40|pages =165–174|bibcode = 1971RuCRv..40..165T|issue =2}}</ref> and several brightly coloured [[suboxide]]s,<ref name=Simon>{{Cite journal|last = Simon|first = A.|title = Group 1 and 2 Suboxides and Subnitrides — Metals with Atomic Size Holes and Tunnels|journal = Coordination Chemistry Reviews |year = 1997|volume = 163|pages = 253–270|doi = 10.1016/S0010-8545(97)00013-1}}</ref> such as {{chem|Cs|7|O}}, {{chem|Cs|4|O}}, {{chem|Cs|11|O|3}}, {{chem|Cs|3|O}} (dark-green<ref>{{cite journal|doi =10.1021/j150537a023|year =1956|last1 =Tsai|first1 =Khi-Ruey|last2 =Harris|first2 =P. M.|last3 =Lassettre|first3 =E. N.|journal =Journal of Physical Chemistry|volume =60|pages =345–347|title=The Crystal Structure of Tricesium Monoxide|issue =3}}</ref>), CsO, {{chem|Cs|3|O|2}},<ref>{{cite journal|doi =10.1007/s11669-009-9636-5|title =Cs-O (Cesium-Oxygen)|year =2009|last1 =Okamoto|first1 =H.|journal =Journal of Phase Equilibria and Diffusion|volume =31|pages =86–87}}</ref> as well as {{chem|Cs|7|O|2}}.<ref>{{cite journal|doi = 10.1021/jp036432o|title = Characterization of Oxides of Cesium|year = 2004|last1 = Band|first1 = A.|last2 = Albu-Yaron|first2 = A.|last3 = Livneh|first3 = T.|last4 = Cohen|first4 = H.|last5 = Feldman|first5 = Y.|last6 = Shimon|first6 = L.|last7 = Popovitz-Biro|first7 = R.|last8 = Lyahovitskaya|first8 = V.|last9 = Tenne|first9 = R.|journal = The Journal of Physical Chemistry B|volume = 108|pages = 12360–12367|issue = 33}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|doi =10.1002/zaac.19472550110|title =Untersuchungen ber das System Cäsium-Sauerstoff|year =1947|last1 =Brauer|first1 =G.|journal =Zeitschrift für anorganische Chemie|volume =255|pages =101–124}}</ref> The latter may be heated under vacuum to generate {{chem|Cs|2|O}}.<ref>{{cite web|url = http://pubs.usgs.gov/of/2004/1432/2004-1432.pdf|format = PDF|publisher = United States Geological Survey|accessdate =27 December 2009|title = Mineral Commodity Profile: Cesium|first1 = William C.|last1 = Butterman|first2 = William E.|last2 = Brooks|first3 = Robert G.|last3 = Reese, Jr.|year=2004}}</ref> The alkali metals can also react analogously with the heavier chalcogens ([[sulfur]], [[selenium]], [[tellurium]], and [[polonium]]), and all the alkali metal chalcogenides are known (with the exception of francium's). Reaction with an excess of the chalcogen can similarly result in lower chalcogenides, with chalcogen ions containing chains of the chalcogen atoms in question. For example, sodium can react with sulfur to form the [[sulfide]] ([[sodium sulfide|Na<sub>2</sub>S]]) and various [[polysulfide]]s with the formula Na<sub>2</sub>S<sub>''x''</sub> (''x'' from 2 to 6), containing the {{chem|S|''x''|2-}} ions.<ref name=generalchemistry/> Due to the basicity of the Se<sup>2−</sup> and Te<sup>2−</sup> ions, the alkali metal [[selenide]]s and [[telluride (chemistry)|tellurides]] are alkaline in solution; when reacted directly with selenium and tellurium, alkali metal polyselenides and polytellurides are formed along with the selenides and tellurides with the {{chem|Se|''x''|2-}} and {{chem|Te|''x''|2-}} ions.<ref name="house2008">{{cite book|title = Inorganic chemistry| first = James E.|last = House| publisher = Academic Press| year = 2008| isbn = 0-12-356786-6| page = 524}}</ref> The alkali metal [[polonide]]s are all ionic compounds containing the Po<sup>2−</sup> ion; they are very chemically stable and can be produced by direct reaction of the elements at around 300–400&nbsp;°C.<ref name="Greenwood&Earnshaw"/><ref name="AEC-chem">{{Cite book | last = Moyer | first = Harvey V. | contribution = Chemical Properties of Polonium | pages = 33–96 | title = Polonium | url = http://www.osti.gov/bridge/servlets/purl/4367751-nEJIbm/ | editor-last = Moyer | editor-first = Harvey V. | id = TID-5221 | doi = 10.2172/4367751 | year = 1956 | location = Oak Ridge, Tenn. | publisher = United States Atomic Energy Commission | postscript = }}.</ref><ref name="Bagnall">{{Cite journal | first = K. W. | last = Bagnall | title = The Chemistry of Polonium | journal = Adv. Inorg. Chem. Radiochem. | year = 1962 | volume = 4 | pages = 197–229 | url = https://books.google.com/?id=8qePsa3V8GQC&pg=PA197#v=onepage&q&f=false | isbn = 978-0-12-023604-6 | doi = 10.1016/S0065-2792(08)60268-X | series = Advances in Inorganic Chemistry and Radiochemistry | postscript =}}.</ref> ===Hydrides and halides=== {{main|Alkali metal halide}} The alkali metals are among the most [[electropositive]] elements on the periodic table and thus tend to [[ionic bond|bond ionically]] to the most [[electronegative]] elements on the periodic table, the [[halogen]]s, forming [[salt (chemistry)|salts]] known as the alkali metal halides. The reaction is very vigorous and can sometimes result in explosions.<ref name=Greenwood&Earnshaw/>{{rp|76}} This includes [[sodium chloride]], otherwise known as common salt. The reactivity becomes higher from lithium to caesium and drops from [[fluorine]] to [[iodine]]. All of the alkali metal halides have the formula MX where M is an alkali metal and X is a halogen. They are all white ionic crystalline solids.<ref name="rsc"/><ref name="alkalireact"/> All the alkali metal halides are [[solubility|soluble]] in water except for [[lithium fluoride]] (LiF), which is insoluble in water due to its very high [[lattice enthalpy]]. The high lattice enthalpy of lithium fluoride is due to the small sizes of the Li<sup>+</sup> and F<sup>−</sup> ions, causing the [[electrostatic interaction]]s between them to be strong:<ref name="rsc"/> a similar effect occurs for [[magnesium fluoride]], which lithium has a diagonal relationship with.<ref name=Greenwood&Earnshaw/>{{rp|76}} The alkali metals also react similarly with hydrogen to form ionic alkali metal hydrides.<ref name="generalchemistry">{{cite book |last1=Averill |first1=Bruce A. |last2=Eldredge |first2=Patricia |title=Chemistry: Principles, Patterns, and Applications with Student Access Kit for Mastering General Chemistry |url=http://2012books.lardbucket.org/books/general-chemistry-principles-patterns-and-applications-v1.0/section_25_03.html |accessdate=24 June 2013 |year=2007 |publisher=Prentice Hall |edition=1st |isbn=9780805337990 |chapter=21.3: The Alkali Metals}}</ref> ===Coordination complexes=== {{double image|right|18-crown-6-potassium-3D-balls-A.png|150|Cryptate of potassium cation.jpg|150|[[18-crown-6]] coordinating a potassium ion|Structure of [[2.2.2-Cryptand]] encapsulating a potassium cation (purple). At crystalline state, obtained with an X-ray diffraction.<ref>{{cite journal | author = Alberto, R.; Ortner, K.; Wheatley, N.; Schibli, R.; Schubiger, A. P. | title = Synthesis and properties of boranocarbonate: a convenient in situ CO source for the aqueous preparation of [<sup>99m</sup>Tc(OH<sub>2</sub>)<sub>3</sub>(CO)<sub>3</sub>]<sup>+</sup> | journal = [[J. Am. Chem. Soc.]] | year = 2001 | volume = 121 | pages = 3135–3136 | doi = 10.1021/ja003932b | issue = 13}}</ref>}} Alkali metal cations do not usually form [[coordination complex]]es with simple [[Lewis base]]s due to their low charge of just +1 and their relatively large size; thus the Li<sup>+</sup> ion forms most complexes and the heavier alkali metal ions form less and less. In [[aqueous solution]], the alkali metal ions exist as octahedral hexahydrate complexes ([M(H<sub>2</sub>O)<sub>6</sub>)]<sup>+</sup>), with the exception of the lithium ion, which due to its small size forms tetrahedral tetrahydrate complexes ([Li(H<sub>2</sub>O)<sub>4</sub>)]<sup>+</sup>); the alkali metals form these complexes because their ions are attracted by electrostatic forces of attraction to the polar water molecules. Because of this, [[anhydrous]] salts containing alkali metal cations are often used as [[desiccant]]s.<ref name=generalchemistry/> Alkali metals also readily form complexes with [[crown ether]]s (e.g. [[12-crown-4]] for Li<sup>+</sup>, [[15-crown-5]] for Na<sup>+</sup>, and [[18-crown-6]] for K<sup>+</sup>) and [[cryptand]]s due to electrostatic attraction.<ref name=generalchemistry/> ===Ammonia solutions=== The alkali metals dissolve slowly in liquid [[ammonia]], forming hydrogen gas and the [[metal amide#Alkali metal amides|alkali metal amide]] (MNH<sub>2</sub>, where M represents an alkali metal): this was first noted by [[Humphry Davy]] in 1809 and rediscovered by W. Weyl in 1864. The process may be speeded up by a [[catalyst]]. Similar solutions are formed by the heavy divalent [[alkaline earth metal]]s and [[lanthanide]]s [[calcium]], [[strontium]], [[barium]], [[europium]], and [[ytterbium]]. The amide salt is quite insoluble and readily precipitates out of solution, leaving intensely coloured ammonia solutions of the alkali metals. In 1907, Charles Krause<!--don't link; the one being referred to has no article on WP yet--> identified the colour as being due to the presence of [[solvated electron]]s, which contribute to the high electrical conductivity of these solutions. At low concentrations (below 3 M), the solution is dark blue and has ten times the conductivity of aqueous [[sodium chloride]]; at higher concentrations (above 3 M), the solution is copper-coloured and has approximately the conductivity of liquid metals like [[mercury (element)|mercury]].<ref name="Greenwood&Earnshaw"/><ref name=generalchemistry/><ref name="c&w">{{cite book |last=Cotton |first=F.A. |first2=G.|last2=Wilkinson |title=Advanced Inorganic Chemistry |year=1972 |publisher=John Wiley and Sons Inc |location= |isbn=0-471-17560-9 }}</ref> In addition to the alkali metal amide salt and solvated electrons, such ammonia solutions also contain the alkali metal cation (M<sup>+</sup>), the neutral alkali metal atom (M), [[diatomic molecule|diatomic]] alkali metal molecules (M<sub>2</sub>) and alkali metal anions (M<sup>−</sup>). These are unstable and eventually become the more thermodynamically stable alkali metal amide and hydrogen gas. Solvated electrons are powerful [[reducing agent]]s and are often used in chemical synthesis.<ref name=generalchemistry/> ===Organometallic=== [[File:Methyllithium-tetramer-2-3D-balls.png|thumb|right|200px|Structure of the methyllithium tetramer, (CH<sub>3</sub>Li)<sub>4</sub>]] Being the smallest alkali metal, lithium forms the widest variety of and most stable [[organometallic compound]]s, which are bonded covalently. [[Organolithium reagent|Organolithium]] compounds are electrically non-conducting volatile solids or liquids that melt at low temperatures, and tend to form [[oligomer]]s with the structure (RLi)<sub>''x''</sub> where R is the organic group. As the electropositive nature of lithium puts most of the [[charge density]] of the bond on the carbon atom, effectively creating a [[carbanion]], organolithium compounds are extremely powerful [[base (chemistry)|base]]s and [[carbon nucleophile|nucleophile]]s. For use as bases, [[butyllithium]]s are often used and are commercially available. An example of an organolithium compound is [[methyllithium]] ((CH<sub>3</sub>Li)<sub>''x''</sub>), which exists in tetrameric (''x'' = 4) and hexameric (''x'' = 6) forms.<ref name=generalchemistry/><ref name=Brown1957 >{{ cite journal | author = Brown, T. L.; Rogers, M. T. | title = The Preparation and Properties of Crystalline Lithium Alkyls | journal = Journal of the American Chemical Society | year = 1957 | volume = 79 | issue = 8 | pages = 1859–1861 | doi = 10.1021/ja01565a024 }}</ref> The application of [[organosodium chemistry|organosodium]] compounds in chemistry is limited in part due to competition from [[organolithium compound]]s, which are commercially available and exhibit more convenient reactivity. The principal organosodium compound of commercial importance is [[sodium cyclopentadienide]]. [[Sodium tetraphenylborate]] can also be classified as an organosodium compound since in the solid state sodium is bound to the aryl groups. Organometallic compounds of the higher alkali metals are even more reactive than organosodium compounds and of limited utility. A notable reagent is [[Schlosser's base]], a mixture of [[n-Butyllithium|''n''-butyllithium]] and [[potassium tert-butoxide|potassium ''tert''-butoxide]]. This reagent reacts with [[propene]] to form the compound [[allylpotassium]] (KCH<sub>2</sub>CHCH<sub>2</sub>). [[cis-2-butene|''cis''-2-Butene]] and [[trans-2-butene|''trans''-2-butene]] equilibrate when in contact with alkali metals. Whereas [[isomerization]] is fast with lithium and sodium, it is slow with the higher alkali metals. The higher alkali metals also favour the [[steric hindrance|sterically]] congested conformation.<ref>{{cite journal | title = Superbases for organic synthesis | author = Manfred Schlosser | journal = Pure and Appl. Chem. | volume = 60 | issue = 11 | pages = 1627–1634 | year = 1988 | doi = 10.1351/pac198860111627}}</ref> Several crystal structures of organopotassium compounds have been reported, establishing that they, like the sodium compounds, are polymeric.<ref name=Klett>{{cite journal|doi=10.1002/ejic.201000983|title=Synthesis and Structures of \(Trimethylsilyl)methyl]sodium and -potassium with Bi- and Tridentate N-Donor Ligands|year=2011|last1=Clegg|first1=William|last2=Conway|first2=Ben|last3=Kennedy|first3=Alan R.|last4=Klett|first4=Jan|last5=Mulvey|first5=Robert E.|last6=Russo|first6=Luca|journal=European Journal of Inorganic Chemistry|volume=2011|issue=5|pages=721–726}}</ref> Organosodium, organopotassium, organorubidium and organocaesium compounds are all mostly ionic and are insoluble (or nearly so) in nonpolar solvents.<ref name=generalchemistry/> ==Extensions== {{see also|Ununennium}} [[File:Atomic radius of alkali metals and alkaline earth metals.svg|thumb|right|250px|[[Empirical]] (Na–Cs, Mg–Ra) and predicted (Fr–Uhp, Ubn–Uhh) atomic radius of the alkali and alkaline earth metals from the [[period 3 element|third]] to the [[period 9 element|ninth period]], measured in [[angstrom]]s<ref name="Uue"/>{{rp|1730}}<ref name="pyykko"/>]] Although francium is the heaviest alkali metal that has been discovered, there has been some theoretical work predicting the physical and chemical characteristics of the hypothetical heavier alkali metals. Being the first [[period 8 element]], the undiscovered element [[ununennium]] (element 119) is predicted to be the next alkali metal after francium and behave much like their lighter [[Congener (chemistry)|congener]]s; however, it is also predicted to differ from the lighter alkali metals in some properties.<ref name="Uue"/>{{rp|1729–1730}} Its chemistry is predicted to be closer to that of potassium<ref name=EB/> or rubidium<ref name="Uue"/>{{rp|1729–1730}} instead of caesium or francium. This is unusual as [[periodic trends]], ignoring relativistic effects would predict ununennium to be even more reactive than caesium and francium. This lowered [[reactivity (chemistry)|reactivity]] is due to the relativistic stabilisation of ununennium's valence electron, increasing ununennium's first ionisation energy and decreasing the [[metallic radius|metallic]] and [[ionic radius|ionic radii]];<ref name="EB"/> this effect is already seen for francium.<ref name="Uue"/>{{rp|1729–1730}} This assumes that ununennium will behave chemically as an alkali metal, which, although likely, may not be true due to relativistic effects.<ref name="tanm">{{cite web |url=http://lch.web.psi.ch/files/lectures/TexasA&M/TexasA&M.pdf |title=Gas Phase Chemistry of Superheavy Elements |author=Gäggeler, Heinz W. |date=5–7 November 2007 |work=Lecture Course Texas A&M |accessdate=26 February 2012}}</ref> The relativistic stabilisation of the 8s orbital also increases ununennium's [[electron affinity]] far beyond that of caesium and francium; indeed, ununennium is expected to have an electron affinity higher than all the alkali metals lighter than it. Relativistic effects also cause a very large drop in the [[polarisability]] of ununennium.<ref name="Uue"/>{{rp|1729–1730}} On the other hand, ununennium is predicted to continue the trend of melting points decreasing going down the group, being expected to have a melting point between 0&nbsp;°C and 30&nbsp;°C.<ref name="Uue"/>{{rp|1724}} [[File:Electron affinity of alkali metals.svg|thumb|left|200px|Empirical (Na–Fr) and predicted (Uue) electron affinity of the alkali metals from the third to the [[period 8 element|eighth period]], measured in [[electron volt]]s<ref name="Uue"/>{{rp|1730}}<ref name="pyykko"/>]] The stabilisation of ununennium's valence electron and thus the contraction of the 8s orbital cause its atomic radius to be lowered to 240&nbsp;[[picometer|pm]],<ref name="Uue"/>{{rp|1729–1730}} very close to that of rubidium (247&nbsp;pm),<ref name="rsc"/> so that the chemistry of ununennium in the +1 oxidation state should be more similar to the chemistry of rubidium than to that of francium. On the other hand, the ionic radius of the Uue<sup>+</sup> ion is predicted to be larger than that of Rb<sup>+</sup>, because the 7p orbitals are destabilised and are thus larger than the p-orbitals of the lower shells. Ununennium may also show the +3 [[oxidation state]],<ref name="Uue"/>{{rp|1729–1730}} which is not seen in any other alkali metal,<ref name="Greenwood&Earnshaw"/>{{rp|28}} in addition to the +1 oxidation state that is characteristic of the other alkali metals and is also the main oxidation state of all the known alkali metals: this is because of the destabilisation and expansion of the 7p<sub>3/2</sub> spinor, causing its outermost electrons to have a lower ionisation energy than what would otherwise be expected.<ref name="Greenwood&Earnshaw"/>{{rp|28}}<ref name="Uue"/>{{rp|1729–1730}} Indeed, many ununennium compounds are expected to have a large [[covalent]] character, due to the involvement of the 7p<sub>3/2</sub> electrons in the bonding.<ref name="Thayer">{{cite journal |last1=Thayer |first1=John S. |title=Relativistic Effects and the Chemistry of the Heavier Main Group Elements |year=2010 |pages=81, 84 |doi=10.1007/978-1-4020-9975-5_2 |journal=Relativistic Methods for Chemists}}</ref> [[File:Ionization energy of alkali metals and alkaline earth metals.svg|thumb|right|250px|Empirical (Na–Fr, Mg–Ra) and predicted (Uue–Uhp, Ubn–Uhh) ionisation energy of the alkali and alkaline earth metals from the third to the ninth period, measured in electron volts<ref name="Uue"/>{{rp|1730}}<ref name="pyykko"/>]] Not as much work has been done predicting the properties of the alkali metals beyond ununennium. Although a simple extrapolation of the periodic table would put element 169, unhexennium, under ununennium, Dirac-Fock calculations predict that the next alkali metal after ununennium may actually be element 165, unhexpentium, which is predicted to have the electron configuration [Uuo] 5g<sup>18</sup> 6f<sup>14</sup> 7d<sup>10</sup> 8s<sup>2</sup> 8p<sub>1/2</sub><sup>2</sup> 9s<sup>1</sup>.<ref name="Uue"/>{{rp|1729–1730}}<ref name="pyykko">{{Cite journal|last1=Pyykkö|first1=Pekka|title=A suggested periodic table up to Z ≤ 172, based on Dirac–Fock calculations on atoms and ions|journal=Physical Chemistry Chemical Physics|volume=13|issue=1|pages=161–8|year=2011|pmid=20967377|doi=10.1039/c0cp01575j|bibcode = 2011PCCP...13..161P }}</ref> Further calculations show that unhexpentium would follow the trend of increasing ionisation energy beyond caesium, having an ionisation energy comparable to that of sodium, and that it should also continue the trend of decreasing atomic radii beyond caesium, having an atomic radius comparable to that of potassium.<ref name="Uue"/>{{rp|1729–1730}} However, the 7d electrons of unhexpentium may also be able to participate in chemical reactions along with the 9s electron, possibly allowing oxidation states beyond +1 and perhaps even making unhexpentium behave more like a [[boron group]] element or [[group 11 element]] than an alkali metal.<ref name="Uue"/>{{rp|1732–1733}}<ref name=BFricke>{{cite journal |last1=Fricke |first1=Burkhard |year=1975 |title=Superheavy elements: a prediction of their chemical and physical properties |journal=Recent Impact of Physics on Inorganic Chemistry |volume=21 |pages=89–144 |doi=10.1007/BFb0116498 |url=http://www.researchgate.net/publication/225672062_Superheavy_elements_a_prediction_of_their_chemical_and_physical_properties |accessdate=4 October 2013}}</ref> Due to the alkali and [[alkaline earth metal]]s both being [[s-block]] elements, these predictions for the trends and properties of ununennium and unhexpentium also mostly hold quite similarly for the corresponding alkaline earth metals [[unbinilium]] (Ubn) and unhexhexium (Uhh).<ref name="Uue"/>{{rp|1729–1733}} The probable properties of further alkali metals beyond unhexpentium have not been explored yet as of 2012. In periods 8 and above of the periodic table, relativistic and shell-structure effects become so strong that extrapolations from lighter congeners become completely inaccurate. In addition, the relativistic and shell-structure effects (which stabilise the s-orbitals and destabilise and expand the d-, f-, and g-orbitals of higher shells) have opposite effects, causing even larger difference between relativistic and non-relativistic calculations of the properties of elements with such high atomic numbers.<ref name="Uue"/>{{rp|1732–1733}} Interest in the chemical properties of ununennium and unhexpentium stems from the fact that both elements are located close to the expected locations of [[island of stability|islands of stabilities]], centered at elements 122 (<sup>306</sup>Ubb) and 164 (<sup>482</sup>Uhq).<ref name=Kratz>{{cite conference |last1=Kratz |first1=J. V. |date=5 September 2011 |title=The Impact of Superheavy Elements on the Chemical and Physical Sciences |url=http://tan11.jinr.ru/pdf/06_Sep/S_1/02_Kratz.pdf |conference=4th International Conference on the Chemistry and Physics of the Transactinide Elements |accessdate=27 August 2013}}</ref><ref>http://www.eurekalert.org/pub_releases/2008-04/acs-nse031108.php</ref><ref>http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007%2FBF01406719/lookinside/000.png</ref> ==Other similar substances== ===Hydrogen=== {{Main|Hydrogen}}<!--why does it not fit into the periodic trends of the alkali metals?--> [[File:Hydrogen discharge tube.jpg|thumb|Hydrogen gas glowing in a [[discharge tube]]]] The element [[hydrogen]], with one electron per neutral atom, is usually placed at the top of Group 1 of the periodic table for convenience, but hydrogen is not normally considered to be an alkali metal;<ref name="iupac"/> when it is considered to be an alkali metal, it is because of its atomic properties and not its chemical properties.<ref name="Folden">{{cite web |url=http://cyclotron.tamu.edu/smp/The%20Heaviest%20Elements%20in%20the%20Universe.pdf |title=The Heaviest Elements in the Universe |author=Folden, Cody |date=31 January 2009 |work=Saturday Morning Physics at Texas A&M |accessdate=9 March 2012}}</ref> Under typical conditions, pure hydrogen exists as a [[diatomic]] gas consisting of two atoms per [[molecule]] (H<sub>2</sub>);<ref>{{Cite book| author = Emsley, J. | title = The Elements | publisher = Oxford: Clarendon Press | year = 1989 | pages = 22–23| id= }}</ref><!--It is uncertain if this reference (from [[diatomic molecule]]) refers to astatine usually not being considered with the other halogens or the list of elements that form diatomic molecules.--> however, the alkali metals only form diatomic molecules (such as [[dilithium]], Li<sub>2</sub>) at high temperatures, when they are in the [[gas]]eous state.<ref>''Chemical Bonding'', Mark J. Winter, Oxford University Press, '''1994''', ISBN 0-19-855694-2</ref> Hydrogen, like the alkali metals, has one [[valence electron]]<ref name="hydrogen-halogen" /> and reacts easily with the [[halogen]]s<ref name="hydrogen-halogen" /> but the similarities end there.<ref name="hydrogen-halogen" /> Its placement above lithium is primarily due to its [[electron configuration]] and not its chemical properties.<ref name="iupac">{{cite web|url=http://old.iupac.org/reports/periodic_table/ |title=International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry > Periodic Table of the Elements |publisher=IUPAC |accessdate=1 May 2011}}</ref><ref name="hydrogen-halogen" /> It is sometimes placed above [[carbon]] due to their similar electronegativities<ref name="hydrogen"/> or [[fluorine]] due to their similar chemical properties.<ref name="hydrogen-halogen" /><ref name="hydrogen">{{cite journal |last=Cronyn |first=Marshall W. |title=The Proper Place for Hydrogen in the Periodic Table |journal=Journal of Chemical Education |volume=80 |issue=8 |date=August 2003 |pages=947–951 |doi=10.1021/ed080p947 |url=http://www.reed.edu/reed_magazine/summer2009/columns/noaa/downloads/CronynHydrogen.pdf |bibcode=2003JChEd..80..947C}}</ref> The first ionisation energy of hydrogen (1312.0 [[kilojoule per mole|kJ/mol]]) is much higher than that of the alkali metals.<ref name="huheey">J.E. Huheey, E.A. Keiter, and R.L. Keiter in ''Inorganic Chemistry : Principles of Structure and Reactivity'', 4th edition, HarperCollins, New York, USA, 1993.</ref><ref name="macmillan">A.M. James and M.P. Lord in ''Macmillan's Chemical and Physical Data'', Macmillan, London, UK, 1992.</ref> As only one additional electron is required to fill in the outermost shell of the hydrogen atom, hydrogen often behaves like a halogen, forming the negative [[hydride]] ion, and is sometimes considered to be a halogen.<ref name="hydrogen-halogen">{{cite web |url=http://hydrogentwo.com/hydrogen-halogen.html |title=Hydrogen is a Halogen |author=Vinson, Greg |year=2008 |work=HydrogenTwo.com |accessdate=14 January 2012}}</ref> (The alkali metals can also form negative ions, known as [[alkalide]]s, but these are little more than laboratory curiosities, being unstable.)<ref name="HNa"/><ref name="HNa-theory"/> It was expected for some time that liquid hydrogen would show metallic properties;<ref name=hydrogen/> while this has been shown to not be the case, under extremely high [[pressure]]s, such as those found at the cores of [[Jupiter]] and [[Saturn]], hydrogen does become metallic and behaves like an alkali metal; in this phase, it is known as [[metallic hydrogen]].<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Wigner|first1=E.|last2=Huntington|first2=H.B.|year=1935|title=On the possibility of a metallic modification of hydrogen|journal=[[Journal of Chemical Physics]]|volume=3 |page=764|doi=10.1063/1.1749590|bibcode = 1935JChPh...3..764W|issue=12 }}</ref> The [[resistivity|electrical resistivity]] of liquid [[metallic hydrogen]] at 3000 K is approximately equal to that of liquid [[rubidium]] and [[caesium]] at 2000 K at the respective pressures when they undergo a nonmetal-to-metal transition.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Nellis |first1=W. J. |last2=Weir |first2=S. T. |last3=Mitchell |first3=A. C. |year=1999 |title=Metallization of fluid hydrogen at 140 GPa (1.4 Mbar) by shock compression |journal=Shock Waves |volume=9 |issue= |pages=301–305 |publisher= |doi= 10.1007/s001930050189|url=|bibcode = 1999ShWav...9..301N }}</ref> The 1s<sup>1</sup> electron configuration of hydrogen, while superficially similar to that of the alkali metals (ns<sup>1</sup>), is unique because there is no 1p subshell. Hence it can lose an electron to form the [[hydron (chemistry)|hydron]] H<sup>+</sup>, or gain one to form the [[hydride]] ion H<sup>−</sup>.<ref name="Greenwood&Earnshaw"/>{{rp|43}} In the former case it resembles superficially the alkali metals; in the latter case, the halogens, but the differences due to the lack of a 1p subshell are important enough that neither group fits the properties of hydrogen well.<ref name="Greenwood&Earnshaw"/>{{rp|43}} Group 14 is the best fit in terms of thermodynamic properties such as [[ionization energy]] and [[electron affinity]], but none of the three placements are entirely satisfactory.<ref name=hydrogen/> As an example of hydrogen's unorthodox properties stemming from its unusual electron configuration and small size, the hydrogen ion is very small (radius around 150&nbsp;[[femtometre|fm]] compared to the 50–220&nbsp;pm size of most other atoms and ions) and so is nonexistent in condensed systems other than in association with other atoms or molecules. Indeed, transferring of protons between chemicals is the basis of [[acid-base chemistry]].<ref name="Greenwood&Earnshaw"/>{{rp|43}} Also unique is hydrogen's ability to form [[hydrogen bond]]s, which are an effect of charge-transfer, [[electrostatic]], and electron correlative contributing phenomena.<ref name=hydrogen/> While analogous lithium bonds are also known, they are mostly electrostatic.<ref name=hydrogen/> Nevertheless, hydrogen can perform the same structural role as the alkali metals in some molecular crystals, and has a close relationship with the lightest alkali metals (especially lithium).<ref>{{cite journal |last=Cousins |first=David M. |last2=Davidson |first2=Matthew G. |last3=García-Vivó |first3=Daniel |date=2013 |title=Unprecedented participation of a four-coordinate hydrogen atom in the cubane core of lithium and sodium phenolates |url=http://pubs.rsc.org/en/content/articlepdf/2013/cc/c3cc47393g |journal=Chem. Commun. |volume=49 |pages=11809–11811 |doi=10.1039/c3cc47393g |accessdate=7 August 2014}}</ref> ===Ammonium=== {{Main|Ammonium}} The [[ammonium]] ion ({{chem|NH|4|+}}) has very similar properties to the heavier alkali metals, acting as an alkali metal intermediate between potassium and rubidium,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.meta-synthesis.com/webbook/35_pt/pt_database.php?PT_id=429|title=2002 Inorganic Chemist's Periodic Table|author=Mark R. Leach |accessdate=16 October 2012}}</ref> and is often considered a close relative.<ref name = "Holleman&Wiberg">{{Holleman&Wiberg}}</ref><ref name="Stevenson" /><ref name="Bernal&Massey" /> For example, most alkali metal [[salt (chemistry)|salts]] are [[solubility|soluble]] in water, a property which ammonium salts share.<ref>{{cite web|title=Solubility Rules!|url=http://www.chem.sc.edu/faculty/morgan/resources/solubility/|accessdate=4 January 2014}}</ref> Ammonium is expected to behave stably as a metal ({{chem|NH|4|+}} ions in a sea of electrons) at very high pressures (though less than the typical pressure where transitions from insulating to metallic behaviour occur around, 100&nbsp;[[pascal (unit)|GPa]]), and could possibly occur inside the [[Gas giant#Uranus and Neptune|ice giants]] [[Uranus]] and [[Neptune]], which may have significant impacts on their interior magnetic fields.<ref name="Stevenson">{{cite journal |last1=Stevenson |first1=D. J. |date=20 November 1975 |title=Does metallic ammonium exist? |journal=[[Nature (journal)|Nature]] |volume=258 |issue= 5532 |pages=222–223 |publisher=[[Nature Publishing Group]] |doi=10.1038/258222a0 |url=http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v258/n5532/abs/258222a0.html |accessdate=13 January 2012 |bibcode = 1975Natur.258..222S }}</ref><ref name="Bernal&Massey">{{cite journal |last1=Bernal |first1=M. J. M. |last2=Massey |first2=H. S. W. |date=3 February 1954 |title=Metallic Ammonium |journal=[[Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society]] |volume=114 |pages=172–179 |publisher=[[Wiley-Blackwell]] for the [[Royal Astronomical Society]] |bibcode=1954MNRAS.114..172B |url=http://articles.adsabs.harvard.edu/cgi-bin/nph-iarticle_query?1954MNRAS.114..172B&amp;data_type=PDF_HIGH&amp;whole_paper=YES&amp;type=PRINTER&amp;filetype=.pdf |doi=10.1093/mnras/114.2.172}}</ref> It has been estimated that the transition from a mixture of [[ammonia]] and dihydrogen molecules to metallic ammonium may occur at pressures just below 25&nbsp;GPa.<ref name="Stevenson"/> ===Thallium=== {{Main|Thallium}} [[File:Thallium pieces in ampoule.jpg|thumb|right|Very pure thallium pieces in a glass [[ampoule]], stored under [[argon]] gas]] Thallium displays the +1 [[oxidation state]]<ref name="Greenwood&Earnshaw"/>{{rp|28}} that all the known alkali metals display,<ref name="Greenwood&Earnshaw"/>{{rp|28}} and thallium compounds with thallium in its +1 [[oxidation state]] closely resemble the corresponding potassium or [[silver]] compounds stoichiometrically due to the similar ionic radii of the Tl<sup>+</sup> (164&nbsp;[[picometer|pm]]), K<sup>+</sup> (152&nbsp;pm) and Ag<sup>+</sup> (129&nbsp;pm) ions.<ref name=Shannon>{{cite journal|doi=10.1107/S0567739476001551|title=Revised effective ionic radii and systematic studies of interatomic distances in halides and chalcogenides|author=R. D. Shannon|journal=Acta Crystallogr A|volume=32|year=1976|pages=751–767|bibcode = 1976AcCrA..32..751S|issue=5 }}</ref><ref name=Crookes/> It was sometimes considered an alkali metal in [[continental Europe]] (but not in England) in the years immediately following its discovery,<ref name=Crookes>{{cite journal |last1=Crookes |first1=William |authorlink=William Crookes |year=1864 |title=On Thallium |journal=The Journal of the Chemical Society, London |volume=17 |pages=112–152 |publisher=Harrison & Sons |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=H58wAAAAYAAJ |accessdate=13 January 2012 |doi=10.1039/js8641700112 }}</ref>{{rp|126}} and was placed just after caesium as the sixth alkali metal in [[Dmitri Mendeleev]]'s 1869 [[periodic table]] and [[Julius Lothar Meyer]]'s 1868 periodic table.<ref name="meta-synthesis2">{{cite web |url=http://www.meta-synthesis.com/webbook/35_pt/pt_database.php?Button=pre-1900+Formulations |title=The Internet Database of Periodic Tables |author=Leach, Mark R. |date=1999–2012 |work=meta-synthesis.com |accessdate=6 April 2012}}</ref> (Mendeleev's 1871 periodic table and Meyer's 1870 periodic table put thallium in its current position in the [[boron group]] and leave the space below caesium blank.)<ref name="meta-synthesis2"/> However, thallium also displays the oxidation state +3,<ref name="Greenwood&Earnshaw"/>{{rp|28}} which no known alkali metal displays<ref name="Greenwood&Earnshaw"/>{{rp|28}} (although ununennium, the undiscovered seventh alkali metal, is predicted to possibly display the +3 oxidation state).<ref name="Uue"/>{{rp|1729–1730}} The sixth alkali metal is now considered to be francium.<ref name="redbook">{{RedBook2005|pages=51}}.</ref> While Tl<sup>+</sup> is stabilized by the [[inert pair effect]], this inert pair of 6s electrons is still able to participate chemically, so that these electrons are [[stereochemistry|stereochemically]] active in aqueous solution. Additionally, the thallium halides (except [[thallium(I) fluoride|TlF]]) are quite insoluble in water, and [[thallium(I) iodide|TlI]] has an unusual structure because of the presence of the inert pair in thallium.<ref>{{cite journal| title = Thallium Halides - New Aspects of the Stereochemical Activity of Electron Lone Pairs of Heavier Main-Group Elements| author = Anja-Verena Mudring| journal = [[European Journal of Inorganic Chemistry]]| volume = 2007 | issue = 6| pages = 882–890| doi = 10.1002/ejic.200600975| year = 2007}}</ref> ===Copper, silver, and gold=== {{multiple image | align = right | direction = horizontal | header = | image1 = NatCopper.jpg | width1 = 110 | alt1 = A crystal of a coppery-colored metal mineral of standing on a white surface | caption1 = Copper | image2 = Silver crystal.jpg | width2 = 132 | alt2 = A crystal of a silvery metal crystal lying on a grey surface | caption2 = Silver | image3 = Gold-crystals.jpg | width3 = 160 | alt3 = A crystal of a yellow metal lying on a white surface | caption3 = Gold }} The [[group 11 element|group 11 metals]] (or coinage metals), [[copper]], [[silver]], and [[gold]], are typically categorised as transition metals given they can form ions with incomplete d-shells. Physically, they have the relatively low melting points and high electronegativity values associated with [[post-transition metal]]s. "The filled ''d'' subshell and free ''s'' electron of Cu, Ag, and Au contribute to their high electrical and thermal conductivity. Transition metals to the left of group 11 experience interactions between ''s'' electrons and the partially filled ''d'' subshell that lower electron mobility."<ref>Russell AM & Lee KL 2005, [https://books.google.com/books?id=fIu58uZTE-gC&printsec=frontcover ''Structure-property relations in nonferrous metals]'', p.&nbsp;302. Wiley-Interscience, New York, ISBN 047164952X</ref> Chemically, the group 11 metals behave like main-group metals in their +1 valence states, and are hence somewhat related to the alkali metals: this is one reason for their previously being labelled as "group IB", paralleling the alkali metals' "group IA". They are occasionally classified as post-transition metals.<ref>Deming HG 1940, ''Fundamental Chemistry,'' John Wiley & Sons, New York, pp.&nbsp;705–7</ref> Their spectra are however analogous to those of the alkali metals.<ref name=Jensen/> In Mendeleev's 1871 periodic table, copper, silver, and gold are listed twice, once under group VIII (with the [[iron triad]] and [[platinum group metal]]s), and once under group IB. Group IB was nonetheless parenthesized to note that it was tentative. Mendeleev's main criterion for group assignment was the maximum oxidation state of an element: on that basis, the group 11 elements could not be classified in group IB, due to the existence of Cu(II) and Au(III) compounds being known at that time.<ref name=Jensen/> However, eliminating group IB would make group I the only main group (group VIII was labelled a transition group) to lack an A–B bifurcation.<ref name=Jensen/> Soon afterwards, a majority of chemists chose to classify these elements in group IB and remove them from group VIII for the resulting symmetry: this was the predominant classification until the rise of the modern medium-long 18-column periodic table, which separated the alkali metals and group 11 metals.<ref name=Jensen/> The coinage metals were traditionally regarded as a subdivision of the alkali metal group, due to them sharing the characteristic s<sup>1</sup> electron configuration of the alkali metals (group 1: p<sup>6</sup>s<sup>1</sup>; group 11: d<sup>10</sup>s<sup>1</sup>). However, the similarities are largely confined to the [[stochiometry|stochiometries]] of the +1 compounds of both groups, and not their chemical properties.<ref name="Greenwood&Earnshaw"/>{{rp|1177}} This stems from the filled d subshell providing a much weaker shielding effect on the outermost s electron than the filled p subshell, so that the coinage metals have much higher first ionization energies and smaller ionic radii than do the corresponding alkali metals.<ref name="Greenwood&Earnshaw"/>{{rp|1177}} Furthermore, they have higher melting points, hardnesses, and densities, and lower reactivities and solubilities in liquid [[ammonia]], as well as having more covalent character in their compounds.<ref name="Greenwood&Earnshaw"/>{{rp|1177}} Finally, the alkali metals are at the top of the [[electrochemical series]], whereas the coinage metals are almost at the very bottom.<ref name="Greenwood&Earnshaw"/>{{rp|1177}} The coinage metals' filled d shell is much more easily disrupted than the alkali metals' filled p shell, so that the second and third ionization energies are lower, enabling higher oxidation states than +1 and a richer coordination chemistry, thus giving the group 11 metals clear [[transition metal]] character.<ref name="Greenwood&Earnshaw"/>{{rp|1177}} Particularly noteworthy is gold forming ionic compounds with rubidium and caesium, in which it forms the auride ion (Au<sup>−</sup>) which also occurs in solvated form in liquid ammonia solution: here gold behaves as a [[pseudohalogen]] because its 5d<sup>10</sup>6s<sup>1</sup> configuration has one electron less than the quasi-closed shell 5d<sup>10</sup>6s<sup>2</sup> configuration of [[mercury (element)|mercury]].<ref name="Greenwood&Earnshaw"/>{{rp|1177}} ==History== [[File:Petalite.jpg|thumb|alt=A sample of petalite|Petalite, the lithium mineral from which lithium was first isolated]] Sodium compounds have been known since ancient times; salt ([[sodium chloride]]) has been an important commodity in human activities, as testified by the English word ''salary'', referring to ''salarium'', money paid to Roman soldiers for the purchase of salt.<ref>{{cite web|title=Salary|url=http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=salary|accessdate=20 July 2015}}</ref> While potash has been used since ancient times, it was not understood for most of its history to be a fundamentally different substance from sodium mineral salts. [[Georg Ernst Stahl]] obtained experimental evidence which led him to suggest the fundamental difference of sodium and potassium salts in 1702,<ref name="1702Suspect">{{cite book|url = https://books.google.com/books?id=b-ATAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA167|page = 167|title = Chymische Schriften|last1 = Marggraf|first = Andreas Siegmund|year = 1761}}</ref> and [[Henri Louis Duhamel du Monceau]] was able to prove this difference in 1736.<ref>{{cite journal|url = http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k3533j/f73.image.r=Memoires%20de%20l%27Academie%20royale%20des%20Sciences.langEN|journal = Memoires de l'Academie royale des Sciences| title = Sur la Base de Sel Marine| last = du Monceau|first = H. L. D.| pages = 65–68| language = French}}</ref> The exact chemical composition of potassium and sodium compounds, and the status as chemical element of potassium and sodium, was not known then, and thus [[Antoine Lavoisier]] did include the alkali in his list of chemical elements in 1789.<ref name="weeks">{{cite journal|doi = 10.1021/ed009p1035|title = The discovery of the elements. IX. Three alkali metals: Potassium, sodium, and lithium|year = 1932|last1 = Weeks|first1 = Mary Elvira|authorlink1=Mary Elvira Weeks|journal = Journal of Chemical Education|volume = 9|issue = 6|page = 1035|bibcode = 1932JChEd...9.1035W}}</ref><ref name="disco">{{cite journal|jstor = 228541|pages = 247–258|last1 = Siegfried|first1 = R.|title = The Discovery of Potassium and Sodium, and the Problem of the Chemical Elements|volume = 54|issue = 2|journal = Isis|year = 1963|doi = 10.1086/349704}}</ref> Pure potassium was first isolated in 1807 in England by Sir [[Humphry Davy]], who derived it from [[Potassium hydroxide|caustic potash]] (KOH, potassium hydroxide) by the use of electrolysis of the molten salt with the newly invented [[voltaic pile]]. Previous attempts at electrolysis of the aqueous salt were unsuccessful due to potassium's extreme reactivity.<ref name=Greenwood&Earnshaw/>{{rp|68}} Potassium was the first metal that was isolated by electrolysis.<ref name=Enghag2004>{{cite book|author=Enghag, P.|year=2004|title=Encyclopedia of the elements|publisher=Wiley-VCH Weinheim|isbn=3-527-30666-8|chapter=11. Sodium and Potassium}}</ref> Later that same year, Davy reported extraction of sodium from the similar substance [[caustic soda]] (NaOH, lye) by a similar technique, demonstrating the elements, and thus the salts, to be different.<ref name="weeks" /><ref name="disco"/><ref name=Davy1807>{{cite journal|first=Humphry|last=Davy|title=On some new phenomena of chemical changes produced by electricity, in particular the decomposition of the fixed alkalies, and the exhibition of the new substances that constitute their bases; and on the general nature of alkaline bodies|pages=1–44|year=1808|volume=98|journal=Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London|url=https://books.google.com/?id=gpwEAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA57&q|doi=10.1098/rstl.1808.0001}}</ref><ref name="200disco">{{cite journal|doi = 10.1134/S1061934807110160|title = History of the discovery of potassium and sodium (on the 200th anniversary of the discovery of potassium and sodium)|year = 2007|last1 = Shaposhnik|first1 = V. A.|journal = Journal of Analytical Chemistry|volume = 62|issue = 11|pages = 1100–1102}}</ref> Later that year, the first pieces of pure molten sodium metal were similarly prepared by [[Humphry Davy]] through the [[electrolysis]] of molten [[caustic soda]] (now called sodium hydroxide).<ref name=Davy1807/> [[File:Johann Wolfgang Döbereiner.jpg|thumb|150px|right|Johann Wolfgang Döbereiner was among the first to notice similarities between what are now known as the alkali metals.]] [[Petalite]] ([[Lithium|Li]][[Aluminium|Al]][[Silicon|Si]]<sub>4</sub>[[Oxygen|O]]<sub>10</sub>) was discovered in 1800 by the [[Brazil]]ian chemist [[José Bonifácio de Andrada]] in a mine on the island of [[Utö, Sweden]].<ref name=mindat>{{cite web|url=http://www.mindat.org/min-3171.html |title=Petalite: Petalite mineral information and data |last1=Ralph |first1=Jolyon |last2=Chau |first2=Ida |date=24 August 2011 |accessdate=27 November 2011}}</ref><ref name=webelementshistory>{{cite web|url=http://www.webelements.com/lithium/history.html|title=WebElements Periodic Table of the Elements {{pipe}} Lithium {{pipe}} historical information |last=Winter |first=Mark |accessdate=27 November 2011}}</ref><ref name=discovery>{{Cite book|title=Discovery of the Elements |last=Weeks |first=Mary|year=2003 |page=124 |publisher=Kessinger Publishing |location=Whitefish, Montana, United States |isbn=0-7661-3872-0 |url=https://books.google.com/?id=SJIk9BPdNWcC|accessdate=10 August 2009}}</ref> However, it was not until 1817 that [[Johan August Arfwedson]], then working in the laboratory of the chemist [[Jöns Jacob Berzelius]], [[discovery of the chemical elements|detected]] the presence of a new element while analysing petalite ore.<ref name=uwis>{{cite web|url=http://genchem.chem.wisc.edu/lab/PTL/PTL/BIOS/arfwdson.htm |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080605152857/http://genchem.chem.wisc.edu/lab/PTL/PTL/BIOS/arfwdson.htm |archivedate=5 June 2008 |title=Johan Arfwedson |accessdate=10 August 2009}}</ref><ref name=vanderkrogt>{{cite web|publisher = Elementymology & Elements Multidict|title = Lithium| first = Peter|last =van der Krogt|url =http://elements.vanderkrogt.net/element.php?sym=Li|accessdate =5 October 2010}}</ref> This new element was noted by him to form compounds similar to those of sodium and potassium, though its [[lithium carbonate|carbonate]] and [[lithium hydroxide|hydroxide]] were less [[solubility|soluble in water]] and more [[Base (chemistry)|alkaline]] than the other alkali metals.<ref name=compounds>{{cite web|url=http://www.chemguide.co.uk/inorganic/group1/compounds.html|title=Compounds of the Group 1 Elements |accessdate=10 August 2009 |last=Clark |first=Jim |year=2005 |work=chemguide}}</ref> Berzelius gave the unknown material the name "''lithion''/''lithina''", from the [[Ancient Greek|Greek]] word ''λιθoς'' (transliterated as ''lithos'', meaning "stone"), to reflect its discovery in a solid mineral, as opposed to potassium, which had been discovered in plant ashes, and sodium, which was known partly for its high abundance in animal blood. He named the metal inside the material "''lithium''".<ref name=krebs>{{Cite book|last = Krebs|first = Robert E.|year = 2006|title = The History and Use of Our Earth's Chemical Elements: A Reference Guide|publisher = Greenwood Press|location = Westport, Conn.|isbn = 0-313-33438-2}}</ref><ref name=webelementshistory/><ref name=vanderkrogt/> Lithium, sodium, and potassium were part of the discovery of [[Periodic table|periodicity]], as they are among a series of triads of elements in the same [[group (periodic table)|group]] that were noted by [[Johann Wolfgang Döbereiner]] in 1850 as having similar properties.<ref name="meta-synthesis2"/> [[File:Lepidolite-76774.jpg|thumb|upright|alt=A sample of lepidolite|Lepidolite, the rubidium mineral from which rubidium was first isolated]] Rubidium and caesium were the first elements to be discovered using the [[spectroscope]], invented in 1859 by [[Robert Bunsen]] and [[Gustav Kirchhoff]].<ref name="caesium">{{cite web|url=http://pubs.acs.org/cen/80th/print/cesium.html |title=C&EN: It's Elemental: The Periodic Table – Cesium |publisher=American Chemical Society|accessdate=25 February 2010|author=Kaner, Richard|year = 2003}}</ref> The next year, they discovered caesium in the [[mineral water]] from [[Bad Dürkheim]], Germany. Their discovery of rubidium came the following year in Heidelberg, Germany, finding it in the mineral [[lepidolite]].<ref name="BuKi1861">{{Cite journal|title = Chemische Analyse durch Spectralbeobachtungen |pages = 337–381 |first1 = G.|last1 = Kirchhoff |first2 = R.|last2 = Bunsen|authorlink1 = Gustav Kirchhoff|authorlink2 = Robert Bunsen|doi = 10.1002/andp.18611890702 |journal = [[Annalen der Physik|Annalen der Physik und Chemie]] |volume = 189 |issue = 7|year = 1861 |bibcode=1861AnP...189..337K}}</ref> The names of rubidium and caesium come from the most prominent lines in their [[emission spectrum|emission spectra]]: a bright red line for rubidium (from the [[Latin]] word ''rubidus'', meaning dark red or bright red), and a sky-blue line for caesium (derived from the Latin word ''caesius'', meaning sky-blue).<ref name="Weeks">{{cite journal |title = The discovery of the elements. XIII. Some spectroscopic discoveries |pages = 1413–1434|last = Weeks|first = Mary Elvira |authorlink=Mary Elvira Weeks|doi=10.1021/ed009p1413|journal = [[Journal of Chemical Education]] |volume =9 |issue =8 |year = 1932 |bibcode=1932JChEd...9.1413W}}</ref><ref group="note">Bunsen quotes [[Aulus Gellius]] [[Aulus Gellius|Noctes Atticae]] II, 26 by [[Nigidius Figulus]]: ''Nostris autem veteribus "caesia" dicta est, quae a Graecis glaukopis, ut Nigidius ait, "de colore caeli quasi caelia''.''</ref><ref>[[Oxford English Dictionary]], 2nd Edition</ref> Around 1865 [[John Alexander Reina Newlands|John Newlands]] produced a series of papers where he listed the elements in order of increasing atomic weight and similar physical and chemical properties that recurred at intervals of eight; he likened such periodicity to the [[octave]]s of music.<ref>{{Cite journal |title = On Relations Among the Equivalents |author = Newlands, John A. R. |journal = Chemical News |volume = 10 |pages = 94–95 |date =20 August 1864 |url=http://web.lemoyne.edu/~GIUNTA/EA/NEWLANDSann.HTML |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110101073248/http://web.lemoyne.edu/~GIUNTA/EA/NEWLANDSann.HTML |archivedate=January 1, 2011 |accessdate=November 25, 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |title = On the Law of Octaves |author = Newlands, John A. R. |journal = Chemical News |volume = 12 |page = 83 |date = 18 August 1865 |url=http://web.lemoyne.edu/~GIUNTA/EA/NEWLANDSann.HTML |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110101073248/http://web.lemoyne.edu/~GIUNTA/EA/NEWLANDSann.HTML |archivedate=January 1, 2011 |accessdate=November 25, 2013}}</ref> His version put all the alkali metals then known (lithium to caesium), as well as copper, silver, and thallium (which show the +1 oxidation state characteristic of the alkali metals), together into a group. His table placed hydrogen with the halogens.<ref name="meta-synthesis2"/> [[File:Mendelejevs periodiska system 1871.png|thumb|500px|Mendeleev's periodic system proposed in 1871 showing hydrogen and the alkali metals as part of his group I]] After 1869, [[Dmitri Mendeleev]] proposed his periodic table placing lithium at the top of a group with sodium, potassium, rubidium, caesium, and thallium.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Mendelejew |first=Dimitri |year=1869 |title=Über die Beziehungen der Eigenschaften zu den Atomgewichten der Elemente |journal=Zeitschrift für Chemie |pages=405–406 |language=German}}</ref> Two years later, Mendeleev revised his table, placing hydrogen in group 1 above lithium, and also moving thallium to the [[boron group]]. In this 1871 version, copper, silver, and gold were placed twice, once as part of [[group 11 element|group IB]], and once as part of a "group VIII" encompassing today's groups [[group 8 element|8]] to 11.<ref name="Jensen">{{cite journal |last1=Jensen |first1=William B. |year=2003 |title=The Place of Zinc, Cadmium, and Mercury in the Periodic Table |journal=Journal of Chemical Education |volume=80 |issue=8 |pages=952–961 |publisher=[[American Chemical Society]] |doi=10.1021/ed080p952 |bibcode=2003JChEd..80..952J |url=http://www.che.uc.edu/jensen/W.%20B.%20Jensen/Reprints/091.%20Zn-Cd-Hg.pdf |accessdate=2012-05-06}}</ref><ref group="note">In the 1869 version of Mendeleev's periodic table, copper and silver were placed in their own group, aligned with hydrogen and [[mercury (element)|mercury]], while gold was tentatively placed under [[uranium]] and the undiscovered [[gallium|eka-aluminium]] in the [[boron group]].</ref> After the introduction of the 18-column table, the group IB elements were moved to their current position in the [[d-block]], while alkali metals were left in ''group IA''. Later the group's name was changed to ''group 1'' in 1988.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Fluck |first1=E.|year=1988 |title=New Notations in the Periodic Table |journal=[[Pure and Applied Chemistry|Pure Appl. Chem.]]|volume=60|pages=431–436|publisher=[[International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry|IUPAC]]|doi=10.1351/pac198860030431|url=http://www.iupac.org/publications/pac/1988/pdf/6003x0431.pdf|issue=3 |deadurl=no |accessdate=November 25, 2013}}</ref> The [[trivial name]] "alkali metals" comes from the fact that the hydroxides of the group 1 elements are all strong [[alkali]]s when dissolved in water.<ref name="rsc"/> There were at least four erroneous and incomplete discoveries<ref name="fontani">{{cite conference| first = Marco| last = Fontani| title = The Twilight of the Naturally-Occurring Elements: Moldavium (Ml), Sequanium (Sq) and Dor (Do)| booktitle = International Conference on the History of Chemistry| pages = 1–8| date = 10 September 2005| location = Lisbon|url = http://5ichc-portugal.ulusofona.pt/uploads/PaperLong-MarcoFontani.doc| archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20060224090117/http://5ichc-portugal.ulusofona.pt/uploads/PaperLong-MarcoFontani.doc|archivedate=24 February 2006|accessdate =8 April 2007}}</ref><ref name="vanderkrogt-Fr"/><ref>{{cite news| title = Alabamine & Virginium|work=TIME| date = 15 February 1932|url = http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,743159,00.html| accessdate =1 April 2007}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal| last = MacPherson| first = H. G.| title = An Investigation of the Magneto-Optic Method of Chemical Analysis| journal = Physical Review| volume = 47| issue = 4| pages = 310–315| publisher = American Physical Society|year=1934|doi = 10.1103/PhysRev.47.310|bibcode = 1935PhRv...47..310M }}</ref> before [[Marguerite Perey]] of the [[Curie Institute (Paris)|Curie Institute]] in Paris, France discovered francium in 1939 by purifying a sample of [[isotopes of actinium|actinium-227]], which had been reported to have a decay energy of 220&nbsp;[[electronvolt|keV]]. However, Perey noticed decay particles with an energy level below 80&nbsp;keV. Perey thought this decay activity might have been caused by a previously unidentified decay product, one that was separated during purification, but emerged again out of the pure [[actinium]]-227. Various tests eliminated the possibility of the unknown element being [[thorium]], [[radium]], [[lead]], [[bismuth]], or [[thallium]]. The new product exhibited chemical properties of an alkali metal (such as coprecipitating with caesium salts), which led Perey to believe that it was element 87, caused by the [[alpha decay]] of actinium-227.<ref name="chemeducator">Adloff, Jean-Pierre; Kaufman, George B. (2005-09-25). [http://chemeducator.org/sbibs/s0010005/spapers/1050387gk.htm Francium (Atomic Number 87), the Last Discovered Natural Element]. ''The Chemical Educator'' '''10''' (5). Retrieved on 26 March 2007.</ref> Perey then attempted to determine the proportion of [[beta decay]] to alpha decay in actinium-227. Her first test put the alpha branching at 0.6%, a figure that she later revised to 1%.<ref name="mcgraw">{{Cite book| contribution = Francium| year = 2002| title = [[McGraw-Hill Encyclopedia of Science & Technology]]| volume = 7| pages = 493–494| publisher = McGraw-Hill Professional|isbn = 0-07-913665-6}}</ref> It was the last element discovered in [[nature]], rather than by synthesis.<ref group="note">Some synthetic elements, like [[technetium]] and [[plutonium]], have later been found in nature.</ref> The next element below francium ([[Mendeleev's predicted elements|eka]]-francium) is very likely to be [[ununennium]] (Uue), element 119,<ref name="Uue"/>{{rp|1729–1730}} although this is not completely certain due to [[relativistic quantum chemistry|relativistic effects]].<ref name="tanm"/> The synthesis of ununennium was first attempted in 1985 by bombarding a target of [[einsteinium]]-254 with [[calcium]]-48 ions at the superHILAC accelerator at Berkeley, California. No atoms were identified, leading to a limiting yield of 300 [[barn (unit)|nb]].<ref name="link">{{cite journal|title=Search for superheavy elements using <sup>48</sup>Ca + <sup>254</sup>Es<sup>g</sup> reaction|first1=R.W. |last1=Lougheed|first2=J.H.|last2=Landrum|first3=E.K.|last3=Hulet|first4=J.F.|last4=Wild|first5=R.J.|last5=Dougan|first6=A.D.|last6=Dougan|first7=H.|last7=Gäggeler|first8=M|last8=Schädel|first9=K.J.|last9=Moody|first10=K.E.|last10=Gregorich|last11=Seaborg|journal=Physical Review C|year=1985|pages=1760–1763|volume=32|issue=5|bibcode = 1985PhRvC..32.1760L|doi=10.1103/PhysRevC.32.1760|first11=G. }}</ref><ref name=vanderkrogt-uue>{{cite web|publisher = Elementymology & Elements Multidict|title = Ununennium| first = Peter|last =van der Krogt|url =http://elements.vanderkrogt.net/element.php?sym=Uue|accessdate =14 February 2011}}</ref> :{{nuclide2|einsteinium|254|link=y}} + {{nuclide2|calcium|48|link=y}} → {{nuclide2|ununennium|302}}* → ''no atoms''<ref group="note">The [[asterisk]] denotes an [[excited state]].</ref> It is highly unlikely<ref name="link" /> that this reaction will be able to create any atoms of ununennium in the near future, given the extremely difficult task of making sufficient amounts of [[Isotopes of einsteinium|<sup>254</sup>Es]], which is favoured for production of [[superheavy element|ultraheavy elements]] because of its large mass, relatively long half-life of 270 days, and availability in significant amounts of several micrograms,<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Schadel|first1=M.|last2=Brüchle|first2=W.|last3=Brügger|first3=M.|last4=Gäggeler|first4=H.|last5=Moody|first5=K.|last6=Schardt|first6=D.|last7=Sümmerer|first7=K.|last8=Hulet|first8=E.|last9=Dougan|first9=A.|last10=Dougan|title=Heavy isotope production by multinucleon transfer reactions with <sup>254</sup>Es|journal=Journal of the Less Common Metals|volume=122|pages=411–417|year=1986|doi=10.1016/0022-5088(86)90435-2|first10=R.J.|last11=Landrum|first11=J.H.|last12=Lougheed|first12=R.W.|last13=Wild|first13=J.F.|last14=O'Kelley|first14=G.D.|last15=Hahn|first15=R.L.|displayauthors=9 }}</ref> to make a large enough target to increase the sensitivity of the experiment to the required level; einsteinium has not been found in nature and has only been produced in laboratories. However, given that ununennium is only the first [[period 8 element]] on the [[extended periodic table]], it may well be discovered in the near future through other reactions; indeed, another attempt to synthesise ununennium by bombarding a [[berkelium]] target with [[titanium]] ions is under way at the [[GSI Helmholtz Centre for Heavy Ion Research]] in [[Darmstadt]], [[Germany]].<ref>{{cite news |title=Modern alchemy: Turning a line |url=http://www.economist.com/node/21554502 |newspaper=[[The Economist]] |date=12 May 2012 |accessdate=5 October 2012}}</ref> Currently, none of the period 8 elements have been discovered yet, and it is also possible, due to [[nucleon drip line|drip instabilities]], that only the lower period 8 elements, up to around element 128, are physically possible.<ref name=EB>{{cite web|author=Seaborg, G. T.|url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/603220/transuranium-element|title=transuranium element (chemical element)|publisher=Encyclopædia Britannica|date=c. 2006|accessdate=16 March 2010}}</ref><ref name="emsley">{{cite book|last=Emsley|first=John|title=Nature's Building Blocks: An A-Z Guide to the Elements|edition=New|year=2011|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=New York, NY|isbn=978-0-19-960563-7|page=593}}</ref> No attempts at synthesis have been made for any heavier alkali metals, such as unhexpentium, due to their extremely high atomic number.<ref name="Uue"/>{{rp|1737–1739}} ==Occurrence== ===In the Solar System=== [[File:SolarSystemAbundances.png|thumb|right|800px|Estimated abundances of the chemical elements in the Solar system. Hydrogen and helium are most common, from the [[Big Bang]]. The next three elements (lithium, [[beryllium]], and [[boron]]) are rare because they are poorly synthesized in the Big Bang and also in stars. The two general trends in the remaining stellar-produced elements are: (1) an alternation of abundance in elements as they have even or odd atomic numbers, and (2) a general decrease in abundance, as elements become heavier. Iron is especially common because it represents the minimum energy nuclide that can be made by fusion of helium in supernovae.<ref name=lodders>{{cite journal | last1 = Lodders | first1 = Katharina | year = 2003 | title = Solar System Abundances and Condensation Temperatures of the Elements | url = | journal = The Astrophysical Journal | volume = 591 | issue = 2| pages = 1220–1247 |bibcode = 2003ApJ...591.1220L |doi = 10.1086/375492 }}</ref>]] The [[Oddo–Harkins rule]] holds that elements with even atomic numbers are more common that those with odd atomic numbers, with the exception of hydrogen. This rule argues that elements with odd atomic numbers have one unpaired proton and are more likely to capture another, thus increasing their atomic number. In elements with even atomic numbers, protons are paired, with each member of the pair offsetting the spin of the other, enhancing stability.<ref name=oddo>{{cite journal | doi = 10.1002/zaac.19140870118 | title = Die Molekularstruktur der radioaktiven Atome | year = 1914 | last1 = Oddo | first1 = Giuseppe | journal = Zeitschrift für anorganische Chemie | volume = 87 | pages = 253–268}}</ref><ref name=harkins>{{cite journal | doi = 10.1021/ja02250a002 | year = 1917 | last1 = Harkins | first1 = William D. | journal = Journal of the American Chemical Society | volume = 39 | issue = 5 | pages = 856–879 | title = The Evolution of the Elements and the Stability of Complex Atoms. I. A New Periodic System Which Shows a Relation Between the Abundance of the Elements and the Structure of the Nuclei of Atoms}}</ref><ref name=north>{{cite book|last=North|first=John|title=Cosmos an illustrated history of astronomy and cosmology|year=2008|publisher=Univ. of Chicago Press|isbn=978-0-226-59441-5|pages=602|url=https://books.google.com/?id=qq8Luhs7rTUC&lpg=PA602&dq=%22william%20draper%20harkins%22%20oddo&pg=PA602#v=onepage&q=%22william%20draper%20harkins%22%20oddo&f=false|edition=Rev. and updated}}</ref> All the alkali metals have odd atomic numbers and they are not as common as the elements with even atomic numbers adjacent to them (the [[noble gas]]es and the [[alkaline earth metal]]s) in the Solar System. The heavier alkali metals are also less abundant than the lighter ones as the alkali metals from rubidium onward can only be synthesized in [[supernova]]e and not in [[stellar nucleosynthesis]]. Lithium is also much less abundant than sodium and potassium as it is poorly synthesized in both [[Big Bang nucleosynthesis]] and in stars: the Big Bang could only produce trace quantities of lithium, [[beryllium]] and [[boron]] due to the absence of a stable nucleus with 5 or 8 [[nucleon]]s, and stellar nucleosynthesis could only pass this bottleneck by the [[triple-alpha process]], fusing three helium nuclei to form [[carbon]], and skipping over those three elements.<ref name=lodders/> ===On Earth=== [[File:Spodumene-usa59abg.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Spodumene]], an important lithium mineral]] The [[Earth]] formed from the same cloud of matter that formed the Sun, but the planets acquired different compositions during the [[formation and evolution of the solar system]]. In turn, the [[history of Earth|natural history of the Earth]] caused parts of this planet to have differing concentrations of the elements. The mass of the Earth is approximately 5.98{{e|24}}&nbsp;kg. It is composed mostly of [[iron]] (32.1%), [[oxygen]] (30.1%), [[silicon]] (15.1%), [[magnesium]] (13.9%), [[sulfur]] (2.9%), [[nickel]] (1.8%), [[calcium]] (1.5%), and [[aluminium]] (1.4%); with the remaining 1.2% consisting of trace amounts of other elements. Due to [[mass segregation]], the core region is believed to be primarily composed of iron (88.8%), with smaller amounts of nickel (5.8%), sulfur (4.5%), and less than 1% trace elements.<ref name=pnas71_12_6973>{{cite journal | author=Morgan, J. W.; Anders, E. | title=Chemical composition of Earth, Venus, and Mercury | journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences | year=1980 | volume=77 | issue=12 | pages=6973–6977 | doi=10.1073/pnas.77.12.6973 | pmid=16592930 | pmc=350422 |bibcode = 1980PNAS...77.6973M }}</ref> The alkali metals, due to their high reactivity, do not occur naturally in pure form in nature. They are [[Goldschmidt classification|lithophiles]] and therefore remain close to the Earth's surface because they combine readily with [[oxygen]] and so associate strongly with [[silica]], forming relatively low-density minerals that do not sink down into the Earth's core. Potassium, rubidium and caesium are also [[incompatible element]]s due to their large [[ionic radius|ionic radii]].<ref name="albarede">{{cite book | title = Geochemistry: an introduction | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=doVGzreGq14C&pg=PA17 | publisher = Cambridge University Press | year = 2003 | isbn = 978-0-521-89148-6 | first =Francis | last = Albarède }}</ref> Sodium and potassium are very abundant in earth, both being among the ten [[abundance of elements in Earth's crust|most common elements in Earth's crust]];<ref name="webelements-occurrence">{{cite web|url = http://www.webelements.com/webelements/properties/text/image-flash/abund-crust.html|title = Abundance in Earth's Crust|publisher = WebElements.com|accessdate =14 April 2007}}</ref><ref name="IsraelScience&Technology">{{cite web|url = http://www.science.co.il/PTelements.asp?s=Earth|title = List of Periodic Table Elements Sorted by Abundance in Earth's crust|publisher = Israel Science and Technology Homepage|accessdate =15 April 2007}}</ref> sodium makes up approximately 2.6% of the [[Earth]]'s crust measured by weight, making it the [[Abundance of the chemical elements|sixth most abundant element]] overall<ref name="RubberBible86th">{{RubberBible86th}}</ref> and the most abundant alkali metal. Potassium makes up approximately 1.5% of the Earth's crust and is the seventh most abundant element.<ref name="RubberBible86th"/> Sodium is found in many different minerals, of which the most common is ordinary salt (sodium chloride), which occurs in vast quantities dissolved in seawater. Other solid deposits include [[halite]], [[amphibole]], [[cryolite]], [[nitratine]], and [[zeolite]].<ref name="RubberBible86th" /> Many of these solid deposits occur as a result of ancient seas evaporating, which still occurs now in places such as [[Utah]]'s [[Great Salt Lake]] and the [[Dead Sea]].<ref name=Greenwood&Earnshaw/>{{rp|69}} Despite their near-equal abundance in Earth's crust, sodium is far more common than potassium in the ocean, both because potassium's larger size makes its salts less soluble, and because potassium is bound by silicates in soil and what potassium leaches is absorbed far more readily by plant life than sodium.<ref name=Greenwood&Earnshaw/>{{rp|69}} Despite its chemical similarity, lithium typically does not occur together with sodium or potassium due to its smaller size.<ref name=Greenwood&Earnshaw/>{{rp|69}} Due to its relatively low reactivity, it can be found in seawater in large amounts; it is estimated that seawater is approximately 0.14 to 0.25 parts per million (ppm)<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ioes.saga-u.ac.jp/ioes-study/li/lithium/occurence.html |title=Lithium Occurrence |accessdate=13 March 2009 |publisher=Institute of Ocean Energy, Saga University, Japan |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090502142924/http://www.ioes.saga-u.ac.jp:80/ioes-study/li/lithium/occurence.html |archivedate=2 May 2009 }}</ref><ref name=enc>{{cite web|url=http://www.enclabs.com/lithium.html|accessdate=15 October 2010|title=Some Facts about Lithium|publisher=ENC Labs}}</ref> or 25 [[micromolar]].<ref>{{cite journal|doi=10.1007/3-540-13534-0_3|title=Extraction of metals from sea water|volume =124/1984|pages= 91–133|author=Schwochau, Klaus|journal=Topics in Current Chemistry|year=1984|series=Topics in Current Chemistry|isbn=978-3-540-13534-0}}</ref> Its diagonal relationship with magnesium often allows it to replace magnesium in [[ferromagnesium]] minerals, where its crustal concentration is about 18&nbsp;[[parts per million|ppm]], comparable to that of [[gallium]] and [[niobium]]. Commercially, the most important lithium mineral is [[spodumene]], which occurs in large deposits worldwide.<ref name=Greenwood&Earnshaw/>{{rp|69}} Rubidium is approximately as abundant as [[zinc]] and more abundant than copper. It occurs naturally in the minerals [[leucite]], [[pollucite]], [[carnallite]], [[zinnwaldite]], and [[lepidolite]],<ref>{{Cite journal |title =Trace element chemistry of lithium-rich micas from rare-element granitic pegmatites |volume = 55 | issue = 13 |year = 1995 |doi = 10.1007/BF01162588 |pages = 203–215 |journal = Mineralogy and Petrology |first = M. A. |last = Wise |bibcode = 1995MinPe..55..203W }}</ref> although none of these contain only rubidium and no other alkali metals.<ref name=Greenwood&Earnshaw/>{{rp|70}} Caesium is more abundant than some commonly known elements, such as [[antimony]], [[cadmium]], [[tin]], and [[tungsten]], but is much less abundant than rubidium.<ref name="pubs.usgs"/> [[Isotopes of francium|Francium-223]], the only naturally occurring isotope of francium,<ref name="atomicweights2007"/><ref name="atomicweights2009"/> is the [[decay product|product]] of the [[alpha decay]] of actinium-227 and can be found in trace amounts in [[uranium]] and [[thorium]] minerals.<ref name="CRC2006">{{Cite book |year =2006 |title = CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics |volume = 4|page= 12|publisher = CRC|isbn= 0-8493-0474-1}}</ref> In a given sample of uranium, there is estimated to be only one francium atom for every 10<sup>18</sup> uranium atoms.<ref name="nbb">{{cite book| last = Emsley|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Yhi5X7OwuGkC&pg=PA151| first = John| title = Nature's Building Blocks| publisher = Oxford University Press| year = 2001| location = Oxford| pages = 151–153| isbn = 0-19-850341-5}}</ref><ref name="elemental">{{cite web| last = Gagnon| first = Steve| title = Francium| publisher = Jefferson Science Associates, LLC| url = http://education.jlab.org/itselemental/ele087.html| accessdate =1 April 2007| archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20070331235139/http://education.jlab.org/itselemental/ele087.html| archivedate= 31 March 2007 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}</ref> It has been calculated that there is at most 30&nbsp;g of francium in the [[Crust (geology)|earth's crust]] at any time, due to its extremely short [[half-life]] of 22 minutes.<ref name="Winter"/><ref name="itselemental">{{cite web|url = http://education.jlab.org/itselemental/index.html|title = It's Elemental&nbsp;— The Periodic Table of Elements|publisher = Jefferson Lab|accessdate =14 April 2007| archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20070429032414/http://education.jlab.org/itselemental/index.html| archivedate= 29 April 2007 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}</ref> ==Production and isolation== {{multiple image | footer = [[Salt pan (geology)|Salt flat]]s are rich in lithium, such as these in Salar del Hombre Muerto, Argentina (left) and [[Salar de Uyuni|Uyuni]], Bolivia (right). The lithium-rich brine is concentrated by pumping it into [[Salt evaporation pond|solar evaporation ponds]] (visible in Argentina image). | align = right | width1 = 160 | width2 = 105 | image1 = Lithium mine, Salar del Hombre Muerto, Argentina.jpg | alt1 = alt1 | image2 = Uyuni landsat.JPG | alt2 = alt2 }} The production of pure alkali metals is difficult due to their extreme reactivity with commonly used substances, such as water. The alkali metals are so reactive that they cannot be [[single displacement reaction|displaced]] by other elements and must be isolated through high-energy methods such as electrolysis.<ref name="rsc"/><ref name=generalchemistry/> Lithium salts have to be extracted from the water of [[mineral spring]]s, [[brine]] pools, and brine deposits. The metal is produced electrolytically from a mixture of fused [[lithium chloride]] and [[potassium chloride]].<ref name="ober">{{cite web|url=http://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/commodity/lithium/450798.pdf |title=Lithium|accessdate =19 August 2007|last=Ober |first=Joyce A |format=PDF |pages = 77–78| publisher=[[United States Geological Survey]]| archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20070711062102/http://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/commodity/lithium/450798.pdf| archivedate= 11 July 2007 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}</ref> Potassium occurs in many minerals, such as [[sylvite]] ([[potassium chloride]]).<ref name="rsc"/> It is occasionally produced through separating the potassium from the chlorine in potassium chloride, but is more often produced through electrolysis of [[potassium hydroxide]],<ref>{{cite web|publisher=Webelements|title=WebElements Periodic Table of the Elements {{pipe}} Potassium {{pipe}} Essential information |url=http://www.webelements.com/potassium/ |author=Winter, Mark|accessdate=27 November 2011}}</ref> found extensively in places such as Canada, Russia, Belarus, Germany, Israel, United States, and Jordan, in a method similar to how sodium was produced in the late 1800s and early 1900s.<ref name=kirk>{{cite encyclopedia|doi=10.1002/0471238961.1915040912051311.a01.pub2|chapter=Sodium and Sodium Alloys|title=Kirk-Othmer Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology|year=2001|last1=Lemke|first1=Charles H.|last2=Markant|first2=Vernon H.|isbn=0471238961}}</ref> It can also be produced from [[seawater]]. Sodium occurs mostly in seawater and dried [[seabed]],<ref name="rsc"/> but is now produced through [[electrolysis]] of [[sodium chloride]] by lowering the melting point of the substance to below 700&nbsp;°C through the use of a [[Downs cell]].<ref name="pauling">{{Cite book|last=Pauling |first=Linus |title= General Chemistry |edition=1970 |publisher=Dover Publications}}</ref><ref name="losal">{{cite web|url=http://periodic.lanl.gov/11.shtml|title=Los Alamos National Laboratory – Sodium|accessdate=8 June 2007}}</ref> Extremely pure sodium can be produced through the thermal decomposition of [[sodium azide]].<ref>Merck Index, 9th ed., monograph 8325</ref> [[File:Pichblende.jpg|thumb|This sample of [[uraninite]] contains about 100,000 atoms (3.3{{e|-20}}&nbsp;g) of francium-223 at any given time.<ref name="nbb" />|alt=A shiny gray 5-centimeter piece of matter with a rough surface.]] For several years in the 1950s and 1960s, a by-product of the potassium production called Alkarb was a main source for rubidium. Alkarb contained 21% rubidium while the rest was potassium and a small fraction of caesium.<ref>{{cite journal|title = Cesium and Rubidium Hit Market|journal = Chemical & Engineering News |volume = 37|issue = 22|pages = 50–56|year = 1959|doi = 10.1021/cen-v037n022.p050}}</ref> Today the largest producers of caesium, for example the [[Tanco Mine]], Manitoba, Canada, produce rubidium as by-product from [[pollucite]].<ref name=USGS/> Today, a common method for separating rubidium from potassium and caesium is the [[fractional crystallization (chemistry)|fractional crystallization]] of a rubidium and caesium [[alum]] ([[Caesium|Cs]], [[Rubidium|Rb]])[[Aluminium|Al]]([[Sulfate|SO<sub>4</sub>]])<sub>2</sub>·12[[Water|H<sub>2</sub>O]], which yields pure rubidium alum after approximately 30 different reactions.<ref name=USGS/><ref>{{cite book|url = https://books.google.com/?id=1ikjAQAAIAAJ&q=ferrocyanide+rubidium&dq=ferrocyanide+rubidium|publisher = United States. Bureau of Mines|title = bulletin 585|year = 1995}}</ref> The limited applications and the lack of a mineral rich in rubidium limits the production of rubidium compounds to 2 to 4 [[tonne]]s per year.<ref name=USGS>{{cite web|url = http://pubs.usgs.gov/of/2003/of03-045/of03-045.pdf |format = PDF|publisher = United States Geological Survey|accessdate =4 December 2010|title = Mineral Commodity Profile: Rubidium|first1 = William C.|last1 = Butterman|first2 = William E.|last2 = Brooks|first3 = Robert G.|last3 = Reese, Jr.|year=2003}}</ref> Caesium, however, is not produced from the above reaction. Instead, the mining of [[pollucite]] ore is the main method of obtaining pure caesium, extracted from the ore mainly by three methods: acid digestion, alkaline decomposition, and direct reduction.<ref name=USGS/><ref name=Burt>{{cite book|last = Burt|first = R. O.|year = 1993|chapter = Caesium and cesium compounds|title = Kirk-Othmer encyclopedia of chemical technology|edition = 4th|place = New York|publisher = John Wiley & Sons, Inc.|volume = 5|pages = 749–764|isbn = 978-0-471-48494-3}}</ref> Both metals are produced as by-products of lithium production: after 1958, when interest in lithium's thermonuclear properties increased sharply, the production of rubidium and caesium also increased correspondingly.<ref name=Greenwood&Earnshaw/>{{rp|71}} <!-- Rubidium metal can be produced by [[redox|reducing]] rubidium chloride with [[calcium]], among other methods. In 1997, the cost of this metal in small quantities was about US$25/gram.{{citation needed|date=December 2010}} --> [[Francium-223]], the only naturally occurring isotope of francium,<ref name="atomicweights2007"/><ref name="atomicweights2009"/> is produced naturally as the product of the [[alpha decay]] of [[actinium-227]]. Francium can be found in trace amounts in [[uranium]] and [[thorium]] minerals;<ref name="CRC2006" /> it has been calculated that at most there are 30&nbsp;g of francium in the [[Crust (geology)|earth's crust]] at any given time.<ref name="Winter">{{cite web |last = Winter|first = Mark |title = Geological information |work = Francium|publisher = The University of Sheffield |url = http://www.webelements.com/webelements/elements/text/Fr/geol.html |accessdate =26 March 2007}}</ref> As a result of its extreme rarity in nature, most francium is synthesized in the nuclear reaction <sup>197</sup>[[Gold|Au]] + <sup>18</sup>[[Oxygen|O]] → <sup>210</sup>[[Francium|Fr]] + 5 [[neutron|n]], yielding [[francium-209]], [[francium-210]], and [[francium-211]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Stancari |first1=G. |last2=Veronesi |first2=S. |last3=Corradi |first3=L. |last4=Atutov |first4=S. N. |last5=Calabrese |first5=R. |last6=Dainelli |first6=A. |last7=Mariotti |first7=E. |last8=Moi |first8=L. |last9=Sanguinetti |first9=S. |first10=L.|last10=Tomassetti|year=2006 |title=Production of Radioactive Beams of Francium |journal=Nuclear Instruments and Methods in Physics Research Section A: Accelerators, Spectrometers, Detectors and Associated Equipment |volume=557 |issue=2 |pages=390–396 |doi=10.1016/j.nima.2005.11.193 |bibcode = 2006NIMPA.557..390S }}</ref> The greatest quantity of francium ever assembled to date is about 300,000 neutral atoms,<ref name="chemnews" /> which were synthesized using the nuclear reaction given above.<ref name="chemnews" /> From their [[silicate]] ores, all the alkali metals may be obtained the same way: [[sulfuric acid]] is first used to dissolve the desired alkali metal ion and [[aluminium]](III) ions from the ore (leaching), whereupon basic precipitation removes aluminium ions from the mixture by precipitating it as the [[aluminium hydroxide|hydroxide]]. The remaining insoluble alkali metal [[carbonate]] is then precipitated selectively; the salt is then dissolved in [[hydrochloric acid]]. The result is then left to evaporate and the alkali metal can then be isolated through [[electrolysis]].<ref name=generalchemistry/> Lithium and sodium are typically isolated through electrolysis from their liquid chlorides, with [[calcium chloride]] typically added to lower the melting point of the mixture. The heavier alkali metals, however, is more typically isolated in a different way, where a reducing agent (typically sodium for potassium and [[magnesium]] or [[calcium]] for the heaviest alkali metals) is used to reduce the alkali metal chloride. The liquid or gaseous product (the alkali metal) then undergoes [[fractional distillation]] for purification.<ref name=generalchemistry/> ==Applications== [[File:FOCS-1.jpg|thumb|right|alt=FOCS 1, a caesium atomic clock in Switzerland|FOCS 1, a caesium atomic clock in Switzerland]] Lithium, sodium, and potassium have many applications, while rubidium and caesium are very useful in academic contexts but do not have many applications yet.<ref name=Greenwood&Earnshaw/>{{rp|68}} Lithium is often used in [[lithium-ion battery|batteries]], and [[lithium oxide]] can help process silica. Lithium can also be used to make lubricating greases, air treatment, and aluminium production.<ref>{{Cite news|author=USGS |year=2011|title=Lithium|url= http://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/commodity/lithium/mcs-2011-lithi.pdf|accessdate=4 December 2011|format=PDF}}</ref> Pure sodium has many applications, including use in [[sodium-vapor lamp|sodium-vapour lamps]], which produce very efficient light compared to other types of lighting,<ref name="lamp1">{{cite book | url =https://books.google.com/books?id=0d7u9Nr33zIC&pg=PA112| page = 112 | title =Applied illumination engineering | isbn =978-0-88173-212-2 | author1 =Lindsey | first1 =Jack L | year =1997}}</ref><ref name="lamp2">{{cite book | url =https://books.google.com/books?id=AFNwNAFYtCAC&pg=PA241 | page = 241 | title =Revolution in lamps: A chronicle of 50 years of progress | isbn =978-0-88173-351-8 | author1 =Kane | first1 =Raymond | last2 =Sell | first2 =Heinz | year =2001}}</ref> and can help smooth the surface of other metals.<ref>{{cite book | url = https://books.google.com/?id=kyVWAAAAYAAJ&dq=sodium+descale+metal&q=METALLIC+SODIUM+++DESCALING+SEVERAL#search_anchor | title = Metal treatment and drop forging | author1 = Stampers | first1 = National Association of Drop Forgers and | year = 1957}}</ref><ref>{{cite book | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=LI4KmKqca78C&pg=PA76 | page = 76 | title = Metal cleaning bibliographical abstracts | author1 = Harris | first1 = Jay C | year = 1949}}</ref> Being a strong reducing agent, it is often used to reduce many other metals, such as [[titanium]] and [[zirconium]], from their chlorides.<ref name=Greenwood&Earnshaw/>{{rp|74}} Sodium compounds have many applications as well, the most well-known being [[table salt]]. Sodium is also used in soap as salts of [[fatty acid]]s.<ref>{{cite web|title=Soaps & Detergents: Chemistry|url=http://www.cleaninginstitute.org/clean_living/soaps__detergents_chemistry.aspx|accessdate=20 July 2015}}</ref> Potassium compounds are often used as [[fertiliser]]s<ref name="Greenwood&Earnshaw"/>{{rp|73}}<ref>{{cite book|author=Cordel, Oskar |title=Die Stassfurter Kalisalze in der Landwirthschalt: Eine Besprechung ...|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EYpIAAAAYAAJ|accessdate=29 May 2011|year=1868|publisher=L. Schnock| language = German}}</ref> as potassium is an important element for plant nutrition. [[Potassium hydroxide]] is a very strong base, and is used to control the [[pH]] of various substances.<ref>{{cite book|publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group|url = https://books.google.com/books?id=UnjD4aBm9ZcC&pg=PA4|chapter = Personal Cleansing Products: Bar Soap|title = Chemical composition of everyday products|isbn = 978-0-313-32579-3|author1 = Toedt, John|author2 = Koza, Darrell|author3 = Cleef-Toedt, Kathleen Van|year = 2005}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|doi = 10.1002/14356007.a22_031.pub2|title = Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry|year = 2006|author= Schultz, H.|chapter = Potassium compounds|isbn = 3-527-30673-0|volume=A22|page=95|display-authors=etal}}</ref> Rubidium and caesium are often used in [[atomic clock]]s.<ref name="atomic-clocks">{{cite web|title = Cesium Atoms at Work|publisher=Time Service Department—U.S. Naval Observatory—Department of the Navy|url = http://tycho.usno.navy.mil/cesium.html|accessdate =20 December 2009}}</ref> Caesium atomic clocks are extraordinarily accurate; if a clock had been made at the time of the dinosaurs, it would be off by less than four seconds (after 80 million years).<ref name="pubs.usgs">{{cite web|url = http://pubs.usgs.gov/of/2004/1432/2004-1432.pdf|format = PDF|publisher = United States Geological Survey|accessdate =27 December 2009|title = Mineral Commodity Profile: Cesium|first1 = William C.|last1 = Butterman|first2 = William E.|last2 = Brooks|first3 = Robert G.|last3 = Reese, Jr.|year=2004| archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20091122210358/http://pubs.usgs.gov/of/2004/1432/2004-1432.pdf| archivedate= 22 November 2009 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}</ref> For that reason, caesium atoms are used as the definition of the second.<ref name="nist-second">{{cite web|title = The NIST reference on Constants, Units, and Uncertainty|publisher=National Institute of Standards and Technology|url=http://physics.nist.gov/cuu/Units/second.html}}</ref> Rubidium ions are often used in purple [[firework]]s,<ref>{{Cite journal |first = E.-C. |last = Koch |title = Special Materials in Pyrotechnics, Part II: Application of Caesium and Rubidium Compounds in Pyrotechnics |journal = Journal Pyrotechnics |year = 2002 |volume = 15 |pages = 9–24 |url=http://www.jpyro.com/wp/?p=179}}</ref> and caesium is often used in drilling fluids in the petroleum industry.<ref name="pubs.usgs" /><ref>{{cite book|title = Exploring Chemical Elements and their Compounds|author = Heiserman, David L.|publisher = McGraw-Hill|year = 1992|isbn = 0-8306-3015-5|pages = 201–203}}</ref> Francium has no commercial applications,<ref name="nbb" /><ref name="elemental"/><ref>{{cite web| last = Winter| first = Mark| title = Uses| work = Francium| publisher = The University of Sheffield|url = http://www.webelements.com/webelements/elements/text/Fr/uses.html| accessdate =25 March 2007| archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20070331031655/http://www.webelements.com/webelements/elements/text/Fr/uses.html| archivedate= 31 March 2007 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}</ref> but because of francium's relatively simple [[atomic structure]], among other things, it has been used in [[spectroscopy]] experiments, leading to more information regarding [[energy level]]s and the [[coupling constant]]s between [[subatomic particle]]s.<ref>{{cite journal| last = Gomez| first = E| last2= Orozco|first2=L A|last3=Sprouse|first3=G D| title = Spectroscopy with trapped francium: advances and perspectives for weak interaction studies| journal = Rep. Prog. Phys.| volume = 69| issue = 1| pages = 79–118| date = 7 November 2005|doi = 10.1088/0034-4885/69/1/R02|bibcode = 2006RPPh...69...79G }}</ref> Studies on the light emitted by laser-trapped francium-210 ions have provided accurate data on transitions between atomic energy levels, similar to those predicted by [[quantum mechanics|quantum theory]].<ref>{{cite journal|last = Peterson|first = I|title = Creating, cooling, trapping francium atoms|page= 294|journal= Science News|date = 11 May 1996|url = http://www.sciencenews.org/pages/pdfs/data/1996/149-19/14919-06.pdf|accessdate =11 September 2009|volume=149|issue=19|doi = 10.2307/3979560}}</ref> ==Biological role and precautions== [[File:Lithium carbonate.jpg|thumb|right|[[Lithium carbonate]]]] The bioinorganic chemistry of the alkali metal ions has been extensively reviewed.<ref>{{cite book |publisher= Springer |publication-date= 2016 |series= Metal Ions in Life Sciences |volume=16 |title= The Alkali Metal Ions: Their Role in Life |editor1-last=Astrid |editor1-first= Sigel |editor2-last=Helmut |editor2-first=Sigel |editor3-last=Roland K.O. |editor3-first= Sigel |doi=10.1007/978-3-319-21756-7 }} </ref> Lithium naturally only occurs in traces in biological systems and has no known biological role, but does have effects on the body when ingested.<ref name="webelements-lithium"/> [[Lithium carbonate]] is used as a [[mood stabiliser]] in [[psychiatry]] to treat [[bipolar disorder]] ([[manic-depression]]) in daily doses of about 0.5 to 2&nbsp;grams, although there are side-effects.<ref name="webelements-lithium"/> Excessive ingestion of lithium causes drowsiness, slurred speech and vomiting, among other symptoms,<ref name="webelements-lithium"/> and [[poison]]s the [[central nervous system]],<ref name="webelements-lithium"/> which is dangerous as the required dosage of lithium to treat bipolar disorder is only slightly lower than the toxic dosage.<ref name="webelements-lithium">{{cite web|publisher=Webelements|title=WebElements Periodic Table of the Elements {{pipe}} Lithium {{pipe}} biological information |url=http://www.webelements.com/lithium/biology.html |author=Winter, Mark |accessdate=15 February 2011}}</ref><ref name="theodoregray-lithium">{{cite web |url=http://www.theodoregray.com/periodictable/Elements/003/index.s7.html |title=Facts, pictures, stories about the element Lithium in the Periodic Table |author=[[Theodore Gray|Gray, Theodore]] |work=theodoregray.com |accessdate=9 January 2012}}</ref> Its biochemistry, the way it is handled by the human body and studies using rats and goats suggest that it is an [[essential element|essential]] [[trace element]], although the natural biological function of lithium in humans has yet to be identified.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Howland |first1=Robert H. |date=September 2007 |title=Lithium: Underappreciated and Underused? |journal=Psychiatric Annals |volume=37 |issue=9 |url=http://www.healio.com/journals/psycann/%7B19970467-072d-409e-8cda-9323edb2f73d%7D/lithium-underappreciated-and-underused |accessdate=6 November 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Zarse |first1=Kim |last2=Terao |first2=Takeshi |last3=Tian |first3=Jing |last4=Iwata |first4=Noboru |last5=Ishii |first5=Nobuyoshi |last6=Ristow |first6=Michael |date=August 2011 |title=Low-dose lithium uptake promotes longevity in humans and metazoans |journal=European Journal of Nutrition |volume=50 |issue=5 |pages=387–9 |publisher=Springer |doi=10.1007/s00394-011-0171-x |url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3151375/pdf/394_2011_Article_171.pdf |pmc=3151375 |accessdate=6 November 2012 |pmid=21301855}}</ref> Sodium and potassium occur in all known biological systems, generally functioning as [[electrolytes]] inside and outside [[cell (biology)|cells]].<ref name="webelements-potassium"/><ref name="webelements-sodium"/> Sodium is an essential nutrient that regulates blood volume, blood pressure, osmotic equilibrium and [[pH]]; the minimum physiological requirement for sodium is 500&nbsp;milligrams per day.<ref name=r31>{{cite web|url=http://nuinfo-proto4.northwestern.edu/nutrition/factsheets/sodium.pdf |title=Sodium |publisher=Northewestern University |accessdate=21 November 2011 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/20110823114818/http://nuinfo-proto4.northwestern.edu/nutrition/factsheets/sodium.pdf |archivedate=23 August 2011 }}</ref> [[Sodium chloride]] (also known as common salt) is the principal source of sodium in the diet, and is used as seasoning and preservative, such as for [[pickling]] and [[Jerky (food)|jerky]]; most of it comes from processed foods.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://health.ltgovernors.com/sodium-and-potassium-health-facts.html|title=Sodium and Potassium Quick Health Facts|accessdate=7 November 2011}}</ref> The [[Dietary Reference Intake|DRI]] for sodium is 1.5&nbsp;grams per day,<ref>{{cite web|title=Dietary Reference Intakes: Water, Potassium, Sodium, Chloride, and Sulfate|url=http://www.iom.edu/Reports/2004/Dietary-Reference-Intakes-Water-Potassium-Sodium-Chloride-and-Sulfate.aspx|publisher=Food and Nutrition Board, [[Institute of Medicine]], [[United States National Academies]]|date=11 February 2004|accessdate=23 November 2011}}</ref> but most people in the United States consume more than 2.3&nbsp;grams per day,<ref>{{cite book|author1=U.S. Department of Agriculture|author2=U.S. Department of Health and Human Services|authorlink1=United States Department of Agriculture|authorlink2=United States Department of Health and Human Services|title=Dietary Guidelines for Americans, 2010|page=22|edition=7th|date=December 2010|url=http://www.cnpp.usda.gov/Publications/DietaryGuidelines/2010/PolicyDoc/PolicyDoc.pdf|format=PDF|accessdate=23 November 2011|isbn=978-0-16-087941-8|oclc=738512922}}</ref> the minimum amount that promotes hypertension;<ref>{{cite journal|pmid=15369026|year=2004|last1=Geleijnse|first1=J. M.|last2=Kok|first2=F. J.|last3=Grobbee|first3=D. E.|title=Impact of dietary and lifestyle factors on the prevalence of hypertension in Western populations|volume=14|issue=3|pages=235–239|journal=European Journal of Public Health|doi=10.1093/eurpub/14.3.235}}</ref> this in turn causes 7.6 million premature deaths worldwide.<ref>{{cite journal|pmid=18456100 |url=http://www.worldactiononsalt.com/evidence/docs/thelancet_hypertension_05.08.pdf |year=2008 |last1=Lawes |first1=C. M. |last2=Vander Hoorn |first2=S. |last3=Rodgers |first3=A. |author4=International Society of Hypertension |title=Global burden of blood-pressure-related disease, 2001 |volume=371 |issue=9623 |pages=1513–1518 |doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(08)60655-8 |journal=Lancet |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/20120128072727/http://www.worldactiononsalt.com/evidence/docs/thelancet_hypertension_05.08.pdf |archivedate=28 January 2012 }}</ref> Potassium is the major [[cation]] (positive ion) inside [[Cell (biology)|animal cells]],<ref name="webelements-potassium">{{cite web|url=http://www.webelements.com/potassium/biology.html|title=WebElements Periodic Table of the Elements {{pipe}} Potassium {{pipe}} biological information |publisher=WebElements |author= Winter, Mark |accessdate=13 January 2012}}</ref> while sodium is the major cation outside animal cells.<ref name="webelements-potassium" /><ref name="webelements-sodium">{{cite web|url=http://www.webelements.com/sodium/biology.html|title=WebElements Periodic Table of the Elements {{pipe}} Sodium {{pipe}} biological information |publisher=WebElements |author= Winter, Mark |accessdate=13 January 2012}}</ref> The [[concentration]] differences of these charged particles causes a difference in [[electric potential]] between the inside and outside of cells, known as the [[membrane potential]]. The balance between potassium and sodium is maintained by [[ion pumps]] in the [[cell membrane]].<ref name="pmid16253415">{{cite journal |author=Mikko Hellgren, Lars Sandberg, Olle Edholm |title=A comparison between two prokaryotic potassium channels (K<sub>ir</sub>Bac1.1 and KcsA) in a molecular dynamics (MD) simulation study |journal=Biophys. Chem. |volume=120 |issue=1 |pages=1–9 |year=2006 |pmid=16253415 |doi=10.1016/j.bpc.2005.10.002}}</ref> The cell membrane potential created by potassium and sodium ions allows the cell to generate an [[action potential]]—a "spike" of electrical discharge. The ability of cells to produce electrical discharge is critical for body functions such as [[neurotransmission]], muscle contraction, and heart function.<ref name="pmid16253415"/> [[File:GoiâniaRadiationsource.gif|thumb|400px|right|A wheel type radiotherapy device which has a long [[collimator]] to focus the radiation into a narrow beam. The caesium-137 chloride radioactive source is the blue square, and gamma rays are represented by the beam emerging from the aperture. This was the radiation source involved in the Goiânia accident, containing about 93&nbsp;grams of caesium-137 chloride.]] Rubidium has no known biological role, but may help stimulate [[metabolism]],<ref name="webelements-rubidium">{{cite web|publisher=Webelements|title=WebElements Periodic Table of the Elements {{pipe}} Rubidium {{pipe}} biological information |url=http://www.webelements.com/rubidium/biology.html |author=Winter, Mark |accessdate=15 February 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1 = Relman |first1 = AS |title =The Physiological Behavior of Rubidium and Cesium in Relation to That of Potassium |journal = The Yale journal of biology and medicine |volume = 29 |issue = 3 |pages = 248–62 |year = 1956| pmid = 13409924|pmc = 2603856}}</ref><ref name="jcp.sagepub.com">{{cite journal | last1 = Meltzer | first1 = HL | title = A pharmacokinetic analysis of long-term administration of rubidium chloride | url = http://jcp.sagepub.com/content/31/2/179 | journal = Journal of clinical pharmacology | volume = 31 | issue = 2 | pages = 179–84 | year = 1991 | pmid = 2010564 | doi=10.1002/j.1552-4604.1991.tb03704.x}}</ref> and, similarly to caesium,<ref name="webelements-rubidium" /><ref name="webelements-caesium" /> replace potassium in the body causing [[hypokalemia|potassium deficiency]].<ref name="webelements-rubidium" /><ref name="jcp.sagepub.com"/> Caesium compounds are rarely encountered by most people, but most caesium compounds are mildly toxic because of chemical similarity of caesium to potassium, allowing the caesium to replace the potassium in the body, causing potassium deficiency.<ref name="webelements-caesium">{{cite web|url=http://www.webelements.com/caesium/biology.html|title=WebElements Periodic Table of the Elements {{pipe}} Caesium {{pipe}} biological information |publisher=WebElements |author= Winter, Mark |accessdate=13 January 2012}}</ref> Exposure to large amounts of caesium compounds can cause [[Irritability|hyperirritability]] and [[spasm]]s, but as such amounts would not ordinarily be encountered in natural sources, caesium is not a major chemical environmental pollutant.<ref>{{cite journal|doi = 10.1080/10934528109375003|title = Cesium in mammals: Acute toxicity, organ changes and tissue accumulation|year = 1981|last1 = Pinsky|first1 = Carl|first2 = Ranjan|first3 = J. R.|first4 = Jasper|first5 = Claude|first6 = James|journal = Journal of Environmental Science and Health, Part A|volume = 16|pages = 549– 567 |last2 = Bose|last3 = Taylor|last4 = McKee|last5 = Lapointe|last6 = Birchall|issue = 5}}</ref> The [[median lethal dose]] (LD<sub>50</sub>) value for [[caesium chloride]] in mice is 2.3&nbsp;g per kilogram, which is comparable to the LD<sub>50</sub> values of [[potassium chloride]] and [[sodium chloride]].<ref>{{cite journal|doi = 10.1016/0041-008X(75)90216-1|title = Acute toxicity of cesium and rubidium compounds|year = 1975|last1 = Johnson|first1 = Garland T.|journal = [[Toxicology and Applied Pharmacology]]|volume = 32|pages = 239–245|pmid = 1154391|first2 = Trent R.|first3 = D. Wagner|issue = 2|last2 = Lewis|last3 = Wagner}}</ref> Caesium chloride has been promoted as an alternative cancer therapy,<ref>{{cite journal | author = Sartori H. E. | year = 1984 | title = Cesium therapy in cancer patients | url = | journal = Pharmacol Biochem Behav | volume = 21 | issue = Suppl 1| pages = 11–13 | pmid = 6522427 | doi = 10.1016/0091-3057(84)90154-0 }}</ref> but has been linked to the deaths of over 50 patients, on whom it was used as part of a scientifically unvalidated cancer treatment.<ref>Wood, Leonie. {{cite web|url=http://www.smh.com.au/lifestyle/lifematters/cured-cancer-patients-died-court-told-20101119-180z9.html |title='Cured' cancer patients died, court told |work=The Sydney Morning Herald |date=20 November 2010}}</ref> [[Radioisotope]]s of caesium require special precautions: the improper handling of caesium-137 [[gamma ray]] sources can lead to release of this radioisotope and radiation injuries. Perhaps the best-known case is the Goiânia accident of 1987, in which an improperly-disposed-of radiation therapy system from an abandoned clinic in the city of [[Goiânia]], [[Brazil]], was scavenged from a junkyard, and the glowing [[caesium chloride|caesium salt]] sold to curious, uneducated buyers. This led to four deaths and serious injuries from radiation exposure. Together with [[caesium-134]], [[iodine-131]], and [[strontium-90]], caesium-137 was among the isotopes distributed by the [[Chernobyl disaster]] which constitute the greatest risk to health.<ref name="IAEA"/> Francium has no biological role<ref name="webelements-francium">{{cite web|url=http://www.webelements.com/francium/biology.html|title=WebElements Periodic Table of the Elements {{pipe}} Francium {{pipe}} biological information |publisher=WebElements |author= Winter, Mark |accessdate=15 February 2011}}</ref> and is most likely to be toxic due to its extreme radioactivity, causing [[acute radiation syndrome|radiation poisoning]],<ref name="rsc-francium">{{cite web |url=http://www.rsc.org/periodic-table/element/87/Francium |title=Francium – Element information, properties and uses {{pipe}} Periodic Table |year=2012 |work=Visual Elements Periodic Table |publisher=[[Royal Society of Chemistry]] |accessdate=27 June 2012}}</ref> but since the greatest quantity of francium ever assembled to date is <!--a sphere of radius 1&nbsp;mm--> about 300,000 neutral atoms,<ref name="chemnews">{{cite journal|url=http://pubs.acs.org/cen/80th/francium.html|title=Francium|journal=Chemical and Engineering News|year=2003|author=Luis A. Orozco }}</ref> it is unlikely that most people will ever encounter francium. ==Notes== {{reflist|group="note"|30em}} ==References== {{reflist|30em}} ==Further reading== {{refbegin|30em}} *{{Cite journal | author=Bauer, Brent A., Robert Houlihan, Michael J. Ackerman, Katya Johnson, and Himeshkumar Vyas | year=2006 | title=Acquired Long QT Syndrome Secondary to Cesium Chloride Supplement | journal=[[Journal of Alternative and Complementary Medicine]] | volume=12 | pages=1011–1014 | doi=10.1089/acm.2006.12.1011 | pmid=17212573 | issue=10 }} *{{Cite journal | author=Campbell, Linda M., Aaron T. Fisk, Xianowa Wang, Gunter Kock, and Derek C. Muir | year= 2005 | title=Evidence for Biomagnification of Rubidium in Freshwater and Marine Food Webs | journal=Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences | volume=62 | pages=1161–1167 | doi=10.1139/f05-027 | issue=5 }} *{{Cite conference | author=Chang, Cheng-Hung, and Tian Y. Tsong | year=2005 | title=Stochastic Resonance of Na, K-Ion Pumps on the Red Cell Membrane | booktitle=AIP Conference Proceedings: 18th International Conference on Noise and Fluctuations | volume=780 |pages=587–590 | publisher=[[American Institute of Physics]] | doi=10.1063/1.2036821 | isbn=0-7354-0267-1 }} *{{Cite journal | author=Erermis, Serpil, Muge Tamar, Hatice Karasoy, Tezan Bildik, Eyup S. Ercan, and Ahmet Gockay | year=1997 | title=Double-Blind Randomised Trial of Modest Salt Restriction in Older People | journal=[[The Lancet|Lancet]] | volume=350 | pages= 850–854 | doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(97)02264-2 | pmid = 9310603 | issue=9081 }} *{{Cite journal | author=Joffe, Russell T., Stephen T. Sokolov and Anthony J. Levitt | year=2006 | title=Lithium and Triiodothyronine Augmentation of Antidepressants | journal=Canadian Journal of Psychiatry | volume=51 | pages= 791–3 | pmid=17168254 | issue=12 }} *{{Cite journal | author=Krachler, M, and E Rossipal | year=1999 | title=Trace Elements Transfer From Mother to the Newborn – Investigations on Triplets of Colostrum, Maternal and Umbilical Sera | journal=European Journal of Clinical Nutrition | volume=53 | pages=486–494 | doi=10.1038/sj.ejcn.1600781 | pmid=10403586 | issue=6 }} *{{Cite journal | author=Stein, Benjamin P., Stephen G. Benka, Phillip F. Schewe, and Bertram Schwarzhild | year=1996 | title=Physics Update | journal=[[Physics Today]] | volume=49 | issue=6 | page=9 | doi=10.1063/1.2807642 |bibcode = 1996PhT....49f...9S }} {{refend}} ==External links== *{{cite web|title=Group 1: The Alkali Metals|url=http://www.chemsoc.org/Viselements/pages/data/intro_groupi_data.html|work=Visual Elements|publisher=[[Royal Society of Chemistry]]|accessdate=8 December 2009}} *[http://www.chemguide.co.uk/inorganic/group1/properties.html Atomic and Physical Properties of the Group 1 Elements] An in-depth look at alkali metals *[http://www.theodoregray.com/periodictable/AlkaliBangs/index.html Alkali Metal Bangs] Filmed reactions of five-gram samples of the alkali metals with water {{PeriodicTablesFooter}} {{Compact periodic table}} {{Alkali metals}} {{Use dmy dates|date=August 2012}} {{Authority control}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Alkali Metal}} [[Category:Alkali metals| ]] [[Category:Groups in the periodic table]] [[Category:Periodic table]] [[Category:Articles containing video clips]] i7k1ws10d8xa8sd9pc2judxhmjlegrs 0 668 601305580 522627918 2014-03-26T05:06:22Z DavidLeighEllis 18632153 [[Wikipedia:Categories for discussion/Log/2014 February 24#Category:Philosophy redirects|cfd]], category will be deleted wikitext text/x-wiki #REDIRECT [[Logical form]] aiyybe37p81wt9v601exwhw2ywqmgw2 0 669 626281849 578940364 2014-09-20T00:56:35Z SoledadKabocha 16861812 r from modification wikitext text/x-wiki #REDIRECT [[Allotropy]] {{r from modification}} llits3jf657jh75vy6r485x5on54mbq 0 670 716684297 716681819 2016-04-23T05:35:44Z Flyer22 Reborn 4293477 Reverted 1 edit by [[Special:Contributions/223.231.23.230|223.231.23.230]] identified as test/vandalism using [[WP:STiki|STiki]] wikitext text/x-wiki {{about|sets of letters used in written languages|other uses}} {{pp-move-indef}} {{Use dmy dates|date=June 2013}} [[File:Orbis eruditi literatura à charactere Samaritico deducta 1689.jpg|thumb|[[Edward Bernard]]'s "Orbis eruditi", comparing all known alphabets as of 1689.]] {{Writing systems sidebar}} An '''alphabet''' is a standard set of [[letter (alphabet)|letters]] (basic written [[symbols]] or [[graphemes]]) which is used to write one or more [[language]]s based on the general principle that the letters represent [[phoneme]]s (basic significant sounds) of the [[spoken language]]. This is in contrast to other types of [[writing system]]s, such as [[syllabary|syllabaries]] (in which each character represents a [[syllable]]) and [[logograph]]ies (in which each character represents a word, [[morpheme]], or semantic unit). The [[Proto-Canaanite]] script, later known as the [[Phoenician alphabet]], is the first fully phonemic script. Thus the Phoenician alphabet is considered to be the first alphabet. The Phoenician alphabet is the ancestor of most modern alphabets, including Arabic, Greek, Latin, Cyrillic, Hebrew, and possibly Brahmic.<ref name="Coulmas 140"/><ref name="Daniels 9296">Daniels and Bright (1996), pp 92–96</ref> According to terminology introduced by [[Peter T. Daniels]], an "alphabet" is a script that represents both [[vowel]]s and [[consonant]]s as letters equally. In this narrow sense of the word the first "true" alphabet was the [[Greek alphabet]],<ref name="Blackwell">{{cite book|last=Coulmas|first=Florian|title=The Blackwell Encyclopedia of Writing Systems|year=1996|publisher=[[Blackwell Publishing]] |location=Oxford|isbn=0-631-21481-X}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Millard|1986|p=396}}</ref> which was developed on the basis of the earlier [[Phoenician alphabet]]. In other alphabetic scripts such as the original Phoenician, [[Hebrew alphabet|Hebrew]] or [[Arabic script|Arabic]], letters predominantly or exclusively represent consonants; such a script is also called an [[abjad]]. A third type, called [[abugida]] or alphasyllabary, is one where vowels are shown by [[diacritic]]s or modifications of consonantal base letters, as in [[Devanagari]] and other South Asian scripts. There are dozens of alphabets in use today, the most popular being the [[Latin alphabet]]<ref>{{harvnb|Haarmann|2004|p=96}}</ref> (which was derived from the [[Greek alphabet|Greek]]). Many languages use modified forms of the Latin alphabet, with additional letters formed using diacritical marks. While most alphabets have letters composed of lines ([[linear writing]]), there are also [[non-linear writing|exceptions]] such as the alphabets used in [[Braille]], [[fingerspelling]], and [[Morse code]]. Alphabets are usually associated with a standard ordering of letters. This makes them useful for purposes of [[collation]], specifically by allowing words to be sorted in [[alphabetical order]]. It also means that their letters can be used as an alternative method of "numbering" ordered items, in such contexts as [[numbered list]]s and number placements. ==Etymology== The English word ''alphabet'' came into [[Middle English]] from the [[Late Latin]] word ''alphabetum'', which in turn originated in the [[Greek language|Greek]] ἀλφάβητος (''alphabētos''), from ''[[alpha (letter)|alpha]]'' and ''[[beta (letter)|beta]],'' the first two letters of the [[Greek alphabet]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/alphabet|title=alphabet|publisher=[[Merriam-Webster.com]]}}</ref> ''Alpha'' and ''beta'' in turn came from the first two letters of the [[Phoenician alphabet]], and originally meant ''ox'' and ''house'' respectively. Informally the term "ABCs" is sometimes used for the alphabet as in the [[alphabet song]] (''Now I know my ABCs'' ...), and knowing one's ABCs for literacy, or as a metaphor for knowing the basics about anything.<ref>[https://www.cardiosmart.org/News-and-Events/2014/09/Do-You-Know-Your-Heart-Health-ABCs Example from CardioSmart: Do You Know Your Heart-Health ABC's?]</ref> ==History== {{Main|History of the alphabet}} [[File:A Specimen by William Caslon.jpg|thumb|300px|''A Specimen'' of [[typeset]] [[font]]s and [[language]]s, by [[William Caslon]], letter founder; from the 1728 ''[[Cyclopaedia, or an Universal Dictionary of Arts and Sciences|Cyclopaedia]]''.]] ===Ancient Northeast African and Middle Eastern scripts=== The history of the alphabet started in [[ancient Egypt]]. By the 27th century BC Egyptian writing had a set of some [[Egyptian uniliteral signs|24 hieroglyphs]] which are called uniliterals,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/dna/h2g2/A2451890 |title=The Development of the Western Alphabet |accessdate=2008-08-04 |author=Lynn, Bernadette |date=2004-04-08 |work=h2g2 |publisher=BBC}}</ref> to represent syllables that begin with a single [[consonant]] of their language, plus a vowel (or no vowel) to be supplied by the native speaker. These glyphs were used as pronunciation guides for [[logogram]]s, to write grammatical inflections, and, later, to transcribe loan words and foreign names.<ref name=Daniels>Daniels and Bright (1996), pp. 74–75</ref> [[File:Ba`alat.png|thumb|left|A specimen of [[Proto-Sinaitic script]], one of the earliest (if not the very first) phonemic scripts]] In the [[Middle Bronze Age]] an apparently "alphabetic" system known as the [[Proto-Sinaitic script]] appears in Egyptian turquoise mines in the [[Sinai peninsula]] dated to circa the 15th century BC, apparently left by Canaanite workers. In 1999, John and Deborah Darnell discovered an even earlier version of this first alphabet at Wadi el-Hol dated to circa 1800 BC and showing evidence of having been adapted from specific forms of Egyptian hieroglyphs that could be dated to circa 2000 BC, strongly suggesting that the first alphabet had been developed about that time.<ref>J. C. Darnell, F. W. Dobbs-Allsopp, Marilyn J. Lundberg, P. Kyle McCarter, and Bruce Zuckermanet, “Two early alphabetic inscriptions from the Wadi el-Hol: new evidence for the origin of the alphabet from the western desert of Egypt.” The Annual of the American Schools of Oriental Research, 59 (2005).</ref> Based on letter appearances and names, it is believed to be based on Egyptian hieroglyphs.<ref name="Coulmas 140">Coulmas (1989), p. 140–141.</ref> This script had no characters representing vowels, although originally it probably was a syllabary, but unneeded symbols were discarded. An alphabetic [[cuneiform]] script with 30 signs including three which indicate the following vowel was invented in [[Ugarit]] before the 15th century BC. This script was not used after the destruction of Ugarit.<ref>''Ugaritic Writing'' [http://www.mazzaroth.com/ChapterThree/UgariticWriting.htm online]</ref> The Proto-Sinaitic script eventually developed into the [[Phoenician alphabet]], which is conventionally called "Proto-Canaanite" before ca. 1050 BC.<ref name="Daniels 9296"/> The oldest text in Phoenician script is an inscription on the sarcophagus of King [[Ahiram]]. This script is the parent script of all western alphabets. By the tenth century two other forms can be distinguished namely [[Canaanite language|Canaanite]] and [[Aramaic]]. The Aramaic gave rise to [[Hebrew alphabet|Hebrew]].<ref>"Coulmas"(1989),p.142</ref> The [[South Arabian alphabet]], a sister script to the Phoenician alphabet, is the script from which the [[Ge'ez alphabet]] (an [[abugida]]) is descended. Vowelless alphabets, which are not true alphabets, are called [[abjad]]s, currently exemplified in scripts including [[Arabic alphabet|Arabic]], [[Hebrew alphabet|Hebrew]], and [[Syriac alphabet|Syriac]]. The omission of vowels was not a satisfactory solution and some "weak" consonants were used to indicate the vowel quality of a syllable ([[Mater lectionis|matres lectionis]]). These had dual function since they were also used as pure consonants.<ref>"Coulmas" (1989) p.147.</ref> The Proto-Sinatic or Proto Canaanite script and the [[Ugaritic script]] were the first scripts with limited number of signs, in contrast to the other widely used writing systems at the time, [[Cuneiform]], [[Egyptian hieroglyphs]], and [[Linear B]]. The Phoenician script was probably the first phonemic script<ref name="Coulmas 140"/><ref name="Daniels 9296"/> and it contained only about two dozen distinct letters, making it a script simple enough for common traders to learn. Another advantage of Phoenician was that it could be used to write down many different languages, since it recorded words phonemically. The script was spread by the Phoenicians across the Mediterranean.<ref name="Daniels 9296" /> In Greece, the script was modified to add the vowels, giving rise to the ancestor of all alphabets in the West. The indication of the vowels is the same way as the indication of the consonants, therefore it was the first true alphabet. The Greeks chose letters representing sounds that did not exist in Greek to represent the vowels. The vowels are significant in the Greek language, and the syllabical [[Linear B]] script which was used by the [[Mycenaean Greece|Mycenaean]] Greeks from the 16th century BC had 87 symbols including 5 vowels. In its early years, there were many variants of the Greek alphabet, a situation which caused many different alphabets to evolve from it. ===European alphabets=== [[File:ZographensisColour.jpg|thumb|[[Codex Zographensis]] in the [[Glagolitic alphabet]] from Medieval [[Bulgaria]]]] The [[Greek alphabet]], in its [[Euboean alphabet|Euboean form]], was carried over by Greek colonists to the Italian peninsula, where it gave rise to a variety of alphabets used to write the [[Italic languages]]. One of these became the [[Latin alphabet]], which was spread across Europe as the Romans expanded their empire. Even after the fall of the Roman state, the alphabet survived in intellectual and religious works. It eventually became used for the descendant languages of Latin (the [[Romance languages]]) and then for most of the other languages of Europe. Some adaptations of the Latin alphabet are augmented with [[ligature (typography)|ligatures]], such as [[æ]] in [[Danish language|Danish]] and [[Icelandic language|Icelandic]] and [[Ou (letter)|Ȣ]] in [[Algonquian languages|Algonquian]]; by borrowings from other alphabets, such as the [[thorn (letter)|thorn]] þ in [[Old English language|Old English]] and [[Icelandic language|Icelandic]], which came from the [[Runic alphabet|Futhark]] runes; and by modifying existing letters, such as the [[Eth (letter)|eth]] ð of Old English and Icelandic, which is a modified ''d''. Other alphabets only use a subset of the Latin alphabet, such as Hawaiian, and [[Italian language|Italian]], which uses the letters ''j, k, x, y'' and ''w'' only in foreign words. Another notable script is [[Elder Futhark]], which is believed to have evolved out of one of the [[Old Italic alphabet]]s. Elder Futhark gave rise to a variety of alphabets known collectively as the [[Runic alphabet]]s. The Runic alphabets were used for Germanic languages from AD 100 to the late Middle Ages. Its usage is mostly restricted to engravings on stone and jewelry, although inscriptions have also been found on bone and wood. These alphabets have since been replaced with the Latin alphabet, except for decorative usage for which the runes remained in use until the 20th century. The [[Old Hungarian script]] is a contemporary writing system of the Hungarians. It was in use during the entire history of Hungary, albeit not as an official writing system. From the 19th century it once again became more and more popular. The [[Glagolitic alphabet]] was the initial script of the liturgical language [[Old Church Slavonic]] and became, together with the Greek uncial script, the basis of the [[Cyrillic script]]. Cyrillic is one of the most widely used modern alphabetic scripts, and is notable for its use in Slavic languages and also for other languages within the former [[Soviet Union]]. [[Cyrillic alphabets]] include the [[Serbian Cyrillic alphabet|Serbian]], [[Macedonian alphabet|Macedonian]], [[Bulgarian alphabet|Bulgarian]], and [[Russian alphabet]]s. The Glagolitic alphabet is believed to have been created by [[Saints Cyril and Methodius]], while the Cyrillic alphabet was invented by the Bulgarian scholar [[Clement of Ohrid]], who was their disciple. They feature many letters that appear to have been borrowed from or influenced by the [[Greek alphabet]] and the [[Hebrew alphabet]]. ===Asian alphabets=== Beyond the logographic [[Written Chinese|Chinese writing]], many phonetic scripts are in existence in Asia. The [[Arabic alphabet]], [[Hebrew alphabet]], [[Syriac alphabet]], and other [[abjad]]s of the Middle East are developments of the [[Aramaic alphabet]], but because these writing systems are largely [[consonant]]-based they are often not considered true alphabets. Most alphabetic scripts of India and Eastern Asia are descended from the [[Brahmi script]], which is often believed to be a descendant of Aramaic. [[File:Zhuyin on cell phone detail.jpeg|thumb|left|250px|[[Bopomofo|Zhuyin]] on a cell phone]] In [[Korea]], the [[Hangul]] alphabet was created by [[Sejong the Great]].<ref>"上親制諺文二十八字…是謂訓民正音(His majesty created 28 characters himself... It is [[Hunminjeongeum]] (original name for [[Hangul]]))", 《세종실록 (The Annals of the Choson Dynasty : Sejong)》 25년 12월.</ref> Hangul is a unique alphabet: it is a [[featural alphabet]], where many of the letters are designed from a sound's place of articulation (P to look like the widened mouth, L to look like the tongue pulled in, etc.); its design was planned by the government of the day; and it places individual letters in syllable clusters with equal dimensions, in the same way as [[Chinese characters]], to allow for mixed-script writing<ref>https://kuiwon.wordpress.com/2013/10/16/on-hangul-supremacy-exclusivity-mixed-script-predates-the-japanese-colonial-period/</ref> (one syllable always takes up one type-space no matter how many letters get stacked into building that one sound-block). [[Zhuyin]] (sometimes called ''Bopomofo'') is a [[semi-syllabary]] used to phonetically transcribe [[Standard Chinese|Mandarin Chinese]] in the [[Taiwan|Republic of China]]. After the later establishment of the [[China|People's Republic of China]] and its adoption of [[Pinyin|Hanyu Pinyin]], the use of Zhuyin today is limited, but it is still widely used in [[Taiwan]] where the Republic of China still governs. Zhuyin developed out of a form of Chinese shorthand based on Chinese characters in the early 1900s and has elements of both an alphabet and a syllabary. Like an alphabet the phonemes of [[syllable onset|syllable initials]] are represented by individual symbols, but like a syllabary the phonemes of the [[syllable rime|syllable finals]] are not; rather, each possible final (excluding the [[Syllable medial|medial glide]]) is represented by its own symbol. For example, ''luan'' is represented as ㄌㄨㄢ (''l-u-an''), where the last symbol ㄢ represents the entire final ''-an''. While Zhuyin is not used as a mainstream writing system, it is still often used in ways similar to a [[romanization]] system—that is, for aiding in pronunciation and as an input method for Chinese characters on computers and cellphones. European alphabets, especially Latin and Cyrillic, have been adapted for many languages of Asia. Arabic is also widely used, sometimes as an abjad (as with [[Urdu alphabet|Urdu]] and [[Persian alphabet|Persian]]) and sometimes as a complete alphabet (as with [[Kurdish alphabet|Kurdish]] and [[Uyghur alphabet|Uyghur]]). ==Types== [[File:Writing systems worldwide.png|460px|thumb | {{Navbox with columns |child |style=font-size:90%; | abovestyle=background:transparent;font-size:110%;padding:0;font-weight:bold; | above = Predominant national and selected regional or minority scripts | colheaderstyle=padding:0.15em 0.15em 0.25em;font-weight:normal; |colstyle=white-space:nowrap; | col1header = Alphabetic | col1 = {{legend|#aaa|[[Latin script|Latin]]}} {{legend|#008080|[[Cyrillic script|Cyrillic]]}} {{legend|blue|[[Greek alphabet|Greek]]}} {{legend|#1E90FF|[[Armenian alphabet|Armenian]]}} {{legend|#00FFFF|[[Georgian scripts|Georgian]]}} {{legend|#FF00FF|[[Hangul]]&thinsp;{{sup|a}}}} | col2header = {{longitem|[[Logogram|[L]ogographic]]<br/>and [[Syllabary|[S]yllabic]]}} | col2 = {{legend|#8B0000|[[Hanzi]] {{smaller|[L]}}}} {{legend|#FF0000|[[Kana]] {{smaller|[S]}}{{\}}[[Kanji]] {{smaller|[L]}}{{nbsp|2}}}} {{legend|#FF00FF|[[Hanja]]{{sup|b}} {{smaller|[L]}}}} | col3header = [[Abjad]] | col3 = {{legend|green|[[Arabic script|Arabic]]}} {{legend|#00ff7f|[[Hebrew alphabet|Hebrew]]}} | col4header = [[Abugida]] | col4 = {{legend| #FFA500|[[Brahmic scripts|North Indic]]}} {{legend|#D2691E|[[Brahmic scripts|South Indic]]}} {{legend|#8B4513 |[[Ge'ez script|Ethiopic]]}} {{legend|#808000|[[Thaana]]}} {{legend|#FFFF80|[[Canadian Aboriginal syllabics|Canadian syllabic]]}} | below = {{nowrap|{{sup|a}} [[Featural alphabet|Featural-alphabetic]].{{nbsp|3}}{{sup|b}} Limited.}} }} ]] {{alphabet}} The term "alphabet" is used by [[Linguistics|linguists]] and [[paleographer]]s in both a wide and a narrow sense. In the wider sense, an alphabet is a script that is ''segmental'' at the [[phoneme]] level—that is, it has separate glyphs for individual sounds and not for larger units such as syllables or words. In the narrower sense, some scholars distinguish "true" alphabets from two other types of segmental script, [[abjad]]s and [[abugida]]s. These three differ from each other in the way they treat vowels: abjads have letters for consonants and leave most vowels unexpressed; abugidas are also consonant-based, but indicate vowels with [[diacritic]]s to or a systematic graphic modification of the consonants. In alphabets in the narrow sense, on the other hand, consonants and vowels are written as independent letters.<ref>For critics of the abjad-abugida-alphabet distinction, see Reinhard G. Lehmann: "27-30-22-26. How Many Letters Needs an Alphabet? The Case of Semitic", in: The idea of writing: Writing across borders / edited by Alex de Voogt and Joachim Friedrich Quack, Leiden: Brill 2012, p. 11-52, esp p. 22-27</ref> The earliest known alphabet in the wider sense is the [[Middle Bronze Age alphabets|Wadi el-Hol script]], believed to be an abjad, which through its successor [[Phoenician alphabet|Phoenician]] is the ancestor of modern alphabets, including [[Arabic alphabet|Arabic]], [[Greek alphabet|Greek]], [[Latin alphabet|Latin]] (via the [[Old Italic alphabet]]), [[Cyrillic]] (via the Greek alphabet) and [[Hebrew alphabet|Hebrew]] (via [[Aramaic]]). Examples of present-day abjads are the [[Arabic script|Arabic]] and [[Hebrew script]]s; true alphabets include [[Latin script|Latin]], Cyrillic, and Korean [[hangul]]; and abugidas are used to write [[tigrinya language|Tigrinya]], [[Amharic language|Amharic]], [[Hindi]], and [[Thai language|Thai]]. The [[Canadian Aboriginal syllabics]] are also an abugida rather than a syllabary as their name would imply, since each glyph stands for a consonant which is modified by rotation to represent the following vowel. (In a true syllabary, each consonant-vowel combination would be represented by a separate glyph.) All three types may be augmented with syllabic glyphs. [[Ugaritic script|Ugaritic]], for example, is basically an abjad, but has syllabic letters for {{IPA|/ʔa, ʔi, ʔu/}}. (These are the only time vowels are indicated.) Cyrillic is basically a true alphabet, but has syllabic letters for {{IPA|/ja, je, ju/}} (я, е, ю); [[Coptic alphabet|Coptic]] has a letter for {{IPA|/ti/}}. [[Devanagari]] is typically an abugida augmented with dedicated letters for initial vowels, though some traditions use अ as a [[zero consonant]] as the graphic base for such vowels. The boundaries between the three types of segmental scripts are not always clear-cut. For example, [[Sorani]] [[Kurdish language|Kurdish]] is written in the [[Arabic script]], which is normally an abjad. However, in Kurdish, writing the vowels is mandatory, and full letters are used, so the script is a true alphabet. Other languages may use a Semitic abjad with mandatory vowel diacritics, effectively making them abugidas. On the other hand, the [[Phagspa script]] of the [[Mongol Empire]] was based closely on the [[Tibetan script|Tibetan abugida]], but all vowel marks were written after the preceding consonant rather than as diacritic marks. Although short ''a'' was not written, as in the Indic abugidas, one could argue that the linear arrangement made this a true alphabet. Conversely, the vowel marks of the [[Ge'ez alphabet|Tigrinya abugida]] and the [[Ge'ez alphabet|Amharic abugida]] (ironically, the original source of the term "abugida") have been so completely assimilated into their consonants that the modifications are no longer systematic and have to be learned as a syllabary rather than as a segmental script. Even more extreme, the Pahlavi abjad eventually became [[logogram|logographic]]. (See below.) [[File:Ethiopic genesis.jpg|thumbnail|left|[[Ge'ez Script]] of [[Ethiopia]] and [[Eritrea]]]] Thus the primary [[Categorisation|classification]] of alphabets reflects how they treat vowels. For [[Tone (linguistics)|tonal languages]], further classification can be based on their treatment of tone, though names do not yet exist to distinguish the various types. Some alphabets disregard tone entirely, especially when it does not carry a heavy functional load, as in [[Somali language|Somali]] and many other languages of Africa and the Americas. Such scripts are to tone what abjads are to vowels. Most commonly, tones are indicated with diacritics, the way vowels are treated in abugidas. This is the case for [[Vietnamese alphabet|Vietnamese]] (a true alphabet) and [[Thai alphabet|Thai]] (an abugida). In Thai, tone is determined primarily by the choice of consonant, with diacritics for disambiguation. In the [[Pollard script]], an abugida, vowels are indicated by diacritics, but the placement of the diacritic relative to the consonant is modified to indicate the tone. More rarely, a script may have separate letters for tones, as is the case for [[Hmong alphabet|Hmong]] and [[Zhuang alphabet|Zhuang]]. For most of these scripts, regardless of whether letters or diacritics are used, the most common tone is not marked, just as the most common vowel is not marked in Indic abugidas; in [[Zhuyin]] not only is one of the tones unmarked, but there is a diacritic to indicate lack of tone, like the [[virama]] of Indic. The number of letters in an alphabet can be quite small. The Book [[Pahlavi scripts|Pahlavi]] script, an abjad, had only twelve letters at one point, and may have had even fewer later on. Today the [[Rotokas alphabet]] has only twelve letters. (The [[Hawaiian alphabet]] is sometimes claimed to be as small, but it actually consists of 18 letters, including the [[ʻokina]] and five long vowels. However, [[Hawaiian Braille]] has only 13 letters.) While Rotokas has a small alphabet because it has few phonemes to represent (just eleven), Book Pahlavi was small because many letters had been ''conflated''—that is, the graphic distinctions had been lost over time, and diacritics were not developed to compensate for this as they were in [[Arabic alphabet|Arabic]], another script that lost many of its distinct letter shapes. For example, a comma-shaped letter represented ''g, d, y, k,'' or ''j''. However, such apparent simplifications can perversely make a script more complicated. In later Pahlavi [[papyrus|papyri]], up to half of the remaining graphic distinctions of these twelve letters were lost, and the script could no longer be read as a sequence of letters at all, but instead each word had to be learned as a whole—that is, they had become [[logogram]]s as in Egyptian [[Demotic Egyptian|Demotic]]. The largest segmental script is probably an abugida, [[Devanagari]]. When written in Devanagari, Vedic [[Sanskrit]] has an alphabet of 53 letters, including the ''visarga'' mark for final aspiration and special letters for ''kš'' and ''jñ,'' though one of the letters is theoretical and not actually used. The Hindi alphabet must represent both Sanskrit and modern vocabulary, and so has been expanded to 58 with the ''khutma'' letters (letters with a dot added) to represent sounds from Persian and English. Thai has a total of 59 symbols, consisting of 44 consonants, 13 vowels and 2 syllabics, not including 4 diacritics for tone marks and one for vowel length. The largest known abjad is [[Sindhi language|Sindhi]], with 51 letters. The largest alphabets in the narrow sense include [[Kabardian language|Kabardian]] and [[Abkhaz language|Abkhaz]] (for [[Cyrillic]]), with 58 and 56 letters, respectively, and [[Slovak language|Slovak]] (for the [[Latin script]]), with 46. However, these scripts either count [[digraph (orthography)|di- and tri-graphs]] as separate letters, as Spanish did with ''ch'' and ''ll'' until recently, or uses [[diacritic]]s like Slovak ''č''. [[File:Ishkhani inscription.jpg|thumb|Old Georgian alphabet inscription on Monastery gate]] The Georgian alphabet (Georgian: "ანბანი" "Anbani") is alphabetical writing system. It is the largest true alphabet where each letter is graphically independent with 33 letters. Original Georgian alphabet had 38 letters but 5 letters were removed in 19th century by [[Ilia Chavchavadze]]. The Georgian Alphabet is much closer to Greek than the other Caucasian alphabets. The numeric value runs parallel to the Greek one, the consonants without a Greek equivalent are organized at the end of the alphabet. Origins of the Alphabet are still unknown, some Armenian and Western scholars believe it was created by Mastots,<ref name="Donald Rayfield">[[Donald Rayfield]] ''The Literature of Georgia: A History (Caucasus World)''. RoutledgeCurzon. ISBN 0-7007-1163-5. P. 19. "The Georgian alphabet seems unlikely to have a pre-Christian origin, for the major archaeological monument of the 1st century 4IX the bilingual Armazi gravestone commemorating Serafua, daughter of the Georgian viceroy of Mtskheta, is inscribed in Greek and Aramaic only. It has been believed, and not only in Armenia, that all the Caucasian alphabets — Armenian, Georgian and Caucaso-Albanian — were invented in the 4th century by the Armenian scholar Mesrop Mashtots.<...> The Georgian chronicles The Life of Kartli - assert that a Georgian script was invented two centuries before Christ, an assertion unsupported by archaeology. There is a possibility that the Georgians, like many minor nations of the area, wrote in a foreign language — Persian, Aramaic, or Greek — and translated back as they read."</ref><ref>[[Glen Warren Bowersock]], [[Peter Robert Lamont Brown]], [[Oleg Grabar]]. ''Late Antiquity: A Guide to the Postclassical World''. Harvard University Press, 1999. ISBN 0-674-51173-5. P. 289. [[James R. Russell]]. Alphabets. "Mastoc' was a charismatic visionary who accomplished his task at a time when Armenia stood in danger of losing both its national identity, through partition, and its newly acquired Christian faith, through Sassanian pressure and reversion to paganism. By preaching in Armenian, he was able to undermine and co-opt the discourse founded in native tradition, and to create a counterweight against both Byzantine and Syriac cultural hegemony in the church. Mastoc' also created the Georgian and Caucasian-Albanian alphabets, based on the Armenian model."</ref> other Georgian<ref name="Javakhishvili">Georgian: ივ. ჯავახიშვილი, ქართული პალეოგრაფია, გვ. 205-208, 240-245</ref> and Western,<ref name=Lig1>{{cite web |url=http://www.academia.edu/1355678/Werner_Seibt_The_Creation_of_the_Caucasian_Alphabets_as_Phenomenon_of_Cultural_History |title=The Creation of the Caucasian Alphabets as Phenomenon of Cultural History |first= Werner |last= Seibt}}</ref> scholars are against this theory. Syllabaries typically contain 50 to 400 glyphs, and the glyphs of logographic systems typically number from the many hundreds into the thousands. Thus a simple count of the number of distinct symbols is an important clue to the nature of an unknown script. The Armenian alphabet (Armenian: Հայոց գրեր Hayots grer or Հայոց այբուբեն Hayots aybuben) is a graphically unique alphabetical writing system that has been used to write the Armenian language. It was introduced by Mesrob Mashdots around 405 AD, an Armenian linguist and ecclesiastical leader, and originally contained 36 letters. Two more letters, օ (o) and ֆ (f), were added in the Middle Ages. During the 1920s orthography reform, a new letter և (capital ԵՎ) was added, which was a ligature before ե+ւ, while the letter Ւ ւ was discarded and reintroduced as part of a new letter ՈՒ ու (which was a digraph before). The Armenian word for "alphabet" is այբուբեն aybuben (Armenian pronunciation: [ɑjbubɛn]), named after the first two letters of the Armenian alphabet Ա այբ ayb and Բ բեն ben. The Armenian script's directionality is horizontal left-to-right, like the Latin and Greek alphabets.[3] ==Alphabetical order== {{main|Alphabetical order}} Alphabets often come to be associated with a standard ordering of their letters, which can then be used for purposes of [[collation]] – namely for the listing of words and other items in what is called ''[[alphabetical order]]''. The basic ordering of the [[Latin alphabet]] (A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z), which is derived from the Northwest Semitic "Abgad" order,<ref>Reinhard G. Lehmann: "27-30-22-26. How Many Letters Needs an Alphabet? The Case of Semitic", in: The idea of writing: Writing across borders / edited by Alex de Voogt and Joachim Friedrich Quack, Leiden: Brill 2012, p. 11-52</ref> is well established, although languages using this alphabet have different conventions for their treatment of modified letters (such as the [[French language|French]] ''é'', ''à'', and ''ô'') and of certain combinations of letters ([[Multigraph (orthography)|multigraph]]s). In French, these are not considered to be additional letters for the purposes of collation. However, in [[Icelandic language|Icelandic]], the accented letters such as ''á'', ''í'', and ''ö'' are considered to be distinct letters of the alphabet. In Spanish, ''ñ'' is considered a separate letter, but accented vowels such as ''á'' and ''é'' are not. The ''ll'' and ''ch'' were also considered single letters, but in 1994 the [[Real Academia Española]] changed the collating order so that ''ll'' is between ''lk'' and ''lm'' in the dictionary and ''ch'' is between ''cg'' and ''ci'', and in 2010 the tenth congress of the [[Association of Spanish Language Academies]] changed it so they were no longer letters at all.<ref>Real Academia Española. "Spanish Pronto!: Spanish Alphabet." Spanish Pronto! 22 April 2007. January 2009 [http://www.spanishpronto.com/spanishpronto/spanishalphabet.html#english Spanish Pronto: Spanish ↔ English Medical Translators.]</ref><ref>"La “i griega” se llamará “ye”". Cuba Debate. 2010-11-05. Retrieved 12 December 2010. [http://www.cubadebate.cu/noticias/2010/11/05/la-i-griega-se-llamara-ye-y-la-ch-y-la-ll-desaparecen-por-decreto-de-la-academia-espanola/ Cubadebate.cu]</ref> In German, words starting with ''sch-'' (which spells the German phoneme {{IPAslink|ʃ}}) are inserted between words with initial ''sca-'' and ''sci-'' (all incidentally loanwords) instead of appearing after initial ''sz'', as though it were a single letter—in contrast to several languages such as [[Albanian alphabet|Albanian]], in which ''dh-'', ''ë-'', ''gj-'', ''ll-'', ''rr-'', ''th-'', ''xh-'' and ''zh-'' (all representing phonemes and considered separate single letters) would follow the letters ''d'', ''e'', ''g'', ''l'', ''n'', ''r'', ''t'', ''x'' and ''z'' respectively, as well as Hungarian and Welsh. Further, German words with [[umlaut (diacritic)|umlaut]] are collated ignoring the umlaut—contrary to [[Turkish alphabet|Turkish]] which adopted the [[grapheme]]s '''ö''' and '''ü''', and where a word like ''tüfek'', would come after ''tuz'', in the dictionary. An exception is the German telephone directory where umlauts are sorted like ''ä'' = ''ae'' since names as ''Jäger'' appear also with the spelling ''Jaeger'', and are not distinguished in the spoken language. The [[Danish orthography|Danish]] and [[Norwegian orthography|Norwegian]] alphabets end with ''æ''—''ø''—''å'', whereas the Icelandic, Swedish and [[Finnish orthography|Finnish]] ones conventionally put ''å''—''ä''—''ö'' at the end. It is unknown whether the earliest alphabets had a defined sequence. Some alphabets today, such as the [[Hanuno'o script]], are learned one letter at a time, in no particular order, and are not used for [[collation]] where a definite order is required. However, a dozen [[Ugaritic alphabet|Ugaritic]] tablets from the fourteenth century BC preserve the alphabet in two sequences. One, the ''ABCDE'' order later used in Phoenician, has continued with minor changes in [[Hebrew alphabet|Hebrew]], [[Greek alphabet|Greek]], [[Armenian alphabet|Armenian]], [[Gothic alphabet|Gothic]], [[Cyrillic]], and [[Latin alphabet|Latin]]; the other, ''HMĦLQ,'' was used in southern Arabia and is preserved today in [[Ge'ez alphabet|Ethiopic]].<ref>Millard, A.R. "The Infancy of the Alphabet", ''World Archaeology'' 17, No. 3, Early Writing Systems (February 1986): 390–398. page 395.</ref> Both orders have therefore been stable for at least 3000 years. [[Runic alphabet|Runic]] used an unrelated [[Elder Futhark|Futhark]] sequence, which was later [[Younger Futhark|simplified]]. [[Arabic alphabet|Arabic]] uses its own sequence, although Arabic retains the traditional [[abjadi order]] for numbering. The [[Brahmic family]] of alphabets used in India use a unique order based on [[phonology]]: The letters are arranged according to how and where they are produced in the mouth. This organization is used in Southeast Asia, Tibet, Korean [[hangul]], and even Japanese [[kana]], which is not an alphabet. ==Names of letters== The Phoenician letter names, in which each letter was associated with a word that begins with that sound ([[acrophony]]), continue to be used to varying degrees in [[Samaritan alphabet|Samaritan]], [[Aramaic alphabet|Aramaic]], [[Syriac alphabet|Syriac]], [[Hebrew alphabet|Hebrew]], [[Greek alphabet|Greek]] and [[Arabic alphabet|Arabic]]. The names were abandoned in [[Latin alphabet|Latin]], which instead referred to the letters by adding a vowel (usually e) before or after the consonant; the two exceptions were [[Y]] and [[Z]], which were borrowed from the Greek alphabet rather than Etruscan, and were known as ''Y Graeca'' "Greek Y" (pronounced ''I Graeca'' "Greek I") and ''zeta'' (from Greek) – this discrepancy was inherited by many European languages, as in the term ''zed'' for Z in British English. Over time names sometimes shifted or were added, as in ''double U'' for [[W]] ("double V" in French), the English name for Y, and American ''zee'' for Z. Comparing names in English and French gives a clear reflection of the [[Great Vowel Shift]]: A, B, C and D are pronounced /eɪ, biː, siː, diː/ in today's English, but in contemporary French they are /a, be, se, de/. The French names (from which the English names are derived) preserve the qualities of the English vowels from before the Great Vowel Shift. By contrast, the names of F, L, M, N and S (/ɛf, ɛl, ɛm, ɛn, ɛs/) remain the same in both languages, because "short" vowels were largely unaffected by the Shift. In Cyrillic originally the letters were given names based on Slavic words; this was later abandoned as well in favor of a system similar to that used in Latin. ==Orthography and pronunciation== {{main|Phonemic orthography}} When an alphabet is adopted or developed to represent a given language, an [[orthography]] generally comes into being, providing rules for the [[spelling]] of words in that language. In accordance with the principle on which alphabets are based, these rules will generally map letters of the alphabet to the [[phoneme]]s (significant sounds) of the spoken language. In a perfectly [[phonemic orthography]] there would be a consistent one-to-one correspondence between the letters and the phonemes, so that a writer could predict the spelling of a word given its pronunciation, and a speaker would always know the pronunciation of a word given its spelling, and vice versa. However this ideal is not usually achieved in practice; some languages (such as [[Spanish language|Spanish]] and [[Finnish language|Finnish]]) come close to it, while others (such as English) deviate from it to a much larger degree. The pronunciation of a language often evolves independently of its writing system, and writing systems have been borrowed for languages they were not designed for, so the degree to which letters of an alphabet correspond to phonemes of a language varies greatly from one language to another and even within a single language. Languages may fail to achieve a one-to-one correspondence between letters and sounds in any of several ways: * A language may represent a given phoneme by a combination of letters rather than just a single letter. Two-letter combinations are called [[digraph (orthography)|digraph]]s and three-letter groups are called [[trigraph (orthography)|trigraph]]s. [[German language|German]] uses the [[tetragraph]]s (four letters) "tsch" for the phoneme {{IPA-de|tʃ|}} and (in a few borrowed words) "dsch" for {{IPA|[dʒ]}}. [[Kabardian language|Kabardian]] also uses a tetragraph for one of its phonemes, namely "кхъу". Two letters representing one sound occur in several instances in Hungarian as well (where, for instance, ''cs'' stands for [tʃ], ''sz'' for [s], ''zs'' for [ʒ], ''dzs'' for [dʒ]). * A language may represent the same phoneme with two or more different letters or combinations of letters. An example is [[modern Greek]] which may write the phoneme {{IPA-el|i|}} in six different ways: {{angbr|ι}}, {{angbr|η}}, {{angbr|υ}}, {{angbr|ει}}, {{angbr|οι}}, and {{angbr|υι}} (though the last is rare). * A language may spell some words with unpronounced letters that exist for historical or other reasons. For example, the spelling of the Thai word for "beer" [เบียร์] retains a letter for the final consonant "r" present in the English word it was borrowed from, but silences it. * Pronunciation of individual words may change according to the presence of surrounding words in a sentence ([[sandhi]]). * Different dialects of a language may use different phonemes for the same word. * A language may use different sets of symbols or different rules for distinct sets of vocabulary items, such as the Japanese [[hiragana]] and [[katakana]] syllabaries, or the various rules in English for spelling words from Latin and Greek, or the original [[Germanic languages|Germanic]] vocabulary. National languages sometimes elect to address the problem of dialects by simply associating the alphabet with the national standard. However, with an international language with wide variations in its dialects, such as [[English language|English]], it would be impossible to represent the language in all its variations with a single phonetic alphabet. Some national languages like [[Finnish language|Finnish]], [[Turkish language|Turkish]], [[Russian language|Russian]], [[Serbo-Croatian language|Serbo-Croatian]] ([[Serbian language|Serbian]], [[Croatian language|Croatian]] and [[Bosnian language|Bosnian]]) and [[Bulgarian language|Bulgarian]] have a very regular spelling system with a nearly one-to-one correspondence between letters and phonemes. Strictly speaking, these national languages lack a word corresponding to the verb "to spell" (meaning to split a word into its letters), the closest match being a verb meaning to split a word into its syllables. Similarly, the [[Italian language|Italian]] verb corresponding to 'spell (out)', ''compitare'', is unknown to many Italians because spelling is usually trivial, as Italian spelling is highly phonemic. In standard [[Spanish language|Spanish]], one can tell the pronunciation of a word from its spelling, but not vice versa, as certain phonemes can be represented in more than one way, but a given letter is consistently pronounced. [[French language|French]], with its [[silent letter]]s and its heavy use of [[nasal vowel]]s and [[elision]], may seem to lack much correspondence between spelling and pronunciation, but its rules on pronunciation, though complex, are actually consistent and predictable with a fair degree of accuracy. At the other extreme are languages such as English, where the pronunciations of many words simply have to be memorized as they do not correspond to the spelling in a consistent way. For English, this is partly because the [[Great Vowel Shift]] occurred after the orthography was established, and because English has acquired a large number of loanwords at different times, retaining their original spelling at varying levels. Even English has general, albeit complex, rules that predict pronunciation from spelling, and these rules are successful most of the time; rules to predict spelling from the pronunciation have a higher failure rate. Sometimes, countries have the written language undergo a [[spelling reform]] to realign the writing with the contemporary spoken language. These can range from simple spelling changes and word forms to switching the entire writing system itself, as when [[Turkey]] switched from the Arabic alphabet to a Latin-based [[Turkish alphabet]]. The standard system of symbols used by [[linguist]]s to represent sounds in any language, independently of orthography, is called the [[International Phonetic Alphabet]]. == See also == {{colbegin|3}} * ''[[A Is For Aardvark]]'' * [[Abecedarium]] * [[Acrophony]] * [[Akshara]] * [[Alphabet book]] * [[Alphabet effect]] * [[Alphabet song]] * [[Alphabetical order]] * ''[[Butterfly Alphabet]]'' * [[Character encoding]] * [[Constructed script]] * [[Cyrillic]] * [[English alphabet]] * [[Hangul]] * [[ICAO spelling alphabet]] * [[Lipogram]] * [[List of alphabets]] * [[Pangram]] * [[Thai script#Alphabet listing|Thai script]] * [[Thoth]] * [[Transliteration]] * [[Unicode]] {{colend}} == References == {{reflist|2}} == Bibliography == * {{cite book |author=Coulmas, Florian |title=The Writing Systems of the World |publisher=Blackwell Publishers Ltd. |year=1989 |url=https://books.google.com/?id=VOywmavmZ3UC|isbn=0-631-18028-1}} * {{cite book |author=Daniels, Peter T.; Bright, William |title=The World's Writing Systems |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |year=1996 |isbn=0-19-507993-0 }} Overview of modern and some ancient writing systems. * {{cite book |author=Driver, G. R. |authorlink=Godfrey Rolles Driver |title=Semitic Writing ([[Schweich Lectures on Biblical Archaeology]] S.) 3Rev Ed |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1976 |isbn=0-19-725917-0 }} *{{Cite book | last = Haarmann | first = Harald | title = Geschichte der Schrift | trans_title=History of Writing | language=German | publisher = C. H. Beck | location = München | edition = 2nd | year = 2004 | isbn = 3-406-47998-7 | ref = harv | postscript = <!--None--> }} * {{cite book |author=Hoffman, Joel M. |title=In the Beginning: A Short History of the Hebrew Language |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=momIk7nVNdkC |publisher=NYU Press |year=2004 |isbn=0-8147-3654-8 }} Chapter 3 traces and summarizes the invention of alphabetic writing. * {{cite book |author=Logan, Robert K. |title=The Alphabet Effect: A Media Ecology Understanding of the Making of Western Civilization |publisher=Hampton Press |year=2004 |isbn=1-57273-523-6 }} *McLuhan, Marshall; Logan, Robert K. (1977). Alphabet, Mother of Invention. Etcetera. Vol. 34, pp.&nbsp;373–383 *{{Cite journal | doi = 10.1080/00438243.1986.9979978 | last = Millard | first = A. R. | year = 1986 | title = The Infancy of the Alphabet | journal = World Archaeology | volume = 17 | issue = 3 | pages = 390–398 | ref = harv | postscript = <!--None--> }} *{{cite book |author=Ouaknin, Marc-Alain; Bacon, Josephine |title=Mysteries of the Alphabet: The Origins of Writing |publisher=Abbeville Press |year=1999 |isbn=0-7892-0521-1 }} * {{cite book |author=Powell, Barry |title=Homer and the Origin of the Greek Alphabet |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |year=1991 |isbn=0-521-58907-X }} * Powell, Barry B. 2009. ''Writing: Theory and History of the Technology of Civilization,'' Oxford: Blackwell. ISBN 978-1-4051-6256-2 * {{cite book |author=Sacks, David |title=Letter Perfect: The Marvelous History of Our Alphabet from A to Z |publisher=Broadway Books |url=http://www.uca.edu.ar/esp/sec-ffilosofia/esp/docs-institutos/s-cehao/boletin/damqatum3_eng2007.pdf |format=PDF |year=2004 |isbn=0-7679-1173-3}} *{{cite book|author=Saggs, H. W. F. |title=Civilization Before Greece and Rome|publisher=[[Yale University Press]] |year=1991 |isbn=0-300-05031-3}} Chapter 4 traces the invention of writing == External links == {{Wiktionary|alphabet}} {{commons category|Alphabet}} * [http://ilovetypography.com/2010/08/07/where-does-the-alphabet-come-from/ The Origins of abc] * [http://www.uca.edu.ar/esp/sec-ffilosofia/esp/docs-institutos/s-cehao/boletin/damqatum3_eng2007.pdf "Language, Writing and Alphabet: An Interview with Christophe Rico"], ''Damqātum 3'' (2007) * [[Michael Everson]]'s [http://www.evertype.com/alphabets/index.html Alphabets of Europe] * [http://www.wam.umd.edu/~rfradkin/alphapage.html Evolution of alphabets], animation by Prof. Robert Fradkin at the [[University of Maryland]] * [http://www.bib-arch.org/bar/article.asp?PubID=BSBA&Volume=36&Issue=2&ArticleID=6 How the Alphabet Was Born from Hieroglyphs]—Biblical Archaeology Review * [https://onedrive.live.com/view.aspx?cid=E39B50D7D9EA3235&resid=E39B50D7D9EA3235!126&app=WordPdf An Early Hellenic Alphabet] * Museum of the Alphabet [http://www.jaars.org/museum/alphabet/index.htm] {{Writing systems |expanded=Alphabets}} {{list of writing systems}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Alphabets| ]] [[Category:Orthography]] 3n6sv8xxaf1dws6y9cho61xkvrit6q7 0 673 709360514 709360468 2016-03-10T13:47:58Z 96.92.26.1 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Use dmy dates|date=July 2015}} {{See also|List of elements by atomic number}} [[File:Atomic number depiction.jpg|thumb|Atomic Number Depiction|300px|right|An explanation of the superscripts and subscripts seen in atomic number notation. Atomic number is the number of protons, and therefore also the total positive charge, in the atomic nucleus.]] [[Image:Bohr-atom-PAR.svg|thumb|right|300px|The '''Rutherford–Bohr model''' of the [[hydrogen atom]] ({{nowrap|''Z'' {{=}} 1}}) or a hydrogen-like ion ({{nowrap|''Z'' > 1}}). In this model it is an essential feature that the photon energy (or frequency) of the electromagnetic radiation emitted (shown) when an electron jumps from one orbital to another, be proportional to the mathematical square of atomic charge ({{nowrap|''Z²''}}). Experimental measurement by [[Henry Moseley]] of this radiation for many elements (from {{nowrap|''Z'' {{=}} 13 to 92}}) showed the results as predicted by Bohr. Both the concept of atomic number and the Bohr model were thereby given scientific credence.]] In [[chemistry]] and [[physics]], the '''atomic number''' of a [[chemical element]] (also known as its '''proton number''') is the number of [[proton]]s found in the [[atomic nucleus|nucleus]] of an [[atom]] of that element, and therefore identical to the [[charge number]] of the nucleus. It is conventionally represented by the symbol '''''Z'''''. The atomic number uniquely identifies a chemical element. In an [[electric charge|uncharged]] atom, the atomic number is also equal to the number of [[electron]]s. The atomic number, ''Z'', should not be confused with the [[mass number]], ''A'', which is the number of [[nucleon]]s, the total number of protons and [[neutron]]s in the nucleus of an atom. The number of neutrons, ''N'', is known as the [[neutron number]] of the atom; thus, ''A'' = ''Z'' + ''N'' (these quantities are always [[natural number|whole numbers]]). Since protons and neutrons have approximately the same mass (and the mass of the electrons is negligible for many purposes) and the [[Binding energy#Mass_change|mass defect]] of nucleon binding is always small compared to the nucleon mass, the [[atomic mass]] of any atom, when expressed in [[Atomic mass unit|unified atomic mass units]] (making a quantity called the "[[atomic mass|relative isotopic mass]]"), is roughly (to within 1%) equal to the whole number ''A''. Atoms with the same atomic number ''Z'' but different neutron numbers ''N'', and hence different atomic masses, are known as [[isotope]]s. A little more than three-quarters of naturally occurring elements exist as a mixture of isotopes (see [[monoisotopic element]]s), and the average isotopic mass of an isotopic mixture for an element (called the relative atomic mass) in a defined environment on Earth, determines the element's standard [[atomic weight]]. Historically, it was these atomic weights of elements (in comparison to hydrogen) that were the quantities measurable by chemists in the 19th century. The conventional symbol ''Z'' comes from the [[German language|German]] word {{lang|de|'''''Z'''ahl''}} meaning number/numeral/figure, which, prior to the modern synthesis of ideas from chemistry and physics, merely denoted an element's numerical place in the [[periodic table]], whose order is approximately, but not completely, consistent with the order of the elements by atomic weights. Only after 1915, with the suggestion and evidence that this ''Z'' number was also the nuclear charge and a physical characteristic of atoms, did the word {{lang|de|''Atom'''z'''ahl''}} (and its English equivalent ''atomic number'') come into common use in this context. ==History== ===The periodic table and a natural number for each element=== [[File:DIMendeleevCab.jpg|150px|left|thumb|Russian chemist Dmitri Mendeleev created a periodic table of the elements that ordered them numerically by atomic weight, yet occasionally used chemical properties in contradiction to weight.]] Loosely speaking, the existence or construction of a [[periodic table]] of elements creates an ordering of the elements, and so they can be numbered in order. [[Dmitri Mendeleev]] claimed that he arranged his first periodic tables in order of [[atomic weight]] ("Atomgewicht").<ref name="dm1869">[http://www.aip.org/history/curie/periodic.htm The Periodic Table of Elements], American Institute of Physics</ref> However, in consideration of the elements' observed chemical properties, he changed the order slightly and placed [[tellurium]] (atomic weight 127.6) ahead of [[iodine]] (atomic weight 126.9).<ref name="dm1869"/><ref>[http://www.rsc.org/chemsoc/visualelements/pages/history_ii.html The Development of the Periodic Table], Royal Society of Chemistry</ref> This placement is consistent with the modern practice of ordering the elements by proton number, ''Z'', but that number was not known or suspected at the time. A simple numbering based on periodic table position was never entirely satisfactory, however. Besides the case of iodine and tellurium, later several other pairs of elements (such as argon and potassium, cobalt and nickel) were known to have nearly identical or reversed atomic weights, thus requiring their placement in the periodic table to be determined by their chemical properties. However the gradual identification of more and more chemically similar [[lanthanide]] elements, whose atomic number was not obvious, led to inconsistency and uncertainty in the periodic numbering of elements at least from [[lutetium]] (element 71) onwards ([[hafnium]] was not known at this time). [[File:Niels Bohr.jpg|140px|left|thumb|Niels Bohr's 1913 [[Bohr model]] of the atom required van den Broek's atomic number of nuclear charges, and Bohr believed that Moseley's work contributed greatly to the acceptance of the model.]] [[File:Henry Moseley.jpg|140px|thumb|Henry Moseley helped develop the concept of atomic number by showing experimentally (1913) that Van den Broek's 1911 hypothesis combined with the [[Bohr model]] nearly correctly predicted atomic X-ray emissions.]] ===The Rutherford-Bohr model and van den Broek=== In 1911, [[Ernest Rutherford]] gave a [[Rutherford model|model]] of the atom in which a central core held most of the atom's mass and a positive charge which, in units of the electron's charge, was to be approximately equal to half of the atom's atomic weight, expressed in numbers of hydrogen atoms. This central charge would thus be approximately half the atomic weight (though it was almost 25% different from the atomic number of gold (''Z''&nbsp;=&nbsp;79, ''A''&nbsp;=&nbsp;197), the single element from which Rutherford made his guess). Nevertheless, in spite of Rutherford's estimation that gold had a central charge of about 100 (but was element Z = 79 on the periodic table), a month after Rutherford's paper appeared, [[Antonius van den Broek]] first formally suggested that the central charge and number of electrons in an atom was ''exactly'' equal to its place in the periodic table (also known as element number, atomic number, and symbolized ''Z''). This proved eventually to be the case. === Moseley's 1913 experiment === The experimental position improved dramatically after research by [[Henry Moseley]] in 1913.<ref>[http://www.rsc.org/Education/Teachers/Resources/periodictable/pre16/order.doc Ordering the Elements in the Periodic Table], Royal Chemical Society</ref> Moseley, after discussions with Bohr who was at the same lab (and who had used Van den Broek's hypothesis in his [[Bohr model]] of the atom), decided to test Van den Broek's and Bohr's hypothesis directly, by seeing if [[Spectral line|spectral lines]] emitted from excited atoms fitted the Bohr theory's postulation that the frequency of the spectral lines be proportional to the square of ''Z''. To do this, Moseley measured the wavelengths of the innermost photon transitions (K and L lines) produced by the elements from aluminum (''Z''&nbsp;=&nbsp;13) to gold (''Z''&nbsp;=&nbsp;79) used as a series of movable anodic targets inside an [[x-ray tube]].<ref>{{cite journal|url=http://www.chemistry.co.nz/henry_moseley_article.htm |doi=10.1080/14786441308635052|title=XCIII.The high-frequency spectra of the elements|journal=Philosophical Magazine Series 6|volume=26|issue=156|pages=1024|year=1913|last1=Moseley|first1=H.G.J.}}</ref> The square root of the frequency of these photons (x-rays) increased from one target to the next in an arithmetic progression. This led to the conclusion ([[Moseley's law]]) that the atomic number does closely correspond (with an offset of one unit for K-lines, in Moseley's work) to the calculated [[electric charge]] of the nucleus, i.e. the element number ''Z''. Among other things, Moseley demonstrated that the [[lanthanide]] series (from [[lanthanum]] to [[lutetium]] inclusive) must have 15 members—no fewer and no more—which was far from obvious from the chemistry at that time. ===The proton and the idea of nuclear electrons=== In 1915 the reason for nuclear charge being quantized in units of Z, which were now recognized to be the same as the element number, was not understood. An old idea called [[Prout's hypothesis]] had postulated that the elements were all made of residues (or "protyles") of the lightest element hydrogen, which in the Bohr-Rutherford model had a single electron and a nuclear charge of one. However, as early as 1907 Rutherford and [[Thomas Royds]] had shown that alpha particles, which had a charge of +2, were the nuclei of helium atoms, which had a mass four times that of hydrogen, not two times. If Prout's hypothesis were true, something had to be neutralizing some of the charge of the hydrogen nuclei present in the nuclei of heavier atoms. In 1917 Rutherford succeeded in generating hydrogen nuclei from a [[nuclear reaction]] between alpha particles and nitrogen gas, and believed he had proven Prout's law. He called the new heavy nuclear particles protons in 1920 (alternate names being proutons and protyles). It had been immediately apparent from the work of Moseley that the nuclei of heavy atoms have more than twice as much mass as would be expected from their being made of [[hydrogen]] nuclei, and thus there was required a hypothesis for the neutralization of the extra [[protons]] presumed present in all heavy nuclei. A helium nucleus was presumed to be composed of four protons plus two "nuclear electrons" (electrons bound inside the nucleus) to cancel two of the charges. At the other end of the periodic table, a nucleus of gold with a mass 197 times that of hydrogen, was thought to contain 118 nuclear electrons in the nucleus to give it a residual charge of + 79, consistent with its atomic number. ===The discovery of the neutron makes Z the proton number=== All consideration of nuclear electrons ended with [[James Chadwick]]'s discovery of the neutron in 1932. An atom of gold now was seen as containing 118 neutrons rather than 118 nuclear electrons, and its positive charge now was realized to come entirely from a content of 79 protons. After 1932, therefore, an element's atomic number Z was also realized to be identical to the [[proton number]] of its nuclei. ==The symbol of Z== The conventional symbol ''Z'' possibly comes from the [[German language|German]] word {{lang|de|''Atom'''z'''ahl''}} (atomic number).<ref>[http://antoine.frostburg.edu/chem/senese/101/atoms/faq/why-is-atomic-number-Z.shtml Origin of symbol Z]. frostburg.edu</ref> However, prior to 1915, the word ''Zahl'' (simply ''number'') was used for an element's assigned number in the periodic table. ==Chemical properties== Each element has a specific set of chemical properties as a consequence of the number of electrons present in the neutral atom, which is ''Z'' (the atomic number). The [[electron configuration|configuration]] of these electrons follows from the principles of [[quantum mechanics]]. The number of electrons in each element's [[electron shell]]s, particularly the outermost [[valence shell]], is the primary factor in determining its [[chemical bonding]] behavior. Hence, it is the atomic number alone that determines the chemical properties of an element; and it is for this reason that an element can be defined as consisting of ''any'' mixture of atoms with a given atomic number. ==New elements== The quest for new elements is usually described using atomic numbers. As of 2010, elements with atomic numbers 1 to 118 have been observed. Synthesis of new elements is accomplished by bombarding target atoms of heavy elements with ions, such that the sum of the atomic numbers of the target and ion elements equals the atomic number of the element being created. In general, the [[half-life]] becomes shorter as atomic number increases, though an "[[island of stability]]" may exist for undiscovered isotopes with certain numbers of protons and neutrons. ==See also== {{wiktionary|atomic number}} *[[History of the periodic table]] *[[Effective atomic number]] *[[Atomic theory]] *[[Prout's hypothesis]] ==References== {{Reflist}} {{Authority control}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Atomic Number}} <!--Categories--> [[Category:Chemical properties]] [[Category:Nuclear physics]] [[Category:Atoms]] [[Category:Dimensionless numbers of chemistry]] d2gh4ol88vzcyuvigdjz7pla1900d9a 0 674 717773660 717773651 2016-04-29T16:53:03Z ClueBot NG 13286072 Reverting possible vandalism by [[Special:Contribs/2601:5C7:4000:9839:AC78:9511:DD63:6C6|2601:5C7:4000:9839:AC78:9511:DD63:6C6]] to version by HCA. [[WP:CBFP|Report False Positive?]] Thanks, [[WP:CBNG|ClueBot NG]]. (2639770) (Bot) wikitext text/x-wiki {{About||the anatomy of humans|Human body|the anatomy of plants|Plant anatomy|other uses}} {{good article}} {{Use dmy dates|date=July 2013}} [[File:Vesalius-copy.jpg|thumb|upright=1.3|One of the large, detailed illustrations in [[Andreas Vesalius]]'s ''[[De humani corporis fabrica]]'' 16th century, marking the rebirth of anatomy]] '''Anatomy''' is the branch of [[biology]] concerned with the study of the structure of organisms and their parts.<ref>Merriam Webster Dictionary</ref> Anatomy is inherently tied to [[embryology]], [[comparative anatomy]], [[evolutionary biology]], and [[phylogeny]],<ref name="intro HGray">{{cite web | url=http://www.bartleby.com/107/1.html| title= Introduction page, "Anatomy of the Human Body". Henry Gray. 20th edition. 1918| accessdate =19 March 2007| archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20070316005206/http://www.bartleby.com/107/1.html| archivedate= 16 March 2007}}</ref> as these are the processes by which anatomy is generated over immediate (embryology) and long (evolution) timescales. [[Human anatomy]] is one of the basic essential sciences of [[medicine]].<ref>Arráez-Aybar et al. (2010). Relevance of human anatomy in daily clinical practice. Annals of Anatomy-Anatomischer Anzeiger, 192(6), 341–348.</ref> The discipline of anatomy is divided into [[macroscopic scale|macroscopic]] and [[microscopic scale|microscopic anatomy]]. Macroscopic anatomy, or [[gross anatomy]], is the examination of an animal's body parts using unaided [[eyesight]]. Gross anatomy also includes the branch of [[superficial anatomy]]. Microscopic anatomy involves the use of optical instruments in the study of the [[tissue (biology)|tissues]] of various structures, known as [[histology]], and also in the study of [[cell biology|cells]]. The [[history of anatomy]] is characterized by a progressive understanding of the functions of the [[organ (anatomy)|organs]] and structures of the [[human body]]. Methods have also improved dramatically, advancing from the examination of animals by dissection of carcasses and [[cadaver]]s (corpses) to 20th century [[medical imaging]] techniques including [[Radiography|X-ray]], [[Ultrasound imaging|ultrasound]], and [[MRI|magnetic resonance imaging]]. Anatomy and [[physiology]], which study (respectively) the structure and [[function (biology)|function]] of organisms and their parts, make a natural pair of [[multidisciplinary approach|related disciplines]], and they are often studied together. == Definition == [[File:Comparative view of the human and elephant frame, Benjamin Waterhouse Hawkins, 1860.jpg|thumb|left|Human compared to elephant frame. [[Benjamin Waterhouse Hawkins]], 1860]] Derived from the [[Ancient Greek|Greek]] {{lang|grc|ἀνατέμνω}} ''anatemnō'' "I cut up, cut open" from ἀνά ''ana'' "up", and τέμνω ''temnō'' "I cut",<ref>O.D.E. 2nd edition 2005</ref> anatomy is the scientific study of the structure of [[organism]]s including their systems, organs and [[tissue (biology)|tissues]]. It includes the appearance and position of the various parts, the materials from which they are composed, their locations and their relationships with other parts. Anatomy is quite distinct from [[physiology]] and [[biochemistry]], which deal respectively with the functions of those parts and the chemical processes involved. For example, an anatomist is concerned with the shape, size, position, structure, blood supply and innervation of an organ such as the liver; while a physiologist is interested in the production of [[bile]], the role of the liver in nutrition and the regulation of bodily functions.<ref name=Everyman>{{cite book |title=Everyman's Encyclopedia: Anatomy |last=Bozman |first=E. F. (ed.) |year=1967 |publisher=J. M. Dent & Sons |asin=B0066E44EC |page=272 }}</ref> The discipline of anatomy can be subdivided into a number of branches including gross or [[Macroscopic scale|macroscopic]] anatomy and [[Microscopic scale|microscopic]] anatomy.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://medical-dictionary.thefreedictionary.com/microscopic+anatomy |title=Anatomy |year=2007 |work=The Free Dictionary |publisher=Farlex |accessdate=8 July 2013}}</ref> [[Gross anatomy]] is the study of structures large enough to be seen with the naked eye, and also includes [[superficial anatomy]] or surface anatomy, the study by sight of the external body features. [[Microscopic anatomy]] is the study of structures on a microscopic scale, including [[histology]] (the study of tissues), and [[embryology]] (the study of an organism in its immature condition).<ref name="intro HGray" /> Anatomy can be studied using both invasive and non-invasive methods with the goal of obtaining information about the structure and organization of organs and systems.<ref name="intro HGray" /> Methods used include [[dissection]], in which a body is opened and its organs studied, and [[endoscopy]], in which a [[video camera]]-equipped instrument is inserted through a small incision in the body wall and used to explore the internal organs and other structures. [[Angiography]] using [[X-ray]]s or [[magnetic resonance angiography]] are methods to visualize blood vessels.<ref>{{cite journal | title=Use of Angiography to Outline the Cardiovascular Anatomy of the Sand Crab Portunus pelagicus Linnaeus | author= Gribble N, Reynolds K | journal=Journal of Crustacean Biology | year=1993 | volume=13 | issue=4 | pages=627–637 | doi=10.1163/193724093x00192 | jstor=1549093}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | title=Characterization of the Renal Portal System of the Common Green Iguana (Iguana iguana) by Digital Subtraction Imaging | author= Benson KG, Forrest L | journal=Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine | year=1999 | volume=30 | issue=2 | pages=235–241}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.hopkinsmedicine.org/healthlibrary/test_procedures/cardiovascular/magnetic_resonance_angiography_mra_135,14/ |title=Magnetic Resonance Angiography (MRA) |publisher=Johns Hopkins Medicine}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.nhs.uk/conditions/angiography/Pages/Introduction.aspx | title=Angiography | publisher=National Health Service | accessdate=29 April 2014}}</ref> The term "anatomy" is commonly taken to refer to [[human anatomy]]. However, substantially the same structures and tissues are found throughout the rest of the animal kingdom and the term also includes the anatomy of other animals. The term ''zootomy'' is also sometimes used to specifically refer to animals. The structure and tissues of plants are of a dissimilar nature and they are studied in [[plant anatomy]].<ref name=Everyman/> == Animal tissues == [[File:Anima cell notext.svg|right|thumb|Stylized cutaway diagram of an animal cell (with flagella)]] The [[Kingdom (biology)|kingdom]] [[Animalia]] or '''metazoa''', contains [[multicellular organism]]s that are [[heterotroph]]ic and [[Motility|motile]] (although some have secondarily adopted a [[Sessility (zoology)|sessile]] lifestyle). Most animals have bodies differentiated into separate [[Tissue (biology)|tissues]] and these animals are also known as [[eumetazoa]]ns. They have an internal [[digestion|digestive]] chamber, with one or two openings; the [[gamete]]s are produced in multicellular sex organs, and the [[zygote]]s include a [[blastula]] stage in their [[Embryogenesis|embryonic development]]. Metazoans do not include the [[sponge]]s, which have undifferentiated cells.<ref name=Dorit549>{{cite book |title=Zoology |last1=Dorit |first1=R. L. |last2=Walker |first2=W. F. |last3=Barnes |first3=R. D. |year=1991 |publisher=Saunders College Publishing |isbn=978-0-03-030504-7 |pages=547–549 }}</ref> Unlike [[plant cell]]s, [[animal cells]] have neither a cell wall nor [[chloroplast]]s. Vacuoles, when present, are more in number and much smaller than those in the plant cell. The body tissues are composed of numerous types of cell, including those found in [[muscle]]s, [[nerves]] and [[skin]]. Each typically has a cell membrane formed of [[phospholipid]]s, [[cytoplasm]] and a [[Cell nucleus|nucleus]]. All of the different cells of an animal are derived from the embryonic [[germ layer]]s. Those simpler invertebrates which are formed from two germ layers of ectoderm and endoderm are called [[diploblasty|diploblastic]] and the more developed animals whose structures and organs are formed from three germ layers are called [[triploblasty|triploblastic]].<ref name=Ruppert60>{{cite book |title=Invertebrate Zoology, 7th edition |last1=Ruppert |first1=Edward E. |last2=Fox |first2=Richard, S. |last3=Barnes |first3=Robert D. |year=2004 |publisher=Cengage Learning |isbn=81-315-0104-3 |pages=59–60 }}</ref> All of a triploblastic animal's tissues and organs are derived from the three germ layers of the embryo, the [[ectoderm]], [[mesoderm]] and [[endoderm]]. Animal tissues can be grouped into four basic types: [[connective tissue|connective]], [[epithelium|epithelial]], [[muscle tissue|muscle]] and [[nervous tissue]]. [[File:Cartilage polarised.jpg|thumb|Hyaline cartilage at high magnification ([[H&E stain]])]] ===Connective tissue=== [[Connective tissue]]s are fibrous and made up of cells scattered among inorganic material called the [[extracellular matrix]]. Connective tissue gives shape to organs and holds them in place. The main types are loose connective tissue, [[adipose tissue]], fibrous connective tissue, [[cartilage]] and [[bone]]. The extracellular matrix contains [[protein]]s, the chief and most abundant of which is [[collagen]]. Collagen plays a major part in organizing and maintaining tissues. The matrix can be modified to form a [[skeleton]] to support or protect the body. An [[exoskeleton]] is a thickened, rigid [[cuticle]] which is stiffened by [[mineralisation (biology)|mineralisation]], as in [[crustacean]]s or by the cross-linking of its proteins as in [[insect]]s. An [[endoskeleton]] is internal and present in all developed animals, as well as in many of those less developed.<ref name="Ruppert60" /> ===Epithelium=== [[File:Normal gastric mucosa low mag.jpg|thumb|right|Gastric mucosa at low magnification ([[H&E stain]])]] [[Epithelial tissue]] is composed of closely packed cells, bound to each other by [[cell adhesion molecule]]s, with little intercellular space. Epithelial cells can be [[Squamous epithelial cell|squamous]] (flat), [[Simple cuboidal epithelium|cuboidal]] or [[Columnar epithelial cell|columnar]] and rest on a [[basal lamina]], the upper layer of the [[basement membrane]],<ref>{{cite book|last=Dorland's|title=Illustrated Medical Dictionary|date=2012|publisher=Elsevier Saunders|isbn=978-1-4160-6257-8|page=203}}</ref> the lower layer is the reticular lamina lying next to the connective tissue in the extracellular matrix secreted by the epithelial cells.<ref>{{cite book|last=Dorland's|title=Illustrated Medical Dictionary|date=2012|publisher=Elsevier Saunders|isbn=978-1-4160-6257-8|page=1002}}</ref> There are many different types of epithelium, modified to suit a particular function. In the [[respiratory tract]] there is a type of [[pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium|ciliated]] epithelial lining; in the small intestine there are [[microvilli]] on the epithelial lining and in the large intestine there are [[intestinal villi]]. [[Skin]] consists of an outer layer of [[keratin]]ised stratified squamous epithelium that covers the exterior of the vertebrate body. [[Keratinocyte]]s make up to 95% of the cells in the [[epidermis (skin)|skin]].<ref>McGrath, J.A.; Eady, R.A.; Pope, F.M. (2004). Rook's Textbook of Dermatology (7th ed.). Blackwell Publishing. pp. 3.1–3.6. ISBN 978-0-632-06429-8.</ref> The epithelial cells on the external surface of the body typically secrete an extracellular matrix in the form of a [[cuticle]]. In simple animals this may just be a coat of [[glycoproteins]].<ref name="Ruppert60" /> In more advanced animals, many [[gland]]s are formed of epithelial cells.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.bio.davidson.edu/people/kabernd/BerndCV/Lab/EpithelialInfoWeb/Glandular%20Epithelium.html |title=Glandular epithelium |author=Bernt, Karen |year=2010 |work=Epithelial Cells |publisher=Davidson College |accessdate=25 June 2013}}</ref> ===Muscle tissue=== [[File:Skeletal muscle - cross section, nerve bundle.jpg|right|thumb|Cross section through [[skeletal muscle]] and a small [[nerve]] at high magnification ([[H&E stain]])]] [[Myocyte|Muscle cells]] (myocytes) form the active contractile tissue of the body. [[Muscle tissue]] functions to produce force and cause motion, either locomotion or movement within internal organs. Muscle is formed of contractile [[Myofibril|filaments]] and is separated into three main types; [[Smooth muscle tissue|smooth muscle]], [[Skeletal striated muscle|skeletal muscle]] and [[cardiac muscle]]. Smooth muscle has no [[Striated muscle tissue|striations]] when examined microscopically. It contracts slowly but maintains contractibility over a wide range of stretch lengths. It is found in such organs as [[sea anemone]] tentacles and the body wall of [[sea cucumber]]s. Skeletal muscle contracts rapidly but has a limited range of extension. It is found in the movement of appendages and jaws. Obliquely striated muscle is intermediate between the other two. The filaments are staggered and this is the type of muscle found in [[earthworm]]s that can extend slowly or make rapid contractions.<ref name=Ruppert103>{{cite book |title=Invertebrate Zoology, 7th edition |last1=Ruppert |first1=Edward E. |last2=Fox |first2=Richard, S. |last3=Barnes |first3=Robert D. |year=2004 |publisher=Cengage Learning |isbn=81-315-0104-3 |page=103 }}</ref> In higher animals striated muscles occur in bundles attached to bone to provide movement and are often arranged in antagonistic sets. Smooth muscle is found in the walls of the [[uterus]], [[bladder]], [[intestines]], [[stomach]], [[esophagus]], [[respiratory airways]], and [[blood vessel]]s. [[Cardiac muscle]] is found only in the [[heart]], allowing it to contract and pump blood round the body. ===Nervous tissue=== [[Nervous tissue]] is composed of many nerve cells known as [[neuron]]s which transmit information. In some slow-moving [[Symmetry in biology#Radial symmetry|radially symmetrical]] marine animals such as [[ctenophore]]s and [[cnidarian]]s (including [[sea anemone]]s and [[jellyfish]]), the nerves form a [[nerve net]], but in most animals they are organized longitudinally into bundles. In simple animals, receptor neurons in the body wall cause a local reaction to a stimulus. In more complex animals, specialised receptor cells such as [[chemoreceptor]]s and [[photoreceptor cell|photoreceptors]] are found in groups and send messages along [[biological neural network|neural networks]] to other parts of the organism. Neurons can be connected together in [[Ganglion|ganglia]].<ref name=Ruppert104>{{cite book |title=Invertebrate Zoology, 7th edition |last1=Ruppert |first1=Edward E. |last2=Fox |first2=Richard, S. |last3=Barnes |first3=Robert D. |year=2004 |publisher=Cengage Learning |isbn=81-315-0104-3 |page=104 }}</ref> In higher animals, specialized receptors are the basis of sense organs and there is a [[central nervous system]] (brain and spinal cord) and a [[peripheral nervous system]]. The latter consists of [[Sensory neuron|sensory nerves]] that transmit information from sense organs and [[Motor neuron|motor nerves]] that influence target organs.<ref>{{cite book|title=Grey's Anatomy: Descriptive and Applied |year=1944 |edition=28 |page=1038 |publisher=Langmans |editor1-last=Johnston | editor1-first= T.B |editor2-last=Whillis | editor2-first=J }}</ref><ref name=Ruppert107>{{cite book |title=Invertebrate Zoology, 7th edition |last1=Ruppert |first1=Edward E. |last2=Fox |first2=Richard, S. |last3=Barnes |first3=Robert D. |year=2004 |publisher=Cengage Learning |isbn=81-315-0104-3 |pages=105–107 }}</ref> The peripheral nervous system is divided into the [[somatic nervous system]] which conveys sensation and controls [[voluntary muscle]], and the [[autonomic nervous system]] which involuntarily controls [[smooth muscle]], certain glands and internal organs, including the [[stomach]].<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.inkling.com/read/essential-clinical-anatomy-keith-moore-4th/introduction-to-clinical-anatomy/nervous-system | title=Essesntial Clinical Anatomy | publisher=Inkling | work=Nervous System | date=2010 |edition=4th | accessdate=30 April 2014 | author=Moore, K.; Agur, A.; Dalley, A. F.}}</ref> == Vertebrate anatomy == {{see also|Comparative anatomy}} [[File:VolRenderShearWarp.gif|thumb|upright|[[Mouse]] skull]] All [[vertebrate]]s have a similar basic [[body plan]] and at some point in their lives, (mostly in the [[embryogenesis|embryonic]] stage), share the major [[chordate]] characteristics; a stiffening rod, the [[notochord]]; a dorsal hollow tube of nervous material, the [[neural tube]]; [[pharyngeal arch]]es; and a tail posterior to the anus. The [[spinal cord]] is protected by the [[vertebral column]] and is above the notochord and the [[Gut (anatomy)|gastrointestinal tract]] is below it.<ref>{{cite web |last=Waggoner |first=Ben |title=Vertebrates: More on Morphology |url=http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/vertebrates/vertmm.html |publisher=UCMP |accessdate=13 July 2011}}</ref> Nervous tissue is derived from the [[ectoderm]], connective tissues are derived from [[mesoderm]], and gut is derived from the [[endoderm]]. At the posterior end is a [[tail]] which continues the spinal cord and vertebrae but not the gut. The mouth is found at the anterior end of the animal, and the [[anus]] at the base of the tail.<ref>{{cite book |title=The Vertebrate Body |last=Romer |first=Alfred Sherwood |year=1985 |publisher=Holt Rinehart & Winston |isbn=978-0-03-058446-6 |page= }}</ref> The defining characteristic of a vertebrate is the [[vertebral column]], formed in the development of the segmented series of [[vertebra]]e. In most vertebrates the notochord becomes the [[nucleus pulposus]] of the [[intervertebral disc]]s. However, a few vertebrates, such as the [[sturgeon]] and the [[coelacanth]] retain the notochord into adulthood.<ref>{{cite book|title=Functional anatomy of the vertebrates: an evolutionary perspective|year=2001|publisher=Harcourt College Publishers|isbn=978-0-03-022369-3|author=Liem, Karel F.|author2=Warren Franklin Walker|page=277}}</ref> [[Gnathostomata|Jawed vertebrates]] are typified by paired appendages, fins or legs, which may be secondarily lost. The limbs of vertebrates are considered to be [[Homology (biology)|homologous]] because the same underlying skeletal structure was inherited from their last common ancestor. This is one of the arguments put forward by [[Charles Darwin]] to support his theory of [[evolution]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://ncse.com/evolution/science/what-is-homology |title=What is Homology? |date=17 October 2008 |publisher=National Center for Science Education |accessdate=28 June 2013}}</ref> === Fish anatomy === {{main|Fish anatomy}} [[File:Internal anatomy of a fish (cutaway diagram).jpg|thumb|left|Cutaway diagram showing various organs of a fish]] The body of a fish is divided into a head, trunk and tail, although the divisions between the three are not always externally visible. The skeleton, which forms the support structure inside the fish, is either made of cartilage, in [[cartilaginous fish]], or bone in [[bony fish]]. The main skeletal element is the vertebral column, composed of articulating [[vertebra]]e which are lightweight yet strong. The ribs attach to the spine and there are no [[Limb (anatomy)|limbs]] or limb girdles. The main external features of the fish, the [[fish fin|fins]], are composed of either bony or soft spines called rays, which with the exception of the [[caudal fin]]s, have no direct connection with the spine. They are supported by the muscles which compose the main part of the trunk.<ref name=Dorit818/> The heart has two chambers and pumps the blood through the respiratory surfaces of the [[gill]]s and on round the body in a single circulatory loop.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://library.thinkquest.org/C003758/Development/fish.htm |title=The fish heart |work=ThinkQuest |publisher=Oracle |accessdate=27 June 2013}}</ref> The eyes are adapted for seeing underwater and have only local vision. There is an inner ear but no external or [[middle ear]]. Low frequency vibrations are detected by the [[lateral line]] system of sense organs that run along the length of the sides of fish, and these respond to nearby movements and to changes in water pressure.<ref name=Dorit818>{{cite book |title=Zoology |last1=Dorit |first1=R. L. |last2=Walker |first2=W. F. |last3=Barnes |first3=R. D. |year=1991 |publisher=Saunders College Publishing |isbn=978-0-03-030504-7 |pages=816–818 }}</ref> Sharks and rays are [[Basal (phylogenetics)|basal]] fish with numerous [[Primitive (phylogenetics)|primitive]] anatomical features similar to those of ancient fish, including skeletons composed of cartilage. Their bodies tend to be dorso-ventrally flattened, they usually have five pairs of gill slits and a large mouth set on the underside of the head. The dermis is covered with separate dermal [[Fish scale#Placoid scales|placoid scales]]. They have a [[cloaca]] into which the urinary and genital passages open, but not a [[swim bladder]]. Cartilaginous fish produce a small number of large, [[Egg yolk|yolky]] eggs. Some species are [[ovoviviparous]] and the young develop internally but others are [[oviparous]] and the larvae develop externally in egg cases.<ref name=Kotpal>{{cite book |title=Modern Text Book of Zoology: Vertebrates |last=Kotpal |first=R. L. |last2= |first2= |year=2010 |publisher=Rastogi Publications |isbn=978-81-7133-891-7 |page=193 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=U7N1j-8LMsEC&pg=PA199 }}</ref> The bony fish lineage shows more [[Derived trait|derived]] anatomical traits, often with major evolutionary changes from the features of ancient fish. They have a bony skeleton, are generally laterally flattened, have five pairs of gills protected by an [[operculum (fish)|operculum]], and a mouth at or near the tip of the snout. The dermis is covered with overlapping [[Fish scale|scales]]. Bony fish have a swim bladder which helps them maintain a constant depth in the water column, but not a cloaca. They mostly [[Spawn (biology)|spawn]] a large number of small eggs with little yolk which they broadcast into the water column.<ref name=Kotpal/> === Amphibian anatomy === {{main|Amphibian anatomy}} [[File:Ceratophrys cornuta skeleton front.jpg|thumb|left|alt=Frog skeleton|Skeleton of [[Surinam horned frog]] (''Ceratophrys cornuta'')]] [[File:Frog anatomy tags.PNG|thumb|upright|Plastic model of a frog]] [[Amphibian]]s are a [[Class (biology)|class]] of animals comprising [[frog]]s, [[salamander]]s and [[caecilian]]s. They are [[tetrapod]]s, but the caecilians and a few species of salamander have either no limbs or their limbs are much reduced in size. Their main bones are hollow and lightweight and are fully ossified and the vertebrae interlock with each other and have [[articular processes]]. Their ribs are usually short and may be fused to the vertebrae. Their skulls are mostly broad and short, and are often incompletely ossified. Their skin contains little [[keratin]] and lacks scales, but contains many [[mucous gland]]s and in some species, poison glands. The hearts of amphibians have three chambers, two [[atrium (heart)|atria]] and one [[ventricle (heart)|ventricle]]. They have a [[urinary bladder]] and nitrogenous waste products are excreted primarily as [[urea]]. Amphibians breathe by means of [[buccal pumping]], a pump action in which air is first drawn into the [[Buccopharyngeal membrane|buccopharyngeal]] region through the nostrils. These are then closed and the air is forced into the lungs by contraction of the throat.<ref>{{cite book |title=A Natural History of Amphibians |last1=Stebbins |first1=Robert C. |authorlink1=Robert C. Stebbins|last2=Cohen |first2=Nathan W. |year=1995 |publisher=Princeton University Press |isbn=0-691-03281-5 |pages=24–25 }}</ref> They supplement this with [[gas exchange]] through the skin which needs to be kept moist.<ref name=Dorit859>{{cite book |title=Zoology |last1=Dorit |first1=R. L. |last2=Walker |first2=W. F. |last3=Barnes |first3=R. D. |year=1991 |publisher=Saunders College Publishing |isbn=978-0-03-030504-7 |pages=843–859 }}</ref> In frogs the pelvic girdle is robust and the hind legs are much longer and stronger than the forelimbs. The feet have four or five digits and the toes are often webbed for swimming or have suction pads for climbing. Frogs have large eyes and no tail. Salamanders resemble lizards in appearance; their short legs project sideways, the belly is close to or in contact with the ground and they have a long tail. Caecilians superficially resemble [[earthworm]]s and are limbless. They burrow by means of zones of muscle contractions which move along the body and they swim by undulating their body from side to side.<ref>{{cite book |title=A Natural History of Amphibians |last1=Stebbins |first1=Robert C. |authorlink1=Robert C. Stebbins|last2=Cohen |first2=Nathan W. |year=1995 |publisher=Princeton University Press |isbn=0-691-03281-5 |pages=26–35 }}</ref> === Reptile anatomy === {{main|Reptile anatomy}} [[File:Crotalus atrox -Museum of Osteology, Oklahoma City, Oklahoma, USA-29Aug2012.jpg|thumb|left|Skeleton of a [[diamondback rattlesnake]]]] '''[[Reptiles]]''' are a class of animals comprising [[turtle]]s, [[tuatara]]s, [[lizard]]s, [[snakes]] and [[crocodiles]]. They are [[tetrapod]]s, but the snakes and a few species of [[lizard]] either have no limbs or their limbs are much reduced in size. Their bones are better ossified and their skeletons stronger than those of amphibians. The teeth are conical and mostly uniform in size. The surface cells of the epidermis are modified into horny scales which create a waterproof layer. Reptiles are unable to use their skin for respiration as do amphibians and have a more efficient respiratory system drawing air into their [[lung]]s by expanding their chest walls. The heart resembles that of the amphibian but there is a septum which more completely separates the oxygenated and deoxygenated bloodstreams. The reproductive system is designed for internal fertilisation, with a [[Sex organ|copulatory organ]] present in most species. The eggs are surrounded by [[Amniote|amniotic membranes]] which prevents them from drying out and are laid on land, or [[Ovoviviparity|develop internally]] in some species. The bladder is small as nitrogenous waste is excreted as [[uric acid]].<ref name=Dorit865>{{cite book |title=Zoology |last1=Dorit |first1=R. L. |last2=Walker |first2=W. F. |last3=Barnes |first3=R. D. |year=1991 |publisher=Saunders College Publishing |isbn=978-0-03-030504-7 |pages=861–865 }}</ref> '''Turtles''' are notable for their protective shells. They have an inflexible trunk encased in a horny [[carapace]] above and a [[plastron]] below. These are formed from bony plates embedded in the dermis which are overlain by horny ones and are partially fused with the ribs and spine. The neck is long and flexible and the head and the legs can be drawn back inside the shell. Turtles are vegetarians and the typical reptile teeth have been replaced by sharp, horny plates. In aquatic species, the front legs are modified into flippers.<ref name=Dorit868>{{cite book |title=Zoology |last1=Dorit |first1=R. L. |last2=Walker |first2=W. F. |last3=Barnes |first3=R. D. |year=1991 |publisher=Saunders College Publishing |isbn=978-0-03-030504-7 |pages=865–868 }}</ref> '''Tuataras''' superficially resemble lizards but the lineages diverged in the [[Triassic]] period. There is one living species, ''[[Sphenodon punctatus]]''. The skull has two openings (fenestrae) on either side and the jaw is rigidly attached to the skull. There is one row of teeth in the lower jaw and this fits between the two rows in the upper jaw when the animal chews. The teeth are merely projections of bony material from the jaw and eventually wear down. The brain and heart are more primitive than is the case in other reptiles and the lungs have a single chamber and lack [[Bronchus|bronchi]]. The tuatara has a well-developed [[parietal eye]] on its forehead.<ref name=Dorit868/> '''Lizards''' have skulls with only one [[Skull#Fenestrae|fenestra]] on each side, the lower bar of bone below the second fenestra having been lost. This results in the jaws being less rigidly attached which allows the mouth to open wider. Lizards are mostly quadrupeds, with the trunk held off the ground by short, sideways-facing legs, but a few species have no limbs and resemble snakes. Lizards have moveable eyelids, eardrums are present and some species have a central parietal eye.<ref name=Dorit868/> '''Snakes''' are closely related to lizards, having branched off from a common ancestral lineage during the [[Cretaceous]] period, and they share many of the same features. The skeleton consists of a skull, a hyoid bone, spine and ribs though a few species retain a vestige of the pelvis and rear limbs in the form of [[pelvic spur]]s. The bar under the second fenestra has also been lost and the jaws have extreme flexibility allowing the snake to swallow its prey whole. Snakes lack moveable eyelids, the eyes being covered by transparent "spectacle" scales. They do not have eardrums but can detect ground vibrations through the bones of their skull. Their forked tongues are used as organs of taste and smell and some species have sensory pits on their heads enabling them to locate warm-blooded prey.<ref name=Dorit870>{{cite book |title=Zoology |last1=Dorit |first1=R. L. |last2=Walker |first2=W. F. |last3=Barnes |first3=R. D. |year=1991 |publisher=Saunders College Publishing |isbn=978-0-03-030504-7 |page=870 }}</ref> '''Crocodilians''' are large, low-slung aquatic reptiles with long snouts and large numbers of teeth. The head and trunk are dorso-ventrally flattened and the tail is laterally compressed. It undulates from side to side to force the animal through the water when swimming. The tough keratinised scales provide body armour and some are fused to the skull. The nostrils, eyes and ears are elevated above the top of the flat head enabling them to remain above the surface of the water when the animal is floating. Valves seal the nostrils and ears when it is submerged. Unlike other reptiles, crocodilians have hearts with four chambers allowing complete separation of oxygenated and deoxygenated blood.<ref name=Dorit874>{{cite book |title=Zoology |last1=Dorit |first1=R. L. |last2=Walker |first2=W. F. |last3=Barnes |first3=R. D. |year=1991 |publisher=Saunders College Publishing |isbn=978-0-03-030504-7 |page=874 }}</ref> === Bird anatomy === {{main|Bird anatomy}} [[File:Duerer wing of a blue roller.jpg|thumb|Part of a wing. [[Albrecht Dürer]], c.&nbsp;1500–1512]] Birds are [[tetrapod]]s but though their hind limbs are used for walking or hopping, their front limbs are [[wing]]s covered with [[feather]]s and adapted for flight. Birds are [[endotherm]]ic, have a high [[metabolic rate]], a light [[Skeleton|skeletal system]] and powerful [[muscle]]s. The long bones are thin, hollow and very light. Air sac extensions from the lungs occupy the centre of some bones. The sternum is wide and usually has a keel and the caudal vertebrae are fused. There are no teeth and the narrow jaws are adapted into a horn-covered beak. The eyes are relatively large, particularly in nocturnal species such as owls. They face forwards in predators and sideways in ducks.<ref name=Dorit895>{{cite book |title=Zoology |last1=Dorit |first1=R. L. |last2=Walker |first2=W. F. |last3=Barnes |first3=R. D. |year=1991 |publisher=Saunders College Publishing |isbn=978-0-03-030504-7 |pages=881–895 }}</ref> The feathers are outgrowths of the [[epidermis (zoology)|epidermis]] and are found in localized bands from where they fan out over the skin. Large flight feathers are found on the wings and tail, contour feathers cover the bird's surface and fine down occurs on young birds and under the contour feathers of water birds. The only cutaneous gland is the single [[uropygial gland]] near the base of the tail. This produces an oily secretion that waterproofs the feathers when the bird [[personal grooming|preens]]. There are scales on the legs, feet and claws on the tips of the toes.<ref name=Dorit895/> === Mammal anatomy === {{Main|Mammal anatomy}} [[Mammals]] are a diverse class of animals, mostly terrestrial but some are aquatic and others have evolved flapping or gliding flight. They mostly have four limbs but some aquatic mammals have no limbs or limbs modified into fins and the forelimbs of bats are modified into wings. The legs of most mammals are situated below the trunk, which is held well clear of the ground. The bones of mammals are well ossified and their teeth, which are usually differentiated, are coated in a layer of [[Tooth enamel|prismatic enamel]]. The teeth are shed once ([[Deciduous teeth|milk teeth]]) during the animal's lifetime or not at all, as is the case in [[cetacea]]ns. Mammals have three bones in the middle ear and a [[cochlea]] in the [[inner ear]]. They are clothed in hair and their skin contains glands which secrete [[sweat gland|sweat]]. Some of these glands are specialised as [[mammary gland]]s, producing milk to feed the young. Mammals breathe with [[lung]]s and have a muscular [[Thoracic diaphragm|diaphragm]] separating the thorax from the abdomen which helps them draw air into the lungs. The mammalian heart has four chambers and oxygenated and deoxygenated blood are kept entirely separate. Nitrogenous waste is excreted primarily as urea.<ref name=Dorit914>{{cite book |title=Zoology |last1=Dorit |first1=R. L. |last2=Walker |first2=W. F. |last3=Barnes |first3=R. D. |year=1991 |publisher=Saunders College Publishing |isbn=978-0-03-030504-7 |pages=909–914 }}</ref> Mammals are [[amniote]]s, and most are [[Vivipary|viviparous]], giving birth to live young. The exception to this are the egg-laying [[monotreme]]s, the [[platypus]] and the [[echidna]]s of Australia. Most other mammals have a [[placenta]] through which the developing [[foetus]] obtains nourishment, but in [[marsupial]]s, the foetal stage is very short and the immature young is born and finds its way to its mother's [[Pouch (marsupial)|pouch]] where it latches on to a [[nipple]] and completes its development.<ref name=Dorit914/> ====Human anatomy==== {{main|Human anatomy}} [[File:Parasagittal MRI of human head in patient with benign familial macrocephaly prior to brain injury (ANIMATED).gif|thumb|left|Modern anatomic technique showing sagittal sections of the head as seen by a [[Magnetic resonance imaging|MRI]] scan]] [[File:Violin Scroll (2769099541).jpg|upright|thumb|In the human, the development of skilled hand movements and increased brain size is likely to have evolved simultaneously.<ref name=BritBrit-Hand>{{cite encyclopedia |chapterurl=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/254068/hand |title=Encyclopædia Britannica 2006 Ultimate Reference Suite DVD |chapter=Hand |first= | last=|accessdate=15 May 2014}}</ref>]] Humans have the overall body plan of a mammal. Humans have a [[human head|head]], [[neck]], [[Trunk (anatomy)|trunk]] (which includes the [[thorax]] and [[abdomen]]), two [[arm]]s and [[hand]]s and two [[human leg|legs]] and [[foot|feet]]. Generally, students of certain [[biology|biological sciences]], [[paramedic]]s, prosthetists and orthotists, [[physical therapy|physiotherapists]], [[occupational therapy|occupational therapists]], [[Nursing|nurses]], and [[medical school|medical students]] learn gross anatomy and microscopic anatomy from anatomical models, skeletons, textbooks, diagrams, photographs, lectures and tutorials, and in addition, medical students generally also learn gross anatomy through practical experience of [[dissection]] and inspection of [[cadaver]]s. The study of microscopic anatomy (or [[histology]]) can be aided by practical experience examining histological preparations (or slides) under a [[microscope]]. <ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.medschoolsonline.co.uk/index.php?pageid=135 |title=Studying medicine |publisher=Medschools Online |accessdate=27 June 2013}}</ref> Human anatomy, physiology and biochemistry are complementary basic medical sciences, which are generally taught to medical students in their first year at medical school. Human anatomy can be taught regionally or systemically; that is, respectively, studying anatomy by bodily regions such as the head and chest, or studying by specific systems, such as the nervous or respiratory systems.<ref name="intro HGray" /> The major anatomy textbook, [[Gray's Anatomy]], has been reorganized from a systems format to a regional format, in line with modern teaching methods.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.intl.elsevierhealth.com/catalogue/title.cfm?ISBN=0443071683 | archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20071012104507/http://intl.elsevierhealth.com/catalogue/title.cfm?ISBN=0443071683 | archivedate=12 October 2007| title= Publisher's page for Gray's Anatomy. 39th edition (UK). 2004. ISBN 0-443-07168-3| accessdate =19 March 2007}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.us.elsevierhealth.com/product.jsp?isbn=0443071683| title=Publisher's page for Gray's Anatomy. 39th edition (US). 2004. ISBN 0-443-07168-3| accessdate =19 March 2007 |archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20070209134753/http://www.us.elsevierhealth.com/product.jsp?isbn=0443071683 |archivedate = 9 February 2007}}</ref> A thorough working knowledge of anatomy is required by physicians, especially [[surgery|surgeons]] and doctors working in some diagnostic specialties, such as [[histopathology]] and [[radiology]]. <ref name=AAA>{{cite web |url=http://www.anatomy.org/ |title=American Association of Anatomists |accessdate=27 June 2013}}</ref> Academic anatomists are usually employed by universities, medical schools or teaching hospitals. They are often involved in teaching anatomy, and research into certain systems, organs, tissues or cells.<ref name=AAA/> == Invertebrate anatomy == [[File:Chirocephalus diaphanus male head.png|thumb|Head of a male ''[[Daphnia]]'', a [[planktonic]] crustacean]] [[Invertebrate]]s constitute a vast array of living organisms ranging from the simplest unicellular [[eukaryote]]s such as ''[[Paramecium]]'' to such complex multicellular animals as the [[octopus]], [[lobster]] and [[dragonfly]]. They constitute about 95% of the animal species. By definition, none of these creatures has a backbone. The cells of single-cell [[protozoa]]ns have the same basic structure as those of multicellular animals but some parts are specialised into the equivalent of tissues and organs. Locomotion is often provided by [[Cilium|cilia]] or [[Flagellum|flagella]] or may proceed via the advance of [[pseudopodia]], food may be gathered by [[phagocytosis]], energy needs may be supplied by [[photosynthesis]] and the cell may be supported by an [[endoskeleton]] or an [[exoskeleton]]. Some protozoans can form multicellular colonies.<ref>{{cite book |title=Invertebrate Zoology, 7th edition |last1=Ruppert |first1=Edward E. |last2=Fox |first2=Richard, S. |last3=Barnes |first3=Robert D. |year=2004 |publisher=Cengage Learning |isbn=81-315-0104-3 |pages=23–24 }}</ref> [[Metazoa]]ns are multicellular organism, different groups of cells of which have separate functions. The most basic types of metazoan tissues are epithelium and connective tissue, both of which are present in nearly all invertebrates. The outer surface of the epidermis is normally formed of epithelial cells and secretes an [[extracellular matrix]] which provides support to the organism. An endoskeleton derived from the [[mesoderm]] is present in [[echinoderm]]s, [[sponge]]s and some [[cephalopod]]s. [[Exoskeleton]]s are derived from the epidermis and is composed of [[chitin]] in [[arthropod]]s (insects, spiders, ticks, shrimps, crabs, lobsters). [[Calcium carbonate]] constitutes the shells of [[Mollusca|molluscs]], [[brachiopod]]s and some tube-building [[Polychaete|polychaete worms]] and [[silica]] forms the exoskeleton of the microscopic [[diatom]]s and [[radiolaria]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/198292/exoskeleton |title=Exoskeleton |publisher=Encyclopædia Britannica |accessdate=2 July 2013}}</ref> Other invertebrates may have no rigid structures but the epidermis may secrete a variety of surface coatings such as the [[pinacoderm]] of sponges, the gelatinous cuticle of cnidarians ([[polyp]]s, [[sea anemone]]s, [[jellyfish]]) and the [[collagen]]ous cuticle of [[annelid]]s. The outer epithelial layer may include cells of several types including sensory cells, gland cells and stinging cells. There may also be protrusions such as [[Microvillus|microvilli]], cilia, bristles, [[Spine (zoology)|spines]] and [[tubercle]]s.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/289723/integument |title=Integument |author= Ebling, F. J. G. |publisher=Encyclopædia Britannica |accessdate=2 July 2013}}</ref> [[Marcello Malpighi]], the father of microscopical anatomy, discovered that plants had tubules similar to those he saw in insects like the silk worm. He observed that when a ring-like portion of bark was removed on a trunk a swelling occurred in the tissues above the ring, and he unmistakably interpreted this as growth stimulated by food coming down from the leaves, and being captured above the ring.<ref name="ArberAgnes">{{cite journal|author=Arber, Agnes|title= Nehemiah Grew (1641–1712) and Marcello Malpighi (1628–1694): an essay in comparison|journal= Isis |volume =34|issue=1| pages =7–16|jstor=225992|doi=10.1086/347742}}</ref> === Arthropod anatomy === {{main|Arthropod|Insect morphology|Spider anatomy}} [[Arthropod]]s comprise the largest phylum in the animal kingdom with over a million known invertebrate species.<ref>Britannica Concise Encyclopaedia 2007</ref> [[Insect]]s possess [[segmentation (biology)|segmented]] bodies supported by a hard-jointed outer covering, the [[exoskeleton]], made mostly of chitin. The segments of the body are organized into three distinct parts, a head, a [[Thorax (insect anatomy)|thorax]] and an [[abdomen]].<ref>{{cite web | title=O. Orkin Insect zoo | url=http://insectzoo.msstate.edu/Students/basic.structure.html | year=1997 | publisher=Mississippi State University | accessdate=23 June 2013}}</ref> The head typically bears a pair of sensory [[Antenna (biology)|antennae]], a pair of [[compound eye]]s, one to three simple eyes ([[ocelli]]) and three sets of modified appendages that form the [[insect mouthparts|mouthparts]]. The thorax has three pairs of segmented [[arthropod leg|legs]], one pair each for the three segments that compose the thorax and one or two pairs of [[insect wing|wings]]. The abdomen is composed of eleven segments, some of which may be fused and houses the [[digestion|digestive]], [[Respiration (physiology)|respiratory]], [[Excretion|excretory]] and reproductive systems.<ref name="Gullan and Cranston">{{cite book |last=Gullan |first=P.J. |last2=Cranston |first2=P. S. |title=The Insects: An Outline of Entomology |publisher=Blackwell Publishing |location=Oxford |year=2005 |edition=3 |pages=22–48 |isbn=1-4051-1113-5}}</ref> There is considerable variation between species and many adaptations to the body parts, especially wings, legs, antennae and mouthparts.<ref>{{cite book |title=Invertebrate Zoology, 7th edition |last1=Ruppert |first1=Edward E. |last2=Fox |first2=Richard, S. |last3=Barnes |first3=Robert D. |year=2004 |publisher=Cengage Learning |isbn=81-315-0104-3 |pages=218–225 }}</ref> [[Spider]]s a class of [[arachnid]]s have four pairs of legs; a body of two segments—a [[cephalothorax]] and an [[abdomen]]. Spiders have no wings and no antennae. They have mouthparts called [[chelicerae]] which are often connected to venom glands as most spiders are venomous. They have a second pair of appendages called [[pedipalp]]s attached to the cephalothorax. These have similar segmentation to the legs and function as taste and smell organs. At the end of each male pedipalp is a spoon-shaped cymbium that acts to support the [[palpal bulb|copulatory organ]]. == Other branches of anatomy == * [[Superficial anatomy|Superficial or surface anatomy]] is important as the study of anatomical landmarks that can be readily seen from the exterior contours of the body.<ref name="intro HGray"/> It enables physicians or [[veterinary surgeon]]s to gauge the position and anatomy of the associated deeper structures. Superficial is a directional term that indicates that structures are located relatively close to the surface of the body.<ref>{{cite book |last=Marieb |first=Elaine |title=Human Anatomy & Physiology |year=2010 |publisher=Pearson |location=San Francisco |page=12}}</ref> * [[Comparative anatomy]] relates to the comparison of anatomical structures (both gross and microscopic) in different animals.<ref name="intro HGray" /> * Artistic anatomy relates to anatomic studies for artistic reasons. == History == {{main|History of anatomy}} === Ancient === [[File:Foetal positions in uterus, pregnant female Wellcome L0000845.jpg|thumb|299x299px|Image of early rendition of anatomy findings]] Ancient Greek anatomy and physiology underwent great changes and advances throughout the early medieval world. Over time, this medical practice expanded by a continually developing understanding of the functions of organs and structures in the body. Phenomenal anatomical observations of the human body were made, which have contributed towards the understanding of the brain, eye, liver, reproductive organs and the nervous system. The city of [[Alexandria]] was the stepping-stone for Greek anatomy and physiology. Alexandria not only housed the biggest library for medical records and books of the liberal arts in the world during the time of the Greeks, but was also home to many medical practitioners and philosophers. Great patronage of the arts and sciences from the [[Ptolemy]] rulers helped raise Alexandria up, further rivaling the cultural and scientific achievements of other Greek states.<ref name=Longrigg>{{cite journal|last1=Longrigg|first1=James|title=Anatomy in Alexandria in the Third Century B.C.|journal=The British Journal for the History of Science|date=December 1988|volume=21|issue=4|pages=455–488|url=http://www.jstor.org.libproxy.unm.edu/stable/4026964?seq=1#page_scan_tab_contents|accessdate=24 November 2015|doi=10.1017/s000708740002536x}}</ref> Some of the most striking advances in early anatomy and physiology took place in Hellenistic Alexandria.<ref name=Longrigg /> Two of the most famous Greek anatomists and physiologists of the third century were Herophilus and Erasistratus. These two physicians helped pioneer human [[dissection]] for medical research. They also conducted [[vivisections]] on the cadavers of condemned criminals, which was considered taboo until the Renaissance – Herophilus was recognized as the first person to perform systematic dissections.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Bay|first1=Noel Si Yang|last2=Bay|first2=Boon-Huat|title=Greek Anatomists Herophilus: The Father of Anatomy|journal=Anatomy and Cell Biology|date=2010|volume=43|issue=3|pages=280–283|doi=10.5115/acb.2010.43.4.280|pmc=3026179|pmid=21267401}}</ref> Herophilus became known for his anatomical works making impressing contributions to many branches of anatomy and many other aspects of medicine.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Von Staden|first1=H|title=The Discovery of the Body: Human Dissection and Its Cultural Contexts in Ancient Greece|journal=The Yale Journal of Biology and Medicine|date=1992|volume=65|issue=3|pages=223–241|accessdate=25 November 2015}}</ref> Some of the works included classifying the system of the pulse, the discovery that human arteries had thicker walls then veins, and that the atria were parts of the heart. Herophilus’s knowledge of the human body has provided vital input towards understanding the brain, eye, liver, reproductive organs and nervous system, and characterizing the course of disease.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Bay|first1=Noel Si Yang|last2=Bay|first2=Boon- Huat|title=Greek Anatomist Herophilus: The Father of Anatomy|journal=Anatomy & Cell Biology|date=2010|volume=43|issue=3|pages=280–283|doi=10.5115/acb.2010.43.4.280|pmc=3026179|pmid=21267401}}</ref> Erasistratus accurately described the structure of the brain, including the cavities and membranes, and made a distinction between its cerebrum and cerebellum <ref>{{cite web|last1=Eccles|first1=John|title=Erasistratus Biography (304B.C-250B.C)|url=http://www.faqs.org/health/bios/12/Erasistratus.html|website=faqs.org|publisher=faqs.org|accessdate=25 November 2015}}</ref> During his study in Alexandria, Erasistratus was particularly concerned with studies of the circulatory and nervous systems. He was able to distinguish the sensory and the motor nerves in the human body and believed that air entered the lungs and heart, which was then carried throughout the body. His distinction between the arteries and veins – the arteries carrying the air through the body, while the veins carried the blood from the heart was a great anatomical discovery. Erasistratus was also responsible for naming and describing the function of the epiglottis and the valves of the heart, including the tricuspid.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Britannica|title=Erasistratus of Ceos: Greek Physician|url=http://www.britannica.com/biography/Erasistratus-of-Ceos|website=britannica.com|publisher=The Encyclopedia of Britannica|accessdate=25 November 2015}}</ref> During the third century, Greek physicians were able to differentiate nerves from blood vessels and tendons <ref>{{cite journal|last1=Wiltse|first1=LL|last2=Pait|first2=TG|title=Herophilus of Alexandria (325-255 B.C.) The Father of Anatomy|journal=Spine|date=1 September 1998|volume=23|pages=1904–1914|pmid=9762750|doi=10.1097/00007632-199809010-00022}}</ref> and to realize that the nerves convey neural impulses.<ref name="Longrigg"/> It was Herophilus who made the point that damage to motor nerves induced paralysis.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Bay|first1=Noel Si Yang|last2=Bay|first2=Boon-Huat|title=Greek Anatomist Herophilus: The Father of Anatomy|journal=Anatomy & Cell Biology|date=2010|volume=43|issue=3|pages=280–283|doi=10.5115/acb.2010.43.4.280|pmc=3026179|pmid=21267401}}</ref> Herophilus named the meninges and ventricles in the brain, appreciated the division between cerebellum and cerebrum and recognized that the brain was the "seat of intellect" and not a "cooling chamber" as propounded by Aristotle <ref>{{cite journal|last1=Wills|first1=Adrian|title=Herophilus, Ersasistratus, and the birth of neuroscience|journal=The Lancet|date=1999|volume=354|issue=9191|pages=1719–1720|doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(99)02081-4|url=http://www.thelancet.com/journals/lancet/article/PIIS0140-6736(99)02081-4/references|accessdate=November 25, 2015}}</ref> Herophilus is also credited with describing the optic, oculomotor, motor division of the trigeminal, facial, vestibulocochlear and hypoglossal nerves <ref name="Cambridge University Press">{{cite book|last1=Von Staden|first1=Heinrich|title=Herophilus: The Art of Medicine in Early Alexandria|date=October 2007|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=9780521041782|url=http://www.cambridge.org/us/academic/subjects/classical-studies/ancient-philosophy/herophilus-art-medicine-early-alexandria-edition-translation-and-essays|accessdate=25 November 2015}}</ref> [[File:13th century anatomical illustration.jpg|thumb|13th century anatomical illustration]] Great feats were made during the third century in both the digestive and reproductive systems. Herophilus was able to discover and describe not only the salivary glands, but the small intestine and liver.<ref name="Cambridge University Press"/> He showed that the uterus is a hollow organ and described the ovaries and uterine tubes. He recognized that spermatozoa were produced by the testes and was the first to identify the prostate gland.<ref name="Cambridge University Press"/> In 1600 BCE, the [[Edwin Smith Papyrus]], an Ancient Egyptian [[Medical manual|medical text]], described the [[heart]], its vessels, [[liver]], [[spleen]], [[kidneys]], [[hypothalamus]], [[uterus]] and [[Urinary bladder|bladder]], and showed the [[blood vessel]]s diverging from the heart. The [[Ebers Papyrus]] (c. 1550 BCE) features a "treatise on the heart", with vessels carrying all the body's fluids to or from every member of the body.<ref>{{cite book | title = The Greatest Benefit to Mankind: A Medical History of Humanity from Antiquity to the Present | last = Porter | first = R. | year = 1997 | publisher = Harper Collins | isbn = 0-00-215173-1 | pages=49–50}}</ref> The anatomy of the muscles and skeleton is described in the ''[[Hippocratic Corpus]]'', an Ancient Greek medical work written by unknown authors.<ref>{{cite book |last=Gillispie |first=Charles Coulston | authorlink=Charles Coulston Gillispie |title=Dictionary of Scientific Biography | volume=VI | pages=419–427 |year=1972 | publisher=Charles Scribner's Sons | location=New York}}</ref> [[Aristotle]] described [[vertebrate]] anatomy based on animal [[dissection]]. [[Praxagoras]] identified the difference between [[artery|arteries]] and [[vein]]s. Also in the 4th century BCE, [[Herophilos]] and [[Erasistratus]] produced more accurate anatomical descriptions based on [[vivisection]] of criminals in [[Alexandria]] during the [[Ptolemaic dynasty]].<ref name=Bodies>{{cite book | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5Xb9e3SLAZwC&pg=PA256&lpg=PA256&dq=Ptolemaic+vivisection&source=bl&ots=yNV56B5_Zt&sig=bQhpGwQJYg6poB-8KTAjaMHeTH0&hl=en&sa=X&ei=3-vwUeCzCYKEiAexnoHYBA&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q=Ptolemaic%20vivisection&f=false | title=Medicine and Society in Ptolemaic Egypt |author=Lang, Philippa | publisher=Brill NV | year=2013 | page=256 }}</ref><ref>[http://exhibits.hsl.virginia.edu/antiqua/alexandrian/ "Alexandrian Medicine"]. ''Antiqua Medicina – from Homer to Vesalius''. University of Virginia.</ref> In the 2nd century, [[Galen of Pergamum]], an [[anatomist]], [[clinician]], writer and [[Philosophy|philosopher]],<ref name=BritBrit-Galen/> wrote the final and highly influential anatomy treatise of ancient times.<ref name="pmid1081972">{{cite journal | author = Charon NW, Johnson RC, Muschel LH | title = Antileptospiral activity in lower-vertebrate sera | journal = Infect. Immun. | volume = 12 | issue = 6 | pages = 1386–91 | year = 1975 | pmid = 1081972 | pmc = 415446 | doi = }}</ref> He compiled existing knowledge and studied anatomy through dissection of animals.<ref name=BritBrit-Galen>{{cite encyclopedia |chapterurl=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/223895/Galen-of-Pergamum |title=Encyclopædia Britannica 2006 Ultimate Reference Suite DVD|chapter=Galen of Pergamum |first=Vivien | last=Hutton |accessdate=13 May 2014}}</ref> He was one of the first experimental physiologists through his [[vivisection]] experiments on animals.<ref>Brock, Arthur John (translator) ''[https://archive.org/stream/galenonnaturalfa00galeuoft#page/xxxii/mode/2up Galen. On the Natural Faculties]''. Edinburgh, 1916. Introduction, page xxxiii.</ref> Galen's drawings, based mostly on dog anatomy, became effectively the only anatomical textbook for the next thousand years.<ref name=Boas/> His work was known to [[Renaissance]] doctors only through [[Islamic Golden Age]] medicine until it was translated from the Greek some time in the 15th century.<ref name=Boas/> === Medieval to early modern === [[Image:Mondino - Anathomia, 1541 - 3022668.tif|thumb|[[Mondino de Luzzi]], ''Anathomia'', 1541]] [[File:Studies of the Arm showing the Movements made by the Biceps.jpg|left|thumb|Anatomical study of the arm, by [[Leonardo da Vinci]], (about 1510)]] [[File:Charta ex qva figvram parare convenit, illi qvae nervorvm seriem exprimit appendendam, 1543..JPG|thumb|upright|Anatomical chart in [[Vesalius]]'s ''Epitome'', 1543]] [[File:Michiel Jansz van Mierevelt - Anatomy lesson of Dr. Willem van der Meer.jpg|thumb|right|[[Michiel Jansz van Mierevelt]] – ''Anatomy lesson of Dr. Willem van der Meer'', 1617]] Anatomy developed little from classical times until the sixteenth century; as the historian Marie Boas writes, "Progress in anatomy before the sixteenth century is as mysteriously slow as its development after 1500 is startlingly rapid".<ref name=Boas>{{cite book | title=The Scientific Renaissance 1450–1630 | publisher=Fontana | author=Boas, Marie | year=1970 |origyear=first published by Collins, 1962 | pages=120–143}}</ref>{{rp|120–121}} Between 1275 and 1326, the anatomists [[Mondino de Luzzi]], [[Alessandro Achillini]] and [[Antonio Benivieni]] at [[Bologna]] carried out the first systematic human dissections since ancient times.<ref name="ZimmermanVeith1993">{{cite book | last1=Zimmerman | first1=Leo M. | last2=Veith | first2=Ilza | title=Great Ideas in the History of Surgery |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ABbCI7z4UwMC | date=1 August 1993 | publisher=Norman | isbn=978-0-930405-53-3}}</ref><ref name="Crombie1959">{{cite book | last=Crombie | first=Alistair Cameron | title=The History of Science From Augustine to Galileo | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bGDScHy1clsC&pg=PA4 | year=1959 | publisher=Courier Dover Publications | isbn=978-0-486-28850-5}}</ref><ref name="Thorndike1958">{{cite book | last=Thorndike | first=Lynn | title=A History of Magic and Experimental Science: Fourteenth and fifteenth centuries| url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IbvlQFj4YfUC&pg=PA586 | year=1958 | publisher=Columbia University Press | isbn=978-0-231-08797-1}}</ref> Mondino's ''Anatomy'' of 1316 was the first textbook in the medieval rediscovery of human anatomy. It describes the body in the order followed in Mondino's dissections, starting with the abdomen, then the thorax, then the head and limbs. It was the standard anatomy textbook for the next century.<ref name=Boas/> [[Leonardo da Vinci]] (1452–1519) was trained in anatomy by [[Andrea del Verrocchio]].<ref name=Boas/> He made use of his anatomical knowledge in his artwork, making many sketches of skeletal structures, muscles and organs of humans and other vertebrates that he dissected.<ref name=Boas/><ref>{{cite book | last=Mason | first=Stephen F. | title=A History of the Sciences | publisher=Collier | year=1962 | location = New York | page=550}}</ref> [[Andreas Vesalius]] (1514–1564) (Latinized from Andries van Wezel), professor of anatomy at the [[University of Padua]], is considered the founder of modern human anatomy.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www2.warwick.ac.uk/newsandevents/pressreleases/new_material_from/ | title=Warwick honorary professor explores new material from founder of modern human anatomy | work=Press release | publisher= University of Warwick | accessdate=8 July 2013}}</ref> Originally from [[Duchy of Brabant|Brabant]], Vesalius published the influential book ''[[De humani corporis fabrica]]'' ("the structure of the human body"), a large format book in seven volumes, in 1543.<ref>Vesalius, Andreas. ''De humani corporis fabrica libri septem''. Basileae [Basel]: ''Ex officina'' Joannis Oporini, 1543.</ref> The accurate and intricately detailed illustrations, often in [[allegory|allegorical]] poses against Italianate landscapes, are thought to have been made by the artist [[Jan van Calcar]], a pupil of [[Titian]].<ref>O'Malley, C.D. ''Andreas Vesalius of Brussels, 1514–1564''. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1964.</ref> In England, anatomy was the subject of the first public lectures given in any science; these were given by the [[Barber surgeon|Company of Barbers and Surgeons]] in the 16th century, joined in 1583 by the Lumleian lectures in surgery at the [[Royal College of Physicians]].<ref name=Boas229>{{cite book | title=The Scientific Renaissance 1450–1630 | publisher=Fontana | author=Boas, Marie | year=1970 |origyear=first published by Collins, 1962 | page=229}}</ref> === Late modern === {{further|History of anatomy in the 19th century}} In the United States, medical schools began to be set up towards the end of the 18th century. Classes in anatomy needed a continual stream of cadavers for dissection and these were difficult to obtain. Philadelphia, Baltimore and New York were all renowned for [[body snatching]] activity as criminals raided graveyards at night, removing newly buried corpses from their coffins.<ref name=trafficdead><cite>{{cite book |author=Sappol, Michael |title=A traffic of dead bodies: anatomy and embodied social identity in nineteenth-century America |publisher=Princeton University Press |location=Princeton, N.J. |year=2002 |isbn=0-691-05925-X |url=https://books.google.com/books/princeton?id=-9cKRzEx6ywC&printsec=frontcover&dq=A+Traffic+of+Dead+Bodies}}</ref> A similar problem existed in Britain where demand for bodies became so great that grave-raiding and even [[anatomy murder]] were practised to obtain cadavers.<ref name="Rosner, Lisa. 2010">Rosner, Lisa. 2010. The Anatomy Murders. Being the True and Spectacular History of Edinburgh's Notorious Burke and Hare and of the Man of Science Who Abetted Them in the Commission of Their Most Heinous Crimes. University of Pennsylvania Press</ref> Some graveyards were in consequence protected with watchtowers. The practice was halted in Britain by the [[Anatomy Act]] of 1832,<ref>{{cite book | title=Death, Dissection, and the Destitute | publisher=Penguin | author=Richardson, Ruth | year=1989 | isbn=978-0-14-022862-5}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.leeds.ac.uk/chb/lectures/anatomy1.html | title=Introductory Anatomy | publisher=University of Leeds | accessdate=25 June 2013 | author=Johnson, D.R.}}</ref> while in the United States, similar legislation was enacted after the physician [[William S. Forbes]] of [[Jefferson Medical College]] was found guilty in 1882 of "complicity with resurrectionists in the despoliation of graves in Lebanon Cemetery".<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.jefferson.edu/about/eakins/forbes.html |title=Reproduction of Portrait of Professor William S. Forbes |publisher=Jefferson: Eakins Gallery |accessdate=14 October 2013}}</ref> The teaching of anatomy in Britain was transformed by Sir [[John Struthers (anatomist)|John Struthers]], [[Regius Professor of Anatomy (Aberdeen)|Regius Professor of Anatomy]] at the [[University of Aberdeen]] from 1863 to 1889. He was responsible for setting up the system of three years of "pre-clinical" academic teaching in the sciences underlying medicine, including especially anatomy. This system lasted until the reform of medical training in 1993 and 2003. As well as teaching, he collected many vertebrate skeletons for his museum of [[comparative anatomy]], published over 70 research papers, and became famous for his public dissection of the [[Tay Whale]].<ref name=pmid1717373426>{{cite journal | author = Waterston SW, Laing MR, Hutchison JD | title = Nineteenth century medical education for tomorrow's doctors | journal = Scottish Medical Journal | volume = 52 | issue = 1 | pages = 45–49 | year = 2007 | pmid = 17373426 | doi=10.1258/rsmsmj.52.1.45}}</ref><ref name="pmid15712576">{{cite journal | author = Waterston SW, Hutchison JD | title = Sir John Struthers MD FRCS Edin LLD Glasg: Anatomist, zoologist and pioneer in medical education | journal = The Surgeon : Journal of the Royal Colleges of Surgeons of Edinburgh and Ireland | volume = 2 | issue = 6 | pages = 347–351 | year = 2004 | pmid = 15712576 | doi=10.1016/s1479-666x(04)80035-0}}</ref> From 1822 the Royal College of Surgeons regulated the teaching of anatomy in medical schools.<ref name="McLachlan, J. 2006. p.243-53">McLachlan, J. & Patten, D. 2006. Anatomy teaching: ghosts of the past, present and future. Medical Education, 40(3), p.&nbsp;243–53.</ref> Medical museums provided examples in comparative anatomy, and were often used in teaching.<ref>Reinarz, J. 2005. The age of museum medicine: The rise and fall of the medical museum at Birmingham's School of Medicine. Social History of Medicine, 18(3), p.&nbsp;419–37.</ref> [[Ignaz Semmelweis]] investigated [[puerperal fever]] and he discovered how it was caused. He noticed that the frequently fatal fever occurred more often in mothers examined by medical students than by midwives. The students went from the dissecting room to the hospital ward and examined women in childbirth. Semmelweis showed that when the trainees washed their hands in chlorinated lime before each clinical examination, the incidence of puerperal fever among the mothers could be reduced dramatically.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://global.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/534198/Ignaz-Philipp-Semmelweis |title=Ignaz Philipp Semmelweis |work=Encyclopædia Britannica |accessdate=15 October 2013}}</ref> [[File:Siemens-electron-microscope.jpg|upright|right|thumb|An electron microscope from 1973]] Before the era of modern medical procedures, the main means for studying the internal structure of the body were [[palpation]] and [[dissection]]. It was the advent of [[microscopy]] that opened up an understanding of the building blocks that constituted living tissues. Technical advances in the development of [[achromatic lens]]es increased the [[Angular resolution|resolving power]] of the microscope and around 1839, [[Matthias Jakob Schleiden]] and [[Theodor Schwann]] identified that cells were the fundamental unit of organization of all living things. Study of small structures involved passing light through them and the [[microtome]] was invented to provide sufficiently thin slices of tissue to examine. Staining techniques using artificial dyes were established to help distinguish between different types of tissue. The fields of [[Cell biology|cytology]] and [[histology]] developed from here in the late 19th century.<ref name=BritMicro>{{cite web |url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/22980/anatomy/283/Microscopic-anatomy |title=Microscopic anatomy |work=Encyclopædia Britannica |accessdate=14 October 2013}}</ref> The invention of the [[electron microscope]] brought a great advance in resolution power and allowed research into the [[ultrastructure]] of cells and the [[organelle]]s and other structures within them. About the same time, in the 1950s, the use of [[X-ray diffraction]] for studying the crystal structures of proteins, nucleic acids and other biological molecules gave rise to a new field of [[molecular anatomy]].<ref name=BritMicro/> Short wavelength electromagnetic radiation such as [[X-ray]]s can be passed through the body and used in medical [[radiography]] to view interior structures that have different degrees of opaqueness. Nowadays, modern techniques such as [[magnetic resonance imaging]], [[X-ray computed tomography|computed tomography]], [[fluoroscopy]] and [[Medical ultrasonography|ultrasound imaging]] have enabled researchers and practitioners to examine organs, living or dead, in unprecedented detail. They are used for diagnostic and therapeutic purposes and provide information on the internal structures and organs of the body to a degree far beyond the imagination of earlier generations.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.mhhe.com/biosci/ap/foxhumphys/student/olc/h-reading1.html | title=Anatomical Imaging | publisher=McGraw Hill Higher Education | year=1998 | accessdate=25 June 2013}}</ref> == See also == * [[Acland's Video Atlas of Human Anatomy]] * [[American Association of Anatomists]] * [[Anatomical terminology]] * [[Anatomical terms of location]] * [[Anatomical terms of motion]] * [[Anatomography]] * [[Foundational Model of Anatomy]] * [[Human body]] * [[List of human anatomical features]] * [[List of human anatomical parts named after people]] * [[Outline of human anatomy]] == Notes == {{reflist|26em}} == Bibliography == {{Library resources box}} ''Main article:'' [[Bibliography of biology#Anatomy|Bibliography of anatomy]] * [http://www.bartleby.com/107/ "Anatomy of the Human Body". 20th edition. 1918. Henry Gray] == External links == {{Sister project links | wikt=anatomy | commons=Category:Anatomy | b=Category:Anatomy | n=no | q=Category:Anatomy | s=Category:Anatomy | v=Topic:Anatomy | voy=no | species=no | d=Q514 | mw=no | display=Anatomy}} * {{dmoz|Health/Medicine/Basic_Sciences/Anatomy}} * [http://www.bbc.co.uk/podcasts/series/iots/all#playepisode115 Anatomy], ''[[In Our Time (BBC Radio 4)|In Our Time]]''. [[BBC Radio 4]]. [[Melvyn Bragg]] with guests Ruth Richardson, Andrew Cunningham and [[Harold Ellis (professor)|Harold Ellis]]. {{Human system and organs}} {{Anatomy}} {{Biology nav}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Anatomy| ]] [[Category:Anatomical terminology| ]] [[Category:Morphology]] kna1stvf7j8ytpfhhpzxpcu8t5nvupv 0 675 712466288 698901431 2016-03-29T07:37:46Z Luis150902 26154677 /* Examples */ The contrapositive is true if and only if the statement is true (see http://us.metamath.org/mpegif/con3.html and http://us.metamath.org/mpegif/ax-3.html ) wikitext text/x-wiki {{Use dmy dates|date=June 2013}} '''Affirming the consequent''', sometimes called '''converse error''', '''fallacy of the converse''' or '''confusion of necessity and sufficiency''', is a [[formal fallacy]] of inferring the [[converse (logic)|converse]] from the original statement. The corresponding argument has the general [[argument form|form]]: # If ''P'', then ''Q''. # ''Q''. # Therefore, ''P''. An argument of this form is [[validity|invalid]], i.e., the conclusion can be false even when statements 1 and 2 are true. Since ''P'' was never asserted as the ''only'' sufficient condition for ''Q'', other factors could account for ''Q'' (while ''P'' was false).<ref>{{cite web |url = http://www.fallacyfiles.org/afthecon.html |title = Fallacy Files |work = http://www.fallacyfiles.org |publisher = Fallacy Files |accessdate = 9 May 2013 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |chapter=Confusion of a Necessary with a Sufficient Condition |page=150 |first=T. Edward |last=Damer |title=Attacking Faulty Reasoning |edition=4th |publisher=Wadsworth |location= |year=2001 |isbn= }}</ref> To put it differently, if ''P'' implies ''Q'', the '''only''' inference that can be made is ''non-Q'' implies ''non-P''. (''Non-P'' and ''non-Q'' designate the opposite propositions to ''P'' and ''Q''.) This is known as logical [[contraposition]]. Symbolically: <math>(P \to Q)\leftrightarrow (\neg Q \to \neg P)</math> The name ''affirming the [[consequent]]'' derives from the premise ''Q'', which affirms the "then" clause of the [[indicative conditional|conditional]] premise. ==Examples== One way to demonstrate the invalidity of this argument form is with a counterexample with true premises but an obviously false conclusion. For example: :If [[Bill Gates]] owns [[United States Bullion Depository|Fort Knox]], then he is [[Wealth|rich]]. :Bill Gates is rich. :Therefore, Bill Gates owns Fort Knox. Owning Fort Knox is not the ''only'' way to be rich. Any number of other ways exist to be rich. However, one can affirm with certainty that "if Bill Gates is not rich" (''non-Q'') then "Bill Gates does not own Fort Knox" (''non-P''). This is the [[contrapositive]] of the first statement, and it must be true if and only if the original statement is true. Arguments of the same form can sometimes seem superficially convincing, as in the following example: :If I have the [[flu]], then I have a [[sore throat]]. :I have a sore throat. :Therefore, I have the flu. But having the flu is not the ''only'' cause of a sore throat since many illnesses cause sore throat, such as the [[common cold]] or [[strep throat]]. ==See also== * [[Confusion of the inverse]] * [[Denying the antecedent]] * [[ELIZA effect]] * [[Fallacy of the single cause]] * [[Fallacy of the undistributed middle]] * [[Inference to the best explanation]] * [[Modus ponens]] * [[Modus tollens]] * [[Post hoc ergo propter hoc]] * [[Necessity and sufficiency]] ==References== {{reflist}} {{Formal fallacy}} [[Category:Propositional fallacies]] {{logic-stub|date=November 2008}} 3ol4xrdysnr8q3b3sozrban3sdfqy1b 0 676 710761951 708643009 2016-03-18T22:20:17Z 5.29.102.252 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Use dmy dates|date=July 2015}} {{Infobox person | name = Andrei Tarkovsky | image = Andrei Tarkovsky.jpg | image_size = 225px | birth_name=Andrei Arsenyevich Tarkovsky | birth_date = {{Birth date|df=yes|1932|4|4}} | birth_place = Zavrazhye, [[Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic|Russian SFSR]], [[Soviet Union]] | death_date = {{Death date and age|df=yes|1986|12|29|1932|4|4}} | death_place = Paris, France | occupation = Film director | years_active = 1958–86 | spouse = {{nowrap|[[Irma Raush]] <small>(1957–70)</small><br/>[[Larisa Tarkovskaya|Larisa Kizilova]] <small>(1970–86)</small>}} }} '''Andrei Arsenyevich Tarkovsky''' ({{lang-rus|Андре́й Арсе́ньевич Тарко́вский|p=ɐnˈdrʲej ɐrˈsʲenʲjɪvʲɪtɕ tɐrˈkofskʲɪj}}; 4 April 1932 – 29 December 1986) was a Soviet and [[Russians|Russian]] film-maker, writer, film editor, [[film theory|film theorist]], theatre and opera director. Tarkovsky's films include ''[[Ivan's Childhood]]'' (1962), ''[[Andrei Rublev (film)|Andrei Rublev]]'' (1966), ''[[Solaris (1972 film)|Solaris]]'' (1972), ''[[The Mirror (1975 film)|Mirror]]'' (1975), and ''[[Stalker (1979 film)|Stalker]]'' (1979). He directed the first five of his seven feature films in the [[Cinema of the Soviet Union|Soviet Union]]; his last two films, ''[[Nostalghia]]'' (1983) and ''[[The Sacrifice]]'' (1986), were produced in [[Cinema of Italy|Italy]] and [[Cinema of Sweden|Sweden]], respectively. His work is characterized by long takes, unconventional [[dramatic structure]], distinctly authored use of cinematography, and spiritual and [[metaphysics|metaphysical]] themes. His contribution to cinema was so influential that works done in a similar way are described as '''Tarkovskian'''.<ref>{{cite news|last1=Hampton|first1=Howard|title=Riffs: 'On Celestial Music,' by Rick Moody|url=http://www.nytimes.com/2012/06/03/books/review/on-celestial-music-by-rick-moody.html|accessdate=20 April 2015|work=[[The New York Times]]|date=1 June 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|last1=Robey|first1=Tim|title=How I Ended This Summer, review|url=http://www.telegraph.co.uk/culture/film/filmreviews/8467251/How-I-Ended-This-Summer-review.html|accessdate=20 April 2015|work=tf|date=21 April 2011}}</ref> [[Ingmar Bergman]] said of Tarkovsky:<blockquote>"Tarkovsky for me is the greatest (director), the one who invented a new language, true to the nature of film, as it captures life as a reflection, life as a dream."<ref name="ReferenceA">Title quote of 2003 Tarkovsky Festival Program, Pacific Film Archive</ref></blockquote> ==Life== ===Childhood and early life=== Tarkovsky was born in the village of Zavrazhye in the [[Yuryevetsky District]] of the [[Ivanovo Industrial Oblast]] to poet and translator [[Arseny Tarkovsky|Arseny Alexandrovich Tarkovsky]], native of [[Yelisavetgrad|Kirovohrad]], [[Ukraine]]; and Maria Ivanova Vishnyakova, a graduate of the [[Maxim Gorky Literature Institute]]. Andrei's grandfather Aleksandr Tarkovsky (in {{lang-pl|Alexander Tarkowski}}) was a [[Poles|Polish]] nobleman who worked as a bank clerk. Tarkovsky spent his childhood in [[Yuryevets, Ivanovo Oblast|Yuryevets]].<ref>{{cite news |first=Marina |last=Sipatova |script-title=ru:Тайна рода Тарковских |work=[[Moskovskij Komsomolets]] |year=2007 |url=http://www.mk.ru/blogs/MK/2007/02/20/culture/92002 |language=Russian|accessdate=25 November 2007}}</ref> He was described by childhood friends as active and popular, having many friends and being typically in the center of action. In 1937, his father left the family, subsequently volunteering for the army in 1941. Tarkovsky stayed with his mother, moving with her and his sister Marina to Moscow, where she worked as a proofreader at a printing press. In 1939, Tarkovsky enrolled at the Moscow School № 554. During the war, the three evacuated to [[Yuryevets, Ivanovo Oblast|Yuryevets]], living with his maternal grandmother. In 1943, the family returned to Moscow. Tarkovsky continued his studies at his old school, where the poet [[Andrey Voznesensky]] was one of his class-mates. He studied piano at a music school and attended classes at an art school. The family lived on Shchipok Street in the [[Zamoskvorechye District]] in Moscow. From November 1947 to Spring 1948 he was in the hospital with [[tuberculosis]]. Many themes of his childhood – the evacuation, his mother and her two children, the withdrawn father, the time in the hospital – feature prominently in his film ''[[The Mirror (1975 film)|Mirror]]''. Following high school graduation, from 1951 to 1952, Tarkovsky studied [[Arabic language|Arabic]] at the Oriental Institute in Moscow, a branch of the [[Academy of Sciences of the USSR]]. Although he already spoke some Arabic and was a successful student in his first semesters, he did not finish his studies and dropped out to work as a prospector for the Academy of Science Institute for Non-Ferrous Metals and Gold. He participated in a year-long research expedition to the river Kureikye near [[Turukhansk]] in the [[Krasnoyarsk Krai|Krasnoyarsk Province]]. During this time in the [[Taiga]], Tarkovsky decided to study film. ===Film school student=== Upon returning from the research expedition in 1954, Tarkovsky applied at the [[All-Union State Institute of Cinematography|State Institute of Cinematography]] (VGIK) and was admitted to the film directing program. He was in the same class as [[Irma Raush]] whom he married in April 1957.<ref name="kompravda">{{cite news |first=Anastasia | last=Pleshakova |title= Тарковский был "разрешенным контрреволюционером" |trans_title= Tarkovsky was "a legal сounterrevolutionary"| publisher= [[Komsomolskaya Pravda]] |date=4 April 2007 |url=http://www.kp.ru/daily/23881/65502/ |accessdate=27 November 2007| archiveurl= http://web.archive.org/web/20080104174327/http://www.kp.ru/daily/23881/65502/| archivedate= 4 January 2008 | deadurl= no}}</ref> The early [[Nikita Khrushchev|Khrushchev]] era offered unique opportunities for young film directors. Before 1953, annual film production was low and most films were directed by veteran directors. After 1953, more films were produced, many of them by young directors. The [[Khrushchev Thaw]] relaxed Soviet social restrictions a bit and permitted a limited influx of European and North American literature, films and music. This allowed Tarkovsky to see films of the [[Italian neorealism|Italian neorealists]], [[French New Wave]], and of directors such as [[Akira Kurosawa|Kurosawa]], [[Luis Buñuel|Buñuel]], [[Ingmar Bergman|Bergman]], [[Robert Bresson|Bresson]], [[Andrzej Wajda]] (whose film ''[[Ashes and Diamonds (film)|Ashes and Diamonds]]'' influenced Tarkovsky) and [[Kenji Mizoguchi|Mizoguchi]]. Tarkovsky absorbed the idea of the [[auteur theory|auteur]] as a necessary condition for creativity{{citation needed|date=April 2014}}. Tarkovsky's teacher and mentor was [[Mikhail Romm]], who taught many film students who would later become influential film directors. In 1956, Tarkovsky directed his first student short film, ''[[The Killers (1956 film)|The Killers]]'', from a short story of [[Ernest Hemingway]]. The short film ''[[There Will Be No Leave Today]]'' and the screenplay ''[[Concentrate (screenplay)|Concentrate]]'' followed in 1958 and 1959. An important influence on Tarkovsky was the film director [[Grigori Chukhrai]], who was teaching at the VGIK. Impressed by the talent of his student, Chukhrai offered Tarkovsky a position as assistant director for his film ''Clear Skies''. Tarkovsky initially showed interest but then decided to concentrate on his studies and his own projects.<ref name="kompravda" /> During his third year at the VGIK, Tarkovsky met [[Andrei Konchalovsky]]. They found much in common as they liked the same film directors and shared ideas on cinema and films. In 1959, they wrote the script ''Antarctica – Distant Country'', which was later published in the ''[[Moskovskij Komsomolets]]''. Tarkovsky submitted the script to [[Lenfilm]], but it was rejected. They were more successful with the script ''[[The Steamroller and the Violin]]'', which they sold to [[Mosfilm]]. This became Tarkovsky's graduation project, earning him his diploma in 1960 and winning First Prize at the New York Student Film Festival in 1961. ==Career== ===Film career in the Soviet Union=== Tarkovsky's first feature film was ''[[Ivan's Childhood]]'' in 1962. He had inherited the film from director Eduard Abalov, who had to abort the project. The film earned Tarkovsky international acclaim and won the [[Golden Lion]] award at the [[Venice Film Festival]] in 1962. In the same year, on 30 September, his first son Arseny (called Senka in Tarkovsky's diaries) Tarkovsky was born. [[File:Tarkovsky vgik.jpg|thumb|upright|left|Monument to Andrei Tarkovsky at entrance of [[Gerasimov Institute of Cinematography]]]] In 1965, he directed the film ''[[Andrei Rublev (film)|Andrei Rublev]]'' about the life of [[Andrei Rublev]], the fifteenth-century Russian [[iconography|icon painter]]. ''Andrei Rublev'' was not, except for a single screening in Moscow in 1966, immediately released after completion due to problems with Soviet authorities. Tarkovsky had to cut the film several times, resulting in several different versions of varying lengths. A version of the film was presented at the [[Cannes Film Festival]] in 1969 and won the [[FIPRESCI|FIPRESCI prize]]. The film was widely released in the Soviet Union in a cut version in 1971. He divorced his wife, [[Irma Raush]], in June 1970. In the same year, he married [[Larisa Tarkovskaya|Larissa Kizilova]] (née Egorkina), who had been a production assistant for the film ''Andrei Rublev'' (they had been living together since 1965). Their son, Andrei Andreyevich Tarkovsky, was born in the same year on 7 August.<ref>{{Cite book | last=Gianvito | first=John | title=Andrei Tarkovsky: Interviews ([[Conversations with Filmmakers Series]]) | year=2006 | publisher=University Press of Mississippi | location= | isbn=1-57806-220-9 | pages=XXV}} </ref> In 1972, he completed ''[[Solaris (1972 film)|Solaris]]'', an adaptation of the novel ''[[Solaris (novel)|Solaris]]'' by [[Stanisław Lem]]. He had worked on this together with screenwriter [[Fridrikh Gorenshtein]] as early as 1968. The film was presented at the [[Cannes Film Festival]], won the [[Grand Prix (Cannes Film Festival)|Grand Prix Spécial du Jury]] and the [[FIPRESCI|FIPRESCI prize]], and was nominated for the [[Palme d'Or]]. From 1973 to 1974, he shot the film ''[[The Mirror (1975 film)|Mirror]]'', a highly autobiographical and unconventionally structured film drawing on his childhood and incorporating some of his father's poems. Tarkovsky had worked on the screenplay for this film since 1967, under the consecutive titles ''Confession'', ''White day'' and ''A white, white day''. From the beginning the film was not well received by Soviet authorities due to its content and its perceived elitist nature. Russian authorities placed the film in the "third category," a severely limited distribution, and only allowed it to be shown in third-class cinemas and workers' clubs. Few prints were made and the film-makers received no returns. Third category films also placed the film-makers in danger of being accused of wasting public funds, which could have serious effects on their future productivity.<ref>Marshall, Herbert. ''Sight and Sound''. Vol 45, no 2. Spring 1976. p. 93.</ref> These difficulties are presumed to have made Tarkovsky play with the idea of going abroad and producing a film outside the Soviet film industry.<ref>{{cite book |last=Tarkovsky |first=Andrei |author2=translated by Kitty Hunter-Blair |title=[[Time Within Time: The Diaries 1970-1986]] |publisher=Seagull Books |year=1991 |location=[[Calcutta]] |isbn=81-7046-083-2}}</ref> During 1975, Tarkovsky also worked on the screenplay ''[[Hoffmanniana]]'', about the German writer and poet [[E. T. A. Hoffmann]]. In December 1976, he directed ''[[Hamlet]]'', his only stage play, at the [[Lenkom Theatre]] in Moscow. The main role was played by [[Anatoly Solonitsyn]], who also acted in several of Tarkovsky's films. At the end of 1978, he also wrote the screenplay ''Sardor'' together with the writer Aleksandr Misharin. The last film Tarkovsky completed in the Soviet Union was ''[[Stalker (1979 film)|Stalker]]'', inspired by the novel ''[[Roadside Picnic]]'' by the brothers [[Arkady and Boris Strugatsky]]. Tarkovsky had met the brothers first in 1971 and was in contact with them until his death in 1986. Initially he wanted to shoot a film based on their novel ''[[Dead Mountaineer's Hotel]]'' and he developed a raw script. Influenced by a discussion with Arkady Strugatsky he changed his plan and began to work on the script based on ''Roadside Picnic''. Work on this film began in 1976. The production was mired in troubles; improper development of the negatives had ruined all the exterior shots. Tarkovsky's relationship with cinematographer [[Georgy Rerberg]] deteriorated to the point where he hired [[Alexander Knyazhinsky]] as a new first cinematographer. Furthermore, Tarkovsky suffered a heart attack in April 1978, resulting in further delay. The film was completed in 1979 and won the Prize of the Ecumenical Jury at the [[Cannes Film Festival]]. In the same year Tarkovsky also began the production of the film ''The First Day'' (Russian: Первый День ''Pervyj Dyen′''), based on a script by his friend and long-term collaborator [[Andrei Konchalovsky]]. The film was set in 18th-century Russia during the reign of [[Peter I of Russia|Peter the Great]] and starred [[Natalya Bondarchuk]] and [[Anatoli Papanov]]. To get the project approved by [[Goskino]], Tarkovsky submitted a script that was different from the original script, omitting several scenes that were critical of the [[Religion in the Soviet Union|official atheism in the Soviet Union]]. After shooting roughly half of the film the project was stopped by Goskino after it became apparent that the film differed from the script submitted to the censors. Tarkovsky was reportedly infuriated by this interruption and destroyed most of the film.<ref name="ReferenceB">{{cite book |last=|script-title=ru:Мир и фильмы Андрея Тарковского. Сост. А. Сандлер. |trans_title=Andey Tarkovsky's world and films | publisher= Iskusstvo(Искусство) |year=1990 |location=Moscow |isbn=81-7046-083-2|language=Russian}}</ref> ===Film career outside the Soviet Union=== During the summer of 1979, Tarkovsky traveled to Italy, where he shot the documentary ''[[Voyage in Time]]'' together with his long-time friend [[Tonino Guerra]]. Tarkovsky returned to Italy in 1980 for an extended trip during which he and Guerra completed the script for the film ''[[Nostalghia]]''. Tarkovsky returned to Italy in 1982 to start shooting ''[[Nostalghia]]''. He did not return to his home country. As [[Mosfilm]] withdrew from the project, he had to complete the film with financial support provided by the Italian [[RAI]]. Tarkovsky completed the film in 1983. ''[[Nostalghia]]'' was presented at the [[Cannes Film Festival]] and won the [[FIPRESCI|FIPRESCI prize]] and the Prize of the Ecumenical Jury. Tarkovsky also shared a special prize called ''Grand Prix du cinéma de creation'' with [[Robert Bresson]]. Soviet authorities prevented the film from winning the [[Palme d'Or]],<ref name="Wagstaff2004">{{cite book |last=Wagstaff |first=Peter |title=Border crossings: mapping identities in modern Europe |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=jFKGgLAQ8mMC&pg=PA169 |accessdate=7 March 2011 |year=2004 |publisher=Peter Lang |isbn=978-3-03910-279-2 |page=169}}</ref> a fact that hardened Tarkovsky's resolve to never work in the Soviet Union again. In the same year, he also staged the opera ''[[Boris Godunov (opera)|Boris Godunov]]'' at the [[Royal Opera House]] in London under the musical direction of [[Claudio Abbado]]. He spent most of 1984 preparing the film ''[[The Sacrifice]]''. At a press conference in [[Milan]] on 10 July 1984, he announced that he would never return to the Soviet Union and would remain in Europe. At that time, his son Andrei Jr. was still in the Soviet Union and not allowed to leave the country. During 1985, he shot the film ''[[The Sacrifice]]'' in Sweden. At the end of the year he was diagnosed with terminal lung cancer. In January 1986, he began treatment in Paris and was joined there by his son, who was finally allowed to leave the Soviet Union. ''[[The Sacrifice]]'' was presented at the [[Cannes Film Festival]] and received the [[Grand Prix (Cannes Film Festival)|Grand Prix Spécial du Jury]], the [[FIPRESCI|FIPRESCI prize]] and the Prize of the Ecumenical Jury. As Tarkovsky was unable to attend due to his illness, the prizes were collected by his son, Andrei Jr. [[File:Gravestone of Andrei Tarkovsky 2007.jpg|thumb|Andrei and Larisa Tarkovsky's grave, [[Sainte-Geneviève-des-Bois Russian Cemetery]] in France]] In Tarkovsky's last [[Time Within Time: The Diaries 1970-1986|diary]] entry (15 December 1986), he wrote: "But now I have no strength left – that is the problem". The diaries are sometimes also known as ''[[Time Within Time: The Diaries 1970-1986|Martyrolog]]'' and were published posthumously in 1989 and in English in 1991. Tarkovsky died in Paris on 29 December 1986. His funeral ceremony was held at the [[Alexander Nevsky Cathedral, Paris|Alexander Nevsky Cathedral]]. He was buried on 3 January 1987 in the [[Sainte-Geneviève-des-Bois Russian Cemetery|Russian Cemetery]] in [[Sainte-Geneviève-des-Bois, Essonne|Sainte-Geneviève-des-Bois]] in France. The inscription on his gravestone, which was created by the Russian sculptor [[Ernst Neizvestny]], reads: ''To the man who saw the Angel''. A controversy emerged in Russia in the early 1990s when it was alleged that Tarkovsky did not die of natural causes but was assassinated by the [[KGB]]. Evidence for this hypothesis includes testimonies by former KGB agents who claim that [[Viktor Chebrikov]] gave the order to eradicate Tarkovsky to curtail what the Soviet government and the KGB saw as [[anti-Soviet propaganda]] by Tarkovsky. Other evidence includes several memoranda that surfaced after the [[1991 Soviet coup d'état attempt|1991 coup]] and the claim by one of Tarkovsky's doctors that his cancer could not have developed from a natural cause.<ref>Komsolmoskaya Pravda, "New Tarkovsky documents surface", 15. September 1995, page 23.</ref> As Tarkovsky, his wife [[Larisa Tarkovskaya]] and actor [[Anatoli Solonitsyn]] all died from the very same type of lung cancer, Vladimir Sharun, sound designer in ''[[Stalker (1979 film)|Stalker]]'', is convinced that they were all poisoned when shooting the film near a chemical plant.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Tyrkin |first=Stas |title=In Stalker Tarkovsky foretold Chernobyl |journal=Komsomolskaya Pravda |url=http://www.acs.ucalgary.ca/~tstronds/nostalghia.com/TheTopics/Stalker/sharun.html |date=23 March 2001 |accessdate=9 September 2009| archiveurl= http://web.archive.org/web/20091009192507/http://www.acs.ucalgary.ca/~tstronds/nostalghia.com/TheTopics/Stalker/sharun.html| archivedate= 9 October 2009 | deadurl= no}}</ref> ===Filmography=== {{main|Andrei Tarkovsky filmography}} Tarkovsky is mainly known as a film director. During his career he directed only seven feature films, as well as three shorts from his time at VGIK. He also wrote several screenplays. He furthermore directed the play ''[[Hamlet]]'' for the stage in Moscow, directed the opera ''[[Boris Godunov (opera)|Boris Godunov]]'' in London, and he directed a radio production of the short story ''Turnabout'' by [[William Faulkner]]. He also wrote ''[[Sculpting in Time]]'', a book on film theory. Tarkovsky's first feature film was ''[[Ivan's Childhood]]'' in 1962. He then directed ''[[Andrei Rublev (film)|Andrei Rublev]]'' in 1966, ''[[Solaris (1972 film)|Solaris]]'' in 1972, ''[[The Mirror (1975 film)|Mirror]]'' in 1975 and ''[[Stalker (1979 film)|Stalker]]'' in 1979. The documentary ''[[Voyage in Time]]'' was produced in Italy in 1982, as was ''[[Nostalghia]]'' in 1983. His last film ''[[The Sacrifice]]'' was produced in Sweden in 1986. Tarkovsky was personally involved in writing the screenplays for all his films, sometimes with a cowriter. Tarkovsky once said that a director who realizes somebody else's screenplay without being involved in it becomes a mere illustrator, resulting in dead and monotonous films.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Tarkovsky |first=Andrei |title=Lectures on Film Directing (notes from classes taught by Tarkovsky at the State Institute of Cinematography) |journal=Iskusstvo Kino |year=1990 |url=http://www.acs.ucalgary.ca/~tstronds/nostalghia.com/TheTopics/Directing.html |accessdate=14 January 2008}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Illg |first=Jerzy |title=Z Andriejem Tarkowskim rozmawiają Jerzy Illg, Leonard Neuger |journal=Res Publica |volume=1 |pages=137–160 |location=Warsaw |year=1987 |url=http://www.acs.ucalgary.ca/~tstronds/nostalghia.com/TheTopics/interview.html}}</ref> A book of 60 photos, ''Instant Light, Tarkovsky Polaroids'', taken by Tarkovsky in Russia and Italy between 1979 and 1984 was published in 2006. The collection was selected by Italian photographer Giovanni Chiaramonte and Tarkovsky's son Andrey A. Tarkovsky.<ref>{{Cite book|title = Instant Light, Tarkovsky Polaroids|last = Tarkovsky|first = Andrei|publisher = Thames and Hudson|year = 2006|isbn = 9780500286142|location = |pages = |editor-last = Chiaramonte|editor-first = Giovanni|editor2-last = Tarkovsky|editor2-first = Andrey A.}}</ref> ===Awards=== {{main|List of awards won by Andrei Tarkovsky}} Numerous awards were bestowed on Tarkovsky throughout his lifetime. At the [[Venice Film Festival]] he was awarded the [[Golden Lion]] for ''[[Ivan's Childhood]]''. At the [[Cannes Film Festival]], he won the [[FIPRESCI|FIPRESCI prize]] four times, the [[Prize of the Ecumenical Jury]] three times (more than any other director), and the [[Grand Prix (Cannes Film Festival)|Grand Prix Spécial du Jury]] twice. He was also nominated for the [[Palme d'Or]] two times. In 1987, the [[British Academy of Film and Television Arts]] awarded the [[BAFTA Award for Best Film Not in the English Language#1980s|BAFTA Award for Best Foreign Language Film]] to ''[[The Sacrifice]]''. [[File:Andrei tarkovsky stamp russia 2007.jpg|thumb|left|upright|Russian stamp featuring Tarkovsky]] Under the influence of [[Glasnost]] and [[Perestroika]], Tarkovsky was finally recognized in the Soviet Union in the Autumn of 1986, shortly before his death, by a retrospective of his films in Moscow. After his death, an entire issue of the film magazine ''Iskusstvo Kino'' was devoted to Tarkovsky. In their obituaries, the film committee of the [[Council of Ministers (Soviet Union)|Council of Ministers of the USSR]] and the Union of Soviet Film Makers expressed their sorrow that Tarkovsky had to spend the last years of his life in exile.<ref>{{cite news |title=Obituary |publisher=[[Literaturnaya Gazeta]] |date=7 January 1987}}</ref> Posthumously, he was awarded the [[Lenin Prize]] in 1990, one of the highest state honors in the Soviet Union. In 1989 the ''Andrei Tarkovsky Memorial Prize'' was established, with its first recipient being the Russian animator [[Yuriy Norshteyn]]. Since 1993, the [[Moscow International Film Festival]] awards the annual ''Andrei Tarkovsky Award''. In 1996 the Andrei Tarkovsky Museum opened in [[Yuryevets, Ivanovo Oblast|Yuryevets]], his childhood town.<ref>{{cite web |title=МУЗЕЙ А.ТАРКОВСКОГО |url=http://www.museum.ru/tarkovsky |accessdate=30 November 2007 }}</ref> A [[minor planet]], [[3345 Tarkovskij]], discovered by Soviet astronomer [[Lyudmila Georgievna Karachkina]] in 1982, has also been named after him.<ref>{{cite book |last=Schmadel |first=Lutz |title=Dictionary of Minor Planet Names |publisher=[[Springer Science+Business Media|Springer]] |url=http://books.google.com/books?q=3345+tarkovskij |isbn=3-540-00238-3 |year=2003}}</ref> Tarkovsky has been the subject of several documentaries. Most notable is the 1988 documentary ''[[Moscow Elegy]]'', by Russian film director [[Alexander Sokurov]]. Sokurov's own work has been heavily influenced by Tarkovsky. The film consists mostly of narration over stock footage from Tarkovsky's films. ''Directed by Andrei Tarkovsky'' is 1988 documentary film by [[Michal Leszczylowski]], an editor of the film ''The Sacrifice''. Film director [[Chris Marker]] produced the television documentary ''[[One Day in the Life of Andrei Arsenevich]]'' as an homage to Andrei Tarkovsky in 2000.<ref>{{cite web |title=Significant Documentaries |url=http://www.acs.ucalgary.ca/~tstronds/nostalghia.com/TheDocumentaries/Documentaries.html |accessdate=15 January 2008 | archiveurl= http://web.archive.org/web/20080115220027/http://www.acs.ucalgary.ca/~tstronds/nostalghia.com/TheDocumentaries/Documentaries.html| archivedate= 15 January 2008 | deadurl= no}}</ref> [[Ingmar Bergman]] was quoted as saying: "Tarkovsky for me is the greatest [of us all], the one who invented a new language, true to the nature of film, as it captures life as a reflection, life as a dream".<ref name="ReferenceA" /> Film historian [[Steven Dillon (writer and professor)|Steven Dillon]] claims that much of subsequent film was deeply influenced by the films of Tarkovsky.<ref>{{cite book|last=Dillon|first=Steven|title=The Solaris Effect: Art and Artifice in Contemporary American Film|publisher=[[University of Texas Press]]|year=2006|isbn=978-0-292-71345-1}}</ref> At the entrance to the [[Gerasimov Institute of Cinematography]] in [[Moscow, Russia]] there is a monument that includes statues of Tarkovsky, [[Gennady Shpalikov]] and [[Vasily Shukshin]].<ref>[http://www.panoramio.com/photo/26383277 Panoramio – Photo of Monument to Gerasimov Institute of Cinematography famous learner – Gennady Shpalikov, Andrei Tarkovsky and Vasily Shukshin]</ref> === Concentrate === '''''Concentrate''''' ({{lang-ru|link=no|Концентрат}}, ''Konsentrat'') is a never-filmed 1958 screenplay by Russian film director Andrei Tarkovsky. The screenplay is based on Tarkovsky's year in the [[taiga]] as a member of a research expedition, prior to his enrollment in film school. ====Plot==== ''Concentrate'' is about the leader of a geological expedition, who waits for the boat that brings back the [[concentrate]]s collected by the expedition. The expedition is surrounded by mystery, and its purpose is a state secret. This screenplay refers to Tarkovsky's year in the taiga, where he was a member of a research expedition prior to enrolling at the film school.<ref>{{cite book | last = Turovskaya | first = Maya | title = Tarkovsky: Cinema as Poetry | publisher = Faber and Faber | year = 1989 | location = London | url = http://ucalgary.ca/~tstronds/nostalghia.com/TheTopics/On_Shorts.html | isbn = 0-571-14709-7}}</ref> ====Background==== Although some authors claim that the screenplay was filmed, according to Marina Tarkovskaya, Tarkovsky's sister (and wife of Aleksandr Gordon, a fellow student of Tarvosky during his film school years) the screenplay was never filmed. Tarkovsky wrote the screenplay during his entrance examination at the [[All-Union State Institute of Cinematography|State Institute of Cinematography]] (VGIK) in a single sitting. He earned the highest possible grade, excellent ({{lang-ru|link=no|отлично}}) for this work. In 1994 fragments of the ''Concentrate'' were filmed and used in the documentary ''Andrei Tarkovsky's Taiga Summer'' by Marina Tarkovskaya and Aleksandr Gordon.<ref>{{cite web | last = Blasco | first = Gonzalo | title = An Interview with Marina Tarkovskaia and Alexander Gordon | publisher = andreitarkovski.org | date = 10 November 2003 | url = http://www.ucalgary.ca/~tstronds/nostalghia.com/TheTopics/Marina_and_Alexandr.html | accessdate = 10 December 2007 }} </ref> ==Influences== Tarkovsky became a film director during the mid and late 1950s, a period referred to as the [[Khrushchev Thaw]], during which Soviet society opened to foreign films, literature and music, among other things. This allowed Tarkovsky to see films of European, American and Japanese directors, an experience which influenced his own film making. His teacher and mentor at the film school, [[Mikhail Romm]], allowed his students considerable freedom and emphasized the independence of the film director. Tarkovsky was, according to Shavkat Abdusalmov, a fellow student at the film school, fascinated by Japanese films. He was amazed by how every character on the screen is exceptional and how everyday events such as a Samurai cutting bread with his sword are elevated to something special and put into the limelight.<ref>{{cite book |last=Abdusalamov |first=Shavkat |author2=translated by Sergei Sossinsky |title=Feedback Effects, in About Andrei Tarkovsky, Memoirs and Biographies |publisher=Progress Publishers |year=1990 |location=Moscow |url=http://www.acs.ucalgary.ca/~tstronds/nostalghia.com/TheTopics/On_Japanese_Influences.html |isbn=5-01-001973-6}}</ref> Tarkovsky has also expressed interest in the art of Haiku and its ability to create "images in such a way that they mean nothing beyond themselves."<ref>Tarkovsky, Andrei. Sculpting in Time. Trans. Kitty Hunter-Blair. Austin, Texas: University of Texas Press, 2003.</ref> In 1972, Tarkovsky told film historian [[Leonid Kozlov]] his ten favorite films. The list includes: ''[[Diary of a Country Priest]]'' and ''[[Mouchette]]'', by [[Robert Bresson]]; ''[[Winter Light]]'', ''[[Wild Strawberries (film)|Wild Strawberries]]'' and ''[[Persona (film)|Persona]]'', by [[Ingmar Bergman]]; ''[[Nazarín]]'', by [[Luis Buñuel]]; ''[[City Lights]]'', by [[Charlie Chaplin]]; ''[[Ugetsu]]'', by [[Kenji Mizoguchi]]; ''[[Seven Samurai]]'', by [[Akira Kurosawa]], and ''[[The Woman in the Dunes (film)|Woman in the Dunes]]'', by [[Hiroshi Teshigahara]]. Among his favorite directors were Buñuel, Mizoguchi, Bergman, Bresson, Kurosawa, [[Michelangelo Antonioni]], [[Jean Vigo]], and [[Carl Theodor Dreyer]].<ref>{{cite journal |last=Lasica |first=Tom |title=Tarkovsky's Choice |journal=Sight and Sound |volume=3 |issue=3 |date=March 1993 |url=http://www.acs.ucalgary.ca/~tstronds/nostalghia.com/TheTopics/Tarkovsky-TopTen.html |accessdate=25 December 2007 | archiveurl= http://web.archive.org/web/20071121082212/http://www.acs.ucalgary.ca/~tstronds/nostalghia.com/TheTopics/Tarkovsky-TopTen.html| archivedate= 21 November 2007 | deadurl= no}}</ref> With the exception of ''City Lights'', the list does not contain any films of the early silent era. The reason is that Tarkovsky saw film as an art as only a relatively recent phenomenon, with the early film-making forming only a prelude. The list has also no films or directors from Tarkovsky's native Russia, although he rated Soviet directors such as [[Boris Barnet]], [[Sergei Parajanov]] and [[Alexander Dovzhenko]] highly. Although strongly opposed to commercial cinema, in a famous exception Tarkovsky praised the blockbuster film ''[[The Terminator]]'', saying its "vision of the future and the relation between man and its destiny is pushing the frontier of cinema as an art". He was critical of the "brutality and low acting skills", but nevertheless impressed by this film.<ref name="ReferenceB" /> ==Cinematic style== Tarkovsky's films are characterized by [[metaphysics|metaphysical]] themes, extremely [[long take]]s, and memorable images of exceptional beauty. Recurring motifs are dreams, memory, childhood, running water accompanied by fire, rain indoors, reflections, levitation, and characters re-appearing in the foreground of long panning movements of the camera. He once said, "Juxtaposing a person with an environment that is boundless, collating him with a countless number of people passing by close to him and far away, relating a person to the whole world, that is the meaning of cinema.” Tarkovsky included levitation scenes into several of his films, most notably ''Solaris''. To him these scenes possess great power and are used for their photogenic value and magical inexplicability.<ref>{{Cite news |last=de Brantes |first=Charles |title=La foi est la seule chose qui puisse sauver l'homme |newspaper=La France Catholique |date=20 June 1986 |url=http://www.acs.ucalgary.ca/~tstronds/nostalghia.com/TheTopics/AT_On.html |accessdate=14 January 2008}}</ref> Water, clouds, and reflections were used by him for their surreal beauty and photogenic value, as well as their symbolism, such as waves or the forms of brooks or running water.<ref>{{cite press release |title=English Programme Booklet for ''The Sacrifice'' |publisher=Swedish Film Institute |url=http://www.acs.ucalgary.ca/~tstronds/nostalghia.com/TheTopics/AT_For_Dummies.html |accessdate=14 January 2008}}</ref> Bells and candles are also frequent symbols. These are symbols of film, sight and sound, and Tarkovsky's film frequently has themes of self-reflection. Tarkovsky developed a theory of cinema that he called "sculpting in time". By this he meant that the unique characteristic of cinema as a medium was to take our experience of time and alter it. Unedited movie footage transcribes time in [[Real-time (media)|real time]]. By using long takes and few cuts in his films, he aimed to give the viewers a sense of time passing, time lost, and the relationship of one moment in time to another. Up to, and including, his film ''[[The Mirror (1975 film)|Mirror]]'', Tarkovsky focused his cinematic works on exploring this theory. After ''Mirror'', he announced that he would focus his work on exploring the [[dramatic unities]] proposed by [[Aristotle]]: a concentrated action, happening in one place, within the span of a single day. Several of Tarkovsky's films have color or black and white sequences. This first occurs in the otherwise monochrome ''[[Andrei Rublev (film)|Andrei Rublev]]'', which features a color epilogue of [[Andrei Rublev|Rublev's]] authentic religious icon paintings. All of his films afterwards contain monochrome, and in ''[[Stalker (1979 film)|Stalker's]]'' case [[Sepia tone|sepia]] sequences, while otherwise being in color. In 1966, in an interview conducted shortly after finishing ''Andrei Rublev'', Tarkovsky dismissed color film as a "commercial gimmick" and cast doubt on the idea that contemporary films meaningfully use color. He claimed that in everyday life one does not consciously notice colors most of the time, and that color should therefore be used in film mainly to emphasize certain moments, but not all the time, as this distracts the viewer. To him, films in color were like moving paintings or photographs, which are too beautiful to be a realistic depiction of life.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Chugunova |first=Maria |title=On Cinema – Interview with Tarkovsky |journal=To the Screen |date=December 1966 |url=http://www.acs.ucalgary.ca/~tstronds/nostalghia.com/TheTopics/On_Color.html |accessdate=14 January 2008}}</ref> ===Vadim Yusov=== Tarkovsky worked in close collaboration with cinematographer [[Vadim Yusov]] from 1958 to 1972, and much of the visual style of Tarkovsky's films can be attributed to this collaboration.<ref>List of Noted Film Director And Cinematographer Collaborations: Andrei Tarkovsky Vadim Yusov, Museum of Learning. [http://www.museumstuff.com/learn/topics/List_of_noted_film_director_and_cinematographer_collaborations::sub::Andrei_Tarkovsky_Vadim_Yusov]</ref> Tarkovsky would spend two days preparing for Yusov to film a single long take, and due to the preparation, usually only a single take was needed.<ref name="Andrei Tarkovsky p. 79">The films of Andrei Tarkovsky: a visual fugue By Vida T. Johnson, Graham Petrie, p. 79.</ref> ===Sven Nykvist=== In his last film, ''[[The Sacrifice]]'', Tarkovsky worked with cinematographer [[Sven Nykvist]], who had worked closely with director [[Ingmar Bergman]] on many of Ingmar Bergman's films – multiple people who worked with Bergman worked on the production, notably lead actor [[Erland Josephson]], who had acted for Tarkovsky in ''[[Nostalghia]]''. Nykvist complained that Tarkovsky would frequently look through the camera and even direct actors through it.<ref name="Andrei Tarkovsky p. 79"/> == Films about Tarkovsky == * ''[[Voyage in Time]]'' (1983): documents the travels in Italy of Andrei Tarkovsky in preparation for the making of his film ''Nostalghia'', [[Tonino Guerra]]. * ''Tarkovsky: A Poet in the Cinema'' (1984): directed by Donatella Baglivo * ''Ebbo Demant'' (1988): Auf der Suche nach der verlorenen Zeit.Andrej Tarkowskijs Exil und Tod. Documentary. Germany. * ''[[One Day in the Life of Andrei Arsenevich]]'' (1999): French documentary film directed by [[Chris Marker]] * "Andrey" (color/b&w, short-fiction, 35mm, 15min. 2006) A film by Nariné Mktchyan and Arsen Azatyan. Festivals: Yerevan IFF 2006, Rotterdam IFF 2007, Busan IFF 2007, Sidney IFF 2007, Zerkalo FF Ivanovo (Special Prize) 2008, Kinoshock FF 2014 ==References== '''Notes''' {{Reflist|30em}} '''Bibliography''' {{Refbegin}} * {{Cite book | last = Dunne | first = Nathan | year = 2008 | title = Tarkovsky | publisher = Black Dog Publishing | isbn = 1-906155-04-6}} * {{Cite book | year = 2006 | title = Andrei Tarkovsky: Interviews ([[Conversations with Filmmakers Series]]) | editor-last = Gianvito | editor-first = John | publisher = University Press of Mississippi | isbn = 1-57806-220-9 }} * {{Cite book | last = Le Fanu | first = Mark | year = 1987 | title = The Cinema of Andrei Tarkovsky | publisher = British Film Institute }} * {{Cite book | last = Johnston | first = Vida T. | last2 = Petrie | first2 = Graham | year = 1997 | title = The Films of Andrei Tarkovsky: A Visual Fugue | publisher = Indiana Univ. Press | isbn = 0-253-20887-4 | location = Bloomington}} * {{Cite book | last = Martin | first = Sean | year = 2005 | title = Andrei Tarkovsky | publisher = Pocket Essentials | isbn = 1-904048-49-8}} * {{Cite book | last = Jónsson | first = Gunnlaugur A. | last2 = Óttarsson | first2 = Thorkell Á. | year = 2006 | title = Through the Mirror: Reflections on the Films of Andrei Tarkovsky | publisher = Cambridge Scholars Press | isbn = 1-904303-11-0}} * {{Cite journal | title = Dossier Andrei Tarkovsky | editor-last = revue ''NUNC'' | volume = n°11, 2006 | publisher = Editions de Corlevour [http://corlevour.fr] }} * {{Cite book | last = Tarkovsky | first = Andrei | year = 1989 | title = Sculpting in Time | publisher = University of Texas Press [http://www.utexas.edu/utpress] | isbn = 978-0-292-77624-1}} * {{cite journal | doi = 10.1386/fiin.8.2.49 | last = Slevin | first = Tom | year = 2010 | title = Existence, Ethics and Death in Andrei Tarkovsky's cinema: the cultural philosophy of ''Solaris'' | journal = Film International |volume= 8 |issue=2 | pages = 49–62}} * {{cite book | last = Tejeda | first = Carlos | year = 2010 | title = Andrei Tarkovski | publisher = Cátedra, Madrid [http://www.catedra.com/cgigeneral/newFichaProducto.pl?obrcod=2198374&id_sello_editorial_web=01&id_sello_VisualizarDatos=01] | isbn = 978-84-376-2666-6}} * {{cite book | last = Elmanovitš | first = Tatjana | year = 1980 | title = Ajapeegel. Andrei Tarkovski filmid | publisher = Eesti Raamat | language = Estonian}} * {{cite book | last = Turovskaya | first = Maya | year = 1991 | title = 7½ ili Filmõ Andreya Tarkovskovo | publisher = Iskusstvo | language = Russian}} * {{cite book | last = Alexander-Garrett | first = Layla | year = 2011 | title = Andrei Tarkovsky: A Photographic Chronicle of the Making of The Sacrifice | publisher = Cygnnet [http://www.cygnnet.co.uk/books/?id=4] | isbn = 978-09-570-4160-8 | language = English, Russian}} {{Refend}} ==External links== {{Commons category|Andrej Tarkovskij}} {{wikiquote}} * {{IMDb name|1789}} * {{sfdb|87465}} * [http://www.sensesofcinema.com/2002/great-directors/tarkovsky/ Andrei Tarkovsky] at [[Senses of Cinema]] * {{worldcat id|lccn-n78-10232}} * [http://www.andrei-tarkovsky.com/ Website about Andrei Tarkovsky, Films, Articles, Interviews]. * [http://rbth.com/literature/2014/11/26/andrei_tarkovsky_biography_wrestles_with_the_filmmakers_remarkable_41717.html Andrei Tarkovsky: Biography wrestles with the filmmaker’s remarkable life] {{Prix de la mise en scene 1980-1999}} {{Andrei Tarkovsky}} {{Authority control}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Tarkovsky, Andrei}} [[Category:Andrei Tarkovsky| ]] [[Category:1932 births]] [[Category:1986 deaths]] [[Category:People from Yuryevets District]] [[Category:Burials at Sainte-Geneviève-des-Bois Russian Cemetery]] [[Category:Russian people of Polish descent]] [[Category:Ukrainian people of Polish descent]] [[Category:Russian Orthodox Christians from Russia]] [[Category:BAFTA winners (people)]] [[Category:Russian male actors]] [[Category:Soviet film directors]] [[Category:Russian film directors]] [[Category:Russian opera directors]] [[Category:Gerasimov Institute of Cinematography alumni]] [[Category:High Courses for Scriptwriters and Film Directors faculty]] [[Category:Deaths from lung cancer]] [[Category:Deaths from cancer in France]] [[Category:Lenin Prize winners]] [[Category:20th-century Soviet male actors]] [[Category:Science fiction film directors]] [[Category:20th-century Russian male actors]] [[Category:Soviet emigrants to Italy]] [[Category:Soviet emigrants to France]] nithrzkk4a0ehwdpb1i8pxxu3qcpega 0 677 717941364 715519288 2016-04-30T16:32:33Z Yobot 7328338 /* Linguistic forms */BLP related template + other fixes using [[Project:AWB|AWB]] (12006) wikitext text/x-wiki {{redirect|Ambiguous|the film|Ambiguous (film)}} {{Use dmy dates|date=June 2013}}[[File:Alice 05a-1116x1492.jpg|thumb|250px|Sir [[John Tenniel]]'s illustration of the [[Caterpillar (Alice's Adventures in Wonderland)|Caterpillar]] for [[Lewis Carroll]]'s ''[[Alice's Adventures in Wonderland]]'' is noted for its ambiguous central figure, whose head can be viewed as being a human male's face with a pointed nose and pointy chin or being the head end of an actual [[caterpillar]], with the first two right "true" legs visible.<ref>"And do you see its long nose and chin? At least, they ''look'' exactly like a nose and chin, that is don't they? But they really ''are'' two of its legs. You know a Caterpillar has got ''quantities'' of legs: you can see more of them, further down." Carroll, Lewis. ''The Nursery "Alice"''. Dover Publications (1966), p 27.</ref>]] '''Ambiguity''' is a type of [[uncertainty]] of [[meaning (linguistics)|meaning]] in which several interpretations are [[wikt:plausible#Adjective|plausible]]. It is thus an attribute of any idea or statement whose [[intention|intended]] meaning cannot be definitively resolved according to a rule or process with a finite number of steps. (The ''[[wikt:ambi-#Prefix|ambi]]-'' part of the name reflects an idea of "[[2 (number)|two]]" as in two meanings.) The concept of ambiguity is generally contrasted with [[vagueness]]. In ambiguity, specific and distinct interpretations are permitted (although some may not be immediately apparent), whereas with information that is vague, it is difficult to form any interpretation at the desired level of specificity. Context may play a role in resolving ambiguity. For example, the same piece of information may be ambiguous in one context and unambiguous in another. == Linguistic forms == [[File:Structural analysis of an ambiguous spanish sentence.svg|thumb|Structural analysis of an ambiguous Spanish sentence:<br /> '''Pepe vio a Pablo enfurecido''<br />Interpretation 1: When Pepe was angry, then he saw Pablo<br />Interpretation 2: Pepe saw that Pablo was angry.<br />Here, the syntactic tree in figure represents interpretation 2.]] The [[Polysemy|lexical ambiguity]] of a word or phrase pertains to its having more than one meaning in the language to which the word belongs. "Meaning" here refers to whatever should be captured by a good dictionary. For instance, the word "bank" has several distinct lexical definitions, including "[[Bank|financial institution]]" and "[[Bank (geography)|edge of a river]]". Another example is as in "[[apothecary]]". One could say "I bought herbs from the apothecary". This could mean one actually spoke to the apothecary ([[pharmacist]]) or went to the apothecary ([[pharmacy]]). The context in which an ambiguous word is used often makes it evident which of the meanings is intended. If, for instance, someone says "I buried $100 in the bank", most people would not think someone used a shovel to dig in the mud. However, some linguistic contexts do not provide sufficient information to disambiguate a used word. Lexical ambiguity can be addressed by algorithmic methods that automatically associate the appropriate meaning with a word in context, a task referred to as [[word sense disambiguation]]. The use of multi-defined words requires the author or speaker to clarify their context, and sometimes elaborate on their specific intended meaning (in which case, a less ambiguous term should have been used). The goal of clear concise communication is that the receiver(s) have no misunderstanding about what was meant to be conveyed. An exception to this could include a politician whose "[[weasel word]]s" and [[obfuscation]] are necessary to gain support from multiple [[Electoral district|constituents]] with [[mutually exclusive]] conflicting desires from their candidate of choice. Ambiguity is a powerful tool of [[political science]]. More problematic are words whose senses express closely related concepts. "Good", for example, can mean "useful" or "functional" (''That's a good hammer''), "exemplary" (''She's a good student''), "pleasing" (''This is good soup''), "moral" (''a good person'' versus ''the lesson to be learned from a story''), "[[righteous]]", etc. " I have a good daughter" is not clear about which sense is intended. The various ways to apply [[prefix]]es and [[suffix]]es can also create ambiguity ("unlockable" can mean "capable of being unlocked" or "impossible to lock"). [[Syntactic ambiguity]] arises when a sentence can have two (or more) different meanings because of the structure of the sentence—its syntax. This is often due to a modifying expression, such as a prepositional phrase, the application of which is unclear. "He ate the cookies on the couch", for example, could mean that he ate those cookies that were on the couch (as opposed to those that were on the table), or it could mean that he was sitting on the couch when he ate the cookies. "To get in, you will need an entrance fee of $10 or your voucher and your drivers' license." This could mean that you need EITHER ten dollars OR BOTH your voucher and your license. Or it could mean that you need your license AND you need EITHER ten dollars OR a voucher. Only rewriting the sentence, or placing appropriate punctuation can resolve a syntactic ambiguity.<ref name="ReferenceA">Critical Thinking, 10th ed., Ch 3, Moore, Brooke N. and Parker, Richard. McGraw-Hill, 2012</ref> For the notion of, and theoretic results about, syntactic ambiguity in artificial, [[formal languages]] (such as computer [[programming language]]s), see [[Ambiguous grammar]]. [[Spoken language]] can contain many more types of ambiguities which are called phonological ambiguities, where there is more than one way to compose a set of sounds into words. For example, "ice cream" and "I scream". Such ambiguity is generally resolved according to the context. A mishearing of such, based on incorrectly resolved ambiguity, is called a [[mondegreen]]. [[Semantic ambiguity]] happens when a sentence contains an ambiguous word or phrase—a word or phrase that has more than one meaning. In "We saw her duck" (example due to Richard Nordquist), the word "duck" can refer either # to the person's bird (the noun "duck", modified by the possessive pronoun "her"), or # to a motion she made (the verb "duck", the subject of which is the objective pronoun "her", object of the verb "saw").<ref name="ReferenceA" /> For example, "You could do with a new automobile. How about a test drive?" The clause "You could do with" presents a statement with such wide possible interpretation as to be essentially meaningless.{{Citation needed|date=October 2009}} Lexical ambiguity is contrasted with semantic ambiguity. The former represents a choice between a finite number of known and meaningful context-dependent interpretations. The latter represents a choice between any number of possible interpretations, none of which may have a standard agreed-upon meaning. This form of ambiguity is closely related to [[vagueness]]. Linguistic ambiguity [[Ambiguity (law)|can be a problem in law]], because the interpretation of written documents and oral agreements is often of paramount importance. == Intentional application == {{See also|Word-sense disambiguation}} [[Philosopher]]s (and other users of [[logic]]) spend a lot of time and effort searching for and removing (or intentionally adding) ambiguity in arguments, because it can lead to incorrect conclusions and can be used to deliberately conceal bad arguments. For example, a politician might say "I oppose taxes which hinder economic growth", an example of a [[glittering generality]]. Some will think he opposes taxes in general, because they hinder economic growth. Others may think he opposes only those taxes that he believes will hinder economic growth. In writing, the sentence can be rewritten to reduce possible misinterpretation, either by adding a comma after "taxes" (to convey the first sense) or by changing "which" to "that" (to convey the second sense), or by rewriting it in other ways. The devious politician hopes that each [[Electoral district|constituent]] will interpret the statement in the most desirable way, and think the politician supports everyone's opinion. However, the opposite can also be true – An opponent can turn a positive statement into a bad one, if the speaker uses ambiguity (intentionally or not). The logical fallacies of [[amphiboly]] and [[equivocation]] rely heavily on the use of ambiguous words and phrases. In [[Continental philosophy]] (particularly [[phenomenology (philosophy)|phenomenology]] and [[existentialism]]), there is much greater tolerance of ambiguity, as it is generally seen as an integral part of the human condition. [[Martin Heidegger]] argued that the relation between the [[subject-object problem|subject and object]] is ambiguous, as is the relation of [[mind and body]], and [[mereology|part and whole]].<ref>Heidegger, Martin. "[[The Origin of the Work of Art]]". Poetry, Language, Thought. Trans. Albert Hofstadter. NY: Harper Collins, 1971, pg. 18.</ref> In Heidegger's phenomenology, [[Dasein]] is always in a meaningful world, but there is always an underlying background for every instance of signification. Thus, although some things may be certain, they have little to do with Dasein's sense of ''care'' and [[existential anxiety]], e.g., in the face of death. In calling his work [[Being and Nothingness]] an "essay in phenomenological ontology" [[Jean-Paul Sartre]] follows Heidegger in defining the human essence as ambiguous, or relating fundamentally to such ambiguity. [[Simone de Beauvoir]] tries to base an ethics on Heidegger's and Sartre's writings ([[The Ethics of Ambiguity]]), where she highlights the need to grapple with ambiguity: "as long as philosophers and they [men] have thought, most of them have tried to mask it...And the ethics which they have proposed to their disciples has always pursued the same goal. It has been a matter of eliminating the ambiguity by making oneself pure inwardness or pure externality, by escaping from the sensible world or being engulfed by it, by yielding to eternity or enclosing oneself in the pure moment.".<ref>de Beauvoir, Simone. ''The Ethics of Ambiguity.'' Trans. Bernard Frechtman. New York: Citadel Press, 1976 [1948], pg. 8.</ref> Ethics cannot be based on the authoritative certainty given by mathematics and logic, or prescribed directly from the empirical findings of science. She states: "Since we do not succeed in fleeing it, let us therefore try to look the truth in the face. Let us try to assume our fundamental ambiguity. It is in the knowledge of the genuine conditions of our life that we must draw our strength to live and our reason for acting".<ref>de Beauvoir, ''Ethics,'' pg. 9.</ref> Other continental philosophers suggest that concepts such as life, nature, and sex are ambiguous.<ref>Foucault, Michel. ''The History of Sexuality, An Introduction (Vol. 1). Trans Robert Hurley. New York: Vintage Books, 1978.</ref> Recently, Corey Anton has argued that we cannot be certain what is separate from or unified with something else: language, he asserts, divides what is not in fact separate.<ref>Anton, Corey. ''Sources of Significance: Worldly Rejuvenation and Neo-Stoic Heroism.'' West Lafayette: Purdue University Press, 2010, pg. 35-63.</ref> Following [[Ernest Becker]], he argues that the desire to 'authoritatively disambiguate' the world and existence has led to numerous [[ideologies]] and historical events such as [[genocide]]. On this basis, he argues that ethics must focus on 'dialectically integrating opposites' and balancing tension, rather than seeking a priori validation or certainty. Like the existentialists and phenomenologists, he sees the ambiguity of life as the basis of creativity.<ref>{{cite web |first=Anton |last=Corey |title= Authoritative Disambiguation |url=http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mxNR3aOL8l4 |work= Professoranton, 2009}}</ref> In [[literature]] and [[rhetoric]], ambiguity can be a useful tool. [[Groucho Marx]]'s classic joke depends on a grammatical ambiguity for its [[humor]], for example: "Last night I shot an elephant in my pajamas. How he got in my pajamas, I'll never know". Songs and poetry often rely on ambiguous words for artistic effect, as in the song title "Don't It Make My Brown Eyes Blue" (where "blue" can refer to the color, or to [[sadness]]). In narrative, ambiguity can be introduced in several ways: motive, plot, character. [[F. Scott Fitzgerald]] uses the latter type of ambiguity with notable effect in his novel ''[[The Great Gatsby]]''. [[Christianity]] and [[Judaism]] employ the concept of [[paradox]] synonymously with 'ambiguity'. Many Christians and Jews endorse [[Rudolf Otto]]'s description of the sacred as 'mysterium tremendum et fascinans', the awe-inspiring mystery which fascinates humans.{{Dubious|date=July 2012|reason=Entire paragraph of doubtful validity}} The orthodox Catholic writer G. K. Chesterton regularly employed paradox to tease out the meanings in common concepts which he found ambiguous, or to reveal meaning often overlooked or forgotten in common phrases. (The title of one of his most famous books, Orthodoxy, itself employing such a paradox.) [[Metonymy]] involves the use of the name of a subcomponent part as an abbreviation, or [[jargon]], for the name of the whole object (for example "wheels" to refer to a car, or "flowers" to refer to beautiful offspring, an entire plant, or a collection of blooming plants). In modern [[vocabulary]] critical [[semiotics]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.chass.utoronto.ca/epc/srb/cyber/sim8.html |title=CSI: Sim8 |publisher=Chass.utoronto.ca |date=1942-11-14 |accessdate=2013-01-23}}</ref> metonymy encompasses any potentially ambiguous word substitution that is based on contextual [[contiguity]] (located close together), or a function or process that an object performs, such as "sweet ride" to refer to a nice car. Metonym miscommunication is considered a primary mechanism of linguistic humour.<ref>Veale, Tony (2003): "Metaphor and Metonymy: The Cognitive Trump-Cards of Linguistic Humor"[http://afflatus.ucd.ie/Papers/iclc2003.pdf]</ref> === Psychology and management === In sociology and social psychology, the term "ambiguity" is used to indicate situations that involve [[uncertainty]]. An increasing amount of research is concentrating on how people react and respond to ambiguous situations. Much of this focuses on [[ambiguity tolerance]]. A number of correlations have been found between an individual's reaction and tolerance to ambiguity and a range of factors. Apter and Desselles (2001)<ref>in Motivational Styles in Everyday life: A guide to reversal Theory. M.J. Apter (ed) (2001) APA Books</ref> for example, found a strong correlation with such attributes and factors like a greater preference for safe as opposed to risk-based sports, a preference for endurance-type activities as opposed to explosive activities, a more organized and less casual lifestyle, greater care and precision in descriptions, a lower sensitivity to emotional and unpleasant words, a less acute sense of humor, engaging a smaller variety of sexual practices than their more risk-comfortable colleagues, a lower likelihood of the use of drugs, pornography and drink, a greater likelihood of displaying obsessional behavior. In the field of [[leadership]], [[David Wilkinson (ambiguity expert)|David Wilkinson]] (2006)<ref>Wilkinson, D.J. (2006) ''The Ambiguity Advantage: What great leaders are great at''. New York Palgrave Macmillan.</ref> found strong correlations between an individual leader's reaction to ambiguous situations and the [[Modes of Leadership]] they use, the type of [[creativity]], Kirton (2003)<ref>Kirton, M.J. (2003)Adaption-Innovation: In the Context of Diversity and Change. Routledge.</ref> and how they relate to others. == Music == In [[music]], pieces or sections which confound expectations and may be or are interpreted simultaneously in different ways are ambiguous, such as some [[polytonality]], [[polymeter]], other ambiguous [[metre|meters]] or [[rhythm]]s, and ambiguous [[phrase (music)|phrasing]], or (Stein 2005, p.&nbsp;79) any [[aspect of music]]. The [[music of Africa]] is often purposely ambiguous. To quote [[Donald Francis Tovey|Sir Donald Francis Tovey]] (1935, p.&nbsp;195), "Theorists are apt to vex themselves with vain efforts to remove uncertainty just where it has a high aesthetic value." == Visual art == {{Refimprove section|date=April 2016}} [[File:Necker cube.svg|The [[Necker cube]], an ambiguous image|thumb]] In visual art, certain images are visually ambiguous, such as the [[Necker cube]], which can be interpreted in two ways. Perceptions of such objects remain stable for a time, then may flip, a phenomenon called [[multistable perception]]. The opposite of such ambiguous images are [[impossible object]]s. Pictures or photographs may also be ambiguous at the semantic level: the visual image is unambiguous, but the meaning and narrative may be ambiguous: is a certain facial expression one of excitement or fear, for instance? == Constructed language == {{Refimprove section|date=April 2016}} Some [[Constructed language|languages have been created]] with the intention of avoiding ambiguity, especially [[Polysemy|lexical ambiguity]]. [[Lojban]] and [[Loglan]] are two related languages which have been created for this, focusing chiefly on syntactic ambiguity as well. The languages can be both spoken and written. These languages are intended to provide a greater technical precision over big natural languages, although historically, such attempts at language improvement have been criticized. Languages composed from many diverse sources contain much ambiguity and inconsistency. The many exceptions to [[syntax]] and [[semantic]] rules are time-consuming and difficult to learn. == Computer science == In computer science, the [[SI prefix]]es [[kilo-]], [[mega-]] and [[giga-]] are used ambiguously to mean either the first three powers of 1000 (1000, 1000² and 1000³) or the first three powers of 1024 (1024, 1024² and 1024³), respectively.<ref>[http://physics.nist.gov/cuu/Units/binary.html Prefixes for binary multiples]</ref> == Mathematical notation == [[Mathematical notation]], widely used in [[physics]] and other [[science]]s, avoids many ambiguities compared to expression in natural language. However, for various reasons, several [[Lexical (semiotics)|lexical]], [[syntactic]] and [[semantic]] ambiguities remain. === Names of functions === The '''ambiguity''' in the style of writing a [[Function (mathematics)|function]] should not be confused with a [[multivalued function]], which can (and should) be defined in a deterministic and unambiguous way. Several [[special function]]s still do not have established notations. Usually, the conversion to another notation requires to scale the argument or the resulting value; sometimes, the same name of the function is used, causing confusions. Examples of such underestablished functions: * [[Sinc function]] * [[Elliptic integral#Complete elliptic integral of the third kind|Elliptic integral of the third kind]]; translating elliptic integral form [[MAPLE]] to [[Mathematica]], one should replace the second argument to its square, see [[Talk:Elliptic integral#List of notations]]; dealing with complex values, this may cause problems. * [[Exponential integral]],<ref name="irene">{{cite book |first1=M. |last1=Abramovits |first2=I. |last2=Stegun |title=Handbook on mathematical functions |page= 228 |url=http://www.math.sfu.ca/~cbm/aands/page_228.htm }}</ref> * [[Hermite polynomial]],<ref name="irene"/>{{rp|775}} === Expressions === Ambiguous expressions often appear in physical and mathematical texts. It is common practice to omit multiplication signs in mathematical expressions. Also, it is common to give the same name to a variable and a function, for example, <math>f=f(x)</math>. Then, if one sees <math>f=f(y+1)</math>, there is no way to distinguish whether it means <math>f=f(x)</math> '''multiplied''' by <math>(y+1)</math>, or function <math>f</math> '''evaluated''' at argument equal to <math>(y+1)</math>. In each case of use of such notations, the reader is supposed to be able to perform the deduction and reveal the true meaning. Creators of algorithmic languages try to avoid ambiguities. Many algorithmic languages ([[C++]] and [[Fortran]]) require the character * as symbol of multiplication. The [[Wolfram Language]] used in [[Mathematica]] allows the user to omit the multiplication symbol, but requires square brackets to indicate the argument of a function; square brackets are not allowed for grouping of expressions. Fortran, in addition, does not allow use of the same name (identifier) for different objects, for example, function and variable; in particular, the expression '''f=f(x)''' is qualified as an error. The order of operations may depend on the context. In most [[programming language]]s, the operations of division and multiplication have equal priority and are executed from left to right. Until the last century, many editorials assumed that multiplication is performed first, for example, <math>a/bc</math> is interpreted as <math>a/(bc)</math>; in this case, the insertion of parentheses is required when translating the formulas to an algorithmic language. In addition, it is common to write an argument of a function without parenthesis, which also may lead to ambiguity. Sometimes, one uses ''italics'' letters to denote elementary functions. In the [[scientific journal]] style, the expression <math> s i n \alpha</math> means product of variables <math>s</math>, <math>i</math>, <math>n</math> and <math>\alpha</math>, although in a slideshow, it may mean <math>\sin[\alpha]</math>. A comma in subscripts and superscripts sometimes is omitted; it is also ambiguous notation. If it is written <math>T_{mnk}</math>, the reader should guess from the context, does it mean a single-index object, evaluated while the subscript is equal to product of variables <math>m</math>, <math>n</math> and <math>k</math>, or it is indication to a trivalent tensor. The writing of <math>T_{mnk}</math> instead of <math>T_{m,n,k}</math> may mean that the writer either is stretched in space (for example, to reduce the publication fees) or aims to increase number of publications without considering readers. The same may apply to any other use of ambiguous notations. Subscripts are also used to denote the argument to a function, as in <math>F_{x}</math>. <!-- Some scientific journals use superscripts to indicate citations. If one cites reference number 6 about [[coherent addition of lasers]], the centenve may read as follows: Practically, the number of lasers, which can be combined in such a way, does not exceed 10⁶. "Oh, this very powerful method allows for the combination of a million lasers," the reader may think. To avoid such ambiguitty, [[citations]] in Wikipedia appear inside square bracket ^[1]. !--> === Examples of potentially confusing ambiguous mathematical expressions === <math>\sin^2\alpha/2\,</math>, which could be understood to mean either <math>(\sin(\alpha/2))^2\,</math> or <math>(\sin(\alpha))^2/2\,</math>. In addition, <math>\sin^2(x)</math> may mean <math>\sin(\sin(x))</math>, as <math>\exp^2(x)</math> means <math>\exp(\exp(x))</math> (see [[tetration]]). <math>\sin^{-1}\alpha</math>, which by convention means <math>\arcsin(\alpha)</math>, though it might be thought to mean <math>(\sin(\alpha))^{-1}</math>, since <math>\sin^{n} \alpha</math> means <math>(\sin(\alpha))^{n}\,</math>. <math>a/2b\,</math>, which arguably should mean <math>(a/2)b\,</math> but would commonly be understood to mean <math>a/(2b)\,</math> . === Notations in quantum optics and quantum mechanics === It is common to define the [[coherent states]] in [[quantum optics]] with <math>~|\alpha\rangle~ </math> and states with fixed number of photons with <math>~|n\rangle~</math>. Then, there is an "unwritten rule": the state is coherent if there are more Greek characters than Latin characters in the argument, and <math>~n~</math>photon state if the Latin characters dominate. The ambiguity becomes even worse, if <math>~|x\rangle~</math> is used for the states with certain value of the coordinate, and <math>~|p\rangle~</math> means the state with certain value of the momentum, which may be used in books on [[quantum mechanics]]. Such ambiguities easy lead to confusions, especially if some normalized [[adimensional]], [[dimensionless]] variables are used. Expression <math> |1\rangle </math> may mean a state with single photon, or the coherent state with mean amplitude equal to 1, or state with momentum equal to unity, and so on. The reader is supposed to guess from the context. === Ambiguous terms in physics and mathematics === Some physical quantities do not yet have established notations; their value (and sometimes even [[dimension]], as in the case of the [[Einstein coefficients]]), depends on the system of notations. Many terms are ambiguous. Each use of an ambiguous term should be preceded by the definition, suitable for a specific case. Just like [[Ludwig Wittgenstein]] states in [[Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus]]: "... Only in the context of a proposition has a name meaning."<ref>{{cite book |last=Wittgenstein |first=Ludwig |title=Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus |page=39 |publisher=Dover Publications Inc. |year=1999 |isbn=0-486-40445-5 }}</ref> A highly confusing term is ''gain''. For example, the sentence "the gain of a system should be doubled", without context, means close to nothing.<br /> It may mean that the ratio of the output voltage of an electric circuit to the input voltage should be doubled.<br /> It may mean that the ratio of the output power of an electric or optical circuit to the input power should be doubled.<br /> It may mean that the gain of the laser medium should be doubled, for example, doubling the population of the upper laser level in a quasi-two level system (assuming negligible absorption of the ground-state). The term ''intensity'' is ambiguous when applied to light. The term can refer to any of [[irradiance]], [[luminous intensity]], [[radiant intensity]], or [[radiance]], depending on the background of the person using the term. Also, confusions may be related with the use of [[atomic percent]] as measure of concentration of a [[dopant]], or [[Optical resolution|resolution]] of an imaging system, as measure of the size of the smallest detail which still can be resolved at the background of statistical noise. See also [[Accuracy and precision]] and its talk. The [[Berry paradox]] arises as a result of systematic ambiguity in the meaning of terms such as "definable" or "nameable". Terms of this kind give rise to [[Virtuous circle and vicious circle|vicious circle]] fallacies. Other terms with this type of ambiguity are: satisfiable, true, false, function, property, class, relation, cardinal, and ordinal.<ref>Russell/Whitehead, Principia Mathematica</ref> == Mathematical interpretation of ambiguity == [[File:Necker cube and impossible cube.svg|The [[Necker cube]] and [[impossible cube]], an underdetermined and overdetermined object, respectively.|thumb]] In mathematics and logic, ambiguity can be considered to be an instance of the logical concept of [[underdetermination]]—for example, <math>X=Y</math> leaves open what the value of ''X'' is—while its opposite is a [[self-contradiction]], also called [[inconsistency]], [[paradoxicalness]], or [[oxymoron]], or in mathematics an [[inconsistent system]]—such as <math>X=2, X=3</math>, which has no solution. Logical ambiguity and self-contradiction is analogous to visual ambiguity and [[impossible object]]s, such as the Necker cube and impossible cube, or many of the drawings of [[M. C. Escher]].<ref>{{cite journal |title=Reflexivity, Contradiction, Paradox and M. C. Escher |first=Laurence |last=Goldstein |year=1996 |publisher=[[The MIT Press]] |journal=[[Leonardo Journal|Leonardo]] |volume=29 |pages=299–308 |doi=10.2307/1576313 |issue=4 |jstor=1576313 |postscript=<!-- Bot inserted parameter. Either remove it; or change its value to "." for the cite to end in a ".", as necessary. -->{{inconsistent citations}} }}</ref> == Pedagogic use of ambiguous expressions == Ambiguity can be used as a pedagogical trick, to force students to reproduce the deduction by themselves. Some textbooks<ref>{{cite book |first1=H. |last1=Haug |first2=S. |last2=Koch |title=Quantum Theory of the Optical and Electronic Properties of Semiconductors |url=http://www.allbookstores.com/book/9812387560}}</ref> give the same name to the function and to its [[Fourier transform]]: :<math>~f(\omega)=\int f(t) \exp(i\omega t) {\rm d}t </math>. Rigorously speaking, such an expression requires that <math>~ f=0 ~</math>; even if function <math>~ f ~</math> is a [[self-Fourier function]], the expression should be written as <math>~f(\omega)=\frac{1}{\sqrt{2\pi}}\int f(t) \exp(i\omega t) {\rm d}t </math>; however, '''it is assumed that the shape of the function ''' (and even its norm <math>\int |f(x)|^2 {\rm d}x </math>) '''depend on the character used to denote its argument'''. If the Greek letter is used, it is assumed to be a Fourier transform of another function, The first function is assumed, if the expression in the argument contains more characters <math>~t~</math> or <math>~\tau~</math>, than characters <math>~\omega~</math>, and the second function is assumed in the opposite case. Expressions like <math>~f(\omega t)~</math> or <math>~f(y)~</math> contain symbols <math>~t~</math> and <math>~\omega~</math> in equal amounts; they are ambiguous and should be avoided in serious deduction. == See also == {{Col-begin}} {{Col-1-of-3}} * [[Abbreviation]] * [[Ambiguity (law)]] * [[Ambiguity tolerance]] * [[Amphibology]] * [[Decision problem]] * [[Disambiguation (disambiguation)]] * [[Double entendre]] {{Col-2-of-3}} * [[Essentially contested concept]] * [[Fallacy]] * [[Formal fallacy]] * [[Golden hammer]] * [[Informal fallacy]] {{Col-3-of-3}} * [[Self reference]] * [[Semantics]] * [[Uncertainty]] * [[Vagueness]] * [[Volatility, uncertainty, complexity and ambiguity]] * [[Word-sense disambiguation]] {{col-end}} == References == {{Reflist|2}} == External links == {{Wiktionary|ambiguity}} * {{SEP|Ambiguity|Ambiguity}} * {{InPho|idea|1883}} * {{PhilPapers|search|ambiguity}} * [http://www.gray-area.org/Research/Ambig/ Collection of Ambiguous or Inconsistent/Incomplete Statements] * [http://www.languagesoftware.net/articles/better-english-leaving-out-ambiguities/?article2pdf=1? Leaving out ambiguities when writing] {{Relevance fallacies}} {{Formal Fallacy}} {{Informal Fallacy}} {{Philosophical logic}} {{philosophy of language}} [[Category:Semantics]] [[Category:Critical thinking]] [[Category:Ambiguity| ]] g7nym34rmq9fd2avolxooy1cxqc68j3 0 678 621537622 621483166 2014-08-16T21:22:07Z The Banner 8144267 Undid revision 621483166 by [[Special:Contributions/62.178.24.168|62.178.24.168]] ([[User talk:62.178.24.168|talk]]) wikitext text/x-wiki #REDIRECT [[Cain and Abel]] 4lpo47pm8z3vhpbd0dh1w8xlk3wwauh 0 679 712871366 709259941 2016-03-31T15:52:14Z Alaney2k 209266 /* Songs */elim redir(s);awb using [[Project:AWB|AWB]] wikitext text/x-wiki {{Wiktionary|animal}} An '''[[animal]]''' is a multicellular, eukaryotic organism of the kingdom Animalia or Metazoa. '''Animal''' or '''Animals''' may also refer to: {{TOC right}} == Entertainment == === Fictional characters === *[[Animal (Muppet)]], television series character from ''The Muppet Show'' *Animal, television series character in ''[[Takeshi's Castle]]'' === Movies === *[[Animal (1977 film)|''Animal'' (1977 film)]], French film (''L'Animal'') starring Jean-Paul Belmondo and Raquel Welch *[[Animal (2001 film)|''Animal'' (2001 film)]], Argentine comedy film by Sergio Bizzio with Carlos Roffé *''[[The Animal]]'', 2001 US comedy film featuring Rob Schneider *[[Animals (film)|''Animals'' (film)]], a stand-up show written and performed by Ricky Gervais, filmed in 2003 *[[Animal (2005 film)|''Animal'' (2005 film)]], US direct-to-video action drama film starring Ving Rhames and Terrance Howard *[[The Animals (film)|''The Animals'' (film)]], 2012 Filipino coming-of-age film by Gino M. Santos *[[Animal (2014 film)|''Animal'' (2014 film)]], 2014 US horror film starring Keke Palmer === Music === ==== Bands ==== * [[The Animals]], a British rock band * [[A.N.I.M.A.L.]], an Argentinian heavy metal band ==== Albums ==== * [[The Animals (American album)|''The Animals'' (American album)]] (1964), by The Animals * [[The Animals (British album)|''The Animals'' (British album)]] (1964), by The Animals * [[Animal (Animosity album)|''Animal'' (Animosity album)]], 2007 * [[Animal (Kesha album)|''Animal'' (Kesha album)]], 2010 * [[Animal (Motor Ace album)|''Animal'' (Motor Ace album)]], 2005 * ''[[Animal!]]'', by [[Margot & the Nuclear So and So's]], 2008 * [[Animals (Pink Floyd album)|''Animals'' (Pink Floyd album)]], 1977 * [[Animals (This Town Needs Guns album)|''Animals'' (This Town Needs Guns album)]], 2008 * [[Animals (EP)]], by Ryan Star * ''Animal'', by the London-based electronic band [[autoKratz]], 2009 * ''Animal'', by [[Far East Movement]], 2008 * ''Animal'', by [[The Bar-Kays]], 1988 * ''Animal'', by [[Berlin (band)|Berlin]], 2013 ==== Songs ==== * [[Animal (Conor Maynard song)|"Animal" (Conor Maynard song)]] * [[Animal (Def Leppard song)|"Animal" (Def Leppard song)]] * [[Animal (Jebediah song)|"Animal" (Jebediah song)]] * [[Animal (Juvenile song)|"Animal" (Juvenile song)]] * [[Animal (Kesha song)|"Animal" (Kesha song)]] * [[Animal (Miike Snow song)|"Animal" (Miike Snow song)]] * [[Animal (Neon Trees song)|"Animal" (Neon Trees song)]] * [[Animal (Pearl Jam song)|"Animal" (Pearl Jam song)]] * [[Animal (R.E.M. song)|"Animal" (R.E.M. song)]] * [[Animals (Kevin Ayers song)|"Animals" (Kevin Ayers song)]] * [[Animals (Maroon 5 song)|"Animals" (Maroon 5 song)]] * [[Animals (Martin Garrix song)|"Animals" (Martin Garrix song)]] * [[Animals (Muse song)|"Animals" (Muse song)]] * [[Animals (Nickelback song)|"Animals" (Nickelback song)]] * [[The Animal (Disturbed song)|"The Animal" (Disturbed song)]] * [[Animal (Fuck Like a Beast)|"Animal" (Fuck Like a Beast)]]", by W.A.S.P. * "Animal", by Against Me! from [[New Wave (Against Me! album)|''New Wave'']] * "Animal", by Ani DiFranco from ''[[Educated Guess]]'' * "Animal", by Black Light Burns from ''[[Cruel Melody]]'' * "Animal", by Ellie Goulding from [[Lights (Ellie Goulding album)|''Lights'']] * "Animal", by Karen O and the Kids from [[Where the Wild Things Are (soundtrack)|''Where the Wild Things Are'']] * "Animal", by Kat DeLuna from ''[[9 Lives (Kat DeLuna album)|9 Lives]]'' * "Animal", by Mindless Self Indulgence from [[If (Mindless Self Indulgence album)|''If'']] * "Animal", by [[Mudmen]] from ''Overrated'' * "Animal" by Subhumans from ''[[Demolition War]]'' * "Animal", by [[Sunhouse]] from ''Crazy On The Weekend'' * "Animal", by The Kinks from [[To the Bone (The Kinks album)|''To the Bone'']] * "Animal", by Toto from [[Past to Present 1977-1990]] * "Animals", by CocoRosie from ''[[The Adventures of Ghosthorse and Stillborn]]'' * "Animals", by Coldplay as one of the B-sides for [[Clocks (song)|"Clocks"]] * "Animals", by Dead Poetic from [[Vices (Dead Poetic album)|''Vices'']] * "Animals", by Talking Heads from ''[[Fear of Music]]'' * "Animals", by The End from [[Elementary (The End album)|''Elementary'']] * "The Animal", by Steve Vai from ''[[Passion and Warfare]]'' ===Television=== * [[Animals (TV series)|''Animals'' (TV series)]], a South Korean TV series * [[Animals (The Goodies)|"Animals" (''The Goodies'')]], television series episode * "Animals", series [[List of Men Behaving Badly episodes#ep4|episode of ''Men Behaving Badly'']] * "Animals", series episode of ''[[Off the Air (TV series)#ep1|Off the Air]]'' * "Animals", series [[List of The Vicar of Dibley episodes#ep6|episode of ''The Vicar of Dibley'']] * [[Animal (audio play)]], an audio drama based on the television series ''Doctor Who'' * ''[[Animals.]]'', a 2016 American animated television series == People == *[[The Animal (nickname)]], a list of people nicknamed "The Animal" or "Animal" === Professional wrestlers === *[[Road Warrior Animal]] (born 1960), the best-known ring persona of Joe Laurinaitis *[[Animal Hamaguchi]] (born 1947), ring name of Japanese retired wrestler Heigo Hamaguchi *[[George Steele]] (born 1937), American retired professional wrestler, author and actor known as "The Animal" == Software == *[[Timeline of computer viruses and worms#1974/1975|ANIMAL]], an early self-replicating computer program *[[ANIMAL (image processing)]], an interactive software environment for image processing == Publications == *[[Animal (journal)|''Animal'' (journal)]], full title: ''Animal: An International Journal of Animal Bioscience'', British academic journal *[[Animal (book)|''Animal'' (book)]], full title ''Animal: The Definitive Visual Guide to The World's WildLife'', a 2003 non-fiction book by David Burnie and several co-authors *''Animal'', 2012 novel by [[K'wan Foye]] == Businesses == *[[Animal (clothing)]], a sportswear retailer and brand based in the United Kingdom *[[Animal (restaurant)]], a restaurant based in Los Angeles, California, USA *Animal Brewery [[XT Brewing Company]], a UK based micro-brewery == See also == *''[[Animals, Animals, Animals]]'', an American educational television series (1976–1981) *[[Animalia (disambiguation)]], other uses of the term *[[Animalism (disambiguation)]] {{Disambiguation}} s9h0wqb6zqxh0goblumx2ptstaznpwu 0 680 715558671 715556798 2016-04-16T15:59:25Z Apokryltaros 318802 Reverted 1 edit by [[Special:Contributions/Andytheaardvark|Andytheaardvark]] ([[User talk:Andytheaardvark|talk]]): Unsourced and irrelevant. ([[WP:TW|TW]]) wikitext text/x-wiki {{Other uses}} {{pp-move-indef}} {{Use dmy dates|date=July 2012}} {{speciesbox | genus = Orycteropus | species = afer | name = Aardvark | fossil_range = {{Fossil range|5|0}}<small>Early [[Pliocene]] – Recent</small> | status = LC | status_system = iucn3.1 | status_ref = <ref name="iucn">{{harvnb|Lindsey|Cilliers|Griffin|Taylor|2008}}</ref> | trend = unknown | image = Porc formiguer.JPG | image_caption = | display_parents = 4 | greatgrandparent_authority = [[Thomas Henry Huxley|Huxley]], 1872 | grandparent_authority = [[John Edward Gray|Gray]], 1821 | parent_authority = [[Georges Cuvier|G. Cuvier]], 1798 | binomial_authority = ([[Peter Simon Pallas|Pallas]], 1766) | range_map = Aardvark area.png | range_map_caption = Aardvark range | subdivision_ranks = [[Subspecies]] | subdivision = See Text }} The '''aardvark''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|ɑr|d|.|v|ɑr|k|}} {{respell|ARD|vark}}; ''Orycteropus afer'') is a medium-sized, burrowing, [[nocturnal]] mammal native to [[Africa]].<ref name=EB>{{harvnb|Hoiberg|2010|pp=3–4}}</ref> It is the only living species of the order [[Tubulidentata]],<ref name="MSW3">{{harvnb|Schlitter|2005|p=86}}</ref><ref name=EoM/> although other prehistoric species and genera of Tubulidentata are known. Unlike other [[insectivore]]s, it has a long pig-like snout, which is used to sniff out food. It roams over most of the southern two-thirds of the African continent, avoiding areas that are mainly rocky. A nocturnal feeder, it subsists on ants and termites, which it will dig out of their hills using its sharp claws and powerful legs. It also digs to create burrows in which to live and rear its young. It receives a "least concern" rating from the [[IUCN]], although its numbers seem to be decreasing. ==Naming and taxonomy== === Naming === The aardvark is sometimes colloquially called "African ant bear",<ref name="Colliers">{{harvnb|Goodwin|1997|pp=2–3}}</ref> "[[anteater]]", or the "Cape anteater"<ref name=Colliers/> after the [[Cape of Good Hope]]. The name "aardvark" ({{IPA-af|ˈɑːrtfɐrk}}) comes from earlier [[Afrikaans]] (erdvark)<ref name=Colliers/> and means "earth [[pig]]" or "ground pig" (''aarde'' earth/ground, ''vark'' pig), because of its burrowing habits<ref>{{harvnb|Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary|2010}}</ref> (similar origin to the name [[groundhog]]). The name ''Orycteropus'' means burrowing foot, and the name ''afer'' refers to Africa.<ref name=sho/> The name of the aardvarks's order, ''Tubulidentata'' comes from the tubule style teeth.<ref name=sho1>{{harvnb|Shoshani|2002|p=619}}</ref> === Taxonomy === The aardvark is not closely related to the pig; rather, it is the sole extant representative of the obscure mammalian [[order (biology)|order]] [[Tubulidentata]],<ref name=sho>{{harvnb|Shoshani|2002|p=618}}</ref> in which it is usually considered to form one variable species of the genus ''[[Orycteropus]]'', the sole surviving genus in the family [[Orycteropodidae]]. The aardvark is not closely related to the [[South America]]n [[anteater]], despite sharing some characteristics and a superficial resemblance.<ref name=awf/> The similarities are based on [[convergent evolution]].<ref name=UR2/> The closest living relatives of the aardvark are the [[elephant shrew]]s, [[tenrecidae|tenrec]]s and [[golden mole]]s.<ref>{{harvnb|Asher|Bennett|Lehmann|2009|p=854}}</ref> Along with the [[sirenian]]s, [[hyrax]]es, [[elephant]]s,<ref>{{harvnb|Rodriguez|2013|p=6}}</ref> and their extinct relatives, these animals form the superorder [[Afrotheria]].<ref name=UR>{{harvnb|Rahm|1990|pp=450–451}}</ref> Studies of the brain have shown the similarities with [[Condylarthra]],<ref name=UR2/> and given the clade's status as a [[wastebasket taxon]] it may mean some species traditionally classified as "condylarths" are actually stem-aardvarks.{{citation needed|date=September 2015}} === Evolutionary history === Based on fossils, Bryan Patterson has concluded that early relatives of the aardvark appeared in [[Africa]] around the end of the [[Paleocene]].<ref name=UR2/><ref name=sho2>{{harvnb|Shoshani|2002|p=620}}</ref> The [[ptolemaiida]]ns, a mysterious clade of mammals with uncertain affinities, may actually be stem-aardvarks, either as a sister clade to [[Tubulidentata]] or as a grade leading to true tubulidentates.<ref name="Cote et al 2007">{{cite journal |author=Cote S, Werdelin L, Seiffert ER, Barry JC |title=Additional material of the enigmatic Early Miocene mammal ''Kelba'' and its relationship to the order Ptolemaiida |journal=Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. |volume=104 |issue=13 |pages=5510–5 |date=March 2007 |pmid=17372202 |pmc=1838468 |doi=10.1073/pnas.0700441104 |bibcode = 2007PNAS..104.5510C }}</ref><ref name=Seifert2007>{{cite journal|last=Seiffert|first=Erik R|title=A new estimate of afrotherian phylogeny based on simultaneous analysis of genomic, morphological, and fossil evidence|journal=BMC Evolutionary Biology|year=2007|volume=7|issue=1|pages=224|doi=10.1186/1471-2148-7-224|url=http://www.biomedcentral.com/1471-2148/7/224|pmid=17999766|pmc=2248600}}</ref> The first unambiguous tubulidentate was probably ''[[Myorycteropus africanus]]'' from [[Kenya]]n [[Miocene]] deposits.<ref name=UR2/> The earliest example from the ''[[Orycteropus]]'' genus was the ''[[Orycteropus mauritanicus]]'' found in [[Algeria]] in deposits from the middle Miocene, with an equally aged version found in Kenya.<ref name=UR2/> Fossils from the aardvark have been dated to 5 million years, and have been located throughout [[Europe]] and the [[Near East]].<ref name=UR2/> A close relative lived in Madagascar during the [[Quaternary glaciation|last ice age]].<ref name=Colliers/> The mysterious Pleistocene ''[[Plesiorycteropus]]'' from [[Madagascar]] was originally thought to be a tubulidentate that was descended from ancestors that entered the island during the [[Eocene]]. However, a number of subtle anatomical differences coupled with recent molecular evidence now lead researchers to believe that ''Plesiorycteropus'' is a relative of golden moles and tenrecs that achieved an aardvark-like appearance and ecological niche through convergent evolution.{{citation needed|date=September 2015}} ===Subspecies=== The aardvark has seventeen poorly defined subspecies listed:<ref name="MSW3"/> * ''Orycteropus afer afer'' * ''O. a. adametzi'' <small> Grote, 1921</small> * ''O. a. aethiopicus'' <small> [[Carl Jakob Sundevall|Sundevall]], 1843</small> * ''O. a. angolensis'' <small> [[Ludwig Zukowsky|Zukowsky]] & [[Theodor Haltenorth|Haltenorth]], 1957</small> * ''O. a. erikssoni'' <small> [[Einar Lönnberg|Lönnberg]], 1906</small> * ''O. a. faradjius'' <small> [[Robert T. Hatt|Hatt]], 1932</small> * ''O. a. haussanus'' <small> [[Paul Matschie|Matschie]], 1900</small> * ''O. a. kordofanicus'' <small> [[Walter Rothschild, 2nd Baron Rothschild|Rothschild]], 1927</small> * ''O. a. lademanni'' <small> Grote, 1911</small> * ''O. a. leptodon'' <small> Hirst, 1906</small> * ''O. a. matschiei'' <small> Grote, 1921</small> * ''O. a. observandus'' <small>Grote, 1921</small> * ''O. a. ruvanensis'' <small>Grote, 1921</small> * ''O. a. senegalensis'' <small>[[René Primevère Lesson|Lesson]], 1840</small> * ''O. a. somalicus'' <small>[[Richard Lydekker|Lydekker]], 1908</small> * ''O. a. wardi'' <small>Lydekker, 1908</small> * ''O. a. wertheri'' <small> Matschie, 1898</small> ==Description== [[File:Aardvark skeleton mount.JPG|thumb|right|An aardvark skeleton and mounted individual]] The aardvark is vaguely pig-like in appearance. Its body is stout with a prominently arched back<ref name=UR1>{{harvnb|Rahm|1990|p=452}}</ref> and is sparsely covered with coarse hairs. The limbs are of moderate length, with the rear legs being longer than the forelegs.<ref name=UR/> The front feet have lost the pollex (or 'thumb'), resulting in four toes, while the rear feet have all five toes. Each toe bears a large, robust [[Nail (anatomy)|nail]] which is somewhat flattened and shovel-like, and appears to be intermediate between a [[claw]] and a hoof. Whereas the aardvark is considered [[digitigrade]], it appears at time to be [[plantigrade]]. This confusion happens because when it squats it stands on its soles.<ref name=UR1/> An aardvark's weight is typically between {{convert|60|and(-)|80|kg}}.<ref name=UR/> An aardvark's length is usually between {{convert|105|and(-)|130|cm|ft}},<ref name=EoM/> and can reach lengths of {{convert|2.2|m}} when its tail (which can be up to {{convert|70|cm}}) is taken into account. It is {{convert|60|cm|in}} tall at the shoulder, and has a girth of about {{convert|100|cm|ft}}.<ref name=UR1/> It is the [[Largest organisms|largest]] member of the proposed clade [[Afroinsectiphilia]]. The aardvark is pale yellowish-gray in color and often stained reddish-brown by [[soil]]. The aardvark's coat is thin, and the animal's primary protection is its tough skin. Its hair is short on its head and tail; however its legs tend to have longer hair.<ref name=EoM/> The hair on the majority of its body is grouped in clusters of 3-4 hairs.<ref name=UR1/> The hair surrounding its nostrils is dense to help filter particulate matter out as it digs. Its tail is very thick at the base and gradually tapers. ===Head=== The greatly elongated head is set on a short, thick neck, and the end of the snout bears a disc, which houses the nostrils. It contains a thin but complete [[zygomatic arch]].<ref name=UR1/> The head of the aardvark contains many unique and different features. One of the most distinctive characteristics of the Tubulidentata is their [[teeth]]. Instead of having a [[pulp (tooth)|pulp cavity]], each tooth has a cluster of thin, hexagonal, upright, parallel tubes of vasodentin (a modified form of [[dentine]]), with individual pulp canals, held together by [[cementum]].<ref name=UR/> The number of columns is dependent on the size of the tooth, with the largest having about 1,500.<ref name=UR2/> The teeth have no [[Tooth enamel|enamel]] coating and are worn away and regrow continuously.<ref name=sho1/> The aardvark is born with conventional incisors and [[canine tooth|canines]] at the front of the jaw, which fall out and are not replaced. Adult aardvarks have only cheek teeth at the back of the [[jaw]], and have a [[dentition|dental formula]] of: {{DentalFormula|upper=0.0.2-3.3|lower=0.0.2.3}} These remaining teeth are peg-like and rootless and are of unique composition.<ref>{{harvnb|Martin|1983|p=377}}</ref> The teeth consist of 14 upper and 12 lower jaw molars.<ref name=Colliers/> The nasal area of the aardvark is another unique area, as it contains ten [[nasal conchae]], more than any other placental mammal.<ref name=UR/> The sides of the nostrils are thick with hair.<ref name=UR1/> The tip of the snout is highly mobile and is moved by modified [[mimetic muscles]].<ref name=UR/> The fleshy dividing tissue between its nostrils probably has sensory functions,<ref name=EoM/> but it is uncertain if it is olfactory or vibration in nature.<ref name=UR6>{{harvnb|Rahm|1990|p=458}}</ref> Its nose is made up of more [[turbinate]] bones than any other mammal, with between 9 and 11, compared to dogs with 4 to 5.<ref name=sho1/> With a large quantity of turbinate bones, the aardvark has more space for the moist [[epithelium]], which is the location of the olfactory bulb.<ref name=sho1/> The nose contains nine [[olfactory bulb]]s, more than any other mammal.<ref name=UR1/> Its keen sense of smell is not just from the quantity of bulbs in the nose but also in the development of the brain, as its [[olfactory lobe]] is very developed.<ref name=UR2>{{harvnb|Rahm|1990|pp=453–454}}</ref> The snout resembles an elongated pig snout. The mouth is small and tubular, typical of species that feed on [[ant]]s and [[termite]]s. The aardvark has a long, thin, snakelike, protruding tongue (as much as {{convert|30|cm|in}} long)<ref name=Colliers/> and elaborate structures supporting a keen [[olfaction|sense of smell]].<ref name="TaylorSkinner">{{harvnb|Taylor|Skinner|2004|p=106}}</ref> The ears, which are very effective,<ref name=Colliers/> are disproportionately long, about {{convert|20|-|25|cm|in}} long.<ref name=UR1/> The eyes are small for its head, and consist only of [[rod cell|rods]].<ref name=UR1/> ===Digestive system=== The aardvark's stomach has a muscular [[pyloric]] area that acts as a [[gizzard]] to grind swallowed food up, thereby rendering chewing unnecessary.<ref name=EoM/> Its [[cecum]] is large.<ref name=UR/> Both sexes emit a strong smelling secretion from an anal gland.<ref name=EoM/> Its [[salivary gland]]s are highly developed and almost completely ring the neck;<ref name=UR/> their output is what causes the tongue to maintain its tackiness.<ref name=UR1/> The female has two pairs of [[teat]]s in the inguinal region.<ref name=UR/> [[Gene]]tically speaking, the aardvark is a [[living fossil]], as its [[chromosome]]s are highly conserved, reflecting much of the early [[eutherian]] arrangement before the divergence of the major modern [[taxon|taxa]].<ref>{{harvnb|Anon|2003}}</ref> ==Habitat and range== Aardvarks are found in [[sub-Saharan Africa]], where suitable [[habitat]] ([[savanna]]s, [[grassland]]s, [[woodland]]s and [[bushland]]) and food (i.e., [[ants]] and [[termites]]) is available.<ref name="awf">{{harvnb|African Wildlife Foundation|2013}}</ref> They spend the daylight hours in dark underground burrows to avoid the heat of the day.<ref name=ez>{{harvnb|Anon|2013}}</ref> The only major habitat that they are not present in is swamp forest, as the high water table precludes digging to a sufficient depth.<ref name="iucn"/> They also avoid terrain rocky enough to cause problems with digging.<ref name=UR3>{{harvnb|Rahm|1990|p=455}}</ref> They have been documented as high as {{convert|3200|m|ft}} in Ethiopia. They are present throughout sub-Saharan Africa all the way to South Africa with few exceptions. These exceptions include the coastal areas of [[Namibia]], [[Ivory Coast]], and [[Ghana]]. They are not found in Madagascar.<ref name="iucn"/> ==Ecology and behavior== [[File:Orycteropus afer.jpg|thumb|upright|right|Aardvark resting]] [[File:Erdvarkgat, Dingaanstat.jpg|thumb|right|Entrance to burrow]] Aardvarks live for up to 23&nbsp;years in [[captivity (animal)|captivity]].<ref name=UR/> Its keen hearing warns it of predators: [[lion]]s, [[leopard]]s, [[African wild dog|hunting dog]]s, [[hyena]]s, and [[pythonidae|pythons]].<ref name=Colliers/><ref name=UR6/> Some humans also hunt aardvarks for meat.<ref name=Colliers/> Aardvarks can dig fast or run in zigzag fashion to elude enemies, but if all else fails, they will strike with their claws, tail and shoulders, sometimes flipping onto their backs lying motionless except to lash out with all four feet.<ref name=UR6/> They are capable of causing substantial damage to unprotected areas of an attacker.<ref name=sho1/> They will also dig to escape as they can, when pressed, dig extremely quickly.<ref name=UR6/> Their thick skin also protects them to some extent.{{Citation needed|date=June 2011}} ===Feeding=== The aardvark is [[nocturnal]] and is a solitary creature that feeds almost exclusively on [[ant]]s and [[termite]]s ([[formivore]]);<ref name="EoM">{{harvnb|van Aarde|1984|pp=466–467}}</ref> the only fruit eaten by aardvarks is the [[aardvark cucumber]].<ref name=UR6/> In fact, the cucumber and the aardvark have a symbiotic relationship as they eat the subterranean fruit, then defecate the seeds near their burrows, which then grow rapidly due to the loose soil and fertile nature of the area. The time spent in the intestine of the aardvark helps the fertility of the seed, and the fruit provides needed moisture for the aardvark.<ref name=sho1/><ref name=UR6/> They avoid eating the African [[driver ant]] and red ants.<ref name=UR4/> Due to their stringent diet requirements, they require a large range to survive.<ref name=UR3/> An aardvark emerges from its burrow in the late afternoon or shortly after sunset, and forages over a considerable home range encompassing {{convert|10|to|30|km|mi}}. While foraging for food, the aardvark will keep its nose to the ground and its ears pointed forward, which indicates that both smell and hearing are involved in the search for food. They zig-zag as they forage and will usually not repeat a route for 5–8 days as they appear to allow time for the termite nests to recover before feeding on it again.<ref name=UR4/> During a foraging period, they will stop and dig a "V" shaped trench with their forefeet and then sniff it profusely as a means to explore their location.<ref name=EoM/> When a concentration of ants or termites is detected, the aardvark digs into it with its powerful front legs, keeping its long ears upright to listen for predators, and takes up an astonishing number of [[insect]]s with its long, sticky tongue—as many as 50,000 in one night have been recorded. Its claws enable it to dig through the extremely hard crust of a termite or ant mound quickly. It avoids inhaling the dust by sealing the nostrils.<ref name=ez/> When successful, the aardvark's long (up to {{convert|30|cm|in}})<ref name=EB/> tongue licks up the insects; the termites' biting, or the ants' stinging attacks are rendered futile by the tough skin. After an aardvark visit at a termite mound, other animals will visit to pick up all the leftovers.<ref name=UR5>{{harvnb|Rahm|1990|p=457}}</ref> Termite mounds alone don't provide enough food for the aardvark, so they look for termites that are on the move. When these insects move, they can form columns {{convert|10|-|40|m|ft}} long and these tend to provide easy pickings with little effort exerted by the aardvark. These columns are more common in areas of livestock or other hoofed animals.<ref name=UR5/> The trampled grass and dung attract termites from [[Odontotermes]], [[Microtermes]], and [[Pseudacanthotermes]] genera.<ref name=UR5/> On a nightly basis they tend to be more active during the first portion of the night time (20:00-00:00); however, they don't seem to prefer bright or dark nights over the other. During adverse weather or if disturbed they will retreat to their burrow systems. They cover between {{convert|2|and|5|km|mi}} per night; however, some studies have shown that they may traverse as far as {{convert|30|km|mi}} in a night.<ref name=EoM/> ===Vocalization=== The aardvark is a rather quiet animal. However, it does make soft grunting sounds as it forages and loud grunts as it makes for its tunnel entrance.<ref name=UR3/> It makes a bleating sound if frightened.<ref name=UR4>{{harvnb|Rahm|1990|p=456}}</ref> When it is threatened it will make for one of its burrows. If one is not close it will dig a new one rapidly. This new one will be short and require the aardvark to back out when the coast is clear.<ref name=UR4/> ===Movement=== The aardvark is known to be a good swimmer and has been witnessed successfully swimming in strong currents.<ref name=UR4/> It can dig a yard of tunnel in about five minutes,<ref name=UR3/> but otherwise moves fairly slowly. When leaving the burrow at night, they pause at the entrance for about ten minutes, sniffing and listening. After this period of watchfulness, it will bound out and within seconds it will be {{convert|10|m|ft}} away. It will then pause, prick its ears, twisting its head to listen, then jump and move off to start foraging.<ref name=UR3/> Aside from digging out ants and termites, the aardvark also [[fossorial|excavates]] burrows in which to live; of which they generally fall into three categories: burrows made while foraging, refuge and resting location, and permanent homes.<ref name=EoM/> Temporary sites are scattered around the home range and are used as refuges, while the main [[burrow]] is also used for breeding. Main burrows can be deep and extensive, have several entrances and can be as long as {{convert|13|m|ft}}.<ref name=EoM/> These burrows can be large enough for a man to enter.<ref name=Colliers/> The aardvark changes the layout of its home burrow regularly, and periodically moves on and makes a new one. The old burrows are an important part of the African wildlife scene. As they are vacated, then they are inhabited by smaller animals like the [[African Wild Dog|African wild dog]], [[ant-eating chat]], ''[[Nycteris thebaica]]'' and [[warthog]]s.<ref name=UR4/> Other animals that use them are hares, mongooses, hyenas, owls, pythons, and lizards. Without these refuges many animals would die during wildfire season.<ref name=UR4/> Only mothers and young share burrows; however, the aardvark is known to live in small family groups or as a solitary creature.<ref name=Colliers/> If attacked in the tunnel, it will escape by digging out of the tunnel thereby placing the fresh fill between it and its predator, or if it decides to fight it will roll onto its back, and attack with its claws.<ref name=Colliers/> The aardvark has been known to sleep in a recently excavated [[ant]] nest, which also serves as protection from its [[predator]]s.<ref>{{harvnb|Anon|2013a}}</ref> ===Reproduction=== [[File:Aardvarks.jpg|thumb|right|Aardvark mother and young]] Aardvarks pair only during the breeding season; after a [[gestation]] period of seven months,<ref name=EoM/> one cub weighing around {{convert|1.7|-|1.9|kg|lb}}<ref name=UR/> is born during May–July.<ref name=Colliers/> When born, the young has flaccid ears and many wrinkles. When nursing, it will nurse off each teat in succession.<ref name=UR6/> After two weeks, the folds of skin disappear and after three, the ears can be held upright.<ref name=UR6/> After 5–6 weeks, body hair starts growing.<ref name=UR6/> It is able to leave the burrow to accompany its mother after only two weeks, and is eating termites at 9&nbsp;weeks<ref name=UR6/> and is weaned by 16&nbsp;weeks.<ref name=EoM/> By three months of age the young has been weaned.<ref name=UR/> At six months of age, it is able to dig its own burrows, but it will often remain with the mother until the next [[mating season]],<ref name=EoM/> and is sexually mature from approximately two years of age.<ref name=UR/> ==Conservation== Aardvarks were thought to have declining numbers,<ref name=Colliers/> however, this is possibly due to the fact that they are not readily seen.<ref name="iucn"/> There are no definitive counts because of their nocturnal and secretive habits; however, their numbers seem to be stable overall. They are not considered common anywhere in Africa, but due to their large range, they maintain sufficient numbers. There may be a slight decrease in numbers in eastern, northern, and western Africa. Southern African numbers are not decreasing. It receives an official designation from the IUCN as [[least concern]].<ref name="iucn"/> However, they are a species in a precarious situation, as they are so dependent on such specific food; therefore if a problem arises with the abundance of termites, the species as a whole would be affected drastically.<ref name=EoM/> Aardvarks handle captivity well. The first zoo to have one was [[London Zoo]] in 1869, which had an animal from [[South Africa]].<ref name=UR6/> ==Mythology and popular culture== [[File:F-14A Tomcat of VF-114 in flight 1977.jpg|thumb|200px|F-14 Tomcat from VF-114 Aardvarks with the squadron mascot painted on the tail]] In [[African folklore]], the aardvark is much admired because of its diligent quest for food and its fearless response to [[army ant|soldier ants]]. [[Hausa people|Hausa]] magicians make a charm from the heart, skin, forehead, and nails of the aardvark, which they then proceed to pound together with the root of a certain tree. Wrapped in a piece of skin and worn on the chest, the charm is said to give the owner the ability to pass through walls or roofs at night. The charm is said to be used by burglars and those seeking to visit young girls without their parents' permission.<ref>{{harvnb|Rebecca|2007}}</ref> Also, some tribes, such as the [[Mangbetu people|Margbetu]], [[Ayanda]], and [[Logo people|Logo]],<ref name=EoM/> will use aardvark teeth to make bracelets, which are regarded as good luck charms.<ref name=Colliers/> The meat, which has a resemblance to pork, is eaten in certain cultures.<ref name=EoM/> The [[Egyptian mythology|Egyptian god]] [[Set (mythology)|Set]] is said (by some) to have the head of an aardvark or to be part aardvark.<ref>{{harvnb|te Velde|1997|p=13}}</ref> The titular character of ''[[Arthur (TV series)|Arthur]]'', an animated television series for children based on a book series and produced by [[WGBH-TV|WGBH]], shown in more than 180 countries, is an aardvark.<ref>{{harvnb|WGBH|2013}}</ref> An aardvark features as the antagonist in the cartoon ''[[The Ant and the Aardvark]]''. In the military, the Air Force supersonic fighter-bomber [[General Dynamics F-111 Aardvark|F-111/FB-111]] was nicknamed the Aardvark because of its long nose resembling the animal. It also had similarities with its nocturnal missions flown at a very low level employing ordnance that could penetrate deep into the ground. In the US Navy, the squadron [[VF-114]] was nicknamed the Aardvarks, flying [[McDonnell Douglas F-4 Phantom II|F-4]]'s and then [[Grumman F-14 Tomcat|F-14]]'s. The squadron mascot was adapted from the animal in the comic strip [[B.C. (comic strip)#Animals and other non-human characters|B.C.]], which the F-4 was said to resemble. ==Footnotes== {{Reflist|3}} ==References== {{refbegin|2}} * {{cite web | author = African Wildlife Foundation | title = Aardvark | publisher = African Wildlife Foundation | url=http://www.awf.org/content/wildlife/detail/aardvark | accessdate = 2013-11-18 | archiveurl= http://web.archive.org/web/20080105044436/http://www.awf.org/content/wildlife/detail/aardvark | archivedate= 5 January 2008 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no | year = 2013 | ref = harv }} * {{cite web | author = Anon | title = All About Aardvarks | url = http://www.easyscienceforkids.com/all-about-aardvarks.html | website = Easy Science for Kids | publisher = Online Science Tutor for Kids | accessdate = 2013-11-18 | year = 2013 | ref = harv }} * {{cite web | author = Anon | website = Animal Corner | year = 2013a | title = Rainforest Aardvark | url = http://www.animalcorner.co.uk/rainforests/aardvark.html | accessdate = 10 January 2014 | ref = harv}} * {{cite web | author = Anon | title = Great Uncle Aardvark? | website = BBC News | date = 20 January 2003 | url = http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/2676377.stm | accessdate = 2013-11-18 | archiveurl = http://web.archive.org/web/20080207170352/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/2676377.stm | archivedate = 7 February 2008 | ref = harv }} * {{Cite journal | last = Asher | first = R. J. | last2 = Bennett | first2 = N. | last3 = Lehmann | first3 = T. | title = The new framework for understanding placental mammal evolution | journal = BioEssays | volume = 31 | issue = 8 | pages = 853–864 | year = 2009 | pmid = 19582725| pmc = | doi = 10.1002/bies.200900053 | ref = harv}} * {{cite encyclopedia | last1 = Goodwin | first1 = George G. | editor-last = Johnston | editor-first = Bernard | encyclopedia = Collier's Encyclopedia | title = Aardvark | edition = 1st | year = 1997 | publisher = P.F. Collier | volume = I: A to Ameland | location = New York, NY | isbn = 978-1571610935 | ref = harv }} * {{cite encyclopedia | editor-last = Hoiberg | editor-first = Dale H. | encyclopedia = Encyclopædia Britannica | title = Aardvark | edition = 15th | year = 2010 | publisher = Encyclopædia Britannica Inc. | volume = I: A-ak Bayes | location = Chicago, IL | isbn = 978-1-59339-837-8 | ref = harv }} * {{IUCN | version = 2008 | assessors = Lindsey, P.; Cilliers, S.; Griffin, M.; Taylor, A.; Lehmann, T.; Rathbun, G. | year = 2008 | id = 41504 | title = Orycteropus afer | downloaded = 2013-11-18|ref={{harvid|Lindsey|Cilliers|Griffin|Taylor|2008}} }} * {{cite encyclopedia | last = Martin | first = Elizabeth A. | encyclopedia = MacMillan Dictionary of Life Sciences | title = Tubulidentata | isbn = 978-0333348673 | year = 1983 | edition = 2nd | publisher = MacMillan | ref = harv }} * {{cite web | author = Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary | title = aardvark | year = 2010 | website = Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary | accessdate = 2013-11-18 | url = http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/aardvark | ref = harv }} * {{cite encyclopedia | last = Rahm | first = Urs | editor-last = Parker | editor-first = Sybil P. | title = Tubulidentates: Aardvark | encyclopedia = Grzimek's Encyclopedia of Mammals | volume = 4 | publisher = McGraw-Hill Publishing Company | location = New York, NY | isbn = 0-07-909508-9 | year = 1990 | pp = 450 458 | ref = harv }} * {{cite web | author = Rebecca | title = Cute as a Button but a Pain in my Butt: The Aardvark | url = http://www.themagicalbuffet.com/Issues/Vol02_Iss07/Article_049.html | accessdate = 2013-11-18 | archiveurl = http://web.archive.org/web/20080117180543/http://www.themagicalbuffet.com/Issues/Vol02_Iss07/Article_049.html | archivedate = 17 January 2008 <!--DASHBot--> | deadurl = no | year = 2007 | ref = harv }} * {{cite journal | last = Rodriguez | first = Tommy | title = Technological Perspectives in Phylogeny Research: Revisiting Comparative Analysis of Complete Mitochondrial Genomes for Time-Extended Lineages | journal = Figshare | url = http://dx.doi.org/10.6084/m9.figshare.804317 | doi = 10.6084/m9.figshare.804317 | year = 2013 | format = PDF | pages = 1–9 | ref = harv}} * {{MSW3 Tubulidentata | id = 11300004|ref={{harvid|Schlitter|2005}} }} * {{cite encyclopedia | last = Shoshani | first = Jeheskel | editor-last = Robertson | editor-first = Sarah | title = Tubulidentata | encyclopedia = Encyclopedia of Life Sciences | year = 2002 | volume = 18: Svedberg, Theodor to Two-hybrid and Related Systems | publisher = Nature Publishing Group | location = London, UK | isbn = 1-56159-274-9 | ref = harv }} * {{cite journal | last1 = Taylor | first1 = W. A. | last2 = Skinner | first2 = J. D. | title = Adaptations of the Aardvark for Survival in the Karoo: A Review | journal = Transactions of the Royal Society of South Africa | volume = 59 | issue = 2 | publisher = Taylor & Francis | year = 2004 | doi = 10.1080/00359190409519169 | url = http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/00359190409519169#preview | pages = 105–108 | ref = harv }} * {{cite book | last = te Velde | first = Henk | title = Seth, God of Confusion: A Study of His Role in Egyptian Mythology and Religion (Ancient Near East) | url = http://books.google.com/?id=0po3AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA13 | year = 1997 | publisher = Brill Academic Pub | isbn = 978-9004054028 | ref = harv }} * {{cite encyclopedia | last = van Aarde | first = Rudi J. | editor-last = Macdonald | editor-first = David | title = Aardvark | encyclopedia = The Encyclopedia of Mammals | year = 1984 | publisher = Facts on File Publications | location = New York, NY | isbn = 0-87196-871-1 | ref = harv}} * {{cite web | author = WGBH | url = http://www.pbs.org/parents/arthur/program/prog_summary.html | title = About the Program: "Arthur" | website = PBS.org | publisher = Public Broadcasting System | year = 2013 | ref = harv }} {{refend}} ==External links== {{Wikispecies|Orycteropus afer}} {{Commons|Orycteropus afer}} * {{Cite web | url = http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1Z5OoBqqYsk&t=0m46s | title = Aardvarks at the Bronx Zoo | accessdate = 2013-11-18 }} * [http://www.aardvarkafrica.org IUCN/SSC Afrotheria Specialist Group - Aardvark website] * [http://www.wackywildlifewonders.com/files/animals/antbear.html Antbear/Aardvark] at wackywildlifewonders.com * [http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Orycteropus_afer.html Information] at Animal Diversity Web: [[University of Michigan]] Museum of Zoology * [[wikisource:File:Aardvark.pdf|"The Biology of the Aardvark"]] (''Orycteropus afer'') diploma thesis (without pictures) * [http://www.tierseiten.com/roehrenzaehner/aardvark.pdf "The Biology of the Aardvark" (''Orycteropus afer'')] same diploma thesis (including the pictures) * [http://www.zooborns.typepad.com/zooborns/aardvark/ Some good photos of baby aardvarks] * {{Wikisource-inline|list= ** "[[s:Popular Science Monthly/Volume 14/March 1879/The Aard-Vark or Earth-Hog|The Aard-Vark or Earth-Hog]]" in ''[[Popular Science Monthly]]'', Vol. 14 (March 1879) ** {{Cite NSRW|wstitle=Aardvark |short=x |noicon=x}} ** {{Cite Collier's|wstitle=Aard-vark |short=x |noicon=x}} }} {{mammals}} [[Category:Mammals of Africa]] [[Category:Myrmecophagous mammals]] [[Category:Living fossils]] [[Category:Megafauna of Africa]] [[Category:Animals described in 1766]] [[Category:Extant Zanclean first appearances]] i6e27aau3zpmqyhjkox9c2n0ei2apmn 0 681 715569164 715417379 2016-04-16T17:15:34Z Ori Livneh 292262 Updated photo description to match updated photo wikitext text/x-wiki {{other uses}} {{taxobox | name = Aardwolf | fossil_range = [[Pleistocene]] – Recent | status = LC | status_system = IUCN3.1 | status_ref = {{refn | group = nb |Database entry includes a brief justification of why this species is of least concern <ref name="IUCN">{{harvnb|Anderson|Mills|2008}}</ref>}} | image = Proteles cristatus1.jpg | image_width = 300px | image_caption = An Aardwolf in [[Namib-Nord]], [[Namibia]]. Photo by Dominik Käuferle. | regnum = [[Animal]]ia | phylum = [[Chordate|Chordata]] | classis = [[Mammal]]ia | ordo = [[Carnivora]] | familia = [[Hyaenidae]] | subfamilia = '''Protelinae''' | subfamilia_authority = Flower, 1869 | genus = '''''Proteles''''' | genus_authority = [[Isidore Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire|I. Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire]], 1824 | species = '''''P. cristata''''' | synonyms = ''Proteles Lalandii'' <small>[[Étienne Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire|St. Hilaire]]</small><ref>{{harvnb|Simpson|Weiner|1989|p=7}}</ref> | binomial = ''Proteles cristata'' | binomial_authority = [[Anders Sparrman|Sparrman]], 1783 | range_map = Aardwolf area.png | range_map_caption = Aardwolf range }} The '''aardwolf''' (''Proteles cristata'') is a small, [[insectivore|insectivorous]] [[mammal]], native to [[East Africa|East]] and [[Southern Africa]]. Its name means "earth wolf" in [[Afrikaans]] and [[Dutch language|Dutch]].<ref name=EB/> It is also called "maanhaar jackal"<ref name="OED">{{harvnb|Oxford English Dictionary Online|2013}}</ref> (Afrikaans for "[[mane (lion)|mane]] jackal") or ''civet hyena'', based on the secretions from their anal glands, reminiscent of [[civet]]s.<ref name=ingo/> The aardwolf is in the same family as the [[hyena]]s. Unlike many of its relatives in the order [[Carnivora]], the aardwolf does not hunt large [[animal]]s. It eats [[insect]]s, mainly [[termite]]s – one aardwolf can eat about 250,000 termites during a single night, using its long, sticky [[tongue]] to capture them.<ref name=mh71/> The aardwolf lives in the [[Shrubland|scrublands]] of eastern and southern Africa – open lands covered with stunted trees and shrubs. It is [[nocturnal]], resting in [[burrow]]s during the day and emerging at night to seek food. Its diet consists mainly of termites and insect [[larva]]e.<ref name="wff">{{harvnb|Anon|1998|p=144}}</ref> ==Taxonomy== The aardwolf is the only surviving species in the mammalian [[subfamily]] ''Protelinae''. There is disagreement as to whether the species is monotypic.<ref name=Woz>{{harvnb|Wozencraft|2005|p=573}}</ref> or can be divided into [[subspecies]] ''P. c. cristatus'' of [[Southern Africa]] and ''P. c. septentrionalis'' of [[East Africa]].<ref name=ingo/><ref name=mh33/> Recent studies have shown that the aardwolf probably broke away from the rest of the hyena family early on; however, how early is still unclear as the fossil record and genetic studies disagree by 10 million years.<ref name=koe>{{harvnb|Koepfli|Jenks|Eizirik|Zahirpour|2006|p=615}}</ref>{{refn| group = nb |The fossil record shows 18–20 mya, and genetic studies indicate roughly 10.6 mya.<ref name=koe/>}} The aardwolf is generally classified with the [[Hyaenidae]], though it was formerly placed into the family ''Protelidae''.{{refn|group=nb|Some sources such as Coetzee in Meester and Setzer (1977), Köhler and Ricardson (1990), and Yalden, Largen, and Koch (1980), classify the aardwolf in its own family still.<ref name=w1>{{harvnb|Nowak|2005|pp=222–223}}</ref>}} Early on, scientists felt that it was merely mimicking the [[striped hyena]], which subsequently led to the creation of Protelidae.<ref>{{harvnb|Brottman|2012|pp=28–29}}</ref> ==Etymology== The genus name ''proteles'' comes from two words both of [[Greek language|Greek]] origin, ''protos'' and ''teleos'' which combined means "complete in front" based on the fact that they have five toes on their front feet and four on the rear.<ref name=ingo/> The species name, ''cristatus'' comes from [[Latin]] and means "provided with a comb", relating to their mane.<ref name=ingo/> ==Physical characteristics== [[Image:Aardwolf02.jpg|thumb|left|Detail of head – taken at the [[Cincinnati Zoo]]. Note the ability to rotate the ears.]] The aardwolf resembles a very thin [[striped hyena]], but with a more slender [[snout|muzzle]], black vertical stripes on a coat of yellowish fur, and a long, distinct [[wikt:mane|mane]] down the midline of the neck and back. It also has one or two diagonal stripes down the fore and hindquarters, along with several stripes on its legs.<ref name=mh33>{{harvnb|Mills|Harvey|2001|p=33}}</ref> The mane is raised during confrontations in order to make the aardwolf appear larger. It is missing the throat spot that others in the family have.<ref name=ingo/> Its lower leg (from the knee down) is all black, and its tail is bushy with a black tip.<ref name=w1/> The aardwolf is about {{convert|55|to|80|cm|in}} long, excluding its bushy tail, which is about {{convert|20|-|30|cm|in}} long,<ref name=EB>{{harvnb|Hoiberg|2010|p=4}}</ref><ref name=w1/> and stands about {{convert|40|to|50|cm|in}} tall at the shoulders.<ref name="Colliers">{{harvnb|Goodwin|1997|p=3}}</ref> An adult aardwolf weighs approximately {{convert|7|–|10|kg|lb}}, sometimes reaching {{convert|15|kg|lb}}.<ref name=ingo>{{harvnb|Rieger|1990|pp=570–571}}</ref> The aardwolves in the south of the continent tend to be smaller (about {{convert|10|kg|lb}}), whereas the eastern version weighs more (around {{convert|14|kg|lb}}).<ref name=mh33/> The front feet have five toes each, unlike the four-toed hyena.<ref name=EB/><ref>{{harvnb|Brottman|2012|p=29}}</ref> The teeth and skull are similar to those of other hyenas, though smaller,<ref name=Colliers/> and its cheek teeth are specialised for eating insects.<ref name=EB/> It does still have canines; however, unlike other hyenas, these teeth are used primarily for fighting and defense.<ref name=w1/> Its ears, which are large,<ref name=w1/> are very similar to those of the [[striped hyena]].<ref name=ingo/> As an aardwolf ages, it will normally lose some of its teeth, though this has little impact on its feeding habits due to the softness of the insects that it eats.<ref name="wff" /> The aardwolf has two anal glands that secrete a musky fluid for marking territory and for communicating with other aardwolves. [[Image:Aardwolf Skull.JPG|thumb|left|Aardwolf [[skull]]]] ==Distribution and habitat== Aardwolves live in open, dry plains and [[bushland]], avoiding mountainous areas.<ref name=w1/> Due to their specific food requirements, they are only found in regions where termites of the family [[Hodotermitidae]] occur. Termites of this family depend on dead and withered grass and are most populous in heavily grazed [[grassland]]s and [[savannah]]s, including [[arable land|farmland]]. For most of the year, aardwolves spend time in shared territories consisting of up to a dozen dens, which are occupied for six weeks at a time.<ref name="wff" /> There are two distinct populations: one in Southern Africa, and another in East and Northeast Africa. The species does not occur in the intermediary [[miombo]] forests. An adult pair, along with their most recent offspring, will occupy a territory of {{convert|1|-|4|km2|sqmi}}.<ref name=mh108>{{harvnb|Mills|Harvey|2001|pp=108–109}}</ref> ==Behavior== [[Image:Aardwolf.jpg|thumb|left|Aardwolf at the [[San Antonio Zoo and Aquarium|San Antonio Zoo]]]] Aardwolves are shy and [[nocturnal animal|nocturnal]], sleeping in underground burrows by day.<ref name=EB/> They will, on occasion during the winter, become diurnal feeders. This happens during the coldest periods as they then stay in at night to conserve heat.<ref name=br30>{{harvnb|Brottman|2012|p=30}}</ref> They have often been mistaken for solitary animals. In fact, they live as monogamous pairs with their young.<ref name="koel">{{harvnb|Koehler|Richardson|1990|p=4}}</ref> If their territory is infringed upon, they will chase the intruder up to {{convert|400|m|ft}} or to the border.<ref name=mh108/> If the intruder is caught, which rarely happens,<ref name=mh108/> a fight will occur, which is accompanied by soft clucking,<ref name=br31/> hoarse barking, and a type of roar.<ref name=PKR/> The majority of incursions occur during mating season, when they can occur 1–2 times per week.<ref name=PKR/> When food is scarce the stringent territorial system may be abandoned and as many as three pairs may occupy a "single territory."<ref name=PKR/> The territory is marked by both sexes, as they both have developed anal glands from which they extrude a black substance that is smeared on rocks or grass stalks in {{convert|5|mm|in|adj=on}} long streaks.<ref name=PKR/> They often mark near termite mounds within their territory every 20 minutes or so. If they are patrolling their territorial boundaries, the marking frequency increases drastically, to once every {{convert|50|m|ft}}. At this rate, an individual may mark 60 marks per hour,<ref name=PKR/> and upwards of 200 per night.<ref name=mh108/> An aardwolf pair may have up to ten dens, and numerous [[midden]]s, within their territory. When they deposit feces at their middens, they dig a small hole and then cover it with sand. Their dens are usually abandoned [[aardvark]], [[springhare]], or [[Old World porcupine|porcupine]] dens,<ref name=br31>{{harvnb|Brottman|2012|p=31}}</ref> or on occasion they are crevices in rocks. They will also dig their own dens, or enlarge dens started by springhares.<ref name=PKR/> They typically will only use one or two dens at a time, rotating through all of their dens every six months. During the summer, they may rest outside their den during the night, and sleep underground during the heat of the day. Aardwolfs are not fast runners nor are they particularly adept at fighting off predators. Therefore, when threatened, the aardwolf will attempt to mislead its foe by doubling back on its tracks. If confronted, it will raise its mane in an attempt to appear more menacing. It will also emit a foul-smelling liquid from its anal glands.<ref name=Colliers/> ===Feeding=== The aardwolf feeds primarily on termites and more specifically on ''[[Trinervitermes]]''.<ref name=mh71>{{harvnb|Mills|Harvey|2001|p=71}}</ref> This genus of termites has different species throughout the aardwolfs range. In East Africa, they eat ''[[Trinervitermes bettonianus]]'', and in central Africa they eat ''[[Trinervitermes rhodesiensis]]'', and finally in southern Africa, they eat ''[[Trinervitermes trinervoides]]''.<ref name=EB/><ref name=mh71/><ref name=PKR>{{harvnb|Richardson|Bearder|1984|pp=158–159}}</ref> Their technique consists of licking them off the ground as opposed to the [[aardvark]] which will dig into the mound.<ref name=br30/> They locate their food by sound and also from the scent secreted by the soldier termites.<ref name=PKR/> An aardwolf may consume up to 250,000 [[termites]] per night using its sticky, long tongue.<ref name=mh71/><ref name="wff" /> They do not destroy the termite mound or consume the entire colony, thus ensuring that the termites can rebuild and provide a continuous supply of food. They will often memorize the location of such nests and return to them every few months.<ref name=br31/> During certain seasonal events, such as the onset of the rainy season and the cold of mid-winter, the primary termites become scarce and so the need for other forms of sustenance becomes pronounced. During these times, the southern aardwolf will seek out ''[[Hodotermes mossambicus]]'', a type of [[harvester termite]],<ref name=PKR/> a termite active in the afternoon, which explains some of their diurnal behavior in the winter.<ref name=mh71/> The eastern aardwolf will, during the rainy season, get variety by subsisting on termites from the genera ''[[Odontotermes]]'' and ''[[Macrotermes]]''.<ref name=mh71/> They are also known to feed on other insects, larvae, eggs and, some sources say, occasionally small [[mammals]] and [[birds]], but these constitute a very small percentage of their total diet.<ref name=PKR/> Unlike other [[hyena]]s, aardwolves do not scavenge or kill larger animals.<ref name=w1/><ref name=br31/> Contrary to popular myths, aardwolfs do not eat carrion, and if they are seen eating while hunched over a dead carcass, it is actually eating larvae and beetles.<ref name=w1/> Also, contrary to some sources, they do not like meat, unless it is finely ground or cooked for them.<ref name=w1/> The adult aardwolf was formerly assumed to forage in small groups,<ref name=Colliers/> however, more recent research has shown that they are primarily solitary foragers,<ref name=koel/> necessary because of the scarcity of their insect prey. Their primary source, ''Trinervitermes'', forages in small but dense patches of {{convert|25|-|100|cm|in}}.<ref name=PKR/> While foraging, the aardwolf will cover about {{convert|1|km|mi}} per hour, which translates to {{convert|8|-|12|km|mi}} per summer night and {{convert|3|-|8|km|mi}} per winter night.<ref name=w1/> ===Breeding=== The [[breeding season]] varies depending on their location, but normally takes place during autumn or spring. In South Africa, breeding occurs in early July.<ref name=mh108/> During the breeding season, unpaired male aardwolves will search their own territory, as well as others, for a female to mate with. Dominant males will also mate opportunistically with the females of less dominant neighboring aardwolves,<ref name=mh108/> which can result in conflict between rival males.<ref name=ingo/> Dominant males will even go a step further and as the breeding season approaches, they will make increasingly greater and greater incursions onto weaker males' territories. As the female comes into [[oestrus]], they will add pasting to their tricks inside of the other territories, sometimes doing so more in rivals' territories than their own.<ref name=mh108/> Females will also, when given the opportunity, mate with the dominant male, which will increase the chances of the dominant male guarding "his" cubs with her.<ref name=mh108/> [[Gestation]] lasts between 89 and 92 days,<ref name=ingo/><ref name=mh108/> producing two to five [[List of animal names|cubs]] (most often two or three) during the rainy season (Nov–Dec),<ref name=Colliers/> when termites are more active.<ref name=EB/> They are born with their eyes open but initially are helpless,<ref name=PKR/> and weigh around {{convert|200|-|350|g|oz}}.<ref name=ingo/> The first six to eight weeks are spent in the [[Burrow|den]] with their parents.<ref name=br31/> The male may spend up to six hours a night watching over the cubs while the mother is out looking for food.<ref name=mh108/><ref name=PKR/> After three months, they begin supervised foraging and by four months are normally independent, though they will often share a den with their mother until the next breeding season.<ref name=br31/> By the time the next set of cubs is born, the older cubs have moved on.<ref name=mh108/> Aardwolves generally achieve [[sexual maturity]] at one and a half to two years of age.<ref name=ingo/> ==Conservation== The aardwolf has not seen decreasing numbers and they are relatively widespread throughout eastern Africa. They are not common throughout their range, as they maintain a density of no more than 1 per square kilometer, if the food is good. Because of these factors, the IUCN has rated the aardwolf as [[least concern]].<ref name="IUCN"/> In some areas, they are persecuted by man because of the mistaken belief that they prey on livestock; however, they are actually beneficial to the farmers because they eat termites that are detrimental.<ref name=PKR/> In other areas, the farmers have recognized this, but they are still killed, on occasion, for their fur. Dogs and insecticides<ref name="IUCN"/> are also common killers of the aardwolf.<ref name=br31/> ==Interaction with humans== Aardwolfs are common sights at zoos. [[Frankfurt Zoo]] in [[Germany]] was home to the oldest recorded aardwolf in captivity at 18 years and 11 months.<ref name=w1/> <!-- Commented out: [[Image:Aardwolf (Harvard University).JPG|thumb|''Proteles cristatus'']] --> [[Image:Aardwolf.png|thumb|Illustration of ''Proteles cristatus'']] {{clear left}} ==Notes== {{reflist | group = nb }} ==Footnotes== {{Reflist|30em}} ==References== * {{wikicite | reference = {{IUCN2008 | assessors = Anderson, M.; Mills, G. | year = 2008 | id = 18372 | title = Proteles cristatus: Aardwolf | downloaded = 22 March 2009 }} | ref = {{harvid | Anderson | Mills | 2008}} }} * {{cite book | author = Anon | title = Wildlife Fact File | publisher = IMP Publishing Ltd | year = 1998 | volume = Group 1 | pages = Card 144 | nopp = true | isbn = 978-1886614772 | ref = harv }} * {{cite book | last = Brottman | first = Mikita | editor-last = Burt | editor-first = Jonathon | title = Hyena | series = Animal | year = 2012 | pages = 28–32 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=9wfhR4fBEDYC&printsec=frontcover | publisher = Reaktion Books | location = London, UK | isbn = 978-1-86189-9217 | ref = harv }} * {{cite encyclopedia | last1 = Goodwin | first1 = George G. | editor-last = Johnston | editor-first = Bernard | encyclopedia = Collier's Encyclopedia | title = Aardwolf | edition = 1st | year = 1997 | publisher = P.F. Collier | volume = I: A to Ameland | location = New York, NY | ref = harv }} * {{cite encyclopedia | editor-last = Hoiberg | editor-first = Dale H. | encyclopedia = Encyclopædia Britannica | title = Aardwolf | edition = 15th | year = 2010 | publisher = Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. | volume = I: A-Ak - Bayes | location = Chicago, IL | isbn = 978-1-59339-837-8 | ref = harv }} * {{cite journal | last1 = Koehler | first1 = C. E. | last2 = Richardson | first2 = P. R. K. | year = 1990 | title = Proteles cristatus | journal = [[Mammalian Species]] | volume = 363 | issue = | pages = 1–6 | jstor = 3504197 | publisher = American Society of Mammalogists | ref = harv }} * {{cite journal | last1 = Koepfli | first1 = Klaus-Peter | last2 = Jenks | first2 = Susan M. | last3 = Eizirik | first3 = Eduardo | last4 = Zahirpour | first4 = Tannaz | last5 = Van Valkenburgh | first5 = Blaire | last6 = Wayne | first6 = Robert K. | title = Molecular systematics of the Hyaenidae: Relationships of a Relictual Lineage Resolved by a Molecular Supermatrix | url = http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1055790305003623 | format = PDF | year = 2006 | volume = 38 | issue = 3 | journal = Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution | pages = 603–620 | doi = 10.1016/j.ympev.2005.10.017 | issn = 1055-7903 | pmid=16503281 | ref = harv }} * {{cite book | last1 = Mills | first1 = Gus | last2 = Harvey | first2 = Martin | title = African Predators | publisher = Smithsonian Institution Press | location = Washington, DC | year = 2001 | isbn = 1-56098-096-6 | ref = harv }} * {{cite book | last = Nowak | first = Ronald M. | title = Walker's Carnivores of the World | year = 2005 | isbn = 0-8018-8032-7 | publisher = The Johns Hopkins University Press | location = Baltimore, MD | ref = harv }} * {{cite web | author = Oxford English Dictionary Online | url = http://www.oed.com/view/Entry/243856?redirectedFrom=maanhaar& | title = maanhaar | year = 2013 | accessdate = 23 April 2014 | website = Oxford English Dictionary | ref = harv }} * {{cite encyclopedia | last1 = Richardson | first1 = Phillip K. R. | last2 = Bearder | first2 = Simon K. | editor1-last = MacDonald | editor1-first = David | encyclopedia = The Encyclopedia of Mammals | title = The Hyena Family | isbn = 0-87196-871-1 | publisher = Facts on File Publication | location = New York, NY | year = 1984 | ref = harv }} * {{cite encyclopedia | last = Rieger | first = Ingo | editor1-last = Parker | editor1-first = Sybil P. | title = Hyenas | encyclopedia = Grzimek's Encyclopedia of Mammals | volume = 3 | publisher = McGraw-Hill Publishing Company | location = New York, NY | isbn = 0-07-909508-9 | year = 1990 | ref = harv }} * {{cite encyclopedia | editor1-last = Simpson | editor1-first = J. A. | editor2-last = Weiner | editor2-first = E. S. C. | encyclopedia = The Oxford English Dictionary | title = aard-wolf | year = 1989 | publisher = Clarendon Press | location = Oxford, UK | isbn = 0-19-861213-3 | edition = 2nd | volume = I: A — Bazouki | ref = harv }} * {{MSW3 Carnivora | id = 14000689 | page = 573}} ==Further reading== * {{cite book | last1 = Skinner | first1 = J. D. | last2 = Chimimba | first2 = Christian T. | title = The Mammals of the Southern African Sub-region | url = http://books.google.com/?id=iqwEYkTDZf4C | accessdate = 15 March 2013 | year = 2006 | publisher = Cambridge University Press | isbn = 978-0-521-84418-5 | edition = 3rd}} ==External links== {{Commons|Proteles cristatus}} {{Wikispecies|Proteles cristatus}} * [http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Proteles_cristatus.html Animal Diversity Web] * [http://www.hyaenidae.org/the-hyaenidae/aardwolf-proteles-cristatus.html IUCN Hyaenidae Specialist Group Aardwolf pages on hyaenidae.org] * {{Wikisource-inline|list= ** {{Cite EB1911|wstitle=Aard-wolf |short=x |noicon=x}} ** {{Cite Collier's|wstitle=Aard-wolf |short=x |noicon=x}} }} {{Carnivora|F.}} {{use dmy dates|date=January 2012}} [[Category:Animals described in 1783]] [[Category:Carnivorans of Africa]] [[Category:Hyenas]] [[Category:Mammals of Africa]] [[Category:Fauna of Southern Africa]] [[Category:Fauna of East Africa]] [[Category:Myrmecophagous mammals]] 7zkrfu88aazfyj1cw4cg27qrtrow9wx 0 682 717932551 716172985 2016-04-30T15:45:18Z Maczkopeti 26240210 wikitext text/x-wiki {{About|the building material|the software company|Adobe Systems}} {{Distinguish|abode}} {{Use dmy dates|date=June 2013}} [[File:Qasroddasht.JPG|thumb|250px|[[Shiraz]], [[Iran]]. Its urban gardens are separated by adobe walls.]] '''Adobe''' ({{IPAc-en|US|ə|ˈ|d|oʊ|b|i|audio=En-us-adobe.ogg}}, {{IPAc-en|UK|ə|ˈ|d|oʊ|b}};<ref>[http://oxforddictionaries.com/view/entry/m_en_gb0009300 definition of adobe from Oxford Dictionaries Online]. Retrieved 25 December 2010.</ref> {{IPA-es|aˈðoβe|lang}}, from [[Spanish language|Spanish]]: [[Mudbrick|mud brick]], from [[Arabic language|Arabic]]) is a building material made from earth and often organic material. Most adobe buildings are similar to [[Cob (building)|cob]] and [[rammed earth]] buildings. Adobe is among the earliest building materials, and is used throughout the world. ==Description== Adobe bricks are most often made into units weighing less than 100 pounds and small enough that they can quickly air dry individually without cracking and subsequently assembled, with the application of adobe mud, to bond the individual bricks into a structure. Modern methods of construction allow the pouring of whole adobe walls that are reinforced with steel. ==Strength== In dry climates, adobe structures are extremely durable, and account for some of the oldest existing buildings in the world. Adobe buildings offer significant advantages due to their greater [[thermal mass]], but they are known to be particularly susceptible to earthquake damage if they are not somehow reinforced.<ref>[http://www.livingatlaschile.com/?s=adobe Short documentary about adobe preparation and [[2010 Chile earthquake]]] Livingatlaschile.com, FICh, retrieved 5 March 2014</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=Collyns |first=Dan |authorlink= |title=Peru rebuilds two years on from quake |work= |publisher=news.bbc.co.uk |date=15 August 2009 |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/8201971.stm |doi= |accessdate=24 August 2009 | archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20090815100847/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/8201971.stm| archivedate= 15 August 2009 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}} the [[1976 Guatemala earthquake]] the [[2003 Bam earthquake]]</ref> Cases where adobe structures were widely damaged during earthquakes include the [[1976 Guatemala earthquake]], the [[2003 Bam earthquake]] and the [[2010 Chile earthquake]]. ==Distribution== Buildings made of sun-dried earth are common throughout the world ([[Middle East]], [[West Asia]], [[North Africa]], [[West Africa]], [[South America]], southwestern [[North America]], [[Spain]], and [[Eastern Europe]].)<ref>Marchand, Trevor. ''The Masons of Djenne''. Bloomington: University of Indiana Press, 2009</ref><ref>Museum of Lithuanian life Rumsiskes Lithuania (2011)</ref> Adobe had been in use by [[indigenous peoples of the Americas]] in the [[Southwestern United States]], [[Mesoamerica]], and the [[Andes|Andean region]] of South America for several thousand years.<ref>{{cite book | last = Beck | first = Roger B. | authorlink = | author2 = Linda Black, Larry S. Krieger, Phillip C. Naylor, Dahia Ibo Shabaka, | title = World History: Patterns of Interaction | publisher = McDougal Littell | year = 1999 | location = Evanston, IL | pages = | url = | doi = | id = | isbn = 978-0-395-87274-1 }}</ref> The Pueblo people built their adobe structures with handfuls or basketfuls of adobe, until the Spanish introduced them to making bricks. Adobe bricks were used in Spain from the [[Late Bronze Age]] and [[Iron Age]], (8th century B.C. onwards).<ref>{{cite book|last= de Chazelles-Gazzal|first=Claire-Anne|title=Les maisons en terre de la Gaule méridionale|publisher=Éditions Monique Mergoil|year=1997|location=Montagnac, France|pages=49–57}}</ref> Its wide use can be attributed to its simplicity of design and manufacture, and economics.<ref>{{cite book|title=Natural hazards in El Salvador|last=Rose|first=William I.|author2=Julian J. Bommer|publisher=Geological Society of America|isbn=978-0-8137-2375-4|year=2004|page=299}}</ref> A distinction is sometimes made between the smaller ''adobes'', which are about the size of ordinary baked bricks, and the larger ''adobines'', some of which may be one to two yards (1–2&nbsp;m) long. ==Etymology== [[File:San Pedro de Atacama church.jpg|thumb|left|Church at [[San Pedro de Atacama]], [[Chile]]]] The word ''adobe'' {{IPAc-en|ə|ˈ|d|oʊ|b|iː}} has existed for around 4,000 years, with relatively little change in either pronunciation or meaning. The word can be traced from the [[Middle Egyptian]] (c. 2000&nbsp;BC) word ''dbt'' "mud brick." As Middle Egyptian evolved into [[Late Egyptian]], [[Demotic (Egyptian)]], and finally [[Coptic language|Coptic]] (c. 600&nbsp;BC), τωωβε ''dj-b-t'' became ''tobe'' "[mud] brick." This was borrowed into [[Arabic]] as ''al tob'',<ref>"adobe" ''Oxford English Dictionary'' Second Edition on CD-ROM (v. 4.0) © Oxford University Press 2009</ref> ''tuba'',<ref>''Spanish Word Histories and Mysteries: English Words that Come from Spanish'' Houghton Mifflin Co. 2007 p.5</ref> or ''Al-ţŭb.''<ref>[http://www.earth-auroville.com/adobe_moulding_en.php "Adobe Moulding" Auroville Earth Institute]</ref> (الطّوب ''al'' "the" + ''ţŭb.'' "brick") "[mud] brick," which was assimilated into [[Old Spanish]] as ''adobe'' {{IPA|[aˈdobe]}}, still with the meaning "mud brick." English borrowed the word from Spanish in the early 18th century. [[File:Santa Fe adobe.jpg|thumb|Adobe style in [[Santa Fe, New Mexico]]]] In more modern [[English language|English]] usage, the term "adobe" has come to include a style of architecture popular in the [[desert]] [[climate]]s of [[North America]], especially in [[New Mexico]]. ==Composition== An adobe brick is a [[composite material]] made of earth mixed with water and an organic material such as [[straw]] or [[Dung (matter)|dung]]. The [[soil]] composition typically contains [[sand]], [[silt]] and [[clay]]. Straw is useful in binding the brick together and allowing the brick to dry evenly, thereby preventing cracking due to uneven shrinkage rates through the brick.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Vargas|first=J.|author2=J. Bariola|author3= M. Blondet|title=Seismic Strength of Adobe Masonry|journal=Materials and Structures|year=1986|volume=9|pages=253–256|doi=10.1007/BF02472107}}</ref> Dung offers the same advantage. The most desirable soil texture for producing the mud of adobe is 15% clay, 10-30% silt and 55-75% fine sand.<ref>{{cite web|last=Garrison|first=James|title=Adobe-The Material, Its Deterioration, Its Coatings|url=http://missions.arizona.edu/sites/default/files/1%20Garrison-Adobe%20Characteristics.pdf|accessdate=27 February 2013|pages=5–16}}</ref> Another source quotes 15-25% clay and the remainder sand and coarser particles up to cobbles {{convert|2|to|10|in|mm|order=flip|-1|abbr=on}} with no deleterious effect. Modern adobe is stabilized with either emulsified asphalt or Portland [[cement]] up to 10% by weight. No more than half the clay content should be [[expansive clay]]s with the remainder non-expansive illite or kaolinite. Too much expansive clay results in uneven drying through the brick resulting in cracking, while too much kaolinite will make a weak brick. Typically the soils of the Southwest United States, where such construction is in use, are an adequate composition.<ref>{{cite web |last=Austin |first=George |url=http://geoinfo.nmt.edu/publications/periodicals/nmg/downloads/6/n4/nmg_v6_n4_p69.pdf |work=New Mexico Geology, November 1984 |publisher=New Mexico Bureau of Mines and Mineral Resources |title=Adobe as a building material |deadurl=no |accessdate=27 February 2013 |page=70}}</ref> ==Material properties== [[File:Djenne great mud mosque.jpg|thumb|The [[Great Mosque of Djenné]], [[Mali]] is built in adobe. The struts projecting from the wall serve as decoration, as well as supports for scaffolding during maintenance]] Adobe walls are load bearing, i.e. they carry their own weight into the foundation rather than by another structure, hence the adobe must have sufficient compressive strength. In the United States, most building codes<ref>{{cite web|url=http://quentinwilson.squarespace.com/storage/adobecode.pdf |title=14.7.4 NMAC |format=PDF |accessdate=25 June 2013}}</ref> call for a minimum compressive strength of 300&nbsp;lbf/in² (2.07&nbsp;newton/mm²) for the adobe block. Adobe construction should be designed so as to avoid lateral structural loads that would cause bending loads. The building codes require the building sustain a 1 g lateral acceleration earthquake load. Such an acceleration will cause lateral loads on the walls, resulting in shear and bending and inducing tensile stresses. To withstand such loads, the codes typically call for a tensile modulus of rupture strength of at least 50&nbsp;lbf/in² (0.345&nbsp;newton/mm²) for the finished block. In addition to being an inexpensive material with a small resource cost, adobe can serve as a significant heat reservoir due to the thermal properties inherent in the massive walls typical in adobe construction. In climates typified by hot days and cool nights, the high thermal mass of adobe mediates the high and low temperatures of the day, moderating the living space temperature. The massive walls require a large and relatively long input of heat from the sun ([[radiation]]) and from the surrounding air ([[convection]]) before they warm through to the interior. After the sun sets and the temperature drops, the warm wall will then continue to transfer heat to the interior for several hours due to the time-lag effect. Thus, a well-planned adobe wall of the appropriate thickness is very effective at controlling inside temperature through the wide daily fluctuations typical of desert climates, a factor which has contributed to its longevity as a building material. Thermodynamic material properties are sparsely quoted. The thermal resistance of adobe is quoted as having an [[R-value (insulation)|R-value]] of R₀ = 0.41 hr-ft²-°F/(Btu-in)<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.emnrd.state.nm.us/ECMD/FORMS/documents/MANUAL2.1.pdf |title=2009 New Mexico Energy Conservation Code: Residential Applications Manual |publisher=Emnrd.state.nm.us |accessdate=21 July 2013}}</ref> and a conductivity of 0.57 W/(m-K) quoted from another source.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Chávez-Galán|first1=Jesus|last2=Almanza|first2=Rafael|last3=Rodríguez|first3=Neftali|title=Experimental Measurements of Thermal Properties for Mexican Building Materials to Simulate Thermal Behavior to Save Energy|url=http://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007%2F978-3-540-75997-3_89|publisher=Spriner|accessdate=25 November 2014}}</ref> A third source provides the following properties: conductivity=0.30 Btu/(hr-ft-°F); heat capacity=0.24 Btu/(lbm-°F); density=106 lbm/ft³ (1700&nbsp;kg/m³).<ref>{{cite web|title=HVAC Systems AE-390|url=http://www.pages.drexel.edu/~act27/AE390/A5/index_files/Page536.htm|publisher=Drexel University|accessdate=25 November 2014}}</ref> To determine the total R-value of a wall for example, multiply R₀ by the thickness of the wall. From knowledge of the adobe density, heat capacity and a diffusivity value, the conductivity is found to be k = 0.20 Btu/(hr-ft-°F) or 0.35 W/(m-K). The heat capacity is commonly quoted as c_p = 0.20 Btu/(lbm*F) or 840 joules/(kg-K).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.greenhomebuilding.com/QandA/adobe/mass.htm |title=Mass and insulation with adobe |publisher=Green Home Building |accessdate=25 June 2013}}</ref> The density is 95 lbm/ft³ or 1520&nbsp;kg/m³. The thermal diffusivity is calculated to be 0.0105&nbsp;ft²/hr or 2.72x10⁻⁷ m²/s. ==Uses== ===Poured and puddled adobe walls=== [[File:Cueva de las Jarillas.jpg|thumb|left|Cliff dwellings of poured or puddled adobe (cob) at [[Cuarenta Casas]] in Mexico.]] Poured and [[Puddling (engineering)|puddled]] adobe (puddled clay, piled earth) today called ''cob'', is made by placing soft adobe in layers, rather than making by individual dried bricks or using a form. Puddle is a general term for a clay or clay and sand based material worked into a dense, plastic state.<ref>"puddle, n. 4.". ''Oxford English Dictionary'' 2nd. ed. 2009. CD-rom.</ref> These are the oldest methods of building with adobe in the Americas until holes in the ground were used as forms and then later wooden forms used to make individual bricks were introduced by the Spanish.<ref name="Keefe">Keefe, Laurence. ''Earth Building: Methods and Materials, Repair and Conservation''. London: Taylor & Francis, 2005. 22. Print.</ref> ===Adobe bricks=== [[File:Milyanfan-adobe-bricks-8038.jpg|thumb|Adobe bricks near a construction site in [[Milyanfan]], [[Kyrgyzstan]]]] Bricks made from adobe are usually made by pressing the mud mixture into an open timber frame. In North America, the brick is typically about {{convert|25|by|36|cm|0|abbr=on}} in size. The mixture is molded into the frame, which is then is removed after initial setting. After drying for a few hours, the bricks are turned on edge to finish drying. Slow drying in shade reduces cracking. The same mixture, without straw, is used to make [[Mortar (masonry)|mortar]] and often [[plaster]] on interior and exterior walls. Some ancient cultures used [[Lime (material)|lime]]-based cement for the plaster to protect against rain damage.{{Citation needed|date=October 2008}} Depending on the form into which the mixture is pressed, adobe can encompass nearly any shape or size, provided drying is even and the mixture includes reinforcement for larger bricks. Reinforcement can include manure, straw, [[cement]], [[rebar]] or wooden posts. Experience has shown straw, cement, or manure added to a standard adobe mixture can all produce a stronger, more crack-resistant brick.<ref>{{cite web|author=Technical Information Online |url=http://practicalaction.org/docs/technical_information_service/mud_plasters_and_renders.pdf |title=Mud Plasters and Renders - Technical Information Online - Practical Answers |publisher=Practicalaction.org |accessdate=9 November 2010}}</ref> A test is done on the soil content first. To do so, a sample of the soil is mixed into a clear container with some water, creating an almost completely saturated liquid. The container is shaken vigorously for one minute. It is then allowed to settle for a day until the soil has settled into layers. Heavier particles settle out first, sand above, silt above that and very fine clay and organic matter will stay in suspension for days. After the water has cleared, percentages of the various particles can be determined. Fifty to 60 percent sand and 35 to 40 percent clay will yield strong bricks. The [[New Mexico State University]] [[Cooperative extension service|Extension Service]] recommends a mix of not more than 1/3 clay, not less than 1/2 sand, and never more than 1/3 silt. ===Adobe wall construction=== [[File:Fort Saint-Sébastien - Visite des fouilles juin 2012 68.jpg|thumb|The [[earthen plaster]] removed exposing the adobe bricks at Fort St. Sebastian in France]] The ground supporting an adobe structure should be compressed, as the weight of adobe wall is significant and foundation settling may cause cracking of the wall. Footing depth is to below the ground frost level. The footing and stem wall are commonly 24 and 14 inches thick, respectively. Modern construction codes call for the use of reinforcing steel in the footing and stem wall. Adobe bricks are laid by course. Adobe walls usually never rise above two stories as they are load bearing and adobe has low structural strength. When creating window and door openings, a [[lintel]] is placed on top of the opening to support the bricks above. Atop the last courses of brick, bond beams made of heavy wood beams or modern reinforced concrete are laid to provide a horizontal bearing plate for the roof beams and to redistribute lateral earthquake loads to shear walls more able to carry the forces. To protect the interior and exterior adobe walls, finishes such as mud plaster, whitewash or stucco can be applied. These protect the adobe wall from water damage, but need to be reapplied periodically. Alternatively, the walls can be finished with other nontraditional plasters that provide longer protection. Bricks made with stabilized adobe generally do not need protection of plasters. ===Adobe roof=== The traditional adobe roof has been constructed using a mixture of soil/clay, water, sand and organic materials. The mixture was then formed and pressed into wood forms, producing rows of dried earth bricks that would then be laid across a support structure of wood and plastered into place with more adobe. Depending on the materials available, a roof may be assembled using wood or metal beams to create a framework to begin layering adobe bricks. Depending on the thickness of the adobe bricks, the framework has been preformed using a steel framing and a layering of a metal fencing or wiring over the framework to allow an even load as masses of adobe are spread across the metal fencing like cob and allowed to air dry accordingly. This method was demonstrated with an adobe blend heavily impregnated with cement to allow even drying and prevent cracking. The more traditional flat adobe roofs are functional only in dry climates that are not exposed to snow loads. The heaviest wooden beams, called [[Viga (architecture)|vigas]], lie atop the wall. Across the vigas lie smaller members called latillas<ref>{{cite web|url=http://dl-building.com/preservation-historic-adobe-buildings/ |title=Preservation of Historic Adobe Buildings |publisher=Dawson Lupul |accessdate=30 January 2014}}</ref> and upon those brush is then laid. Finally, the adobe layer is applied. To construct a flat adobe roof, beams of wood were laid to span the building, the ends of which were attached to the tops of the walls. Once the vigas, latillas and brush are laid, adobe bricks are placed. An adobe roof is often laid with bricks slightly larger in width to ensure a greater expanse is covered when placing the bricks onto the roof. Following each individual brick should be a layer of adobe mortar, recommended to be at least {{convert|1|in|mm|order=flip|abbr=on}} thick to make certain there is ample strength between the brick’s edges and also to provide a relative moisture barrier during rain. {{Citation needed|date=October 2008}} Depending on the materials, adobe roofs can be inherently fire-proof. The construction of a chimney can greatly influence the construction of the roof supports, creating an extra need for care in choosing the materials. The builders can make an adobe chimney by stacking simple adobe bricks in a similar fashion as the surrounding walls. ==Adobe around the world== The largest structure ever made from adobe is the [[Bam Citadel]]. Other large adobe structures are the [[Huaca del Sol]] in [[Peru]], with 100 million signed bricks, the ''ciudellas'' of [[Chan Chan]] and [[Tambo Colorado]], both in Peru. {{wide image|Ancient Bam, 2002.png|1000px|align-cap=center|The [[citadel]] of [[Bam, Iran|Bam]], or [[Arg-é Bam]], in [[Kerman]] province of [[Iran]]: The world's largest adobe structure, dating to at least 500&nbsp;BC}} <gallery widths="180px" heights="180px" perrow="4"> File:RomaniaDanubeDelta MakingMaterialForCOnstructing0003jpg.JPG|Still in production today, [[Romania]]'s [[Danube Delta]] File:RomaniaDanubeDelta MakingMaterialForCOnstructing0002jpg.JPG|Mixing mud and straw in brick frames File:RomaniaDanubeDelta MakingMaterialForCOnstructing0001jpg.JPG|Community effort File:Milyanfan-adobe-brick-house-8039.jpg|Adobe brick house under construction in [[Kyrgyzstan]] File: Sa'dah 02.jpg|House in [[Sa'dah]], [[Yemen]] File:AdobeHouseVrancea.JPG|Adobe brick house under construction in [[Romania]] File:5640-Linxia-City-Dongguan-back-street.jpg|An adobe wall in [[Linxia City]], [[Gansu]], China File:Poeh museum, night.jpg|[[Poeh Museum]] tower, the tallest adobe structure in [[New Mexico]], USA File:Great Mosque of Djenné 3.jpg|[[Great Mosque of Djenné]], famous building made from [[Mudbrick#Banco|banco]], a type of adobe File:Adobe house in middle america.jpg|Adobe house in middle America </gallery> ==See also== * [[Cob (building)]] * [[Compressed earth block]] * [[Earth structure]] * [[Hassan Fathy]] * [[Mudbrick]] * [[Qalat (fortress)]] * [[Rammed earth]] * [[San Xavier del Bac]] * [[Sod house]] * [[Super Adobe]] * [[Wattle and daub]] * [[Cas di torto]] * [[Monterey Colonial architecture]] used adobe walls * [[Ctesiphon Arch]] in Iraq is the largest mud brick arch in the world built beginning in 540 AD ==References== {{Reflist|30em}} ==External links== {{Commons category|Adobe (building material)}} {{Wiktionary|adobe}} * [http://www.buildingwithawareness.com/ ''Building With Awareness''] A detailed how-to DVD video that shows adobe wall construction and their use as thermal mass walls * [http://www.calearth.org Cal-Earth (The California Institute of Earth Art and Architecture)] has developed a patented system called Superadobe, in which bags filled with stabilized earth are layered with strands of barbed wire to form a structure strong enough to withstand earthquakes, fire and flood. * [http://www.eartharchitecture.org Earth Architecture] - A website whose focus is contemporary issues in earth architecture. * [http://www.eartha.org.uk/ Earth Architecture and Conservation in East Anglia] - British organisation that focuses on the proper maintenance and conservation of earth buildings in a region of the UK that has a long history of building with mud. * [http://www.kerpic.org Kerpic.org] - A website on earthen architecture researches stabilized with gypsum. * [http://www.kleiwerks.org Kleiwerks] - International organization recognized for their unique contribution to modern earthen and natural building techniques throughout the world, their focus is on education through hands on experience. Very experienced experts are contactable and there are regular demonstrations in the area. * [http://www.sensaciones.de/ Valle de Sensaciones] - Artistic construction with adobe, Experimental ground and theme park for creative living close to nature * [http://www.wmf.org/project/adobe-missions-new-mexico World Monuments Fund - Adobe Missions of New Mexico] - Description of a project of the [[World Monuments Fund]] for the preservation of adobe churches in [[New Mexico]], in the United States. {{Prehistoric technology}} [[Category:Soil-based building materials]] [[Category:Masonry]] [[Category:Adobe buildings and structures]] [[Category:Appropriate technology]] [[Category:Vernacular architecture]] [[Category:Requests for audio pronunciation (Spanish)]] [[Category:Sustainable building]] [[Category:Buildings and structures by construction material]] qazmdcwsbxfpsbkwjivppwk8y1tkuhb 0 683 717687342 717192899 2016-04-29T04:18:50Z 58.165.241.169 /* See also */ wikitext text/x-wiki {{hatnote|"Adventurer" and "Adventures" redirect here. For other uses, see [[Adventure (disambiguation)]], [[Adventurer (disambiguation)]], and [[Adventures (disambiguation)]].}} {{use dmy dates|date=July 2012}} [[File:Kjelkeoverisen.jpg|thumb|260px|[[Fridtjof Nansen]] won international fame after reaching a record latitude of 86°14′ during his [[Nansen's Fram expedition|North Pole expedition]] of 1893–96. ]] An '''adventure''' is an exciting or unusual experience. It may also be a bold, usually [[risk]]y undertaking, with an uncertain outcome.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/adventure |title=Adventure |work=dictionary.com |date= |accessdate=2013-06-13}}</ref> Adventures may be activities with some potential for physical danger such as [[exploring]], [[skydiving]], [[mountain climbing]], [[river rafting]] or participating in [[extreme sports]]. The term also broadly refers to any enterprise that is potentially fraught with physical, financial or psychological risk, such as a business venture, a love affair, or other major life undertakings . ==Motivation== Adventurous experiences create psychological [[arousal]],<ref>{{citation |url=http://books.google.com/?id=6YjcgAn8TfsC&pg=PA187 |title=On the psychobiology of personality |chapter=Sensation Seeking and Participation in Physical Risk Sports |author=M Gomà-i-Freixanet |year=2004 |publisher=Elsevier |isbn=978-0-08-044209-9 |page=187}}</ref> which can be interpreted as negative (e.g. [[fear]]) or positive (e.g. [[flow (psychology)|flow]]), and which can be detrimental as stated by the [[Yerkes-Dodson law]]. For some people, adventure becomes a major pursuit in and of itself. According to adventurer [[André Malraux]], in his ''La Condition Humaine'' (1933), "If a man is not ready to risk his life, where is his dignity?".{{full|date=June 2013}} Similarly, [[Helen Keller]] stated that "Life is either a daring adventure or nothing."<ref>{{cite book|last=Keller|first=Helen|title=The Open Door|year=1957}}</ref> Outdoor adventurous activities are typically undertaken for the purposes of [[recreation]] or [[wikt:excitement|excitement]]: examples are [[adventure racing]] and [[Adventure travel|adventure tourism]]. Adventurous activities can also lead to gains in knowledge, such as those undertaken by explorers and pioneers – the British adventurer [[Jason Lewis (adventurer)|Jason Lewis]], for example, uses adventures to draw global [[sustainability]] lessons from living within finite environmental constraints on expeditions to share with schoolchildren. [[Adventure education]] intentionally uses challenging experiences for [[learning]]. ==Adventure in mythology== Some of the oldest and most widespread stories in the world are stories of adventure such as [[Homer]]'s ''[[The Odyssey]]''.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.nytimes.com/2010/02/14/books/review/Mansbach-t.html|title=Odysseus Remixed|author=Adam Mansbach|date=12 February 2010|newspaper=[[New York Times]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|author=Richard Jenkyns |url=http://www.nytimes.com/books/98/05/31/reviews/fagles-odyssey.html |title=Heroic Enterprise – (Book review: The Odyssey translated by Robert Fagles) |publisher=nytimes.com |date=1996-12-22 |accessdate=2013-06-13}}</ref><ref>Zweig, P. (1974). ''The adventurer: The fate of adventure in the Western world'', New York: Basic Books.</ref> Mythologist [[Joseph Campbell]] discussed his notion of the [[monomyth]] in his book, ''[[The Hero with a Thousand Faces]]''. Campbell proposed that the heroic mythological stories from culture to culture followed a similar underlying pattern, starting with the "call to adventure", followed by a hazardous journey, and eventual triumph. The [[knight errant]] was the form the "adventure seeker" character took in the late Middle Ages. The [[adventure novel]] exhibits these "protagonist on adventurous journey" characteristics as do many popular feature [[Adventure film|films]], such as ''[[Star Wars]]''<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.nytimes.com/1977/05/26/movies/moviesspecial/26STAR.html|title=A Trip to a Far Galaxy That's Fun and Funny|author=Vincent Canby|date=26 May 1977|newspaper=[[New York Times]]}}</ref> and ''[[Raiders of the Lost Ark]]''.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://movies.nytimes.com/movie/review?res=EE05E7DF173AA42CA1494CC6B6799D836896|title=Movie Review: Raiders of the Lost Ark|author=Vincent Canby|date=12 June 1981|newspaper=[[New York Times]]}}</ref> [[File:Alice's Adventures in Wonderland - Carroll, Robinson - S001 - Cover.jpg|thumb|right|[[Lewis Carroll]]'s ''[[Alice's Adventures in Wonderland]]'' is a well-known example of a fantasized adventure story.]] ==See also== *[[List of genres]] *[[Tourism]] *[[Travel]] *[[Sports]] *[[Adventure travel]] ==References== {{wikiquote}} {{reflist}} ==External links== {{Commons category|Argonauts}} * [http://theargonauts.com/what-is-an-adventure/ What is an adventure?] A definition of "adventure", "hero" and "epic" with an illustration of the hero's journey. [[Category:Adventure| ]] 3br5nf8ivy290gurtdpxf1se1opqggz 0 686 15899212 8164649 2004-12-06T00:57:24Z Wetman 21492 eliminating secondary redirect wikitext text/x-wiki #REDIRECT [[Amalthea (mythology)]] i8dssgc2pl2g40q0mhdlaol7gn9v73z 0 687 290580324 289168253 2009-05-17T20:43:53Z Erik9bot 8889502 [[WP:RBK|Reverted]] edits by [[Special:Contributions/Erik9bot|Erik9bot]] ([[User talk:Erik9bot|talk]]) to last version by Closedmouth wikitext text/x-wiki #REDIRECT [[Analysis of variance]]{{R from other capitalisation}} imnxfqn16spcjimmyh3tt6o6i0qbr9d 0 689 717933067 715772674 2016-04-30T15:47:57Z Maczkopeti 26240210 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Other uses}} {{pp-semi-indef|small=yes}} {{pp-move-indef}} {{Infobox continent |title = Asia |image = [[File:Asia (orthographic projection).svg|alt=Globe centered on Asia, with Asia highlighted. The continent is shaped like a right-angle triangle, with [[Europe]] to the west, oceans to the south and east, and [[Oceania]] to the south-east.|220px]] |area = {{convert|44579000|km2|sqmi|abbr=on}}<ref name=NG264>{{cite book| publisher=National Geographic Society (U.S.) | title= National Geographic Family Reference Atlas of the World | location=Washington, D.C. | year=2006 | page=264}}</ref> |population = 4,164,252,000 ([[List of continents by population|1st]])<ref name=wa>{{cite web | url=http://www.worldatlas.com/geoquiz/thelist.htm | title=Continents of the World | work=The List | publisher=Worldatlas.com | accessdate=25 July 2011| archiveurl= //web.archive.org/web/20110722181955/http://www.worldatlas.com/geoquiz/thelist.htm| archivedate= 22 July 2011 | deadurl= no}}</ref> |density = 87/km² (225/sq mi) |demonym = [[Asian people|Asian]] |countries = 48 UN members 6 other states |list_countries = List of sovereign states and dependent territories in Asia |dependencies = {{Collapsible list | titlestyle = background:transparent;text-align:left;font-weight:normal; | list_style = text-align:left; | 1 = [[Akrotiri and Dhekelia]] | 2 = [[British Indian Ocean Territory]] | 3 = [[Christmas Island]] | 4 = [[Cocos (Keeling) Islands]] | 5 = [[Hong Kong]] | 6 = [[Macau]] }} |unrecognized = {{Collapsible list | titlestyle = background:transparent;text-align:left;font-weight:normal; | list_style = text-align:left; | 1 = [[Abkhazia]] | 2 = [[Nagorno-Karabakh]] | 3 = [[Northern Cyprus]] | 4 = [[South Ossetia]]| 5 = [[Taiwan]]}} |languages = [[Languages of Asia|List of languages]] |time = [[UTC+2]] to [[UTC+12]] |internet = [[.asia]] |cities =[[List of metropolitan areas in Asia|Major urban areas in Asia]]<br>[[List of cities in Asia]] {{Collapsible list | list_style = text-align:left; | 1 = {{flagicon|Japan}} [[Tokyo]] <br />{{flagicon|South Korea}} [[Seoul]] <br />{{flagicon|India}} [[Mumbai]] <br />{{flagicon|Bangladesh}} [[Dhaka]] <br />{{flagicon|India}} [[Delhi]] <br />{{flagicon|Pakistan}} [[Karachi]]<br />{{flagicon|Indonesia}}[[Jakarta]] <br />{{flagicon|Japan}} [[Osaka]] <br /> {{flagicon|China}} [[Shanghai]]<br /> {{flagicon|Philippines}} [[Manila]]<br /> {{flagicon|Hong Kong}} [[Hong Kong]] <br />{{flagicon|Iran}} [[Tehran]] <br />{{flagicon|Bangladesh}} [[Chittagong]] <br /> {{flagicon|Qatar}} [[Doha]] <br />{{flagicon|China}} [[Beijing]]<br /> {{flagicon|Saudi Arabia}} [[Riyadh]] <br /> {{flagicon|China}} [[Guangzhou]]<br /> {{flagicon|Taiwan}} [[Taipei]] <br />{{flagicon|Thailand}} [[Bangkok]] <br />{{flagicon|Singapore}} [[Singapore]] <br />{{flagicon|Malaysia}} [[Kuala Lumpur]]<br /> {{flagicon|Vietnam}} [[Ho Chi Minh City]]<br />{{flagicon|United Arab Emirates}} [[Dubai]] }} }} '''Asia''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|eɪ|ʒ|ə|,_|ˈ|eɪ|ʃ|ə|audio=En-us-Asia.ogg}}) is the [[Earth|Earth's]] largest and most populous [[continent]], located primarily in the [[Eastern Hemisphere|eastern]] and [[northern hemisphere]]s. Asia covers an area of 44,579,000 square kilometers, about 30% of Earth's total land area and 8.7% of the Earth's total surface area. It has historically been home to the world's first modern civilizations and has always hosted the bulk of the planet's [[human population]].<ref>http://history-world.org/Asia's%20First%20Civilizations.htm</ref> Asia is notable for not only its overall large size and population, but unusually dense and large settlements as well as vast barely populated regions within the continent of 4.4 billion people. The boundaries of Asia are traditionally determined as that of [[Eurasia]], as there is no significant geographical separation between Asia and Europe. The most commonly accepted boundaries place Asia to the east of the [[Suez Canal]], the [[Ural River]], and the [[Ural Mountains]], and south of the [[Caucasus Mountains]] and the [[Caspian Sea|Caspian]] and [[Black Sea]]s.<ref name="ReferenceA">{{cite book|title=National Geographic Atlas of the World|edition=7th|year=1999|location=Washington, DC|publisher=[[National Geographic Society|National Geographic]]|isbn=978-0-7922-7528-2}} "Europe" (pp. 68–9); "Asia" (pp. 90–1): "A commonly accepted division between Asia and Europe is formed by the Ural Mountains, Ural River, Caspian Sea, Caucasus Mountains, and the Black Sea with its outlets, the Bosporus and Dardanelles."</ref> It is bounded on the east by the [[Pacific Ocean]], on the south by the [[Indian Ocean]] and on the north by the [[Arctic Ocean]]. [[China]] and [[India]] alternated in being the [[List of regions by past GDP (PPP)|largest economies in the world]] from 1 to 1800 A.D. China was a major economic power and attracted many to the east,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bharat-rakshak.com/SRR/Volume14/nalapat.html|title=Professor M.D. Nalapat. Ensuring China's "Peaceful Rise". Accessed January 22, 2016.|publisher=}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.eric.ed.gov/ERICWebPortal/custom/portlets/recordDetails/detailmini.jsp?_nfpb=true&_&ERICExtSearch_SearchValue_0=ED460052&ERICExtSearch_SearchType_0=no&accno=ED460052|title=Dahlman, Carl J; Aubert, Jean-Eric. China and the Knowledge Economy: Seizing the 21st Century. WBI Development Studies. World Bank Publications. Accessed January 22, 2016.|publisher=}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.economist.com/surveys/displaystory.cfm?story_id=E1_PNTJQTR|title=The Real Great Leap Forward. The Economist. Sept 30, 2004|work=The Economist}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://search.ft.com/ftArticle?queryText=China+the+world%E2%80%99s+largest+economy+for+18+of+the+past+20+centuries&y=6&aje=false&x=14&id=050926000484&ct=0|title=Chris Patten. ''Financial Times''. Comment & Analysis: Why Europe is getting China so wrong. Accessed January 22, 2016.|publisher=}}</ref> and for many the legendary wealth and prosperity of the ancient culture of India personified Asia,<ref>http://www.indianscience.org/essays/22-%20E--Gems%20&%20Minerals%20F.pdf</ref> attracting European commerce, exploration and colonialism. The accidental discovery of America by Columbus in search for India demonstrates this deep fascination. The [[Silk Road]] became the main East-West trading route in the Asian hitherland while the [[Straits of Malacca]] stood as a major sea route. Asia has exhibited economic dynamism (particularly East Asia) as well as robust population growth during the 20th century, but overall population growth has since fallen to world average levels.<ref>{{cite journal | url=http://www.economist.com/diversions/millennium/displayStory.cfm?Story_ID=346605 | title=Like herrings in a barrel | journal=The Economist | date=23 December 1999 | issue=Millennium issue: Population | publisher=The ''Economist'' online, The Economist Group}}.</ref> Asia was the birthplace of most of the world's mainstream [[religion]]s including [[Christianity]], [[Islam]], [[Judaism]], [[Hinduism]], [[Buddhism]], [[Confucianism]], [[Taoism]] (or Daoism), [[Jainism]], [[Sikhism]], [[Zoroastranism]], as well as many other religions. Given its size and diversity, the concept of Asia—a [[toponymy|name]] dating back to [[classical antiquity]]—may actually have more to do with [[human geography]] than [[physical geography]].<ref name=McG-H>{{cite web | title=Asia | url=http://accessscience.com/abstract.aspx?id=054800&referURL=http%3a%2f%2faccessscience.com%2fcontent.aspx%3fid%3d054800 | work=AccessScience | publisher=McGraw-Hill | accessdate=26 July 2011 | archivedate=27 November 2011 | archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20111127141127/http://accessscience.com/abstract.aspx?id=054800&referURL=http%3a%2f%2faccessscience.com%2fcontent.aspx%3fid%3d054800}}</ref> Asia varies greatly across and within [[Regions of Asia|its regions]] with regard to ethnic groups, cultures, environments, economics, historical ties and government systems. It also has a mix of many different climates ranging from the equatorial south via the hot desert in the Middle East, temperate areas in the east and the extremely continental centre to vast subarctic and polar areas in Siberia. == Definition and boundaries == {{details3|[[Geography of Asia#Boundary|Geography of Asia]], [[Boundaries between continents]], [[List of transcontinental countries#Asia and Europe|List of transcontinental countries]] and [[Copenhagen criteria]]|Asian borders}} ===Asia-Africa boundary=== The current boundary between Asia and Africa is the Red Sea, the Gulf of Suez, and the Suez Canal. This makes Egypt a transcontinental country, with the Sinai peninsula in Asia and the remainder of the country in Africa. ===Asia–Europe boundary=== [[File:Palazzo_Ferreria_statue.jpeg|thumb|right|Statue representing Asia at [[Palazzo Ferreria]], in [[Valletta]], [[Malta]]]] The [[Don River (Russia)|Don River]] became unsatisfactory to northern Europeans when [[Peter the Great]], king of the [[Tsardom of Russia]], defeating rival claims of [[Sweden]] and the [[Ottoman Empire]] to the eastern lands, and armed resistance by the tribes of [[Siberia]], synthesized a new [[Russian Empire]] extending to the [[Ural Mountains]] and beyond, founded in 1721. The major geographical theorist of the empire was actually a former Swedish prisoner-of-war, taken at the [[Battle of Poltava]] in 1709 and assigned to [[Tobolsk]], where he associated with Peter's Siberian official, [[Vasily Tatishchev]], and was allowed freedom to conduct geographical and anthropological studies in preparation for a future book.{{Citation needed|date=October 2011}} In Sweden, five years after Peter's death, in 1730 [[Philip Johan von Strahlenberg]] published a new atlas proposing the Urals as the border of Asia. The Russians were enthusiastic about the concept, which allowed them to keep their European identity in geography. Tatishchev announced that he had proposed the idea to von Strahlenberg. The latter had suggested the [[Emba River]] as the lower boundary. Over the next century various proposals were made until the [[Ural River]] prevailed in the mid-19th century. The border had been moved perforce from the Black Sea to the Caspian Sea into which the Ural River projects.<ref>{{harvnb|Lewis|Wigen|1997|pp=27–28}}</ref> In the maps of the period, [[Transcaucasia]] was counted as Asian. The incorporation of most of that region into the [[Soviet Union]] tended to push views of the border to the south. Asian cultures had no say in this system of determining the imaginary boundaries separating them from Europe.{{citation needed|date=July 2014}} ===Asia–Oceania boundary=== The border between Asia and the loosely defined region of [[Oceania]] is usually placed somewhere in the [[Malay Archipelago]]. The terms Southeast Asia and Oceania, devised in the 19th century, have had several vastly different geographic meanings since their inception. The chief factor in determining which islands of the Malay Archipelago are Asian has been the location of the colonial possessions of the various empires there (not all European). Lewis and Wigen assert, "The narrowing of 'Southeast Asia' to its present boundaries was thus a gradual process."<ref name="Myth">{{harvnb | Lewis | Wigen | 1997 | pp=170–173}}</ref> ===Ongoing definition=== [[File:Afro-Eurasia (orthographic projection).svg|thumb|left|[[Afro-Eurasia]] shown in green]] Geographical Asia is a cultural artifact of European conceptions of the world, beginning with the [[Ancient Greeks]], being imposed onto other cultures, an imprecise concept causing endemic contention about what it means. Asia is larger and more culturally diverse than Europe.<ref>{{harvnb|Lewis|Wigen|1997|pp=36–37}}</ref> It does not exactly correspond to the cultural borders of its various types of constituents.<ref>{{harvnb|Lewis|Wigen|1997|pp=7–9}}</ref> From the time of [[Herodotus]] a minority of geographers have rejected the three-continent system (Europe, Africa, Asia) on the grounds that there is no or is no substantial physical separation between them.<ref name=McG-H /> For example, Sir [[Barry Cunliffe]], the emeritus professor of European archeology at Oxford, argues that Europe has been geographically and culturally merely "the western excrescence of the continent of Asia".<ref>{{cite journal |url=http://www.theatlantic.com/doc/200812/editors-choice |title=Geography Is Destiny | first=Benjamin | last=Schwartz | journal=The Atlantic |date = December 2008|publisher=Atlantic Magazine}}</ref> Geographically, Asia is the major eastern constituent of the continent of [[Eurasia]] with Europe being a northwestern [[peninsula]] of the landmass – or of [[Afro-Eurasia]]; geologically, Asia, Europe and Africa make up a single continuous landmass (except for the Suez Canal) and share a common [[continental shelf]]. Almost all of Europe and the better part of Asia sit atop the [[Eurasian Plate]], adjoined on the south by the [[Arabian Plate|Arabian]] and [[Indian Plate]] and with the easternmost part of Siberia (east of the [[Chersky Range]]) on the [[North American Plate]]. {{Clear}} == Etymology == [[File:Gulf5..JPG|thumb|300px|Ptolemy's Asia]] The English word, "Asia," was originally a concept of [[Greek civilization]].<ref name="reid">[[T.R. Reid|Reid, T.R.]] ''[[Confucius Lives Next Door: What living in the East teaches us about living in the west]]'' Vintage Books(1999).</ref> The place name, "Asia", in various forms in a large number of modern languages is of unknown ultimate provenience. Its etymology and language of origin are uncertain. It appears to be one of the most ancient of recorded names. A number of theories have been published. English Asia can be traced through the formation of English literature to Latin literature, where it has the same form, Asia. Whether all uses and all forms of the name derive also from the Latin of the [[Roman Empire]] is much less certain. ===Bronze Age=== Before Greek poetry, the [[Aegean Sea]] area was in a [[Greek Dark Age]], at the beginning of which syllabic writing was lost and alphabetic writing had not begun. Prior to then in the [[Bronze Age]] the records of the [[Assyrian Empire]], the [[Hittite Empire]] and the various [[Mycenaean Greece|Mycenaean]] states of Greece mention a region undoubtedly Asia, certainly in Anatolia, including if not identical to Lydia. These records are administrative and do not include poetry. The Mycenaean states were destroyed about 1200&nbsp;BC by unknown agents although one school of thought assigns the [[Dorian invasion]] to this time. The burning of the palaces baked clay diurnal administrative records written in a Greek syllabic script called [[Linear B]], deciphered by a number of interested parties, most notably by a young World War II cryptographer, [[Michael Ventris]], subsequently assisted by the scholar, [[John Chadwick]]. A major cache discovered by [[Carl Blegen]] at the site of ancient [[Pylos]] included hundreds of male and female names formed by different methods. Some of these are of women held in servitude (as study of the society implied by the content reveals). They were used in trades, such as cloth-making, and usually came with children. The epithet, lawiaiai, "captives," associated with some of them identifies their origin. Some are ethnic names. One in particular, aswiai, identifies "women of Asia."<ref>{{harvnb|Ventris|Chadwick|1973|p=536}}.</ref> Perhaps they were captured in Asia, but some others, Milatiai, appear to have been of [[Miletus]], a Greek colony, which would not have been raided for slaves by Greeks. Chadwick suggests that the names record the locations where these foreign women were purchased.<ref>{{harvnb|Ventris|Chadwick|1973|p=410}}</ref> The name is also in the singular, Aswia, which refers both to the name of a country and to a female of it. There is a masculine form, aswios. This Aswia appears to have been a remnant of a region known to the Hittites as Assuwa, centered on Lydia, or "Roman Asia." This name, ''Assuwa'', has been suggested as the origin for the name of the continent "Asia".<ref>Bossert, Helmut T., ''Asia'', Istanbul, 1946.</ref> The [[Assuwa league]] was a confederation of states in western Anatolia, defeated by the [[Hittites]] under [[Tudhaliya I]] around 1400&nbsp;BC. Alternatively, the [[etymology]] of the term may be from the [[Akkadian language|Akkadian]] word ''(w)aṣû(m)'', which means 'to go outside' or 'to ascend', referring to the direction of the sun at sunrise in the Middle East and also likely connected with the Phoenician word ''asa'' meaning east. This may be contrasted to a similar etymology proposed for ''Europe'', as being from Akkadian ''erēbu(m)'' 'to enter' or 'set' (of the sun). [[T.R. Reid]] supports this alternative etymology, noting that the ancient Greek name must have derived from ''asu'', meaning 'east' in [[Assyria]]n (''ereb'' for ''Europe'' meaning 'west').<ref name="reid"/> The ideas of ''Occidental'' (form [[Latin]] ''Occidens'' 'setting') and ''Oriental'' (from Latin ''Oriens'' for 'rising') are also European invention, synonymous with ''Western'' and ''Eastern''.<ref name="reid"/> Reid further emphasizes that it explains the Western point of view of placing all the peoples and cultures of Asia into a single classification, almost as if there were a need for setting the distinction between Western and [[Eastern world|Eastern civilizations]] on the [[Eurasia]]n continent.<ref name="reid"/> Ogura Kazuo and Tenshin Okakura are two outspoken Japanese figures on the subject.<ref name="reid"/> ===Classical antiquity=== Latin Asia and Greek Ἀσία appear to be the same word. Roman authors translated Ἀσία as Asia. The Romans named a province [[Asia (Roman province)]], which roughly corresponds with modern-day central-western Turkey. There was an Asia Minor and an Asia Major located in modern-day [[Iraq]]. As the earliest evidence of the name is Greek, it is likely circumstantially that Asia came from Ἀσία, but ancient transitions, due to the lack of literary contexts, are difficult to catch in the act. The most likely vehicles were the ancient geographers and historians, such as [[Herodotus]], who were all Greek. [[Ancient Greek]] certainly evidences early and rich uses of the name.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia | url=http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3D*%29asi%2Fa | title=Ἀσία | author=Henry George Liddell |author2=Robert Scott|author3= Henry Stuart Jones|author4= Roderick McKenzie | encyclopedia=A Greek-English Lexicon | year=2007 | location=Medford | publisher=Perseus Digital Library, Tufts University | origyear=1940}}</ref> The first continental use of Asia is attributed to Herodotus (about 440&nbsp;BC), not because he innovated it, but because his ''Histories'' are the earliest surviving prose to describe it in any detail. He defines it carefully,<ref>Book IV, Articles 37–40.</ref> mentioning the previous geographers whom he had read, but whose works are now missing. By it he means [[Anatolia]] and the [[Achaemenid Empire|Persian Empire]], in contrast to [[Greece]] and [[Egypt]]. Herodotus comments that he is puzzled as to why three women's names were "given to a tract which is in reality one" ([[Europa (mythology)|Europa]], [[Asia (mythology)|Asia]], and [[Libya (mythology)|Libya]], referring to Africa), stating that most Greeks assumed that Asia was named after the wife of [[Prometheus]] (i.e. [[Hesione]]), but that the [[Lydia]]ns say it was named after Asies, son of Cotys, who passed the name on to a tribe at [[Sardis]].<ref>Book IV, Article 45.</ref> In [[Greek mythology]], "[[Asia (mythology)|Asia]]" (''Ἀσία'') or "Asie" (''Ἀσίη'') was the name of a "[[Nymph]] or [[Titan (mythology)|Titan]] goddess of Lydia."<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.theoi.com/Nymphe/NympheAsie.html | title=Asie | work=Encyclopedia: Greek Gods, Spirits, Monsters | publisher=Theoi Greek Mythology, Exploring Mythology in Classical Literature and Art | date=2000–2011}}</ref> In ancient Greek religion, places were under the care of female divinities, parallel to guardian angels. The poets detailed their doings and generations in allegoric language salted with entertaining stories, which subsequently playwrights transformed into classical Greek drama and became "Greek mythology." For example, [[Hesiod]] mentions the daughters of [[Tethys (mythology)|Tethys]] and [[Oceanus|Ocean]], among whom are a "holy company", "who with the Lord [[Apollo]] and the Rivers have youths in their keeping."<ref>''Theogony'', Line 345 ff.</ref> Many of these are geographic: Doris, Rhodea, Europa, Asia. Hesiod explains:<ref>''Theogony'', Line 364ff.</ref><blockquote>"For there are three-thousand neat-ankled daughters of Ocean who are dispersed far and wide, and in every place alike serve the earth and the deep waters."</blockquote> The [[Iliad]] (attributed by the ancient Greeks to [[Homer]]) mentions two Phrygians (the tribe that replaced the [[Luvians]] in Lydia) in the [[Trojan War]] named [[Asius (mythology)|Asios]] (an adjective meaning "Asian");<ref>Μ95, Π717.</ref> and also a marsh or lowland containing a marsh in Lydia as ασιος.<ref>Β461.</ref> ==History== {{Main|History of Asia}} [[File:Mongol dominions1.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The [[Mongol Empire]], ca. 1300. The gray area is the later [[Timurid Empire]].]][[File:Asien Bd1.jpg|thumb|right|250px|1890 map of Asia]] [[File:Map of western, southern, and central Asia in 1885.png|thumb|right|Map of western, southern, and central Asia in 1885<ref>[http://www.wdl.org/en/item/11753/#institution=library-of-congress&page=17 A Map of the Countries between Constantinople and Calcutta: Including Turkey in Asia, Persia, Afghanistan and Turkestan from the World Digital Library and the U.S. Library of Congress]</ref>]] The history of Asia can be seen as the distinct histories of several peripheral coastal regions: [[East Asia]], [[South Asia]], [[Southeast Asia]] and the [[Middle East]], linked by the interior mass of the Central Asian [[steppe]]s. The coastal periphery was home to some of the world's earliest known civilizations, each of them developing around fertile river valleys. The civilizations in [[Mesopotamia]], the [[Indus Valley]] and the [[Huanghe River|Huanghe]] shared many similarities. These civilizations may well have exchanged technologies and ideas such as [[mathematics]] and the wheel. Other innovations, such as writing, seem to have been developed individually in each area. Cities, states and empires developed in these lowlands. The central steppe region had long been inhabited by horse-mounted nomads who could reach all areas of Asia from the [[steppe]]s. The earliest postulated expansion out of the steppe is that of the [[Proto-Indo-Europeans|Indo-Europeans]], who spread their languages into the Middle East, South Asia, and the borders of [[China]], where the [[Tocharians]] resided. The northernmost part of Asia, including much of [[Siberia]], was largely inaccessible to the steppe nomads, owing to the dense forests, climate and [[tundra]]. These areas remained very sparsely populated. [[File:Silkroutes.jpg|thumb|left|250px|The [[Silk Road]] connected many civilizations across Asia<ref>[http://www.silk-road.com/artl/srtravelmain.shtml ANCIENT SILK ROAD TRAVELLERS]</ref>]] The center and the peripheries were mostly kept separated by mountains and deserts. The [[Caucasus]] and [[Himalaya]] mountains and the [[Karakum Desert|Karakum]] and [[Gobi Desert|Gobi]] deserts formed barriers that the steppe horsemen could cross only with difficulty. While the urban city dwellers were more advanced technologically and socially, in many cases they could do little in a military aspect to defend against the mounted hordes of the steppe. However, the lowlands did not have enough open grasslands to support a large horsebound force; for this and other reasons, the [[nomad]]s who conquered states in China, India, and the Middle East often found themselves adapting to the local, more affluent societies. The Islamic [[Caliphate]] took over the Middle East and Central Asia during the [[Muslim conquests]] of the 7th century. The [[Mongol Empire]] conquered a large part of Asia in the 13th century, an area extending from China to Europe. Before the Mongol invasion, [[Song dynasty]] reportedly had approximately 120 million citizens; the 1300 census which followed the invasion reported roughly 60 million people.<ref>Ping-ti Ho. "An Estimate of the Total Population of Sung-Chin China", in ''Études Song'', Series 1, No 1, (1970). pp. 33–53.</ref> The [[Black Death]], one of the most devastating [[pandemic]]s in human history, is thought to have originated in the arid plains of central Asia, where it then travelled along the [[Silk Road]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/middle_ages/blackdisease_01.shtml|title=BBC – History – Black Death |publisher=BBC |date=17 February 2011}}</ref> The [[Russian Empire]] began to expand into Asia from the 17th century, and would eventually take control of all of Siberia and most of [[Central Asia]] by the end of the 19th century. The [[Ottoman Empire]] controlled Anatolia, the Middle East, North Africa and the Balkans from the 16th century onwards. In the 17th century, the [[Manchu people|Manchu]] conquered China and established the [[Qing Dynasty]]. The Islamic [[Mughal Empire]] and the Hindu [[Maratha Empire]] controlled much of India in the 16th and 18th centuries respectively.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Sen|first1=Sailendra Nath|title=An Advanced History of Modern India|page=11|url=https://books.google.co.in/books?id=bXWiACEwPR8C&pg=PA1941-IA82&lpg=PA1941-IA82&dq=Peshwa+Balaji+Vishwanath+1714&source=bl&ots=kqD8F1YxL1&sig=OoCIPl_SH4oqKws730skPFJxVqc&hl=en&sa=X&ei=fluCVcjhFsT98QWFg4L4Dw&ved=0CDYQ6AEwBg#v=onepage&q&f=false}}</ref> ==Geography and climate== {{main|Geography of Asia|Climate of Asia}} {{also|:Category:Biota of Asia}} [[File:Himalayas.jpg|thumb|right|The [[Himalayas|Himalayan]] range is home to some of the planet's highest peaks.]] Asia is the largest [[continent]] on Earth. It covers 8.8% of the Earth's total surface area (or 30% of its land area), and has the largest coastline, at {{convert|62800|km|mi|0}}. Asia is generally defined as comprising the eastern four-fifths of [[Eurasia]]. It is located to the east of the [[Suez Canal]] and the [[Ural Mountains]], and south of the [[Caucasus Mountains]] (or the [[Kuma–Manych Depression]]) and the [[Caspian Sea|Caspian]] and [[Black Sea]]s.<ref name="ReferenceA"/><ref name=autogenerated1>{{cite encyclopedia| title=Asia | url=http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9110518/Asia | encyclopedia=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]] Online | year=2006 | location=Chicago | publisher=Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc}}</ref> It is bounded on the east by the [[Pacific Ocean]], on the south by the [[Indian Ocean]] and on the north by the [[Arctic Ocean]]. Asia is subdivided into 48 countries, two of them ([[Russia]] and [[Turkey]]) having part of their land in Europe. Asia has extremely diverse climates and geographic features. Climates range from arctic and subarctic in Siberia to tropical in southern India and Southeast Asia. It is moist across southeast sections, and dry across much of the interior. Some of the largest daily temperature ranges on Earth occur in western sections of Asia. The monsoon circulation dominates across southern and eastern sections, due to the presence of the Himalayas forcing the formation of a thermal low which draws in moisture during the summer. Southwestern sections of the continent are hot. Siberia is one of the coldest places in the Northern Hemisphere, and can act as a source of arctic air masses for North America. The most active place on Earth for tropical cyclone activity lies northeast of the Philippines and south of Japan. The [[Gobi Desert]] is in [[Mongolia]] and the [[Arabian Desert]] stretches across much of the Middle East. The [[Yangtze River]] in China is the longest river in the continent. The [[Himalayas]] between Nepal and China is the tallest mountain range in the world. Tropical rainforests stretch across much of southern Asia and coniferous and deciduous forests lie farther north. <gallery> File:Paysan soignant ses boeufs (Kerala).jpg|[[Kerala backwaters]] File:Naadam rider 2.jpg|Mongolian [[steppe]] File:1 li jiang guilin yangshuo 2011.jpg|[[South China Karst]] File:Akkem Valley 2011.jpg|[[Altai Mountains]] File:Hunza Valley from Eagle Point.jpg|[[Hunza Valley]] </gallery> ===Climate change=== A survey carried out in 2010 by global risk analysis farm [[Maplecroft]] identified 16 countries that are extremely vulnerable to climate change. Each nation's vulnerability was calculated using 42 socio, economic and environmental indicators, which identified the likely climate change impacts during the next 30 years. The Asian countries of [[Bangladesh]], [[India]], [[Vietnam]], [[Thailand]], [[Pakistan]] and [[Sri Lanka]] were among the 16 countries facing extreme risk from climate change. Some shifts are already occurring. For example, in tropical parts of India with a [[semi-arid climate]], the temperature increased by 0.4&nbsp;°C between 1901 and 2003. A 2013 study by the [[International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics]] ([[ICRISAT]]) aimed to find science-based, pro-poor approaches and techniques that would enable Asia's agricultural systems to cope with climate change, while benefitting poor and vulnerable farmers. The study's recommendations ranged from improving the use of climate information in local planning and strengthening weather-based agro-advisory services, to stimulating diversification of rural household incomes and providing incentives to farmers to adopt natural resource conservation measures to enhance forest cover, replenish groundwater and use [[renewable energy]].<ref>[http://exploreit.icrisat.org/sites/default/files/uploads/1378286859_PolicyBrief23.pdf ''Vulnerability to Climate Change: Adaptation Strategies and layers of Resilience''], [[ICRISAT]], Policy Brief No. 23, February 2013</ref> == Economy == {{Main|Economy of Asia}} [[File:1 singapore city skyline dusk panorama 2011.jpg|thumb|right|250px|[[Singapore]] has one of the [[World's busiest port|busiest ports in the world]] and is the world's fourth largest [[Foreign exchange market|foreign exchange]] trading center.]] {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: right; float:right; clear:right; border:1px solid #aaa; margin:10px" |- style="background:#dbdbdb;" ! Rank ! Country ! [[List of countries by past and projected GDP (PPP)|GDP]] <small>(PPP, 2014)</small><br /><small>millions of [[International dollar|USD]]</small> |- | 1 ||align=left|{{flag|China}} || 18,088,054 |- | 2 ||align=left|{{flag|India}} || 7,411,093 |- | 3 ||align=left|{{flag|Japan}} || 4,767,157 |- | 4 ||align=left|{{flag|Russia}} || 3,745,157 |- | 5 ||align=left|{{flag|Indonesia}} || 2,685,893 |- | 6 ||align=left|{{flag|South Korea}} || 1,783,950 |- | 7 ||align=left|{{flag|Saudi Arabia}} || 1,609,628 |- | 8 ||align=left|{{flag|Turkey}} || 1,514,859 |- | 9 ||align=left|{{flag|Iran}} || 1,357,028 |- | 10 ||align=left|{{flag|Taiwan}} || 1,078,792 |} {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: right; float:right; clear:right; border:1px solid #aaa; margin:10px" |- style="background:#dbdbdb;" ! Rank ! Country ! [[List of IMF ranked countries by past and projected GDP (nominal)|GDP]] <small>(nominal, 2014)</small><br /><small>millions of [[International dollar|USD]]</small> |- | 1 ||align=left|{{flag|China}} || 10,360,105 |- | 2 ||align=left|{{flag|Japan}} || 4,602,367 |- | 3 ||align=left|{{flag|India}} || 2,066,902 |- | 4 ||align=left|{{flag|Russia}} || 1,860,598 |- | 5 ||align=left|{{flag|South Korea}} || 1,410,383 |- | 6 ||align=left|{{flag|Indonesia}} || 888,648 |- | 7 ||align=left|{{flag|Turkey}} || 799,535 |- | 8 ||align=left|{{flag|Saudi Arabia}} || 746,249 |- | 9 ||align=left|{{flag|Taiwan}} || 529,597 |- | 10 ||align=left|{{flag|Iran}} || 416,490 |} Asia has the second largest [[Real versus nominal value (economics)|nominal]] GDP of all continents, after Europe, but the largest when measured in [[purchasing power parity]]. As of 2011, the largest economies in Asia are [[China]], [[Japan]], [[India]], [[South Korea]] and [[Indonesia]].<ref>http://www.aneki.com/countries2.php?t=Largest_Economies_in_Asia&table=fb126&places=2&unit=*&order=desc&dependency=independent&number=5&cntdn=n&r=-201-202-203-204-205-206-207-208-209-210-211-212-116-214-215-216-217-218-219-220&c=asia&measures=Country--GDP&units=*--$*&decimals=*--* | 5 largest economies in Asia</ref> Based on Global Office Locations 2011, Asia dominated the office locations with 4 of top 5 being in Asia, [[Hong Kong]], [[Singapore]], [[Tokyo]], [[Seoul]] and [[Shanghai]]. Around 68 percent of international firms have office in Hong Kong.<ref>[http://www.cfoinnovation.com/content/hong-kong-singapore-tokyo-worlds-top-office-destinations Hong Kong, Singapore, Tokyo World's Top Office Destinations | CFO innovation ASIA]</ref> In the late 1990s and early 2000s, the economies of the PRC<ref>[http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=916768 Five Years of China's WTO Membership. EU and US Perspectives on China's Compliance with Transparency Commitments and the Transitional Review Mechanism], Legal Issues of Economic Integration, Kluwer Law International, Volume 33, Number 3, pp. 263–304, 2006. by [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/cf_dev/AbsByAuth.cfm?per_id=629289 Paolo Farah]</ref> and India have been growing rapidly, both with an average annual growth rate of more than 8%. Other recent very-high-growth nations in Asia include [[Israel]], [[Malaysia]], [[Indonesia]], [[Bangladesh]], [[Pakistan]], [[Thailand]], [[Vietnam]], [[Mongolia]], [[Uzbekistan]], [[Cyprus]] and the [[Philippines]], and mineral-rich nations such as [[Kazakhstan]], [[Turkmenistan]], [[Iran]], [[Brunei]], [[United Arab Emirates]], [[Qatar]], [[Kuwait]], [[Saudi Arabia]], [[Bahrain]] and [[Oman]]. According to [[economic historian]] [[Angus Maddison]] in his book ''The World Economy: A Millennial Perspective'', India had the world's largest economy during 0 BCE and 1000 BCE.<ref>The World Economy: Historical Statistics, Angus Maddison</ref><ref>http://www.theworldeconomy.org/MaddisonTables/MaddisontableB-18.pdf</ref> China was the [[Economic history of China|largest and most advanced economy]] on earth for much of recorded history,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bharat-rakshak.com/SRR/Volume14/nalapat.html |title=Professor M.D. Nalapat. Ensuring China's "Peaceful Rise". Accessed 30 January 2008 |publisher=Bharat-rakshak.com |date=11 September 2001 |accessdate=1 June 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.eric.ed.gov/ERICWebPortal/custom/portlets/recordDetails/detailmini.jsp?_nfpb=true&_&ERICExtSearch_SearchValue_0=ED460052&ERICExtSearch_SearchType_0=no&accno=ED460052 |title=Dahlman, Carl J; Aubert, Jean-Eric. China and the Knowledge Economy: Seizing the 21st century. WBI Development Studies. World Bank Publications. Accessed 30 January 2008 |publisher=Eric.ed.gov |accessdate=1 June 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.economist.com/surveys/displaystory.cfm?story_id=E1_PNTJQTR |title=The Real Great Leap Forward. The Economist. 30 September 2004 |work=The Economist |date=30 September 2004 |accessdate=1 June 2010}}</ref><ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20080305025204/http://search.ft.com/ftArticle?queryText=China+the+world%E2%80%99s+largest+economy+for+18+of+the+past+20+centuries&y=6&aje=false&x=14&id=050926000484&ct=0 Chris Patten. ''Financial Times''. Comment & Analysis: Why Europe is getting China so wrong. Accessed 30 January 2008.]</ref> until the [[British Empire]] (excluding [[British India|India]]) overtook it in the mid-19th century. For several decades in the late twentieth century Japan was the largest economy in Asia and second-largest of any single nation in the world, after surpassing the [[Soviet Union]] (measured in net material product) in 1986 and Germany in 1968. (NB: A number of supernational economies are larger, such as the [[European Union]] (EU), the [[North American Free Trade Agreement]] (NAFTA) or [[APEC]]). This ended in 2010 when China overtook Japan to become the world's second largest economy. In the late 1980s and early 1990s, Japan's GDP was almost as large (current exchange rate method) as that of the rest of Asia combined.{{Citation needed|date=April 2010}} In 1995, Japan's economy nearly equaled that of the USA as the largest economy in the world for a day, after the Japanese currency reached a record high of 79 [[Japanese yen|yen]]/US$. Economic growth in Asia since World War II to the 1990s had been concentrated in Japan as well as the four regions of South Korea, Taiwan, Hong Kong and Singapore located in the [[Pacific Rim]], known as the [[Four Asian Tigers|Asian tigers]], which have now all received developed country status, having the highest [[GDP per capita]] in Asia.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.emergingdragon.com/ |title=Rise of Japan and 4 Asian Tigers from |publisher=emergingdragon.com |accessdate=1 June 2010| archiveurl= //web.archive.org/web/20100422013118/http://www.emergingdragon.com/| archivedate= 22 April 2010 | deadurl= no}}</ref> [[File:Mumbai 03-2016 10 skyline of Lotus Colony.jpg|thumb|290px|[[Mumbai]] is one of the most populous cities on the continent. The city is an infrastructure and tourism hub, and plays a crucial role in the [[Economy of India]].]] It is forecasted that [[India]] will overtake Japan in terms of nominal GDP by 2020.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cbcglobal.org/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=84&Itemid=507|title=Commonwealth Business Council-Asia|accessdate=12 April 2007|archiveurl = //web.archive.org/web/20070728122032/http%3A//www.cbcglobal.org/index.php%3Foption%3Dcom_content%26task%3Dview%26id%3D84%26Itemid%3D507 |archivedate = 28 July 2007|deadurl=yes}}</ref> By 2027, according to [[Goldman Sachs]], China will have the largest economy in the world. Several trade blocs exist, with the most developed being the [[Association of Southeast Asian Nations]]. Asia is the largest continent in the world by a considerable margin, and it is rich in natural resources, such as petroleum, forests, fish, water, rice, copper and silver. Manufacturing in Asia has traditionally been strongest in East and Southeast Asia, particularly in [[China]], [[Taiwan]], [[South Korea]], [[Japan]], India, the [[Philippines]], and [[Singapore]]. Japan and South Korea continue to dominate in the area of [[multinational corporation]]s, but increasingly the PRC and India are making significant inroads. Many companies from Europe, North America, South Korea and Japan have operations in Asia's developing countries to take advantage of its abundant supply of cheap labour and relatively developed infrastructure. According to [[Citigroup]] 9 of 11 [[3G (countries)|Global Growth Generators]] countries came from Asia driven by population and income growth. They are [[Bangladesh]], China, India, Indonesia, [[Iraq]], Mongolia, Philippines, [[Sri Lanka]] and Vietnam.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sme.com.ph/sme-news/news.php?newsid=2324 |title=Philippine potential cited |publisher=sme.com.ph |date=24 February 2011 |accessdate=1 March 2011}}</ref> Asia has four main financial centers: Tokyo, Hong Kong, Singapore and Shanghai. [[Call center]]s and [[business process outsourcing]] (BPOs) are becoming major employers in India and the Philippines due to the availability of a large pool of highly skilled, [[English language|English-speaking]] workers. The increased use of outsourcing has assisted the rise of India and the China as financial centers. Due to its large and extremely competitive information technology industry, India has become a major hub for outsourcing. In 2010, Asia had 3.3&nbsp;million millionaires (people with net worth over US$1 million excluding their homes), slightly below North America with 3.4&nbsp;million millionaires. Last year Asia had toppled Europe.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.theglobeandmail.com/report-on-business/international-news/asian-pacific/asias-millionaire-population-overtakes-europe/article2072205/?utm_medium=Feeds%3A%20RSS%2FAtom&utm_source=Home&utm_content=2072205 |title=Asia has more millionaires than Europe |location=Toronto |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/20130722182408/http://www.theglobeandmail.com/report-on-business/international-news/asian-pacific/asias-millionaire-population-overtakes-europe/article2072205/?utm_medium=Feeds%3A%20RSS%2FAtom&utm_source=Home&utm_content=2072205 |archivedate=22 July 2013 }}</ref> Citigroup in The Wealth Report 2012 stated that Asian centa-millionaire overtook North America's wealth for the first time as the world's "economic center of gravity" continued moving east. At the end of 2011, there were 18,000 Asian people mainly in [[Southeast Asia]], China and Japan who have at least $100 million in disposable assets, while North America with 17,000 people and Western Europe with 14,000 people.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.bloomberg.com/news/2012-03-27/citigroup-study-shows-asian-rich-topping-north-american.html |title=Citigroup Study Shows Asian Rich Topping North American |date=28 March 2012 | work=Bloomberg |first=Sanat |last=Vallikappen}}</ref> ==Tourism== [[File:วัดพระศรีรัตนศาสดาราม.jpg|thumb|right|alt=A Thai temple complex with several ornate buildings and a stupa, and a lot of visitors|[[Wat Phra Kaeo]] in the [[Grand Palace]] is among Bangkok's major tourist attractions.]] With growing Regional Tourism with domination of Chinese visitors, [[MasterCard]] has released Global Destination Cities Index 2013 with 10 of 20 are dominated by Asia and Pacific Region Cities and also for the first time a city of a country from Asia (Bangkok) set in the top-ranked with 15.98 international visitors.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.italianvenue.com/news/20135281339-milan-and-rome-named-among-the-most-widely-visited-cities-in-the-world-in-the-mastercard-global-destination-cities-index-report/ |title=Milan and Rome named among the most widely visited cities in the world in the Mastercard Global Destination Cities Index report |date=28 May 2013}}</ref> ==Demographics== {{Main|Demographics of Asia}} {{Historical populations |title = Historical populations |type = Asia |align = right |footnote = Source: [http://www.un.org/esa/population/publications/sixbillion/sixbilpart1.pdf "UN report 2004 data" (PDF).]<br />The figure for 2012 is provided by [http://www.populationdata.net/index2.php?option=continent&cid=4&nom=asie PopulationData.net]. |1500 |243000000 |1700 |436000000 |1900 |947000000 |1950 |1402000000 |1999 |3634000000 |2012 |4175038363 }} [[Image:WorldPopulation.png|thumb|right|300px|Graph showing population by continent as a percentage of [[world population]] (1750 - 2005)]] [[East Asia]] had by far the strongest overall [[Human Development Index]] (HDI) improvement of any region in the world, nearly doubling average HDI attainment over the past 40 years, according to the report's analysis of health, education and income data. China, the second highest achiever in the world in terms of HDI improvement since 1970, is the only country on the "Top 10 Movers" list due to income rather than health or education achievements. Its per capita income increased a stunning 21-fold over the last four decades, also lifting hundreds of millions out of income poverty. Yet it was not among the region's top performers in improving school enrollment and life expectancy.<ref name="UNDP">{{cite web|url=http://hdr.undp.org/en/media/PR6-HDR10-RegRBAP-E-rev5-sm.pdf |title=2010 Human Development Report: Asian countries lead development progress over 40 years |publisher=UNDP |accessdate=22 December 2010}}</ref> <br>[[Nepal]], a South Asian country, emerges as one of the world's fastest movers since 1970 mainly due to health and education achievements. Its present [[life expectancy]] is 25 years longer than in the 1970s. More than four of every five children of school age in Nepal now attend primary school, compared to just one in five 40 years ago.<ref name="UNDP"/> <br> Japan and South Korea ranked highest among the countries grouped on the HDI (number 11 and 12 in the world, which are in the "very high human development" category), followed by Hong Kong (21) and [[Singapore]] (27). [[Afghanistan]] (155) ranked lowest amongst Asian countries out of the 169 countries assessed.<ref name="UNDP"/> ===Languages=== {{Main|Languages of Asia}} Asia is home to several [[language family|language families]] and many [[language isolate]]s. Most Asian countries have more than one language that is natively spoken. For instance, according to [[Ethnologue]], more than 600 languages are spoken in Indonesia, more than 800 languages spoken in India, and more than 100 are spoken in the Philippines. China has many languages and dialects in different provinces. === Religions === {{See also|Eastern philosophy|Religion in Asia|List of Asian mythologies}} [[File:Dome of Rock, Temple Mount, Jerusalem.jpg|thumb|[[Dome of the Rock]] on the [[Temple Mount]], in [[Jerusalem]]]] [[File:Beyt-i Haram.jpg|thumb|right|Pilgrims in the annual [[Hajj]] at the [[Kaabah]] in [[Mecca]].]] [[File:Spring Temple Buddha picturing Vairocana, in Lushan County, Henan, China.png|thumb|right|[[Spring Temple Buddha]] in [[Lushan County, Henan]], [[China]] is the [[List of statues by height|world's tallest statue]].]] Many of the world's [[major religious groups|major religions]] have their origins in Asia, including the five most practiced in the world (excluding [[irreligion]]), which are Christianity, Islam, Hinduism, Chinese folk religion (classified as Confucianism and Taoism), and Buddhism respectively. Asian mythology is complex and diverse. The story of the [[Flood myth|Great Flood]] for example, as presented to Christians in the [[Old Testament]] in the narrative of [[Noah]], is first found in [[Mesopotamian mythology]], in the ''[[Epic of Gilgamesh]]''. [[Hindu mythology]] tells about an [[Avatar]] of the [[Vishnu|God Vishnu]] in the form of a [[Matsya|fish]] who warned [[Sraddhadeva Manu|Manu]] of a terrible flood. In ancient [[Chinese mythology]], [[Shan Hai Jing]], the Chinese ruler [[King Yu of Xia of China|Da Yu]], had to spend 10 years to control a deluge which swept out most of ancient China and was aided by the goddess [[Nüwa]] who literally fixed the broken sky through which huge rains were pouring. ==== Abrahamic ==== The [[Abrahamic religions]] of [[Judaism]], [[Christianity]], [[Islam]] and [[Bahá'í Faith]] originated in West Asia. [[Judaism]], the oldest of the Abrahamic faiths, is practiced primarily in [[Israel]], the birthplace and historical homeland of the [[Jews|Hebrew nation]] which today consists equally of those [[Israelites]] who remained in [[Mizrahi Jews|Asia/North Africa]] and those who returned from [[Jewish diaspora|diaspora]] in [[Ashkenazi Jews|Europe]], [[American Jews|North America]], and other regions,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Judaism/jewpop.html |title=The Jewish Population of the World |publisher=Jewishvirtuallibrary.org |accessdate=1 June 2010}}</ref> though sizable communities continue to live abroad. [[Judaism]] is the predominant religion in [[Israel]] (75.6%), which has a nominal Jewish population of about 6.1 million,<ref>{{cite news|author=Yoram Ettinger|title=Defying demographic projections|url=http://www.israelhayom.com/site/newsletter_opinion.php?id=3913|accessdate=29 October 2013|newspaper=[[Israel Hayom]]|date=April 5, 2013}}</ref> though the matter of distinguishing Jewish religious, cultural and ethnic identity is a complex one. Outside of Israel there are small ancient communities of [[Jewish]] still live in [[Turkey]] (17,400),<ref name="jewishvirtuallibrary">{{cite web|url=https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/vjw/Turkey.html|title=Turkey Virtual Jewish History Tour &#124; Jewish Virtual Library|publisher=jewishvirtuallibrary.org|accessdate=15 December 2014}}</ref> [[Azerbaijan]] (9,100),<ref name="mashke2">{{cite web|url=http://pop-stat.mashke.org/azerbaijan-ethnic2009.htm |title=Ethnic composition of Azerbaijan 2009 |publisher=Pop-stat.mashke.org |date=1971-04-07 |accessdate=2012-12-22}}</ref> [[Iran]] (8,756),<ref name=IranCensusMurder>{{cite web|url=http://www.timesofisrael.com/jewish-woman-brutally-murdered-in-iran-over-property-dispute/#ixzz3Ac6duaqw |title=Jewish woman brutally murdered in Iran over property dispute|publisher=The Times of Israel |date= November 28, 2012 |accessdate=Aug 16, 2014|quote="A government census published earlier this year indicated there were a mere 8,756 Jews left in Iran"}} See [[Persian Jews#Iran]]</ref> [[India]] (5,000) and [[Uzbekistan]] (4,000).<ref>[http://www.ajcarchives.org/AJC_DATA/Files/AJYB727.CV.pdf World Jewish Population 2007], ''American Jewish Yearbook'', vol. 107 (2007), p. 592.</ref> [[Christianity]] is a widespread religion in Asia with more than 286 million adherents according to [[Pew Research Center]] in 2010,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.pewforum.org/2012/12/18/global-religious-landscape-christians/|title=Christians|date=18 December 2012|work=Pew Research Center's Religion & Public Life Project|accessdate=13 March 2015}}</ref> and nearly 364 million according to [[Encyclopædia Britannica|Britannica]] Book of the Year 2014.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LccRAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA324&redir_esc=y#v=snippet&q=reconciled%20table%20%22worldwide%20by%20religion%22&f=falsePew|title=Britannica Book of the Year 2014|publisher=|accessdate=13 March 2015}}</ref> constituting around 12.6% of the total population of Asia. In the Philippines and [[East Timor]], Roman Catholicism is the predominant religion; it was introduced by the [[Spain|Spaniards]] and the [[Portugal|Portuguese]], respectively. In [[Armenia]], [[Cyprus]], [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]] and Asian Russia, [[Eastern Orthodoxy]] is the predominant religion. Various Christian [[Christian denomination|denominations]] have adherents in portions of the Middle East, as well as China and India. [[Saint Thomas Christians]] in [[India]] trace their origins to the evangelistic activity of [[Thomas the Apostle]] in the 1st century.<ref>The Encyclopedia of Christianity, Volume 5 by Erwin Fahlbusch. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing - 2008, Page 285. ISBN 978-0-8028-2417-2.</ref> [[Islam]], which originated in [[Saudi Arabia]], is the largest and most widely spread religion in Asia. With 12.7% of the world Muslim population, the country currently with the largest Muslim population in the world is [[Indonesia]], followed by [[Pakistan]], [[India]], [[Bangladesh]], [[Iran]] and [[Turkey]]. [[Mecca]], [[Medina]] and to a lesser extent [[Jerusalem]] are the holiest cities for Islam in all the world. These religious sites attract large numbers of devotees from all over the world, particularly during the [[Hajj]] and [[Umrah]] seasons. [[Iran]] is the largest [[Shi'a]] country and [[Pakistan]] has the largest [[Ahmadiyya]] population. The [[Bahá'í Faith]] originated in Asia, in Iran (Persia), and spread from there to the Ottoman Empire, Central Asia, India, and Burma during the lifetime of Bahá'u'lláh. Since the middle of the 20th century, growth has particularly occurred in other Asian countries, because Bahá'í activities in many Muslim countries has been severely [[Persecution of Bahá'ís|suppressed]] by authorities. [[Lotus Temple]] is a big Baha'i Temple in India. ==== Indian and East Asian religions ==== [[File:Akshardham Lotus.jpg|thumb|left|The [[Swaminarayan Hinduism|Swaminarayan]] [[Akshardham (Delhi)|Akshardham Temple]] in [[Delhi]], according to the [[Guinness World Record]]s is the ''World's Largest Comprehensive Hindu Temple''<ref>{{cite news | first=Preeti | last=Jha | url=http://www.expressindia.com/latest-news/Guinness-comes-to-east-Delhi-Akshardham-worlds-largest-Hindu-temple/254631/ | title=Guinness comes to east Delhi: Akshardham world's largest Hindu temple | date=26 December 2007 | publisher=[[The Indian Express|ExpressIndia.com]] | accessdate=2 January 2008 }}</ref>]] Almost all Asian religions have philosophical character and Asian philosophical traditions cover a large spectrum of philosophical thoughts and writings. [[Indian philosophy]] includes [[Hindu philosophy]] and [[Buddhist philosophy]]. They include elements of nonmaterial pursuits, whereas another school of thought from India, [[Cārvāka]], preached the enjoyment of the material world. The religions of [[Hinduism]], [[Buddhism]], [[Jainism]] and [[Sikhism]] originated in India, South Asia. In East Asia, particularly in China and Japan, [[Confucianism]], [[Taoism]] and [[Zen|Zen Buddhism]] took shape. As of 2012, Hinduism has around 1.1 billion adherents. The faith represents around 25% of Asia's population and is the second largest religion in Asia. However, it is mostly concentrated in South Asia. Over 80% of the populations of both India and Nepal adhere to Hinduism, alongside significant communities in Bangladesh, Pakistan, Bhutan, Sri Lanka and [[Bali]], Indonesia. Many overseas Indians in countries such as Burma, Singapore and Malaysia also adhere to Hinduism. Buddhism has a great following in mainland Southeast Asia and East Asia. Buddhism is the religion of the majority of the populations of [[Cambodia]] (96%),<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/cb.html |title=CIA&nbsp;— The World Factbook |publisher=Cia.gov |accessdate=20 December 2010| archiveurl= //web.archive.org/web/20101229001224/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/cb.html| archivedate= 29 December 2010 | deadurl= no}}</ref> [[Thailand]] (95%),<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/th.html |title=CIA&nbsp;— The World Factbook |publisher=Cia.gov |accessdate=20 December 2010| archiveurl= //web.archive.org/web/20101229000203/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/th.html| archivedate= 29 December 2010 | deadurl= no}}</ref> [[Burma]] (80%–89%),<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/bm.html |title=CIA&nbsp;— The World Factbook |publisher=Cia.gov |accessdate=20 December 2010| archiveurl= //web.archive.org/web/20101229013140/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/bm.html| archivedate= 29 December 2010 | deadurl= no}}</ref> [[Japan]] (36%–96%),<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/ja.html |title=CIA&nbsp;— The World Factbook |publisher=Cia.gov |accessdate=20 December 2010| archiveurl= //web.archive.org/web/20101228224107/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/ja.html| archivedate= 28 December 2010 | deadurl= no}}</ref> [[Bhutan]] (75%–84%),<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/bt.html |title=CIA&nbsp;— The World Factbook |publisher=Cia.gov |accessdate=20 December 2010| archiveurl= //web.archive.org/web/20101228202246/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/bt.html| archivedate= 28 December 2010 | deadurl= no}}</ref> [[Sri Lanka]] (70%),<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.statistics.gov.lk/PopHouSat/CPH2011/index.php?fileName=pop43&gp=Activities&tpl=3 |title= The Census of Population and Housing of Sri Lanka-2011|publisher=Department of Census and Statistics|accessdate=29 July 2013}}</ref> [[Laos]] (60%–67%)<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/la.html |title=CIA&nbsp;— The World Factbook |publisher=Cia.gov |accessdate=20 December 2010| archiveurl= //web.archive.org/web/20101229000748/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/la.html| archivedate= 29 December 2010 | deadurl= no}}</ref> and [[Mongolia]] (53%–93%).<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/mg.html |title=CIA&nbsp;— The World Factbook |publisher=Cia.gov |accessdate=20 December 2010| archiveurl= //web.archive.org/web/20101229001357/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/mg.html| archivedate= 29 December 2010 | deadurl= no}}</ref> Large Buddhist populations also exist in [[Singapore]] (33%–51%),<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/sn.html |title=CIA&nbsp;— The World Factbook |publisher=Cia.gov |accessdate=20 December 2010| archiveurl= //web.archive.org/web/20101228230816/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/sn.html| archivedate= 28 December 2010 | deadurl= no}}</ref> [[Taiwan]] (35%–93%),<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/tw.html |title=CIA&nbsp;— The World Factbook |publisher=Cia.gov |accessdate=20 December 2010| archiveurl= //web.archive.org/web/20101229003947/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/tw.html| archivedate= 29 December 2010 | deadurl= no}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=China (includes Taiwan only): International Religious Freedom Report 2005 |url=http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2005/51508.htm |publisher=US Department of State: [[Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor]] |date=8 November 2005 |accessdate=24 January 2008| archiveurl= //web.archive.org/web/20080111063941/http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2005/51508.htm| archivedate= 11 January 2008 | deadurl= no}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=China (includes Taiwan only): International Religious Freedom Report 2006 |url=http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2006/71337.htm |publisher=[[US Department of State]]: [[Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor]] |date=15 September 2006 |accessdate=24 February 2008| archiveurl= //web.archive.org/web/20080213052048/http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2006/71337.htm| archivedate= 13 February 2008 | deadurl= no}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=China (includes Taiwan only): International Religious Freedom Report 2007 |url=http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2007/90134.htm |publisher=[[US Department of State]]: [[Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor]] |date=15 September 2006 |accessdate=24 February 2008| archiveurl= //web.archive.org/web/20080216064814/http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2007/90134.htm| archivedate= 16 February 2008 | deadurl= no}}</ref> [[South Korea]] (23%–50%),<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/ks.html |title=CIA&nbsp;— The World Factbook |publisher=Cia.gov |accessdate=20 December 2010| archiveurl= //web.archive.org/web/20101228235910/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/ks.html| archivedate= 28 December 2010 | deadurl= no}}</ref> [[Malaysia]] (19%–21%),<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/my.html |title=CIA&nbsp;— The World Factbook |publisher=Cia.gov |accessdate=20 December 2010| archiveurl= //web.archive.org/web/20101228233159/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/my.html| archivedate= 28 December 2010 | deadurl= no}}</ref> [[Nepal]] (9%–11%),<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/np.html |title=CIA&nbsp;— The World Factbook |publisher=Cia.gov |accessdate=20 December 2010| archiveurl= //web.archive.org/web/20101229013308/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/np.html| archivedate= 29 December 2010 | deadurl= no}}</ref> [[Vietnam]] (10%–75%),<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/vm.html |title=CIA&nbsp;— The World Factbook |publisher=Cia.gov |accessdate=20 December 2010| archiveurl= //web.archive.org/web/20101228234229/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/vm.html| archivedate= 28 December 2010 | deadurl= no}}</ref> [[China]] (20%–50%),<ref>[http://www.travelchinaguide.com/intro/nationality/han/ Travel China Guide – Han Chinese], [http://asia.msu.edu/eastasia/China/religion.html Windows on Asia – Chinese Religions]</ref> [[North Korea]] (1.5%–14%),<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.everyculture.com/Ja-Ma/North-Korea.html|title=Culture of North Korea – Alternative name, History and ethnic relations|work=Countries and Their Cultures|publisher=Advameg Inc.|accessdate=4 July 2009}}</ref><ref>[https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/kn.html#People CIA The World Factbook – North Korea]</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/2792.htm|title=Background Note: North Korea|author=Bureau of East Asian and Pacific Affairs|date=2009-2|publisher=U.S. State Department|accessdate=4 July 2009| archiveurl= //web.archive.org/web/20090701191406/http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/2792.htm| archivedate= 1 July 2009 | deadurl= no}}</ref> and small communities in [[India]] and [[Bangladesh]]. In many Chinese communities, Mahayana Buddhism is easily syncretized with Taoism, thus exact religious statistics is difficult to obtain and may be understated or overstated. The Communist-governed countries of China, Vietnam and North Korea are officially atheist, thus the number of Buddhists and other religious adherents may be under-reported. [[Jainism]] is found mainly in India and in oversea Indian communities such as the United States and Malaysia. [[Sikhism]] is found in Northern India and amongst overseas Indian communities in other parts of Asia, especially Southeast Asia. [[Confucianism]] is found predominantly in Mainland China, South Korea, Taiwan and in overseas Chinese populations. [[Taoism]] is found mainly in Mainland China, Taiwan, Malaysia and Singapore. Taoism is easily syncretized with [[Mahayana Buddhism]] for many Chinese, thus exact religious statistics is difficult to obtain and may be understated or overstated. <gallery> File:Traditional wedding at Meji-jingu 72570539 f30636e2ef o.jpg|[[Marriage in Japan#Weddings in Japan|Japanese wedding]] at the [[Meiji Shrine]] File:A day of devotion – Thaipusam in Singapore (4316108409).jpg|[[Thaipusam|Hindu]] festival celebrated by Singapore's [[Tamil people|Tamil]] community File:Cross Procession in Novosibirsk 01.jpg|[[Eastern Orthodox Church|Orthodox]] cross procession in [[Novosibirsk]] File:Black Nazarene procession.jpg|Catholic procession of the [[Black Nazarene]] of [[Manila]] File:İstanbul 4258.jpg|Muslim men praying in [[Turkey]] </gallery> ==Modern conflicts== <!-- Commented out: [[File:TrangBang.jpg|thumb|right|[[Phan Thị Kim Phúc]], center, running down a road near [[Trảng Bàng District|Trảng Bàng]], Vietnam, on 8 June 1972, after a [[napalm]] bomb was dropped on the village of Trảng Bàng by a plane of the [[Vietnam Air Force]] <sub>Photo: [[Nick Ut]] / The Associated Press</sup>]] --> [[Image:Napalm.jpg|thumb|U.S forces drop [[Napalm]] on suspected [[Viet Cong]] positions in 1965]] [[File:Wounded civilians arrive at hospital Aleppo.jpg|thumb|Wounded civilians arrive at a hospital in [[Aleppo]] during the [[Syrian civil war]], October 2012]] Some of the events pivotal in the Asia territory related to the relationship with the outside world in the post-[[Second World War]] were: * The [[Korean War]] * The [[First Indochina War|French-Indochina War]] * The [[Vietnam War]] * The [[Indonesia–Malaysia confrontation]] * The [[Sino-Vietnamese War]] * The [[Bangladesh Liberation War]] * The [[Yom Kippur War]] * The [[Iranian Revolution]] * The [[Soviet war in Afghanistan]] * The [[Iran–Iraq War]] * The [[Indonesian occupation of East Timor]] * The [[Killing Fields|Cambodian Killing Fields]] * The [[Insurgency in Laos]] * The [[Lebanese Civil War]] * The [[Sri Lankan Civil War]] * The [[Dissolution of the Soviet Union]] * The [[Gulf War]] * The [[Nepalese Civil War]] * The [[India-Pakistan Wars]] * The [[Nagorno-Karabakh War]] * The [[War in Afghanistan (2001–present)|War in Afghanistan]] * The [[Iraq War]] * The [[2006 Thai coup d'état]] * The [[Burmese Civil War]] * The [[Saffron Revolution]] * The [[Arab Spring]] * The [[Israeli–Palestinian conflict]] * The [[Syrian Civil War]] * The [[Sino-Indian War]] * The [[2014 Thai coup d'état]] * The [[Islamic State of Iraq and Syria|Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant]] ==Culture== {{Expand section|More information about general cultural topics other than Nobel prizes|date=June 2011}} {{Main|Culture of Asia}} === Nobel prizes === [[File:Tagore3.jpg|thumb|upright|Bengali polymath [[Rabindranath Tagore]] was awarded the [[Nobel Prize for Literature]] in 1913, and became Asia's first Nobel laureate]] The [[polymath]] [[Rabindranath Tagore]], a [[Bengali literature|Bengali]] poet, dramatist, and writer from [[Santiniketan]], now in [[West Bengal]], India, became in 1913 the first Asian [[Nobel Prize|Nobel laureate]]. He won his [[Nobel Prize in Literature]] for notable impact his prose works and poetic thought had on English, French, and other national literatures of Europe and the Americas. He is also the writer of the national anthems of [[Bangladesh]] and India. Other Asian writers who won Nobel Prize for literature include [[Yasunari Kawabata]] (Japan, 1968), [[Kenzaburō Ōe]] (Japan, 1994), [[Gao Xingjian]] (China, 2000), [[Orhan Pamuk]] (Turkey, 2006), and [[Mo Yan]] (China, 2012). Some may consider the American writer, [[Pearl S. Buck]], an honorary Asian Nobel laureate, having spent considerable time in China as the daughter of missionaries, and based many of her novels, namely ''[[The Good Earth]]'' (1931) and ''[[The Mother (1934 novel)|The Mother]]'' (1933), as well as the biographies of her parents of their time in China, ''[[The Exile (1936 book)|The Exile]]'' and ''[[Fighting Angel]]'', all of which earned her the Literature prize in 1938. Also, [[Mother Teresa]] of India and [[Shirin Ebadi]] of Iran were awarded the Nobel Peace Prize for their significant and pioneering efforts for democracy and human rights, especially for the rights of women and children. Ebadi is the first Iranian and the first Muslim woman to receive the prize. Another Nobel Peace Prize winner is [[Aung San Suu Kyi]] from [[Burma]] for her peaceful and non-violent struggle under a military dictatorship in Burma. She is a nonviolent pro-democracy activist and leader of the National League for Democracy in Burma (Myanmar) and a noted prisoner of conscience. She is a [[Buddhist]] and was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 1991. Chinese dissident [[Liu Xiaobo]] was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize for "his long and non-violent struggle for fundamental human rights in China" on 8 October 2010. He is the first Chinese citizen to be awarded a Nobel Prize of any kind while residing in China. In 2014, [[Kailash Satyarthi]] from India and [[Malala Yousafzai]] from Pakistan were awarded the Nobel Peace Prize "for their struggle against the suppression of children and young people and for the right of all children to education". Sir [[C. V. Raman]] is the first Asian to get a Nobel prize in Sciences. He won the [[Nobel Prize in Physics]] "for his work on the scattering of light and for the discovery of the [[Raman scattering|effect named after him]]". Japan has won the most Nobel Prizes of any Asian nation with 24 followed by India which has won 13. Amartya Sen, (born 3 November 1933) is an Indian economist who was awarded the 1998 Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences for his contributions to welfare economics and [[social choice theory]], and for his interest in the problems of society's poorest members. Other Asian Nobel Prize winners include [[Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar]], [[Abdus Salam]], [[Robert Aumann]], [[Menachem Begin]], [[Aaron Ciechanover]], [[Avram Hershko]], [[Daniel Kahneman]], [[Shimon Peres]], [[Yitzhak Rabin]], [[Ada Yonath]], [[Yasser Arafat]], [[José Ramos-Horta]] and Bishop [[Carlos Filipe Ximenes Belo]] of [[Timor Leste]], [[Kim Dae-jung]], and 13 Japanese scientists. Most of the said awardees are from Japan and [[Israel]] except for Chandrasekhar and Raman (India), Salam (Pakistan), Arafat (Palestinian Territories), Kim (South Korea), and Horta and Belo (Timor Leste). In 2006, Dr. [[Muhammad Yunus]] of [[Bangladesh]] was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize for the establishment of [[Grameen Bank]], a community development bank that lends money to poor people, especially women in Bangladesh. Dr. Yunus received his PhD in economics from Vanderbilt University, United States. He is internationally known for the concept of micro credit which allows poor and destitute people with little or no collateral to borrow money. The borrowers typically pay back money within the specified period and the incidence of default is very low. The Dalai Lama has received approximately eighty-four awards over his spiritual and political career.<ref>{{cite web|author=His Holiness's Teachings at TCV |url=http://www.dalailama.com/biography/a-brief-biography |title=A Brief Biography – The Office of His Holiness The Dalai Lama |publisher=Dalailama.com |accessdate=1 June 2010| archiveurl= //web.archive.org/web/20100525181231/http://www.dalailama.com/biography/a-brief-biography| archivedate= 25 May 2010 | deadurl= no}}</ref> On 22 June 2006, he became one of only four people ever to be recognized with Honorary Citizenship by the Governor General of Canada. On 28 May 2005, he received the Christmas Humphreys Award from the Buddhist Society in the United Kingdom. Most notable was the Nobel Peace Prize, presented in [[Oslo, Norway]] on 10 December 1989. ==Political geography== {{Main|Politics of Asia}} {{See also|List of sovereign states and dependent territories in Asia}} [[File:20091002 Hong Kong 6269.jpg|thumb|From 1841 to 1997, [[British Hong Kong|Hong Kong]] was a British colony.]] {| class="sortable wikitable" ! style="line-height:95%; width:2em" class="unsortable" | [[Flag]] ! style="line-height:95%; width:2em" class="unsortable" | [[Coat of arms|Arms]] ! Name ! [[List of countries by population|Population]]<br/> ! [[List of countries and dependencies by area|Area]]<br/>(km²) ! [[Capital city|Capital]] |- | style="text-align:center;"| {{Flagicon|Afghanistan}} | style="text-align:center;"| [[File:Emblem of Afghanistan.svg|20px]] | [[Afghanistan]] | style="text-align:right;"| 30,419,928 | style="text-align:right;"| 647,500 | [[Kabul]] |- | style="text-align:center;"| {{Flagicon|Armenia}} | style="text-align:center;"| [[File:Coat of arms of Armenia.svg|20px]] | [[Armenia]] | style="text-align:right;"| 2,970,495 | style="text-align:right;"| 29,743 | [[Yerevan]] |- | style="text-align:center;"| {{Flagicon|Azerbaijan}} | style="text-align:center;"| [[File:Emblem of Azerbaijan.svg|20px]] | [[Azerbaijan]]<ref>Azerbaijan is a [[transcontinental country]].</ref> | style="text-align:right;"| 9,493,600 | style="text-align:right;"| 86,600 | [[Baku]] |- | style="text-align:center;"| {{Flagicon|Bahrain}} | style="text-align:center;"| [[File:Emblem of Bahrain.svg|20px]] | [[Bahrain]] | style="text-align:right;"| 1,248,348 | style="text-align:right;"| 760 | [[Manama]] |- | style="text-align:center;"| {{Flagicon|Bangladesh}} | style="text-align:center;"| [[File:National emblem of Bangladesh.svg|20px]] | [[Bangladesh]] | style="text-align:right;"| 150,039,000 | style="text-align:right;"| 147,570 | [[Dhaka]] |- | style="text-align:center;"| {{Flagicon|Bhutan}} | style="text-align:center;"| [[File:Bhutan emblem.svg|20px]] | [[Bhutan]] | style="text-align:right;"| 716,896 | style="text-align:right;"| 38,394 | [[Thimphu]] |- | style="text-align:center;"| {{Flagicon|Brunei}} | style="text-align:center;"| [[File:Emblem of Brunei.svg|20px]] | [[Brunei]] | style="text-align:right;"| 408,786 | style="text-align:right;"| 5,765 | [[Bandar Seri Begawan]] |- | style="text-align:center;"| {{Flagicon|Cambodia}} | style="text-align:center;"| [[File:Royal Arms of Cambodia.svg|20px]] | [[Cambodia]] | style="text-align:right;"| 14,952,665 | style="text-align:right;"| 181,035 | [[Phnom Penh]] |- | style="text-align:center;"| {{Flagicon|China}} | style="text-align:center;"| [[File:National Emblem of the People's Republic of China.svg|20px]] | [[China|China (PRC)]] | style="text-align:right;"| 1,343,239,923 | style="text-align:right;"| 9,596,961 | [[Beijing]] |- | style="text-align:center;"| {{Flagicon|Cyprus}} | style="text-align:center;"| [[File:Coat of Arms of Cyprus.svg|20px]] | [[Cyprus]] | style="text-align:right;"| 1,099,341 | style="text-align:right;"| 9,251 | [[Nicosia]] |- | style="text-align:center;"| {{Flagicon|East Timor}} | style="text-align:center;"| [[File:Coat of arms of East Timor.svg|20px]] | [[East Timor]] | style="text-align:right;"| 1,143,667 | style="text-align:right;"| 14,874 | [[Dili]] |- | style="text-align:center;"| {{Flagicon|Egypt}} | style="text-align:center;"| [[File:Coat of arms of Egypt (Official).svg|20px]] | [[Egypt]]<ref>Egypt is a [[transcontinental country]].</ref> | style="text-align:right;"| 89,199,000 | style="text-align:right;"| 1,010,408 | [[Cairo]] |- | style="text-align:center;"| {{Flagicon|Georgia}} | style="text-align:center;"| [[File:Greater coat of arms of Georgia.svg|20px]] | [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]]<ref>Georgia is a [[transcontinental country]].</ref> | style="text-align:right;"| 4,570,934 | style="text-align:right;"| 69,700 | [[Tbilisi]] |- | style="text-align:center;"| {{Flagicon|India}} | style="text-align:center;"| [[File:Emblem of India.svg|20px]] | [[India]] | style="text-align:right;"| 1,210,193,422 | style="text-align:right;"| 3,287,263 | [[New Delhi]] |- | style="text-align:center;"| {{Flagicon|Indonesia}} | style="text-align:center;"| [[File:National emblem of Indonesia Garuda Pancasila.svg|20px]] | [[Indonesia]]<ref>Indonesia is a [[transcontinental country]].</ref> | style="text-align:right;"| 248,645,008 | style="text-align:right;"| 1,904,569 | [[Jakarta]] |- | style="text-align:center;"| {{Flagicon|Iran}} | style="text-align:center;"| [[File:Emblem of Iran.svg|20px]] | [[Iran]] | style="text-align:right;"| 78,868,711 | style="text-align:right;"| 1,648,195 | [[Tehran]] |- | style="text-align:center;"| {{Flagicon|Iraq}} | style="text-align:center;"| [[File:Coat of arms (emblem) of Iraq 2008.svg|20px]] | [[Iraq]] | style="text-align:right;"| 31,129,225 | style="text-align:right;"| 438,317 | [[Baghdad]] |- | style="text-align:center;"| {{Flagicon|Israel}} | style="text-align:center;"| [[File:Emblem of Israel.svg|20px]] | [[Israel]] | style="text-align:right;"| 7,590,758 | style="text-align:right;"| 20,770 | [[Jerusalem]] (disputed) |- | style="text-align:center;"| {{Flagicon|Japan}} | style="text-align:center;"| [[File:Imperial Seal of Japan.svg|20px]] | [[Japan]] | style="text-align:right;"| 127,368,088 | style="text-align:right;"| 377,915 | [[Tokyo]] |- | style="text-align:center;"| {{Flagicon|Jordan}} | style="text-align:center;"| [[File:Coat of Arms of Jordan.svg|20px]] | [[Jordan]] | style="text-align:right;"| 6,508,887 | style="text-align:right;"| 89,342 | [[Amman]] |- | style="text-align:center;"| {{Flagicon|Kazakhstan}} | style="text-align:center;"| [[File:Emblem of Kazakhstan.svg|20px]] | [[Kazakhstan]]<ref>Kazakhstan is a [[transcontinental country]].</ref> | style="text-align:right;"| 17,522,010 | style="text-align:right;"| 2,724,900 | [[Astana]] |- | style="text-align:center;"| {{Flagicon|Kuwait}} | style="text-align:center;"| [[File:Coat of arms of Kuwait.svg|20px]] | [[Kuwait]] | style="text-align:right;"| 2,646,314 | style="text-align:right;"| 17,818 | [[Kuwait City]] |- | style="text-align:center;"| {{Flagicon|Kyrgyzstan}} | style="text-align:center;"| [[File:National emblem of Kyrgyzstan.svg|20px]] | [[Kyrgyzstan]] | style="text-align:right;"| 5,496,737 | style="text-align:right;"| 199,951 | [[Bishkek]] |- | style="text-align:center;"| {{Flagicon|Laos}} | style="text-align:center;"| [[File:Emblem of Laos.svg|20px]] | [[Laos]] | style="text-align:right;"| 6,586,266 | style="text-align:right;"| 236,800 | [[Vientiane]] |- | style="text-align:center;"| {{Flagicon|Lebanon}} | style="text-align:center;"| [[File:Coat of Arms of Lebanon.svg|20px]] | [[Lebanon]] | style="text-align:right;"| 4,140,289 | style="text-align:right;"| 10,400 | [[Beirut]] |- | style="text-align:center;"| {{Flagicon|Malaysia}} | style="text-align:center;"| [[File:Coat of arms of Malaysia.svg|20px]] | [[Malaysia]] | style="text-align:right;"| 29,179,952 | style="text-align:right;"| 329,847 | [[Kuala Lumpur]] |- | style="text-align:center;"| {{Flagicon|Maldives}} | style="text-align:center;"| [[File:Coat of Arms of Maldives.svg|20px]] | [[Maldives]] | style="text-align:right;"| 394,451 | style="text-align:right;"| 298 | [[Malé]] |- | style="text-align:center;"| {{Flagicon|Mongolia}} | style="text-align:center;"| [[File:State emblem of Mongolia.svg|20px]] | [[Mongolia]] | style="text-align:right;"| 3,179,997 | style="text-align:right;"| 1,564,116 | [[Ulaanbaatar]] |- | style="text-align:center;"| {{Flagicon|Myanmar}} | style="text-align:center;"| [[File:State seal of Myanmar.svg|20px]] | [[Myanmar]] | style="text-align:right;"| 54,584,650 | style="text-align:right;"| 676,578 | [[Naypyidaw]] |- | style="text-align:center;"| {{Flagicon|Nepal}} | style="text-align:center;"| [[File:Coat of arms of Nepal.svg|20px]] | [[Nepal]] | style="text-align:right;"| 29,890,686 | style="text-align:right;"| 147,181 | [[Kathmandu]] |- | style="text-align:center;"| {{Flagicon|North Korea}} | style="text-align:center;"| [[File:Emblem of North Korea.svg|20px]] | [[North Korea]] | style="text-align:right;"| 24,589,122 | style="text-align:right;"| 120,538 | [[Pyongyang]] |- | style="text-align:center;"| {{Flagicon|Oman}} | style="text-align:center;"| [[File:National emblem of Oman.svg|20px]] | [[Oman]] | style="text-align:right;"| 3,090,150 | style="text-align:right;"| 309,500 | [[Muscat, Oman|Muscat]] |- | style="text-align:center;"| {{Flagicon|Pakistan}} | style="text-align:center;"| [[File:State emblem of Pakistan.svg|20px]] | [[Pakistan]] | style="text-align:right;"| 190,291,129 | style="text-align:right;"| 796,095 | [[Islamabad]] |- | style="text-align:center;"| {{Flagicon|Philippines}} | style="text-align:center;"| [[File:Coat of Arms of the Philippines.svg|20px]] | [[Philippines]] | style="text-align:right;"| {{formatnum:{{Data Philippines|poptoday}}}} | style="text-align:right;"| 300,000 | [[Manila]] |- | style="text-align:center;"| {{Flagicon|Qatar}} | style="text-align:center;"| [[File:Emblem of Qatar.svg|20px]] | [[Qatar]] | style="text-align:right;"| 1,951,591 | style="text-align:right;"| 11,586 | [[Doha]] |- | style="text-align:center;"| {{Flagicon|Russia}} | style="text-align:center;"| [[File:Coat of Arms of the Russian Federation.svg|20px]] | [[Russia]]<ref>Russia is a [[transcontinental country]].</ref> | style="text-align:right;"| 142,517,670 | style="text-align:right;"| 17,098,242 | [[Moscow]] |- | style="text-align:center;"| {{Flagicon|Saudi Arabia}} | style="text-align:center;"| [[File:Coat of arms of Saudi Arabia.svg|20px]] | [[Saudi Arabia]] | style="text-align:right;"| 26,534,504 | style="text-align:right;"| 2,149,690 | [[Riyadh]] |- | style="text-align:center;"| {{Flagicon|Singapore}} | style="text-align:center;"| [[File:Coat of arms of Singapore (blazon).svg|20px]] | [[Singapore]] | style="text-align:right;"| 5,353,494 | style="text-align:right;"| 697 | [[Singapore]] |- | style="text-align:center;"| {{Flagicon|South Korea}} | style="text-align:center;"| [[File:Emblem of South Korea.svg|20px]] | [[South Korea]] | style="text-align:right;"| 50,004,441 | style="text-align:right;"| 100,210 | [[Seoul]] |- | style="text-align:center;"| {{Flagicon|Sri Lanka}} | style="text-align:center;"| [[File:Emblem of Sri Lanka.svg|20px]] | [[Sri Lanka]] | style="text-align:right;"| 21,481,334 | style="text-align:right;"| 65,610 | [[Colombo]] |- | style="text-align:center;"| {{Flagicon|Syria}} | style="text-align:center;"| [[File:Coat of arms of Syria.svg|20px]] | [[Syria]] | style="text-align:right;"| 22,530,746 | style="text-align:right;"| 185,180 | [[Damascus]] |- | style="text-align:center;"| {{Flagicon|Tajikistan}} | style="text-align:center;"| [[File:Coat of arms of Tajikistan.svg|20px]] | [[Tajikistan]] | style="text-align:right;"| 7,768,385 | style="text-align:right;"| 143,100 | [[Dushanbe]] |- | style="text-align:center;"| {{Flagicon|Thailand}} | style="text-align:center;"| [[File:Garuda Emblem of Thailand.svg|20px]] | [[Thailand]] | style="text-align:right;"| 67,091,089 | style="text-align:right;"| 513,120 | [[Bangkok]] |- | style="text-align:center;"| {{Flagicon|Turkey}} | style="text-align:center;"| [[File:TurkishEmblem.svg|20px]] | [[Turkey]]<ref>[[Eastern Thrace]] region of Turkey is in Europe. Therefore Turkey is a [[transcontinental country]].</ref> | style="text-align:right;"| 79,749,461 | style="text-align:right;"| 783,562 | [[Ankara]] |- | style="text-align:center;"| {{Flagicon|Turkmenistan}} | style="text-align:center;"| [[File:Coat of Arms of Turkmenistan.svg|20px]] | [[Turkmenistan]] | style="text-align:right;"| 5,054,828 | style="text-align:right;"| 488,100 | [[Ashgabat]] |- | style="text-align:center;"| {{Flagicon|United Arab Emirates}} | style="text-align:center;"| [[File:Emblem of the United Arab Emirates.svg|20px]] | [[United Arab Emirates]] | style="text-align:right;"| 5,314,317 | style="text-align:right;"| 83,600 | [[Abu Dhabi]] |- | style="text-align:center;"| {{Flagicon|Uzbekistan}} | style="text-align:center;"| [[File:Coat of Arms of Uzbekistan.svg|20px]] | [[Uzbekistan]] | style="text-align:right;"| 28,394,180 | style="text-align:right;"| 447,400 | [[Tashkent]] |- | style="text-align:center;"| {{Flagicon|Vietnam}} | style="text-align:center;"| [[File:Coat of arms of Vietnam.svg|20px]] | [[Vietnam]] | style="text-align:right;"| 91,519,289 | style="text-align:right;"| 331,212 | [[Hanoi]] |- | style="text-align:center;"| {{Flagicon|Yemen}} | style="text-align:center;"| [[File:Emblem of Yemen.svg|20px]] | [[Yemen]] | style="text-align:right;"| 24,771,809 | style="text-align:right;"| 527,968 | [[Sana'a]] |} Within the above-mentioned states are several partially recognized countries with [[List of states with limited recognition|limited to no international recognition]]. None of them are members of the UN: {| class="sortable wikitable" ! style="line-height:95%; width:2em" class="unsortable" | [[Flag]] ! style="line-height:95%; width:2em" class="unsortable" | [[Coat of arms|Arms]] ! Name ! [[List of countries by population|Population]]<br/> ! [[List of countries and dependencies by area|Area]]<br/>(km²) ! [[Capital city|Capital]] |- |- | style="text-align:center;"| {{Flagicon|Abkhazia}} | style="text-align:center;"| [[File:Coat of arms of Abkhazia.svg|20px]] | [[Abkhazia]]<ref>Abkhazia is a [[List of states with limited recognition|state with limited recognition]].</ref> | style="text-align:right;"| 242,862 | style="text-align:right;"| 8,660 | [[Sukhumi]] |- | style="text-align:center;"| {{Flagicon|Nagorno-Karabakh}} | style="text-align:center;"| [[File:Coat of arms of Nagorno-Karabakh.svg|20px]] | [[Nagorno-Karabakh]]<ref>Nagorno-Karabakh is a [[List of states with limited recognition|state with limited recognition]].</ref> | style="text-align:right;"| 146,573 | style="text-align:right;"| 11,458 | [[Stepanakert]] |- | style="text-align:center;"| {{Flagicon|Northern Cyprus}} | style="text-align:center;"| [[File:Coat of arms of the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus.svg|20px]] | [[Northern Cyprus]]<ref>Northern Cyprus is a [[List of states with limited recognition|state with limited recognition]].</ref> | style="text-align:right;"| 285,356 | style="text-align:right;"| 3,355 | [[Nicosia]] |- | style="text-align:center;"| {{Flagicon|Palestine}} | style="text-align:center;"| [[File:Coat of arms of State of Palestine (Official).png|20px]] | [[State of Palestine|Palestine]]<ref>Palestine is a [[List of states with limited recognition|state with limited recognition]].</ref> | style="text-align:right;"| 4,279,699 | style="text-align:right;"| 6,220 | [[Ramallah]]<br />(''[[Jerusalem]]'') (claimed) |- | style="text-align:center;"| {{Flagicon|South Ossetia}} | style="text-align:center;"| [[File:Coat of arms of South Ossetia.svg|20px]] | [[South Ossetia]]<ref>South Ossetia is a [[List of states with limited recognition|state with limited recognition]].</ref> | style="text-align:right;"| 51,547 | style="text-align:right;"| 3,900 | [[Tskhinvali]] |- | style="text-align:center;"| {{Flagicon|Taiwan}} | style="text-align:center;"| [[File:Republic of China National Emblem.svg|20px]] | [[Taiwan|Taiwan (ROC)]]<ref>Taiwan (ROC) is a [[List of states with limited recognition|state with limited recognition]].</ref> | style="text-align:right;"| 23,261,747 | style="text-align:right;"| 36,193 | [[Taipei]] |} ==See also== <!-- {{Wikipedia-Books}} --> {{main|Outline of Asia|Index of Asia-related articles}} '''References to articles:''' <!-- * [[Bibliography of Asia]] --> * [[Subregions of Asia]] '''Special topics:''' * [[Asian Century]] * [[Asian cuisine]] * [[Asian furniture]] * [[Asian Games]] * [[Asian Monetary Unit]] * [[Asian people]] * [[Eastern world]] * [[Eurasia]] * [[Far East]] * [[East Asia]] * [[Southeast Asia]] * [[South Asia]] * [[Central Asia]] * [[Fauna of Asia]] * [[Flags of Asia]] * [[Middle East]] ** [[Eastern Mediterranean]] ** [[Levant]] ** [[Near East]] * [[Pan-Asianism]] '''Lists:''' * [[List of cities in Asia]] * [[List of metropolitan areas in Asia by population]] * [[List of sovereign states and dependent territories in Asia]] {{div col end}} == References == {{reflist|colwidth=30em}} ==Bibliography== * {{Cite book | ref=harv | title=The myth of continents: a critique of metageography |first=Martin W. |last= Lewis |first2= Kären |last2= Wigen |publisher=University of California Press |year= 1997 |isbn= 0-520-20743-2 | location=Berkeley and Los Angeles}} * {{cite book | ref=harv | first=Michael | last=Ventris | first2=John | last2=Chadwick | title=Documents in Mycenaean Greek | edition=2nd | year=1973 | location=Cambridge | publisher=University Press}} == Further reading == * Higham, Charles. ''Encyclopedia of Ancient Asian Civilizations''. Facts on File library of world history. New York: Facts On File, 2004. * Kamal, Niraj. "Arise Asia: Respond to White Peril". New Delhi:Wordsmith,2002, ISBN 978-81-87412-08-3 * Kapadia, Feroz, and Mandira Mukherjee. ''Encyclopaedia of Asian Culture and Society.'' New Delhi: Anmol Publications, 1999. * Levinson, David, and Karen Christensen. ''Encyclopedia of Modern Asia''. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 2002. == External links == {{Sister project links|voy=Asia|Asia}} * {{cite web | title=Display Maps | work=The Soil Maps of Asia | publisher=European Digital Archive of Soil Maps – EuDASM | url=http://eusoils.jrc.ec.europa.eu/esdb_archive/EuDASM/asia/indexes/idx_country.htm | accessdate=26 July 2011}} * {{cite web | title=Asia Maps | work=Perry-Castañeda Library Map Collection | url=http://www.lib.utexas.edu/maps/asia.html | publisher=University of Texas Libraries | accessdate=20 July 2011| archiveurl= //web.archive.org/web/20110718061834/http://www.lib.utexas.edu/maps/asia.html| archivedate= 18 July 2011 | deadurl= no}} * {{cite web | title=Asia | publisher=Norman B. Leventhal Map Center at the Boston Public Library | url=http://maps.bpl.org/search_advanced/?mtid=786 | accessdate=26 July 2011}} * {{cite journal | title=What is Asia? | url=http://afe.easia.columbia.edu/geography/geo_whatis.html | first=Philip | last=Bowring | journal=Eastern Economic Review | volume=135 | number=7 | date=12 February 1987 | publisher=Columbia University Asia For Educators}} {{Portal bar|Asia|Geography}} {{Navboxes |title = Articles Related to Asia |list = {{Asia topics|state=expanded}} {{Countries of Asia}} {{Continents of the world}} {{Regions of the world}} }} {{Use dmy dates|date=October 2013}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Asia| ]] [[Category:Continents]] rb1wr0ytuln5d3t6mklehuxl06pm7je 0 690 718017436 718009622 2016-05-01T02:03:37Z Gap9551 8367391 Undid revision 718009622 by [[Special:Contributions/2601:187:4001:EC8:986A:92B5:7E28:C365|2601:187:4001:EC8:986A:92B5:7E28:C365]] ([[User talk:2601:187:4001:EC8:986A:92B5:7E28:C365|talk]]) unexplained deletion wikitext text/x-wiki {{About|the island country}} {{pp-move-indef}} {{Use dmy dates|date=March 2013}} {{Infobox country | conventional_long_name = Aruba | common_name = Aruba | image_flag = Flag of Aruba.svg | image_coat = Coat of arms of Aruba.svg | national_motto = <!--citation?: "One Happy Island"--> | national_anthem = ''[[Aruba Dushi Tera]]''<br/>{{small|''Aruba, Sweet Country''}}<br/>[[File:Aruba Dushi Tera instrumental.ogg|center]] | image_map = Aruba in its region.svg | map_caption = {{map caption |location_color=circled in red |region=the [[Caribbean]] |region_color=light yellow}} | official_languages = {{vunblist |[[Dutch language|Dutch]] |[[Papiamento]]<ref>{{cite book |last1=Migge |first1=Bettina |last2=Léglise |first2=Isabelle |last3=Bartens |first3=Angela |year=2010 |title=Creoles in Education: An Appraisal of Current Programs and Projects |publisher=John Benjamins Publishing Company |location=Amsterdam |page = 268 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4SMLb6hKv4YC&lpg=PT276 |isbn=978-90-272-5258-6}}</ref>}} | ethnic_groups = {{vunblist |75% [[Mestizo]] |15% [[Afro-Aruban|Black]] |10% Other }} | demonym = [[Culture of Aruba|Aruban]] | capital = [[Oranjestad, Aruba|Oranjestad]] | latd=12 |latm=31 |latNS=N |longd=70 |longm=2 |longEW=W | largest_city = capital | membership_type = Sovereign state | membership = {{flag|Kingdom of the Netherlands}} | government_type = [[Unitary state|Unitary]] [[Parliamentary system|parliamentary]] [[representative democracy]] under [[constitutional monarchy]] | leader_title1 = [[Monarchy of the Netherlands|Monarch]] | leader_name1 = [[Willem-Alexander of the Netherlands|Willem-Alexander]] | leader_title2 = [[Governor of Aruba|Governor]] | leader_name2 = [[Fredis Refunjol]] | leader_title3 = [[Prime Minister of Aruba|Prime Minister]] | leader_name3 = [[Mike Eman]] | legislature = [[Estates of Aruba]] | sovereignty_type = [[Autonomy]] {{nobold|from the [[Netherlands Antilles]]}} | established_event1 = Date | established_date1 = 18 March 1986 | land_area_rank = 214th | area_magnitude = 1 E8 | area_km2 = 178.91 | area_sq_mi = 69.08 | percent_water = negligible | population_census = | population_census_year = | population_estimate = 103,400 <ref>[http://esa.un.org/wpp/ World Population Prospects: The 2012 Revision], [[UNDESA]].</ref> | population_estimate_rank = 197th | population_estimate_year = 2014 | population_density_km2 = 575.21 | population_density_sq_mi = 1489.79 | population_density_rank = 22nd | religion = 81% Roman Catholic | GDP_PPP = US$2.616 billion<ref>[https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/aa.html Aruba], [[The World Factbook]].</ref> | GDP_PPP_rank = 190th | GDP_PPP_year = 2011 | GDP_PPP_per_capita = US$25,300 | GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = 47th | GDP_nominal = US$2.991 billion | GDP_nominal_year = 2013<ref name="Centrale Bank van Aruba">http://www.cbaruba.org/cba/readBlob.do?id=2711</ref> | GDP_nominal_per_capita = US$28,924 | GDP_nominal_per_capita_rank = 32nd | GDP_nominal_rank = 162nd | HDI_year = 2013 | HDI_change = <!--increase/decrease/steady--> | HDI = 0.825 <!--number only-->| currency = [[Aruban florin]] | currency_code = AWG | time_zone = [[Atlantic Standard Time|AST]] | utc_offset = −4 | drives_on = right | cctld = [[.aw]] | calling_code = [[+297]] }} '''Aruba''' ({{IPAc-en|ə|ˈ|r|uː|b|ə}} {{respell|ə|ROO|bə}}; {{IPA-nl|aːˈrubaː|lang}}) is a [[constituent country]] of the [[Kingdom of the Netherlands]] in the southern [[Caribbean Sea]], located about {{convert|1600|km}} west of the main part of the [[Lesser Antilles]] and {{convert|29|km|0}}<ref name="Britannica">{{cite web|url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/37333/Aruba|title=Aruba|encyclopedia=Encyclopedia Britannica|accessdate=2014-08-10}}</ref> north of the coast of [[Venezuela]]. It measures {{convert|32|km|0}} long from its northwestern to its southeastern end and {{convert|10|km|0}} across at its widest point.<ref name="Britannica"/> Together with [[Bonaire]] and [[Curaçao]], Aruba forms a group referred to as the [[ABC islands (Lesser Antilles)|ABC islands]]. Collectively, Aruba and the other Dutch islands in the Caribbean are often called the [[Dutch Caribbean]]. Aruba is one of the four countries that form the [[Kingdom of the Netherlands]], along with the [[Netherlands]], [[Curaçao]] and [[Sint Maarten]]. The citizens of these countries all share a single nationality: Dutch. Aruba has no administrative subdivisions, but, for census purposes, is divided into eight regions. Its capital is [[Oranjestad, Aruba|Oranjestad]]. Unlike much of the Caribbean region, Aruba has a dry climate and an arid, [[cactus]]-strewn landscape. This climate has helped tourism as visitors to the island can reliably expect warm, sunny weather. It has a land area of {{convert|179|km2|sqmi|1|abbr=on}} and is densely populated, with a total of 102,484 inhabitants at the 2010 Census. It lies outside [[Hurricane Alley]]. == History == {{main|History of Aruba}} [[File:Oranjestad.jpg|thumb|left|The capital, [[Oranjestad, Aruba|Oranjestad]]]] Aruba's first inhabitants are thought to have been [[Caquetios Indian|Caquetío Amerindians]] from the [[Arawak peoples|Arawak]] tribe, who migrated there from [[Venezuela]] to escape attacks by the [[Kalina people|Caribs]]. Fragments of the earliest known Indian settlements date back to 1000 AD. As sea currents made [[canoe]] travel to other [[Caribbean islands]] difficult, [[Caquetio]] culture remained more closely associated with that of mainland South America. Europeans first learned of Aruba following the explorations for Spain by [[Amerigo Vespucci]] and [[Alonso de Ojeda]] in the summer of 1499. Both described Aruba as an "island of giants", remarking on the comparatively large stature of the native Caquetíos compared to Europeans. Gold was not discovered on Aruba for another 300 years. Vespucci returned to Spain with stocks of cotton and [[Caesalpinia echinata|brazilwood]] from the island and described houses built into the ocean. Vespucci and Ojeda's tales spurred interest in Aruba, and Spaniards soon colonized the island.<ref name=advent>{{cite book |last=Sullivan| first=Lynne M.| year=2006| title=Adventure Guide to Aruba, Bonaire & Curaçao| publisher=Hunter Publishing, Inc.| location=Edison, NJ| pages=57–58| url=https://books.google.com/books?id=M8SyFOyvjkQC&lpg=PA58}}</ref><ref name=early>{{cite book | last=Sauer| first=Carl Ortwin| year=1966| title=The Early Spanish Main| publisher=Cambridge University Press| location=Cambridge| page=112| url=https://books.google.com/books?id=plzS7SL_-f0C&lpg=PA112}}</ref> Because it had low rainfall, Aruba was not considered profitable for the plantation system and the economics of the [[slave trade]].{{citation needed|date=July 2013}} Aruba was colonized by [[Spanish Empire|Spain]] for over a century. ''Simas'', the ''[[Cacique]]'', or [[Tribal chief|chief]], in Aruba, welcomed the first Catholic priests in Aruba, who gave him a wooden cross as a gift. In 1508, the Spanish Crown appointed Alonso de Ojeda as its first Governor of Aruba, as part of ''Nueva Andalucía''. Arawaks spoke the "broken Spanish" which their ancestors had learned on [[Hispaniola]].{{citation needed|date=July 2013}} Another governor appointed by Spain was [[Juan Martínez de Ampiés]]. A ''cédula real'' decreed in November 1525 gave Ampiés, factor of Española, the right to repopulate Aruba. In 1528, Ampiés was replaced by a representative of the [[Welser|House of Welser]]. The [[Netherlands|Dutch]] statutes have applied to Aruba since 1629.{{clarify|how could The Netherlands govern Aruba without owning it?|date=July 2015}} The Netherlands acquired Aruba in 1636. Since 1636, Aruba has been under [[Dutch Empire|Dutch]] administration, initially governed by [[Peter Stuyvesant]], later appointed to [[New Amsterdam]] (New York City). Stuyvesant was on a special mission in Aruba in November and December 1642. The island was included under the [[Dutch West India Company]] (W.I.C.) administration, as "New Netherland and Curaçao", from 1648 to 1664. In 1667 the Dutch administration appointed an Irishman as "Commandeur" in Aruba. The Dutch took control 135 years after the Spanish, leaving the Arawaks to farm and graze livestock, and used the island as a source of meat for other Dutch possessions in the Caribbean.{{citation needed|reason=no direct linkage has been supplied to demonstrate that one lead to the other|date=August 2012}} During the Napoleonic wars, the [[British Empire]] took control over the island, between 1799 and 1802, and between 1804 and 1816, before handing it back to the Dutch.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.britishempire.co.uk/maproom/aruba.htm|title=British Empire: Caribbean: Aruba|publisher=}}</ref> === Move towards independence === In August 1947, Aruba presented its first ''Staatsreglement'' (constitution), for Aruba's ''[[Independence|status aparte]]'' as an autonomous state within the [[Kingdom of the Netherlands]]. By 1954, the [[Charter of the Kingdom of the Netherlands]] was established, providing a framework for relations between Aruba and the rest of the Kingdom.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Robbers|first=Gerhard|title=Encyclopedia of World Constitutions|publisher=Facts on File, Inc.|volume=1|year=2007|location=New York City|page=649|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=M3A-xgf1yM4C&lpg=PA649|isbn=0-8160-6078-9}}</ref> In 1972, at a conference in [[Suriname]], [[Betico Croes]] (MEP), a politician from Aruba, proposed a ''sui-generis'' Dutch Commonwealth of four states: Aruba, the Netherlands, Suriname and the [[Netherlands Antilles]], each to have its own nationality. C. Yarzagaray, a parliamentary member representing the AVP political party, proposed a [[referendum]] so that the people of Aruba could choose whether they wanted total independence or ''Status Aparte'' as a full autonomous state under the Crown. Croes worked in Aruba to inform and prepare the people of Aruba for independence. In 1976, he appointed a committee that chose the national flag and anthem, introducing them as symbols of Aruba's sovereignty and independence. He set 1981 as a target date for independence. In March 1977, the first Referendum for Self Determination was held with the support of the United Nations; 82% of the participants voted for independence.<ref name="BBC Aruba Profile">{{cite web|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-latin-america-20211986 |title=BBC News&nbsp;— Aruba profile&nbsp;— Timeline |publisher=Bbc.co.uk |date=2013-11-05 |accessdate=2014-07-15}}</ref> The Island Government of Aruba assigned the Institute of Social Studies in [[The Hague]] to prepare a study for independence; it was titled ''Aruba en Onafhankelijkheid, achtergronden, modaliteiten en mogelijkheden; een rapport in eerste aanleg'' (Aruba and independence, backgrounds, modalities and opportunities; a preliminary report) (1978). At the conference in The Hague in 1981, Aruba's independence was set for the year 1991. In March 1983, Aruba reached an official agreement within the Kingdom for its independence, to be developed in a series of steps as the Crown granted increasing autonomy. In August 1985 Aruba drafted a constitution that was unanimously approved. On 1 January 1986, after elections were held for its first parliament, Aruba seceded from the Netherlands Antilles; it officially became a country of the Kingdom of the Netherlands. Full independence was projected in 1996. After his death in 1986, Croes was proclaimed ''Libertador di Aruba''. At a convention in The Hague in 1990, at the request of Aruba's [[Nelson Oduber|Prime Minister]], the governments of Aruba, the Netherlands, and the Netherlands Antilles postponed indefinitely its transition to full independence. The article scheduling Aruba's complete independence was rescinded in 1995, although the process could be revived after another referendum. == Geography == {{main|Geography of Aruba}} [[File:Aruba map.png|thumb|A map of Aruba]] [[File:Aruba - Encyclopaedie van Nederlandsch West-Indië-Antilles part 1, right.gif|thumb|Map of Aruba from the ''Encyclopaedie van Nederlandsch West-Indië 1914-1917.'']] [[File:197306 aruba naturalbridge.jpg|thumb|Natural bridge in Aruba (collapsed 2 September 2005)]] Aruba is a generally flat, riverless island in the [[Leeward Antilles]] island arc of the [[Lesser Antilles]] in the southern part of the Caribbean. It has white sandy beaches on the western and southern coasts of the island, relatively sheltered from fierce ocean currents.<ref name="Aruba: the happy island">{{cite web|author=Canoe inc. |url=http://slam.canoe.ca/Travel/Activities/SunSand/2011/06/22/18320936.html |title=Aruba: the happy island |publisher=Slam.canoe.ca |date=2011-06-22 |accessdate=2014-07-15}}</ref> This is where most tourist development has occurred.<ref name="Aruba: the happy island" /> The northern and eastern coasts, lacking this protection, are considerably more battered by the sea and have been left largely untouched by humans. The hinterland of the island features some rolling hills, the best known of which are called [[Hooiberg]] at {{convert|165|m|ft|0|sp=us}} and [[Mount Jamanota]], the highest on the island at {{convert|188|m|ft|0|sp=us}} above sea level. Oranjestad, the capital, is located at {{Coord|12|19|N|70|1|W|}}. To the east of Aruba are [[Bonaire]] and [[Curaçao]], two island territories which once formed the southwest part of the [[Netherlands Antilles]]. This group of islands is sometimes called the [[ABC islands (Lesser Antilles)|ABC islands]]. They are located on the South American [[continental shelf]] and therefore geographically listed as part of South America. The [[Aruba Natural Bridge|Natural Bridge]] was a large, naturally formed limestone bridge on the island's north shore. It was a popular tourist destination until its collapse in 2005. === Cities and towns === {{main|List of cities in Aruba}} The island, with a population of just over 100,000 inhabitants, does not have major cities. However, most of the island's population resides in or surrounding the two major city-like districts of Oranjestad (Capital) and San Nicolaas. Furthermore, the island is divided into eight districts, which are: * [[Noord]] * [[Oranjestad, Aruba|Oranjestad]] (33,000 in 2006), divided in two districts * [[Paradera]] * [[San Nicolaas]], divided in two districts * [[Santa Cruz, Aruba|Santa Cruz]] * [[Savaneta]] === Fauna === {{Expand section|date=January 2015}} The island of Aruba, being isolated from the main land of South America, has helped the evolution of multiple endemic animals. The island provides a habitat for the endemic [[Cnemidophorus arubensis|Aruban Whiptail]] and [[Crotalus durissus unicolor|Aruba Rattlesnake]], as well as endemic subspecies of [[Athene cunicularia|Burrowing Owl]] and [[Eupsittula pertinax|Brown-throated Parakeet]]. The rattlesnake and the owl are printed on the Aruban [[Aruban Florin|currency]]. === Flora === {{Expand section|date=October 2015}} The flora of Aruba differs from the typical tropical island vegetation. [[Xeric scrublands]] are common, with various forms of [[cacti]], thorny shrubs and evergreens. With the most known plant being the [[Aloe vera]], which has a place on the [[Coat of Arms of Aruba]]. === Climate === {{main|Climate of Aruba}} In the [[Köppen climate classification]], Aruba has a [[tropics|tropical]] [[semi-arid climate]].<ref name=extremes /> Mean monthly temperature in Oranjestad varies little from {{convert|26.7|°C|1}} to {{convert|29.2|C}}, moderated by constant [[trade winds]] from the Atlantic Ocean, which comes from north-east. Yearly precipitation barely exceeds {{convert|470|mm|in|1|abbr=on}} in Oranjestad. {{Weather box | location = Oranjestad, Aruba (1981–2010, extremes 1951–2010) | metric first=Yes | single line = yes |Jan record high C = 32.5 |Feb record high C = 33.0 |Mar record high C = 33.9 |Apr record high C = 34.4 |May record high C = 34.9 |Jun record high C = 35.2 |Jul record high C = 35.3 |Aug record high C = 36.1 |Sep record high C = 36.5 |Oct record high C = 35.4 |Nov record high C = 35.0 |Dec record high C = 34.8 |year record high C = |Jan high C = 30.0 |Feb high C = 30.4 |Mar high C = 30.9 |Apr high C = 31.5 |May high C = 32.0 |Jun high C = 32.2 |Jul high C = 32.0 |Aug high C = 32.6 |Sep high C = 32.7 |Oct high C = 32.1 |Nov high C = 31.3 |Dec high C = 30.4 |year high C = 31.5 |Jan mean C = 26.7 |Feb mean C = 26.8 |Mar mean C = 27.2 |Apr mean C = 27.9 |May mean C = 28.5 |Jun mean C = 28.7 |Jul mean C = 28.6 |Aug mean C = 29.1 |Sep mean C = 29.2 |Oct mean C = 28.7 |Nov mean C = 28.1 |Dec mean C = 27.2 |year mean C = 28.1 |Jan low C = 24.5 |Feb low C = 24.7 |Mar low C = 25.0 |Apr low C = 25.8 |May low C = 26.5 |Jun low C = 26.7 |Jul low C = 26.4 |Aug low C = 26.8 |Sep low C = 26.9 |Oct low C = 26.4 |Nov low C = 25.8 |Dec low C = 25.0 |year low C = 25.9 |Jan record low C = 21.3 |Feb record low C = 20.6 |Mar record low C = 21.4 |Apr record low C = 21.5 |May record low C = 21.8 |Jun record low C = 22.7 |Jul record low C = 21.2 |Aug record low C = 21.3 |Sep record low C = 22.1 |Oct record low C = 21.9 |Nov record low C = 22.0 |Dec record low C = 20.5 |year record low C = |precipitation colour=green |Jan precipitation mm = 39.3 |Feb precipitation mm = 20.6 |Mar precipitation mm = 8.7 |Apr precipitation mm = 11.6 |May precipitation mm = 16.3 |Jun precipitation mm = 18.7 |Jul precipitation mm = 31.7 |Aug precipitation mm = 25.8 |Sep precipitation mm = 45.5 |Oct precipitation mm = 77.8 |Nov precipitation mm = 94.0 |Dec precipitation mm = 81.8 |Jan humidity = 77.5 |Feb humidity = 76.1 |Mar humidity = 75.7 |Apr humidity = 77.1 |May humidity = 77.9 |Jun humidity = 77.4 |Jul humidity = 77.8 |Aug humidity = 76.2 |Sep humidity = 76.8 |Oct humidity = 78.6 |Nov humidity = 79.1 |Dec humidity = 78.4 |year humidity = 77.4 |Jan precipitation days = 8.4 |Feb precipitation days = 5.0 |Mar precipitation days = 1.8 |Apr precipitation days = 1.9 |May precipitation days = 2.2 |Jun precipitation days = 2.8 |Jul precipitation days = 4.9 |Aug precipitation days = 4.3 |Sep precipitation days = 3.9 |Oct precipitation days = 7.4 |Nov precipitation days = 10.6 |Dec precipitation days = 11.4 |unit precipitation days = 1.0 mm |source 1 = DEPARTAMENTO METEOROLOGICO ARUBA,<ref name=climate>{{cite web |url= http://www.meteo.aw/files/Download/climatnormals19812010.pdf |publisher = Departamento Meteorologico Aruba |title= Summary Climatological Normals 1981–2010 |accessdate=15 October 2012}}</ref> (extremes)<ref name=extremes>{{cite web |url= http://www.meteo.aw/climate.php |publisher = Departamento Meteorologico Aruba |title= Climate Data Aruba |accessdate=15 October 2012}}</ref> | date=February 2011 }} == Demographics == {{Main|Demographics of Aruba}} [[File:Aruba-demography.png|thumb|upright=1.60|Population of Aruba 1961–2003, according to the [[Food and Agriculture Organization|FAO]] in 2005; number of inhabitants given in thousands.]] The population is estimated to be 75% mixed [[European]]/[[Amerindian]], 15% [[Afro-Aruban|Black]] and 10% other ethnicities. The Arawak heritage is stronger on Aruba than on most Caribbean islands. Although no full-blooded [[Native American (Americas)|Aboriginals]] remain, the features of the islanders clearly indicate their genetic [[Arawak peoples|Arawak]] heritage. Most of the population is descended from Caquetio Indians and Dutch and to a lesser extent of Africans, Spanish, Portuguese, English, French, and Sephardic Jewish ancestors. Recently, there has been substantial immigration to the island from neighboring American and Caribbean nations, possibly attracted by the higher paid jobs. In 2007, new immigration laws were introduced to help control the growth of the population by restricting [[foreign worker]]s to a maximum of three years residency on the island. Demographically, Aruba has felt the impact of its proximity to Venezuela. Many of Aruba's families are descended from Venezuelan immigrants. There is a seasonal increase of Venezuelans living in second homes. === Language === {{main|Languages of Aruba}} The official languages are [[Dutch language|Dutch]] and&nbsp;– since 2003&nbsp;– [[Papiamento]]. Papiamento is the predominant language on Aruba. It is a [[creole language]], spoken on Aruba, [[Bonaire]], and [[Curaçao]], that incorporates words from Portuguese, West African languages, Dutch, and Spanish. English is known by many; its usage has grown due to tourism. Other common languages spoken, based on the size of their community, are Portuguese, Chinese, German, Spanish, and French. In recent years, the government of Aruba has shown an increased interest in acknowledging the cultural and historical importance of its native language. Although spoken Papiamento is fairly similar among the several Papiamento-speaking islands, there is a big difference in written Papiamento. The orthography differs per island and even per group of people. Some are more oriented towards Portuguese and use the equivalent spelling (e.g. "y" instead of "j"), where others are more oriented towards Dutch. The book ''The Buccaneers of America'', first published in 1678, states through eyewitness account that the natives on Aruba spoke "Spanish". The oldest government official statement written in Papiamento dates from 1803. Around 12.6% of the population today speaks Spanish.<ref name=cia>{{cite web |author=Central Intelligence Agency |authorlink=Central Intelligence Agency |publisher=[[The World Factbook]]|title=Aruba |url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/aa.html |year=2009|accessdate=2011-06-06| archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20110604234830/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/aa.html| archivedate= 4 June 2011 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}</ref> Aruba has four newspapers published in Papiamento: ''Diario'', ''Bon Dia'', ''Solo di Pueblo'' and ''Awe Mainta''; and three in English: ''Aruba Daily'', ''Aruba Today'' and ''The News''. ''Amigoe'' is a newspaper published in Dutch. Aruba also has 18 radio stations (two AM and 16 FM) and three local television stations ([[Telearuba]], Aruba Broadcast Company and Channel 22). === Regions === For census purposes, Aruba is divided into eight regions, which have no administrative functions: {| class="wikitable sortable" style="margin-bottom: 0;" |- ! Name !! Area (km²) !! Population <br /> 1991 Census !! Population <br /> 2000 Census !! Population <br /> 2010 Census |- | Noord / Tanki Leendert || {{formatnum: 34.62}} || {{formatnum: 10056}} || {{formatnum: 16944}} || {{formatnum: 21495}} |- | Oranjestad West || {{formatnum: 9.29}} || {{formatnum: 8779}} || {{formatnum: 12131}} || {{formatnum: 13976}} |- | Oranjestad Oost || {{formatnum: 12.88}} || {{formatnum: 11266}} || {{formatnum: 14224}} || {{formatnum: 14318}} |- | Paradera || {{formatnum: 20.49}} || {{formatnum: 6189}} || {{formatnum: 9037}} || {{formatnum: 12024}} |- | San Nicolas Noord || {{formatnum: 23.19}} || {{formatnum: 8206}} || {{formatnum: 10118}} || {{formatnum: 10433}} |- | San Nicolas Zuid || {{formatnum: 9.64}} || {{formatnum: 5304}} || {{formatnum: 5730}} || {{formatnum: 4850}} |- | Santa Cruz || {{formatnum: 41.04}} || {{formatnum: 9587}} || {{formatnum: 12326}} || {{formatnum: 12870}} |- | Savaneta || {{formatnum: 27.76}} || {{formatnum: 7273}} || {{formatnum: 9996}} || {{formatnum: 11518}} |- | Total Aruba || {{formatnum: 178.91}} || {{formatnum: 66687}} || {{formatnum: 90506}} || {{formatnum: 101484}} |} == Government == {{main|Politics of Aruba}} [[File:EU OCT and OMR map en.png|thumb|left|Map of the European Union in the world with overseas countries and territories and outermost regions]] [[File:Willem-Alexander, Prince of Orange.jpg|thumb|[[Willem-Alexander of the Netherlands|King Willem-Alexander]] is the [[head of state]] of Aruba]] [[File:Parlamentodiaruba.jpg|thumb|Parliament of Aruba in [[Oranjestad, Aruba|Oranjestad]].]] As a [[constituent country]] of the [[Kingdom of the Netherlands]], Aruba's politics take place within a framework of a 21-member [[parliamentary democracy|Parliament]] and an eight-member Cabinet. The [[governor of Aruba]] is appointed for a six-year term by the monarch, and the prime minister and deputy prime minister are elected by the Staten (or "Parlamento") for four-year terms. The Staten is made up of 21 members elected by direct, popular vote to serve a four-year term.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.arubaforeignaffairs.com/afa/readBlob.do?id=694|title=Political Stability|accessdate=2011-06-07 |work= |publisher=Aruba Department of Foreign Affairs|date= }}</ref> Together with the [[Netherlands]], the countries of Aruba, [[Curaçao]] and [[Sint Maarten]] form the [[Kingdom of the Netherlands]]. As they share the same Dutch citizenship, these four countries still also share the Dutch passport as the Kingdom of the Netherlands passport. As Aruba, Curaçao and Sint Maarten have small populations, the three countries had to limit immigration. To protect their population, they have the right to control the admission and expulsion of people from the Netherlands. Aruba is designated as a member of the Overseas Countries and Territories (OCT) and is thus officially not a part of the [[European Union]], though Aruba can and does receive support from the European Development Fund.<ref name=euprofile>{{cite web |url=http://www.eeas.europa.eu/aruba/index_en.htm |title=EU Relations with Aruba |accessdate=2011-06-06 |work= |publisher=European Union |date= | archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20110609050531/http://eeas.europa.eu/aruba/index_en.htm| archivedate= 9 June 2011 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://europa.eu/legislation_summaries/development/overseas_countries_territories/index_en.htm |title=Overseas Countries and Territories (OCT) |accessdate=2011-06-06 |work= |publisher=European Union |date= }}</ref> === Politics === The Aruban legal system is based on the Dutch model. Instead of juries or grand juries, in Aruba, legal jurisdiction lies with the ''Gerecht in Eerste Aanleg'' ([[Court of First Instance]]) on Aruba, the ''Gemeenschappelijk Hof van Justitie van Aruba, Curaçao, Sint Maarten en van Bonaire, Sint Eustatius en Saba'' ([[Joint Court of Justice of Aruba, Curaçao, Sint Maarten, and of Bonaire, Sint Eustatius and Saba]]) and the ''[[Hoge Raad der Nederlanden]]'' (Supreme Court of Justice of the Netherlands).<ref>[http://www.aruba.com/ExploretheIsland/IslandFacts/law.aspx Aruba.com] {{wayback|url=http://www.aruba.com/ExploretheIsland/IslandFacts/law.aspx |date=20130215045034 }}</ref> The ''Korps Politie Aruba'' ([[Aruba Police Force]]) is the island's law enforcement agency and operates district precincts in Oranjestad, Noord, San Nicolaas, and Santa Cruz, where it is headquartered.<ref name="KPA-districts">{{cite web|url=http://www.kparuba.com/districts.html|title=Korps Politie Aruba: district precincts|publisher=Aruba Police Force|accessdate=2010-09-11}}</ref> [[Deficit spending]] has been a staple in Aruba's history, and modestly high inflation has been present as well. By 2006, the government's debt had grown to 1.883 billion Aruban florins.<ref>{{cite web |author=Central Bureau of Statistics|title=Key Indicators General Government, 1997–2006|url=http://www.cbs.aw/cbs/manageDocument.do?dispatch=view&id=927|accessdate=2011-06-07}}</ref> Aruba received some [[development aid]] from the Dutch government each year through 2009, as part of a deal (signed as "Aruba's Financial Independence") in which the Netherlands gradually reduced its financial help to the island each successive year. In 2006, the Aruban government changed several tax laws to reduce the deficit. [[Direct tax]]es have been converted to indirect taxes as proposed by the [[International Monetary Fund|IMF]]. A 3% tax has been introduced on sales and services, while income taxes have been lowered and revenue taxes for business reduced by 20%. The government compensated workers with 3.1% for the effect that the B.B.O. would have on the inflation for 2007. == Education == Aruba's educational system is patterned after the [[Education in the Netherlands|Dutch system of education]].<ref name="Bogaerts (Transitional times)">{{cite web|url=http://www.usatoday.com/story/sports/mlb/redsox/2013/09/03/usa-today-minor-league-player-of-the-year-xander-bogaerts-boston-red-sox/2760091/ |title=Bogaerts: USA TODAY Sports' Minor League Player of Year |publisher=Usatoday.com |date=2013-09-03 |accessdate=2014-07-15}}</ref> The Government of Aruba finances the public national education system.{{citation needed|date=May 2015}} There are private schools including the [[International School of Aruba]] and Schakel College.{{citation needed|date=May 2015}} There are two [[medical schools]] [[Aureus University School of Medicine]] and [[Xavier University School of Medicine]],{{citation needed|date=May 2015}} as well as its own national university, the University of Aruba. == Economy == {{Main|Economy of Aruba}} Aruba has one of the highest standards of living in the Caribbean region. There is a low unemployment rate.{{citation needed|date=July 2012}} The GDP per capita for Aruba was estimated to be $28,924 in 2014; among the highest in the Caribbean and the Americas.<ref name="cia" /> Its main trading partners are Colombia, the United States, Venezuela, and the [[Netherlands]]. [[File:Aruba export map.png|thumb|upright=1.70|A graphical breakdown of Aruba's economy by exports]] The island's economy has been dominated by three main industries: tourism, [[aloe]] export, and [[Oil refinery|petroleum refining]] (The Lago Oil and Transport Company and the Arend Petroleum Maatschappij Shell Co.).{{citation needed|date=July 2012}} Before the "Status Aparte" (a separate completely autonomous country/state within the Kingdom), oil processing was the dominant industry in Aruba despite expansion of the tourism sector. Today, the influence of the oil processing business is minimal. The size of the agriculture and manufacturing sectors also remains minimal. The official exchange rate of the [[Aruban florin]] is pegged to the US dollar at 1.79 florins to 1 USD.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.currency.me.uk/convert/usd/awg |title=Convert Dollars to Aruba Florin &#124; USD to AWG Currency Converter |publisher=Currency.me.uk |date= |accessdate=2014-07-15}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://themoneyconverter.com/USD/AWG.aspx |title=Convert United States Dollar to Aruban Florin &#124; USD to AWG Currency Converter |publisher=Themoneyconverter.com |date= |accessdate=2014-07-15}}</ref><!---note that currency fluctuates slightly because of the necessity of forcing the florin to the dollar by buying or selling florins or dollars---> Because of this fact, and due to a large number of American tourists, many businesses operate using US dollars instead of florins, especially in the hotel and resort districts. === Tourism === About three quarters of the Aruban [[gross national product]] is earned through tourism or related activities.{{citation needed|date=October 2013}} Most tourists are from the United States (predominantly from the north-east US), the Netherlands and South America, mainly Venezuela and Colombia.{{citation needed|date=October 2013}} As part of the Kingdom of the Netherlands, citizens of the Netherlands can travel with relative ease to Aruba and other islands of the Dutch Antilles. No visas are needed for Dutch citizens, only a passport, and although the currency used in Aruba is different (the Netherlands uses the [[Euro]]), money can be easily exchanged at a local bank for [[Aruban Florin]]s. For the facilitation of the passengers whose destination is the United States, the [[United States Department of Homeland Security]] (DHS), [[U.S. Customs and Border Protection]] (CBP) full pre-clearance facility in Aruba has been in effect since 1 February 2001 with the expansion in the Queen Beatrix Airport. United States and Aruba have had the agreement since 1986. It began as a USDA and Customs post. Since 2008, Aruba has been the only island to have this service for private flights.{{citation needed|date=November 2012}} === Military === In 1999, the [[U.S. Department of Defense]] established a [[Forward Operating Site|Forward Operating Location]] (FOL) at the airport.{{citation needed|date=November 2012}} There is also a small Dutch marines base by Savaneta containing approximately 120 Dutch Marines and about 100 AruMil forces.{{citation needed|date=October 2013}} == Culture == {{Main|Culture of Aruba}} {{See also|Music of Aruba and the Netherlands Antilles}} [[File:Centrum Oranjestad.jpg|thumb|Ornate buildings in [[Oranjestad, Aruba]].]] On 18 March, Aruba celebrates its National Day. In 1976, Aruba presented its National Anthem (Aruba Dushi Tera) and Flag. Aruba has a varied culture. According to the ''Bureau Burgelijke Stand en Bevolkingsregister'' (BBSB), in 2005 there were ninety-two different nationalities living on the island. Dutch influence can still be seen, as in the celebration of "[[Sinterklaas]]" on 5 and 6 December and other national holidays like 27 April, when in Aruba and the rest of the Kingdom of the Netherlands the King's birthday or "Dia di Rey" ([[Koningsdag]]) is celebrated. [[File:Iguanas Aruba.JPG|left|thumb|[[Iguana]]s on a rooftop in Aruba.]] Christmas and [[New Year's Eve]] are celebrated with the typical music and songs for [[Gaita flutes|gaita]]s for Christmas and the Dande{{clarify|date=November 2012}} for New Year, and "[[Hallaca|ayaca]]", "[[ponche crema]]", ham, and other typical foods and drinks. Millions of florins worth of [[fireworks]] are burnt at midnight on New Year's Eve. On 25 January, [[Betico Croes]]' birthday is celebrated. [[St John's Eve|Dia di San Juan]] is celebrated on June 24. Besides Christmas, the religious holy days of the [[Feast of the Ascension]] and [[Good Friday]] are holidays on the island. The holiday of [[Carnival|Carnaval]] is also an important one in Aruba, as it is in many Caribbean and Latin American countries, and, like [[Mardi Gras]], that goes on for weeks. Its celebration in Aruba started, around the 1950s, influenced by the inhabitants from Venezuela and the nearby islands (Curaçao, St. Vincent, Trinidad, Barbados, St. Maarten and Anguilla) who came to work for the Oil refinery. Over the years the Carnival Celebration has changed and now starts from the beginning of January till the Tuesday before Ash Wednesday with a large parade on the last Sunday of the festivities (Sunday before Ash Wednesday). Tourism from the United States has recently increased the visibility of American culture on the island, with such celebrations as [[Halloween]] and Thanksgiving Day in November. == Infrastructure == [[File:Aruba Palm Beach.JPG|thumb|Palm Beach.]] Aruba's [[Queen Beatrix International Airport]] is located near Oranjestad. According to the Aruba Airport Authority, almost 1.7 million travelers used the airport in 2005, 61% of whom were Americans. Aruba has two ports, Barcadera and Playa, which are located in Oranjestad and Barcadera. The Port of Playa services all the cruise-ship lines, including [[Royal Caribbean International|Royal Caribbean]], [[Carnival Cruise Lines]], [[Norwegian Cruise Line|NCL]], [[Holland America Line]], [[Disney Cruise Line]] and others. Nearly one million tourists enter this port per year. Aruba Ports Authority, owned and operated by the Aruban government, runs these seaports. Arubus is a government-owned bus company. Its buses operate from 3:30&nbsp;a.m. until 12:30&nbsp;a.m. 365 days a year. Small private vans also provide transportation services in certain areas such Hotel Area, San Nicolaas, Santa Cruz and Noord. A street car service runs on rails on the Mainstreet.<ref>[http://news.visitaruba.com/news/street-car-is-up-and-running-on-arubas-mainstreet/ Street car is up and running] The Morning News, 2013 Feb 27</ref> === Utilities === Water-en Energiebedrijf Aruba, N.V. (W.E.B.) produces potable industrial water at the world's third largest desalination plant.<ref name="Aruba Hosts International Desalination Conference 2007">{{cite web |url=http://www.aruba.com/news/general-news/aruba-hosts-international-desalination-conference-2007/ |title=Aruba Hosts International Desalination Conference 2007 |publisher=Aruba Tourism Authority |date=July 18, 2007 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130215045030/http://www.aruba.com/news/general-news/aruba-hosts-international-desalination-conference-2007/ |archivedate=February 15, 2013 |accessdate=May 13, 2015}}</ref> Average daily consumption in Aruba is about {{convert|37000|LT}}.<ref>{{cite web|title=History|publisher=W.E.B. Aruba NV|url=http://www.webaruba.com/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=33&Itemid=123|accessdate=2011-06-07| archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20110718013853/http://www.webaruba.com/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=33&Itemid=123| archivedate= 18 July 2011 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}</ref> === Communications === There are three telecommunications providers: [[SetarNV|Setar]], a government-based company, [[Mio Wireless]] and [[Digicel]], both of which are privately owned. Setar is the provider of services such as internet, video conferencing, [[GSM]] wireless technology and land lines.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.setar.aw/|title=Setar N.V.|work= |publisher=Setar N.V.|date= }}</ref> [[Digicel]] is Setar's competitor in wireless technology using the GSM platform, and [[Mio Wireless]] provides wireless technology and services using CDMA.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.mioaruba.com/products|title=Mio Wireless Products|accessdate=2014-08-25 |work= |publisher=Mio Wireless|date= }}</ref> == Places of interest == [[File:CHAPEL OF OUR LADY OF ALTO VISTA - ARUBA.JPG|thumb|Alto Vista Chapel]] {{Columns |width=13.7em | col1width=18.4em | col1 = * [[Alto Vista Chapel]] * [[Antilla Shipwreck]] * [[Arikok National Park]] * [[Ayo Rock Formations|Ayo and Casibari Rock Formations]] * [[Bushiribana and Balashi]] * [[California Lighthouse]] * [[Frenchman's Pass]] * [[Hooiberg]] | col2 = * [[Lourdes Grotto]] * [[Mount Jamanota]] * [[Natural Bridge, Aruba]]—Collapsed 2 September 2005<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.usatoday.com/news/world/2005-09-02-aruba-bridge_x.htm?csp=36|title=Coral bridge, natural Aruba tourist spot, collapses|work=USA Today|agency=[[Associated Press]]|accessdate=2010-09-11|date=2 September 2005}}</ref> * [[Natural Pool]] * [[Quadiriki Caves]] * [[Sint Nicolaas, Aruba]] * [[Tierra Del Sol Golf Course]] | col3 = ;Beaches * [[Arashi, Aruba|Arashi Beach]] * [[Baby Beach, Aruba]] * [[Caves of Aruba]] * [[Eagle Beach]] * [[Palm Island, Aruba]] * [[Palm Beach, Aruba]] * [[Rodgers Beach, Aruba]] }} == See also == {{portal|Geography|North America|Caribbean|Aruba|Netherlands|<!-- Aruba -->}} * [[Bibliography of Aruba]] * [[Central Bank of Aruba]] * [[Index of Aruba-related articles]] * [[List of monuments of Aruba]] * [[Military of Aruba]] * [[Outline of Aruba]] * {{SS|Pedernales}} == References == {{reflist|30em}} == External links == {{commons category|Aruba}} {{Wikivoyage|Aruba}} * [http://www.overheid.aw/ Government of Aruba] * [http://www.aruba.com/ Aruba.com]&nbsp;– Official Tourism site of Aruba * {{dmoz|Regional/Caribbean/Aruba}} * {{Wikiatlas|Aruba}} *[http://dloc.com/CA03400001/ ''Aruba Esso News''] from the [http://www.bibliotecanacional.aw/pa/corant-digitalisa/27 National Library of Aruba], openly and freely available in the [[Digital Library of the Caribbean]] {{Aruba topics}} {{Navboxes | title = Geographic locale | list = {{Island territories of the Netherlands Antilles}} {{Countries of North America}} }} {{Navboxes | title = International membership and history | list = {{Caribbean Community (CARICOM)|state=collapsed}} {{Outlying territories of European countries}} {{Dutch colonies|Kingdom2|state=collapsed}} }} {{Coord|12|30|N|69|58|W|type:isle|display=title}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Aruba| ]] [[Category:Countries in the Caribbean]] [[Category:Dependent territories in North America]] [[Category:Dutch-speaking countries and territories]] [[Category:Former Dutch colonies]] [[Category:Island countries]] [[Category:Islands of the Netherlands Antilles]] [[Category:Kingdom of the Netherlands]] [[Category:Special territories of the European Union]] [[Category:10th-century establishments in Aruba]] [[Category:Populated places established in the 10th century]] [[Category:1499 establishments in the Spanish Empire]] [[Category:1636 disestablishments in the Spanish Empire]] [[Category:1636 establishments in the Dutch Empire]] [[Category:1799 disestablishments in the Dutch Empire]] [[Category:1799 establishments in the British Empire]] [[Category:1802 disestablishments in the British Empire]] [[Category:1802 establishments in the Dutch Empire]] [[Category:1804 disestablishments in the Dutch Empire]] [[Category:1804 establishments in the British Empire]] [[Category:1816 disestablishments in the British Empire]] [[Category:1816 establishments in the Dutch Empire]] [[Category:1986 disestablishments in the Netherlands Antilles]] [[Category:States and territories established in 1986]] [[Category:1986 establishments in Aruba]] [[Category:Small Island Developing States]] j32q2dt6m3fcz8loft4y0cmqyvjj4l3 0 691 711716199 711694159 2016-03-24T11:33:43Z Rjensen 313197 Wiki strongly prefers a reliable secondary source like this university press book that examined & evaluated many primary sources wikitext text/x-wiki {{Use mdy dates|date=April 2011}} {{Infobox document |document_name={{nowrap|Articles of Confederation}} |image=Articles page1.jpg |image_caption=Page I of the Articles of Confederation |date_created=November 15, 1777 |date_ratified=March 1, 1781 |location_of_document= [[National Archives and Records Administration|National Archives]] |writer=[[Continental Congress]] |signers=Continental Congress |purpose=First constitution for the United States; replaced by the current [[United States Constitution]] on September 13, 1788 |wikisource=Articles of Confederation and Perpetual Union }} The '''Articles of Confederation''', formally the '''Articles of Confederation and Perpetual Union''', was an agreement among all thirteen original states in the United States of America that served as its first constitution.<ref>{{cite book| last = Jensen| first = Merrill| title = The Articles of Confederation: An Interpretation of the Social-Constitutional History of the American Revolution, 1774–1781| year = 1959| publisher = University of Wisconsin Press| isbn = 978-0-299-00204-6| pages = xi, 184 }}</ref> Its drafting by a committee appointed by the [[Second Continental Congress]] began on July 12, 1776, and an approved version was sent to the states for ratification in late 1777. The formal ratification by all thirteen states was completed in early 1781. Government under the Articles was superseded by a new [[constitution]] and [[federation|federal]] form of government in 1789. Even unratified, the Articles provided a system for the Continental Congress to direct the [[American Revolutionary War]], conduct diplomacy with Europe and deal with territorial issues and Native American relations. Nevertheless, the weakness of the government created by the Articles became a matter of concern for key [[Annapolis Convention (1786)|nationalists]]. On March 4, 1789, the general government under the Articles was replaced with the federal government under the [[United States Constitution]].<ref>{{cite book| last = Rodgers| first = Paul| title = United States Constitutional Law: An Introduction| url = https://books.google.com/?id=WUOXmAEACAAJ&pg=PA109| year = 2011| publisher = McFarland| isbn = 978-0-7864-6017-5| page = 109 }}</ref><ref>{{cite court |litigants= Owings v. Speed |vol= 18 |reporter= U.S. |opinion= 420 |pinpoint= |court= U.S. |date= 1820 |url= http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Owings_v._Speed/Opinion_of_the_Court}}</ref> The new Constitution provided for a much stronger federal government with a chief executive (the President), courts, and taxing powers. ==Background and context== The political push to increase cooperation among the then-loyal colonies began with the [[Albany Congress]] in 1754 and [[Benjamin Franklin]]'s proposed [[Albany Plan of Union]], an inter-colonial collaboration to help solve mutual local problems. The Articles of Confederation would bear some resemblance to it. Over the next two decades, some of the basic concepts it addressed would strengthen and others would weaken, particularly the degree of deserved loyalty to the crown. With [[Boston Tea Party|civil disobedience]] resulting in coercive, and what the colonials perceived as [[Intolerable Acts|intolerable acts]] of Parliament, and [[Battle of Bunker Hill|armed conflict]] resulting in dissidents being [[Proclamation of Rebellion|proclaimed rebels]] and outside the King's protection, any loyalty remaining shifted toward independence and how to achieve it. In 1775, with events outpacing communications, the [[Second Continental Congress]] began acting as the [[provisional government]] to run the [[American Revolutionary War]] and gain the colonies their collective independence. It was an era of constitution writing—most states were busy at the task—and leaders felt the new nation must have a written constitution, even though other nations did not. During the war, Congress exercised an unprecedented level of political, diplomatic, military and economic authority. It adopted trade restrictions, established and maintained an army, issued [[fiat money]], created a military code and negotiated with foreign governments.<ref>{{cite book| last = Wood| first = Gordon S.| title = The Creation of the American Republic: 1776–1787| year = 1969| publisher = University of North Carolina Press| pages = 354–55 }}</ref> To transform themselves from outlaws into a legitimate nation, the colonists needed international recognition for their cause and foreign allies to support it. In early 1776, [[Thomas Paine]] argued in the closing pages of the first edition of ''[[Common Sense (pamphlet)|Common Sense]]'' that the “custom of nations” demanded a formal declaration of American independence if any European power were to mediate a peace between the Americans and Great Britain. The monarchies of France and Spain in particular could not be expected to aid those they considered rebels against another legitimate monarch. Foreign courts needed to have American grievances laid before them persuasively in a “manifesto” which could also reassure them that the Americans would be reliable trading partners. Without such a declaration, Paine concluded, “[t]he custom of all courts is against us, and will be so, until, by an independence, we take rank with other nations.”<ref>{{cite book| last = Paine| first = Thomas| editor-last = Foner| editor-first = Eric| editor-link = Eric Foner| title = Paine: Collected Writings| year = 1995| publisher = The Library of America| location = New York| isbn = 978-1-4286-2200-5| pages = 45–6| chapter = Common Sense| date = January 14, 1776 }}</ref> Beyond improving their existing [[Continental Association|association]], the records of the [[Second Continental Congress]] show that the need for a declaration of independence was intimately linked with the demands of international relations. On June 7, 1776, [[Richard Henry Lee]] introduced [[Lee Resolution|a resolution]] before the Continental Congress declaring the colonies independent; at the same time he also urged Congress to resolve “to take the most effectual measures for forming foreign Alliances” and to prepare a plan of confederation for the newly independent states. Congress then created three overlapping committees to draft the [[United States Declaration of Independence|Declaration]], a [[Model Treaty]], and the Articles of Confederation. The Declaration announced the states' entry into the international system; the model treaty was designed to establish amity and commerce with other states; and the Articles of Confederation, which established “a firm league” among the thirteen free and independent states, constituted an international agreement to set up central institutions for the conduct of vital domestic and foreign affairs.<ref>{{Cite journal |author-link= David Armitage (historian) |first= David |last= Armitage |url= http://maghis.oxfordjournals.org/content/18/3/61.full |title= The Declaration of Independence in World Context |publisher= [[Organization of American Historians]] |journal= Magazine of History |volume= 18 |issue= 3 |pages= 61–66 |year= 2004 |doi=10.1093/maghis/18.3.61}}</ref> ==Drafting== [[File:Articles of Confederation 1977 Issue-13c.jpg|thumb|220px|<center>Articles of Confederation 200th Anniversary commemorative stamp</center><center>First issued in York, Pennsylvania., 1977</center>]] On June 12, 1776, a day after appointing a committee to prepare a draft of the [[United States Declaration of Independence|Declaration of Independence]], the Second Continental Congress resolved to appoint a committee of 13 to prepare a draft of a constitution for a union of the states. The committee met repeatedly, and chairman [[John Dickinson (Pennsylvania and Delaware)|John Dickinson]] presented their results to the Congress on July 12, 1776. There were long debates on such issues as sovereignty, the exact powers to be given the confederate government, whether to have a judiciary, and voting procedures.<ref>{{cite book |last= Jensen |title= Articles of Confederation |pages= 127–84}}</ref> The final draft of the Articles was prepared in the summer of 1777 and the Second Continental Congress approved them for ratification by the individual states on November 15, 1777, after a year of debate.<ref name="Schwarz">{{cite journal |url= http://www.americanheritage.com/articles/magazine/ah/2006/1/2006_1_72.shtml |first= Frederic D. |last= Schwarz |title= 225 Years Ago |journal= American Heritage |date= February–March 2006}}</ref> In practice, the Articles were in use beginning in 1777; the final draft of the Articles served as the [[de facto]] system of government used by the Congress ("the United States in Congress assembled") until it became [[de jure]] by final ratification on March 1, 1781; at which point Congress became the [[Congress of the Confederation]]. Under the Articles, the states retained sovereignty over all governmental functions not specifically relinquished to the national government. The individual articles set the rules for current and future operations of the United States government. It was made capable of making war and peace, negotiating diplomatic and commercial agreements with foreign countries, and deciding disputes between the states, including their additional and contested western territories. Article XIII stipulated that "their provisions shall be inviolably observed by every state" and "[[perpetual Union|the Union shall be perpetual]]". John Dickinson's and Benjamin Franklin's handwritten drafts of the Articles of Confederation are housed at the National Archives in Washington, DC. ==Operation== The Articles were created by delegates from the states in the Second Continental Congress out of a need to have "a plan of confederacy for securing the freedom, sovereignty, and independence of the United States." After the war, nationalists, especially those who had been active in the Continental Army, complained that the Articles were too weak for an effective government. There was no president, no executive agencies, no judiciary and no tax base. The absence of a tax base meant that there was no way to pay off state and national debts from the war years except by requesting money from the states, which seldom arrived. In 1788, with the approval of Congress, the Articles were replaced by the [[United States Constitution]] and the new government began operations in 1789.<ref>{{cite book| last = Morris| first = Richard| title = The Forging of the Union, 1782–1789| year = 1988| publisher = HarperCollins Publishers| pages = 245–66 }}</ref> ==Ratification== Congress began to move for ratification of the Articles of Confederation in 1777: {{quote|Permit us, then, earnestly to recommend these articles to the immediate and dispassionate attention of the legislatures of the respective states. Let them be candidly reviewed under a sense of the difficulty of combining in one system the various sentiments and interests of a continent divided into so many sovereign and independent communities, under a conviction of the absolute necessity of uniting all our councils and all our strength, to maintain and defend our common liberties...<ref name="ratificationletter">{{cite journal |url= http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?ammem/hlaw:@field(DOCID+@lit(jc00941)) |title= Monday, November 17, 1777 |journal= Journals of the Continental Congress, 1774–1789}}</ref>}} The document could not become officially effective until it was [[Ratification|ratified]] by all 13 states. The first state to ratify was [[Virginia]] on December 16, 1777; the thirteenth state to ratify was [[Maryland]] on February 2, 1781. A ceremonial confirmation of this thirteenth, final ratification took place in the Congress on March 1, 1781 at high noon.<ref>{{cite web |url= http://history.state.gov/milestones/1776-1783/Articles |title= Articles of Confederation, 1777–1781 |publisher=[[U.S. Department of State]] |accessdate= January 3, 2011 |archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20101230164242/http://history.state.gov/milestones/1776-1783/Articles |archivedate= December 30, 2010 |deadurl= no}}</ref><ref>{{cite book| last = Elliot| first = Jonathan| title = The Debates in the Several State Conventions on the Adoption of the Federal Constitution| url = https://books.google.com/?id=pTAMAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA98| accessdate = February 21, 2012| edition = 2nd| volume = 1| year = 1836| publisher = Editor on the Pennsylvania Avenue| location = Washington, D.C.| page = 98 }}</ref><ref> {{cite book| last = Mallory| first = John| title = United States Compiled Statutes| url = https://books.google.com/?id=6cUZAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA10605| accessdate = February 21, 2012| volume = 10| year = 1917| publisher = West Publishing Company| location = St. Paul| pages = 13044–5 }}</ref> Dates of ratification are:<ref>{{cite book| last = Hough| first = Franklin Benjamin| title = American Constitutions| url = https://books.google.com/?id=E24LAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA10| year = 1872| publisher = Weed, Parsons, & Company| location = Albany| page = 10 }} References to a 1778 Virginia ratification are based on an error in the Journals of Congress: "The published Journals of Congress print this enabling act of the Virginia assembly under date of Dec. 15, 1778. This error has come from the MS. vol. 9 (History of Confederation), p. 123, Papers of the Continental Congress, Library of Congress." {{cite book| last = Dyer| first = Albion M.| title = First Ownership of Ohio Lands| url = https://books.google.com/?id=byh58dkalw8C&pg=PA1| origyear = 1911| year = 2008| publisher = Genealogical Publishing Company| location = Baltimore| isbn = 978-0-8063-0098-6| page = 10 }}</ref> {| class="wikitable sortable" !#!!State!!Date |- |align="center"| {{nts| 1}}|| Virginia|| {{dts|1777|12|16}} |- |align="center"| {{nts| 2}}|| South Carolina|| {{dts|1778|02|05}} |- |align="center"| {{nts| 3}}|| New York|| {{dts|1778|02|06}} |- |align="center"| {{nts| 4}}|| Rhode Island|| {{dts|1778|02|09}} |- |align="center"| {{nts| 5}}|| Connecticut|| {{dts|1778|02|12}} |- |align="center"| {{nts| 6}}|| Georgia|| {{dts|1778|02|26}} |- |align="center"| {{nts| 7}}|| New Hampshire|| {{dts|1778|03|04}} |- |align="center"| {{nts| 8}}|| Pennsylvania|| {{dts|1778|03|05}} |- |align="center"| {{nts| 9}}|| Massachusetts|| {{dts|1778|03|10}} |- |align="center"| {{nts|10}}|| North Carolina|| {{dts|1778|04|05}} |- |align="center"| {{nts|11}}|| New Jersey|| {{dts|1778|11|19}} |- |align="center"| {{nts|12}}|| Delaware|| {{dts|1779|02|01}} |- |align="center"| {{nts|13}}|| Maryland|| {{dts|1781|02|02}} |} The ratification process dragged on for several years, stalled by the refusal or additional conditions by landed states to rescind their claims to lands in the West. [[Maryland]] was the last holdout; it refused to go along until the landed states, especially [[Virginia]], had indicated they were prepared to [[State cession|cede their claims]] west of the [[Ohio River]] to the Union.<ref>Frederick D. Williams, Ed. [https://books.google.com/books?id=2VkZCpH201EC&pg=RA1-PA1782&#v=onepage&q&f=false The Northwest Ordinance: Essays on its Formulation, Provisions, and Legacy], p.1782. MSU Press, (2012 )]</ref> It took a little over three years for all states to ratify. The Articles provided for a blanket acceptance of [[Province of Quebec (1763–1791)|Province of Quebec]] (referred to as "Canada" in the Articles) into the United States if it chose to do so. It did not, and the subsequent Constitution carried no such special provision of admission. ==Article summaries== The Articles of Confederation contain a [[preamble]], thirteen articles, a [[Eschatocol|conclusion]], and a signatory section. The preamble declares that the states "agree to certain articles of Confederation and perpetual Union." What follows here summarizes the purpose and content of each of the thirteen articles. # Establishes the name of the confederation with these words: "The stile of this confederacy shall be 'The United States of America.'" # Asserts the sovereignty of each state, except for the specific powers delegated to the confederation government: "Each state retains its sovereignty, freedom, and independence, and every power, jurisdiction, and right, which is not by this Confederation expressly delegated." # Declares the purpose of the confederation: "The said States hereby severally enter into a firm league of friendship with each other, for their common defense, the security of their liberties, and their mutual and general welfare, binding themselves to assist each other, against all force offered to, or attacks made upon them, or any of them, on account of religion, sovereignty, trade, or any other pretense whatever." # Elaborates upon the intent "to secure and perpetuate mutual friendship and intercourse among the people of the different States in this union," and to establish [[Equality before the law|equal treatment]] and [[freedom of movement]] for the free inhabitants of each state to pass unhindered between the states, excluding "[[pauper]]s, [[vagabond (person)|vagabonds]], and [[fugitive]]s from justice." All these people are entitled to equal rights established by the state into which he travels. If a crime is committed in one state and the perpetrator flees to another state, he will be [[extradition|extradited]] to and tried in the state in which the crime was committed. # Allocates one vote in the [[Congress of the Confederation]] (the "United States in Congress Assembled") to each state, which is entitled to a delegation of between two and seven members. Members of Congress are to be appointed by state legislatures. No congressman may serve more than three out of any six years. # Only the central government may declare war, or conduct foreign political or commercial relations. No state or official may accept foreign gifts or titles, and granting any title of nobility is forbidden to all. No states may form any sub-national groups. No state may tax or interfere with treaty stipulations [[Model Treaty|already proposed]]. No state may wage war without permission of Congress, unless invaded or under imminent attack on the frontier; no state may maintain a peacetime standing army or navy, unless infested by pirates, but every State is required to keep ready, a well-trained, disciplined, and equipped militia, with sufficient public stores of field pieces, tents, arms, ammunition and camp equipage. # Whenever an army is raised for common defense, the state legislatures shall assign military ranks of colonel and below. # Expenditures by the United States of America will be paid with funds raised by state legislatures, and apportioned to the states in proportion to the real property values of each. # Grants to the United States in Congress assembled the sole and exclusive right and power to determine peace and war; to exchange ambassadors; to enter into treaties and alliances, with some provisos; to establish rules for deciding all cases of captures or prizes on land or water; to grant [[Letter of marque|letters of marque and reprisal]] (documents authorizing [[privateer]]s) in times of peace; to appoint courts for the trial of pirates and crimes committed on the high seas; to establish [[Court of Appeals in Cases of Capture|courts for appeals in all cases of captures]], but no member of Congress may be appointed a judge; to set weights and measures (including coins), and for Congress to serve as a final court for disputes between states.<!-- Still incomplete --> # "The [[Committee of the States]], or any nine of them, shall be authorized to execute, in the recess of Congress, such of the powers of Congress as the United States in Congress assembled, by the consent of the nine States, shall from time to time think expedient to vest them with; provided that no power be delegated to the said Committee, for the exercise of which, by the Articles of Confederation, the voice of nine States in the Congress of the United States assembled be requisite." # If "Canada" (as the British-held [[Province of Quebec (1763–1791)|Province of Quebec]] was also known) accedes to this confederation, it will be admitted.<ref>{{cite web |url= http://avalon.law.yale.edu/18th_century/artconf.asp |title= Articles of Confederation}}</ref> # Reaffirms that the Confederation accepts war debt incurred by Congress before the existence of the Articles. # Declares that the Articles shall be perpetual, and may be altered only with the approval of Congress and the ratification of all the state legislatures. While still at war with Britain, the revolution's leaders were divided between forming a national government with powers either strong and centralized (the "federalists"), or strictly limited (the "anti federalists"). The Continental Congress compromised by dividing sovereignty between the states and the central government, with a [[unicameral]] legislature that protected the liberty of the individual states. It empowered Congress to regulate military and monetary affairs, for example, but provided no mechanism to compel the States to comply with requests for either troops or funding. This left the military vulnerable to inadequate funding, supplies, or even food.<ref>{{cite book| last = Carp| first = E. Wayne| title = To Starve the Army at Pleasure: Continental Army Administration and American Political Culture, 1775–1783| year = 1980| publisher = UNC Press Books| isbn = 978-0-8078-4269-0 }}</ref> ==The end of the Revolutionary War== The [[Treaty of Paris (1783)]], which ended hostilities with Great Britain, languished in Congress for months because several state representatives failed to attend sessions of the national legislature to ratify it. Yet Congress had no power to enforce attendance. In September 1783, George Washington complained that Congress was paralyzed.<ref>''Congress have come to no determination ''yet'' respecting the Peace Establishment nor am I able to say when they will. I have lately had a conference with a Committee on this subject, and have reiterated my former opinions, but it appears to me that there is not a sufficient representation to discuss ''Great'' National points.''[http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?ammem/mgw:@field(DOCID+@lit(gw270170)) Letter George Washington to George Clinton], September 11, 1783. [http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/gwhtml/gwhome.html The George Washington Papers, 1741–1799]</ref> Many revolutionaries had gone to their respective home countries after the war, and local government and self-rule seemed quite satisfactory. ==Function== ===The Army=== The Articles supported the Congressional direction of the [[Continental Army]], and allowed the states to present a unified front when dealing with the European powers. As a tool to build a centralized war-making government, they were largely a failure: Historian Bruce Chadwick wrote: {{quote|George Washington had been one of the very first proponents of a strong federal government. The army had nearly disbanded on several occasions during the winters of the war because of the weaknesses of the Continental Congress. ... The delegates could not draft soldiers and had to send requests for regular troops and militia to the states. Congress had the right to order the production and purchase of provisions for the soldiers, but could not force anyone to supply them, and the army nearly starved in several winters of war.<ref>Chadwick p. 469. Phelps pp. 165–166. Phelps wrote: :"It is hardly surprising, given their painful confrontations with a weak central government and the sovereign states, that the former generals of the Revolution as well as countless lesser officers strongly supported the creation of a more muscular union in the 1780s and fought hard for the ratification of the Constitution in 1787. Their wartime experiences had nationalized them."</ref>}} The Continental Congress, before the Articles were approved, had promised soldiers a pension of half pay for life. However Congress had no power to compel the states to fund this obligation, and as the war wound down after the victory at Yorktown the sense of urgency to support the military was no longer a factor. No progress was made in Congress during the winter of 1783–84. General Henry Knox, who would later become the first [[Secretary of War]] under the Constitution, blamed the weaknesses of the Articles for the inability of the government to fund the army. The army had long been supportive of a strong union.<ref>Puls pp. 174–176</ref> Knox wrote: {{quote|The army generally have always reprobated the idea of being thirteen armies. Their ardent desires have been to be one continental body looking up to one sovereign. ... It is a favorite toast in the army, "A hoop to the barrel" or "Cement to the Union".<ref name="Puls p. 177">Puls p. 177</ref>}} As Congress failed to act on the petitions, Knox wrote to Gouverneur Morris, four years before the Philadelphia Convention was convened, "As the present Constitution is so defective, why do not you great men call the people together and tell them so; that is, to have a convention of the States to form a better Constitution."<ref name="Puls p. 177" /> Once the war had been won, the [[Continental Army]] was largely disbanded. A very small national force was maintained to man the frontier forts and to protect against [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|Native American]] attacks. Meanwhile, each of the states had an army (or militia), and 11 of them had Navies. The wartime promises of bounties and land grants to be paid for service were not being met. In 1783, [[George Washington]] defused the [[Newburgh conspiracy]], but riots by unpaid [[Pennsylvania]] veterans forced Congress to leave Philadelphia temporarily.<ref>{{cite book| last = Lodge| first = Henry Cabot| title = George Washington, Vol. I| url = http://www.fulltextarchive.com/page/George-Washington-Vol-I4/#p98| volume = I| year = 1893 }}</ref> The Congress from time to time during the Revolutionary War requisitioned troops from the states. Any contributions were voluntary, and in the debates of 1788 the Federalists (who supported the proposed new Constitution) claimed that state politicians acted unilaterally, and contributed when the Continental army protected their state's interests. The Anti-Federalists claimed that state politicians understood their duty to the Union and contributed to advance its needs. Dougherty (2009) concludes that generally the States' behavior validated the Federalist analysis. This helps explain why the Articles of Confederation needed reforms.<ref>{{cite journal |first= Keith L. |last= Dougherty |title= An Empirical Test of Federalist and Anti-Federalist Theories of State Contributions, 1775–1783 |journal= Social Science History |date= Spring 2009 |volume= 33 |issue= 1 |pages= 47–74 |doi=10.1215/01455532-2008-015}}</ref> ===Foreign policy=== Even after peace had been achieved in 1783, the weakness of the Confederation government frustrated the ability of the government to conduct foreign policy. In 1789, [[Thomas Jefferson]], concerned over the failure to fund an American naval force to confront the [[Barbary pirates]], wrote to [[James Monroe]], "It will be said there is no money in the treasury. There never will be money in the treasury till the Confederacy shows its teeth. The states must see the rod.”<ref>Ellis 92</ref> Furthermore, the [[Jay–Gardoqui Treaty]] with [[Spain]] in 1789 also showed weakness in foreign policy. In this treaty — which was never ratified due to its immense unpopularity — the United States was to give up rights to use the [[Mississippi River]] for 25 years, which would have economically strangled the settlers west of the [[Appalachian Mountains]]. Finally, due to the Confederation's military weakness, it could not compel the [[British army]] to leave frontier forts which were on American soil — forts which, in 1783, the British promised to leave, but which they delayed leaving pending U.S. implementation of other provisions such as ending action against [[Loyalist (American Revolution)|Loyalist]]s and allowing them to seek compensation. This incomplete British implementation of the [[Treaty of Paris (1783)]] was superseded by the implementation of [[Jay's Treaty]] in 1795 under the new [[U.S. Constitution]]. ===Taxation and commerce=== Under the Articles of Confederation, the central government's power was kept quite limited. The Confederation Congress could make decisions, but lacked enforcement powers. Implementation of most decisions, including modifications to the Articles, required unanimous approval of all thirteen state legislatures.<ref>{{cite book| last = Jensen| first = Merrill| title = The New Nation: A History of the United States During the Confederation, 1781–1789| year = 1950| publisher = Northeastern University Press| isbn = 978-0-930350-14-7| pages = 177–233 }}</ref> Congress was denied any powers of [[taxation]]: it could only request money from the states. The states often failed to meet these requests in full, leaving both Congress and the Continental Army chronically short of money. As more money was printed by Congress, the continental dollars depreciated. In 1779, George Washington wrote to [[John Jay]], who was serving as the president of the Continental Congress, "that a wagon load of money will scarcely purchase a wagon load of provisions."<ref>Stahr p. 105</ref> Mr. Jay and the Congress responded in May by requesting $45&nbsp;million from the States. In an appeal to the States to comply, Jay wrote that the taxes were "the price of liberty, the peace, and the safety of yourselves and posterity."<ref>Stahr p. 107</ref> He argued that Americans should avoid having it said "that America had no sooner become independent than she became insolvent" or that "her infant glories and growing fame were obscured and tarnished by broken contracts and violated faith."<ref>Stahr pp. 107–108</ref> The States did not respond with any of the money requested from them. Congress had also been denied the power to regulate either foreign trade or [[interstate commerce]] and, as a result, all of the States maintained control over their own trade policies. The states and the Confederation Congress both incurred large debts during the Revolutionary War, and how to repay those debts became a major issue of debate following the War. Some States paid off their war debts and others did not. Federal assumption of the states' war debts became a major issue in the deliberations of the Constitutional Convention. ===Accomplishments of the Confederation=== Nevertheless, the Confederation Congress did take two actions with long-lasting impact. The [[Land Ordinance of 1785]] and [[Northwest Ordinance]] created territorial government, set up protocols for the admission of new states and the division of land into useful units, and set aside land in each township for public use. This system represented a sharp break from imperial colonization, as in Europe, and provided the basis for the rest of American continental expansion through the 19th Century. The [[Land Ordinance of 1785]] established both the general practices of land surveying in the west and northwest and the land ownership provisions used throughout the later westward expansion beyond the [[Mississippi River]]. Frontier lands were surveyed into the now-familiar squares of land called the [[township]] (36 square miles), the [[Section (United States land surveying)|section]] (one square mile), and the quarter section (160 [[acre]]s). This system was carried forward to most of the States west of the Mississippi (excluding areas of [[Texas]] and [[California]] that had already been surveyed and divided up by the [[Spanish Empire]]). Then, when the [[Homestead Act]] was enacted in 1867, the quarter section became the basic unit of land that was granted to new settler-farmers. The [[Northwest Ordinance]] of 1787 noted the agreement of the original states to give up [[state cession|northwestern land claims]], organized the [[Northwest Territory]] and thus cleared the way for the entry of five new states and part of a sixth to the Union. To be specific, [[Massachusetts]], [[Connecticut]], [[New York]], [[Pennsylvania]], and [[Virginia]] gave up all of their claims to land north of the [[Ohio River]] and west of the (present) western border of Pennsylvania. Over several decades a number of new states were formed from this land: [[Ohio]], [[Indiana]], [[Illinois]], [[Michigan]], and [[Wisconsin]], and the part of [[Minnesota]] east of the Mississippi River. The Northwest Ordinance of 1787 also made great advances in the abolition of slavery. New states admitted to the union in said territory would never be slave states. ==The United States of America under the Articles== The peace treaty left the United States independent and at peace but with an unsettled governmental structure. The Articles envisioned a permanent confederation, but granted to the Congress—the only federal institution—little power to finance itself or to ensure that its resolutions were enforced. There was no president and no national court.<ref>{{cite book| last = Morris| first = Richard B.| title = The Forging of the Union, 1781–1789| year = 1987| publisher = Harper & Row| isbn = 978-0-06-091424-0 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book| last = Frankel| first = Benjamin| title = History in Dispute: The American Revolution, 1763–1789| year = 2003| publisher = St James Press| pages = 17–24 }}</ref> Although historians generally agree that the Articles were too weak to hold the fast-growing nation together, they do give credit to the settlement of the western issue, as the states voluntarily turned over their lands to national control.<ref>{{cite book| last = McNeese| first = Tim| title = Revolutionary America 1764–1799| year = 2009| publisher = Chelsea House Pub| isbn = 978-1-60413-350-9| page = 104 }}</ref> By 1783, with the end of the British blockade, the new nation was regaining its prosperity. However, trade opportunities were restricted by the mercantilism of the British and French empires. The ports of the British West Indies were closed to all staple products which were not carried in British ships. France and Spain established similar policies. Simultaneously, new manufacturers faced sharp competition from British products which were suddenly available again. Political unrest in several states and efforts by debtors to use popular government to erase their debts increased the anxiety of the political and economic elites which had led the Revolution. The apparent inability of the Congress to redeem the public obligations (debts) incurred during the war, or to become a forum for productive cooperation among the states to encourage commerce and economic development, only aggravated a gloomy situation. In 1786–87, [[Shays' Rebellion]], an uprising of dissidents in western Massachusetts against the state court system, threatened the stability of state government.<ref>{{cite book| last1 = Murrin| first1 = John M.| title = Liberty, Equality, Power, A History of the American People: To 1877| year = 2008| publisher = Wadsworth Publishing Company| isbn = 978-1-111-83086-1| page = 187}}</ref> The Continental Congress printed paper money which was so depreciated that it ceased to pass as currency, spawning the expression "not worth a continental". Congress could not levy taxes and could only make requisitions upon the States. Less than a million and a half dollars came into the treasury between 1781 and 1784, although the governors had been asked for two million in 1783 alone.<ref>{{cite book| last = Jensen| first = Merrill| title = The Articles of Confederation| year = 1959| publisher = University of Wisconsin Press| isbn = 978-0-299-00204-6| page = 37 }}</ref> When [[John Adams]] went to London in 1785 as the first representative of the United States, he found it impossible to secure a treaty for unrestricted commerce. Demands were made for favors and there was no assurance that individual states would agree to a treaty. Adams stated it was necessary for the States to confer the power of passing navigation laws to Congress, or that the States themselves pass retaliatory acts against Great Britain. Congress had already requested and failed to get power over navigation laws. Meanwhile, each State acted individually against Great Britain to little effect. When other New England states closed their ports to British shipping, Connecticut hastened to profit by opening its ports.<ref>{{cite book| last = Ferling| first = John| title = John Adams: A Life| year = 2010| publisher = Oxford University Press, USA| isbn = 978-0-19-975273-7| pages = 257–8 }}</ref> By 1787 Congress was unable to protect manufacturing and shipping. State legislatures were unable or unwilling to resist attacks upon private contracts and public credit. Land speculators expected no rise in values when the government could not defend its borders nor protect its frontier population.<ref>{{cite book |first= Jack N. |last= Rakove |chapter= The Collapse of the Articles of Confederation |title= The American Founding: Essays on the Formation of the Constitution |editor1-first= J. Jackson |editor1-last= Barlow |editor2-first= Leonard W. |editor2-last= Levy |editor3-first= Ken |editor3-last= Masugi |year= 1988 |pages= 225–45 |lastauthoramp=y}}</ref> The idea of a convention to revise the Articles of Confederation grew in favor. [[Alexander Hamilton]] realized while serving as Washington's top aide that a strong central government was necessary to avoid foreign intervention and allay the frustrations due to an ineffectual Congress. Hamilton led a group of like-minded nationalists, won Washington's endorsement, and convened the [[Annapolis Convention (1786)|Annapolis Convention]] in 1786 to petition Congress to call a constitutional convention to meet in Philadelphia to remedy the long-term crisis.<ref>{{cite book| last = Chernow| first = Ron| title = Alexander Hamilton| year = 2004| publisher = Penguin Books| isbn = 978-1-101-20085-8 }}</ref> ==Signatures== The Second Continental Congress approved the Articles for distribution to the states on November 15, 1777. A copy was made for each state and one was kept by the [[Continental Congress|Congress]]. On November 28, the copies sent to the states for ratification were unsigned, and the cover letter, dated November 17, had only the signatures of [[Henry Laurens]] and [[Charles Thomson]], who were the [[President of the Continental Congress|President]] and Secretary to the Congress. The Articles, however, were unsigned, and the date was blank. Congress began the signing process by examining their copy of the Articles on June 27, 1778. They ordered a final copy prepared (the one in the National Archives), and that delegates should inform the secretary of their authority for ratification. On July 9, 1778, the prepared copy was ready. They dated it, and began to sign. They also requested each of the remaining states to notify its delegation when ratification was completed. On that date, delegates present from [[New Hampshire]], [[Massachusetts]], [[Rhode Island]], [[Connecticut]], [[New York]], [[Pennsylvania]], [[Virginia]] and [[South Carolina]] signed the Articles to indicate that their states had ratified. [[New Jersey]], [[Delaware]] and [[Maryland]] could not, since their states had not ratified. [[North Carolina]] and [[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]] also didn't sign that day, since their delegations were absent. After the first signing, some delegates signed at the next meeting they attended. For example, John Wentworth of New Hampshire added his name on August 8. John Penn was the first of North Carolina's delegates to arrive (on July 10), and the delegation signed the Articles on July 21, 1778. The other states had to wait until they ratified the Articles and notified their Congressional delegation. Georgia signed on July 24, New Jersey on November 26, and Delaware on February 12, 1779. Maryland refused to ratify the Articles until every state had ceded its western land claims. [[Image:Act of Maryland to ratify Articles.jpg|thumb|200px|left|The Act of the Maryland legislature to ratify the Articles of Confederation on February 2, 1781]] On February 2, 1781, the much-awaited decision was taken by the [[Maryland General Assembly]] in [[Annapolis]].<ref name="lawsofmaryland">{{cite web |date= February 2, 1781 |work= Laws of Maryland, 1781 |url= http://aomol.net/megafile/msa/speccol/sc2900/sc2908/000001/000203/html/am203--265.html |title= An ACT to empower the delegates}}</ref> As the last piece of business during the afternoon Session, "among engrossed Bills" was "signed and sealed by Governor [[Thomas Sim Lee]] in the Senate Chamber, in the presence of the members of both Houses... an Act to empower the delegates of this state in Congress to subscribe and ratify the articles of confederation" and perpetual union among the states. The Senate then adjourned "to the first Monday in August next." The decision of Maryland to ratify the Articles was reported to the Continental Congress on February 12. The confirmation signing of the Articles by the two Maryland delegates took place in Philadelphia at noon time on March 1, 1781 and was celebrated in the afternoon. With these events, the Articles were entered into force and the United States of America came into being as a sovereign federal state. Congress had debated the Articles for over a year and a half, and the ratification process had taken nearly three and a half years. Many participants in the original debates were no longer delegates, and some of the signers had only recently arrived. The Articles of Confederation and Perpetual Union were signed by a group of men who were never present in the Congress at the same time. {{Clear}} ===Signers=== The signers and the states they represented were: {{col-begin}} {{col-1-of-5}} '''[[Connecticut]]''' * [[Roger Sherman]] * [[Samuel Huntington (statesman)|Samuel Huntington]] * [[Oliver Wolcott]] * [[Titus Hosmer]] * [[Andrew Adams (congressman)|Andrew Adams]] '''[[Delaware]]''' * [[Thomas McKean]] * [[John Dickinson (delegate)|John Dickinson]] * [[Nicholas Van Dyke (governor)|Nicholas Van Dyke]] '''[[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]]''' * [[John Walton (1738–1783)|John Walton]] * [[Edward Telfair]] * [[Edward Langworthy]] {{col-2-of-5}} '''[[Maryland]]''' * [[John Hanson]] * [[Daniel Carroll]] '''[[Massachusetts|Massachusetts Bay]]''' * [[John Hancock]] * [[Samuel Adams]] * [[Elbridge Gerry]] * [[Francis Dana]] * [[James Lovell (delegate)|James Lovell]] * [[Samuel Holten]] '''[[New Hampshire]]''' * [[Josiah Bartlett]] * [[John Wentworth Jr.]] {{col-3-of-5}} '''[[New Jersey]]''' * [[John Witherspoon]] * [[Nathaniel Scudder]] '''[[New York]]''' * [[James Duane]] * [[Francis Lewis]] * [[William Duer (delegate)|William Duer]] * [[Gouverneur Morris]] '''[[North Carolina]]''' * [[John Penn (delegate)|John Penn]] * [[Cornelius Harnett]] * [[John Williams (delegate)|John Williams]] {{col-4-of-5}} '''[[Pennsylvania]]''' * [[Robert Morris (merchant)|Robert Morris]] * [[Daniel Roberdeau]] * [[Jonathan Bayard Smith]] * [[William Clingan]] * [[Joseph Reed (jurist)|Joseph Reed]] '''[[Rhode Island|Rhode Island and Providence Plantations]]''' * [[William Ellery]] * [[Henry Marchant]] * [[John Collins (delegate)|John Collins]] {{col-5-of-5}} '''[[South Carolina]]''' * [[Henry Laurens]] * [[William Henry Drayton]] * [[John Mathews (lawyer)|John Mathews]] * [[Richard Hutson]] * [[Thomas Heyward Jr.]] '''[[Virginia]]''' * [[Richard Henry Lee]] * [[John Banister (lawyer)|John Banister]] * [[Thomas Adams (politician)|Thomas Adams]] * [[John Harvie]] * [[Francis Lightfoot Lee]] {{col-end}} Roger Sherman (Connecticut) was the only person to sign all four great state papers of the United States: the [[Continental Association]], the [[United States Declaration of Independence]], the Articles of Confederation and the United States Constitution. Robert Morris (Pennsylvania) signed three of the great state papers of the United States: the [[United States Declaration of Independence]], the Articles of Confederation and the United States Constitution. John Dickinson (Delaware), Daniel Carroll (Maryland) and Gouverneur Morris (New York), along with Sherman and Robert Morris, were the only five people to sign both the Articles of Confederation and the United States Constitution (Gouverneur Morris represented Pennsylvania when signing the Constitution). ==Presidents of the Congress== The following list is of those who led the [[Congress of the Confederation]] under the Articles of Confederation as the [[President of the United States in Congress Assembled|Presidents of the United States in Congress Assembled]]. Under the Articles, the president was the presiding officer of Congress, chaired the [[Committee of the States]] when Congress was in recess, and performed other administrative functions. He was not, however, an executive in the way the successor [[President of the United States]] is a chief executive, since all of the functions he executed were under the direct control of Congress.<ref>{{cite book| last = Jensen| first = Merrill| title = The Articles of Confederation: An Interpretation of the Social-Constitutional History of the American Revolution, 1774–1781| year = 1959| publisher = University of Wisconsin Press| isbn = 978-0-299-00204-6| pages = 178–179 }}</ref> {| class="wikitable sortable" |- ! width="150"|President of Congress ! width="125"|Office Start ! width="125"|Office Exit |- | [[Samuel Huntington (statesman)|Samuel Huntington]] ||March 1, 1781 || July 9, 1781 |- | [[Thomas McKean]] ||July 10, 1781 || November 4, 1781 |- | [[John Hanson]] ||November 5, 1781 || November 3, 1782 |- | [[Elias Boudinot]] ||November 4, 1782 || November 2, 1783 |- | [[Thomas Mifflin]] ||November 3, 1783 || October 31, 1784 |- | [[Richard Henry Lee]] ||November 30, 1784 || November 6, 1785 |- | [[John Hancock]] ||November 23, 1785 || May 29, 1786 |- | [[Nathaniel Gorham]] ||June 6, 1786 || November 5, 1786 |- | [[Arthur St. Clair]] ||February 2, 1787 || November 4, 1787 |- | [[Cyrus Griffin]] ||January 22, 1788 || November 2, 1788 |} ''For a full list of Presidents of the Congress Assembled and Presidents under the two Continental Congresses before the Articles, see [[President of the Continental Congress]].'' ==Gallery== Images of an original draft{{Clarify|What is the provenance of this document?|date=August 2015}} of the Articles of Confederation stored at the United States [[National Archives and Records Administration|National Archive]]. <gallery> Image:Articles of Confederation 1-5.jpg|Preamble through Article V, ¶1 Image:Articles of Confederation 5-6.jpg|Article V, ¶2 through Article VI Image:Articles of Confederation 7-9.jpg|Article VII through Article IX, ¶2 Image:Articles of Confederation 9-9.jpg|Article IX, ¶2 through ¶5 Image:Articles of Confederation 9-13.jpg|Article IX, ¶5 through Article XIII, ¶2 Image:Articles of Confederation 13.jpg|Article XIII, ¶2 through signatures </gallery> ==Revision and replacement== On January 21, 1786, the Virginia Legislature, following [[James Madison]]'s recommendation, invited all the states to send delegates to Annapolis, Maryland to discuss ways to reduce interstate conflict. At what came to be known as the [[Annapolis Convention (1786)|Annapolis Convention]], the few state delegates in attendance endorsed a motion that called for all states to meet in [[Philadelphia]] in May 1787 to discuss ways to improve the Articles of Confederation in a "Grand Convention." Although the states' representatives to the [[Constitutional Convention (United States)|Constitutional Convention]] in Philadelphia were only authorized to amend the Articles, the representatives held secret, closed-door sessions and wrote a new constitution. The new Constitution gave much more power to the central government, but characterization of the result is disputed. The general goal of the authors was to get close to a [[republic]] as defined by the philosophers of the [[Age of Enlightenment]], while trying to address the many difficulties of the interstate relationships. Historian Forrest McDonald, using the ideas of James Madison from ''Federalist 39'', describes the change this way: {{quote|The constitutional reallocation of powers created a new form of government, unprecedented under the sun. Every previous national authority either had been centralized or else had been a confederation of sovereign states. The new American system was neither one nor the other; it was a mixture of both.<ref>McDonald pg. 276</ref>}} In May 1786, [[Charles Pinckney (governor)|Charles Pinckney]] of [[South Carolina]] proposed that Congress revise the Articles of Confederation. Recommended changes included granting [[United States Congress|Congress]] power over foreign and domestic commerce, and providing means for Congress to collect money from state treasuries. Unanimous approval was necessary to make the alterations, however, and Congress failed to reach a consensus. The weakness of the Articles in establishing an effective unifying government was underscored by the threat of internal conflict both within and between the states, especially after [[Shays' Rebellion]] threatened to topple the state government of Massachusetts. Historian Ralph Ketcham comments on the opinions of [[Patrick Henry]], [[George Mason]], and other [[Anti-Federalism|Anti-Federalists]] who were not so eager to give up the local autonomy won by the revolution: {{quote|Antifederalists feared what Patrick Henry termed the "consolidated government" proposed by the new Constitution. They saw in Federalist hopes for commercial growth and international prestige only the lust of ambitious men for a "splendid empire" that, in the time-honored way of empires, would oppress the people with taxes, conscription, and military campaigns. Uncertain that any government over so vast a domain as the United States could be controlled by the people, Antifederalists saw in the enlarged powers of the general government only the familiar threats to the rights and liberties of the people.<ref>{{cite book| last = Ketcham| first = Ralph| title = Roots of the Republic: American Founding Documents Interpreted| url = https://books.google.com/?id=QlDPAtJXQu0C&pg=PA381| year = 1990| publisher = Rowman & Littlefield| isbn = 978-0-945612-19-3| page = 383 }}</ref>}} Historians have given many reasons for the perceived need to replace the articles in 1787. Jillson and Wilson (1994) point to the financial weakness as well as the norms, rules and institutional structures of the Congress, and the propensity to divide along sectional lines. Rakove (1988) identifies several factors that explain the collapse of the Confederation. The lack of compulsory direct taxation power was objectionable to those wanting a strong centralized state or expecting to benefit from such power. It could not collect customs after the war because tariffs were vetoed by [[Rhode Island]]. Rakove concludes that their failure to implement national measures "stemmed not from a heady sense of independence but rather from the enormous difficulties that all the states encountered in collecting taxes, mustering men, and gathering supplies from a war-weary populace."<ref>Rakove 1988 p. 230</ref> The second group of factors Rakove identified derived from the substantive nature of the problems the Continental Congress confronted after 1783, especially the inability to create a strong foreign policy. Finally, the Confederation's lack of coercive power reduced the likelihood for profit to be made by political means, thus potential rulers were uninspired to seek power. When the war ended in 1783, certain special interests had incentives to create a new "merchant state," much like the British state people had rebelled against. In particular, holders of war scrip and land speculators wanted a central government to pay off scrip at face value and to legalize western land holdings with disputed claims. Also, manufacturers wanted a high tariff as a barrier to foreign goods, but competition among states made this impossible without a central government.<ref>Hendrickson p. 154</ref> ===Legitimacy of closing down=== Political scientist David C. Hendrickson writes that two prominent political leaders in the Confederation, [[John Jay]] of New York and [[Thomas Burke (governor)|Thomas Burke]] of North Carolina believed that "the authority of the congress rested on the prior acts of the several states, to which the states gave their voluntary consent, and until those obligations were fulfilled, neither nullification of the authority of congress, exercising its due powers, nor secession from the compact itself was consistent with the terms of their original pledges."<ref>Hendrickson p. 153–154</ref> According to Article XIII of the Confederation, any alteration had to be approved unanimously: <blockquote>[T]he Articles of this Confederation shall be inviolably observed by every State, and the Union shall be perpetual; nor shall any alteration at any time hereafter be made in any of them; unless such alteration be agreed to in a Congress of the United States, and be afterwards confirmed by the legislatures of every State.</blockquote> On the other hand, Article VII of the proposed Constitution stated that it would become effective after ratification by a mere nine states, without unanimity: <blockquote>The Ratification of the Conventions of nine States, shall be sufficient for the Establishment of this Constitution between the States so ratifying the Same.</blockquote> The apparent tension between these two provisions was addressed at the time, and remains a topic of scholarly discussion. In 1788, [[James Madison]] remarked (in ''[[Federalist No. 40]]'') that the issue had become moot: "As this objection...has been in a manner waived by those who have criticised the powers of the convention, I dismiss it without further observation." Nevertheless, it is an interesting historical and legal question whether opponents of the Constitution could have plausibly attacked the Constitution on that ground. At the time, there were state legislators who argued that the Constitution was not an alteration of the Articles of Confederation, but rather would be a complete replacement so the unanimity rule did not apply.<ref name=Maier>Maier, Pauline. ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=-DvolFMBVRgC&pg=PA62 Ratification: The People Debate the Constitution, 1787-1788]'', p. 62 (Simon and Schuster, 2011).</ref> Moreover, the Confederation had proven woefully inadequate and therefore was supposedly no longer binding.<ref name=Maier /> Modern scholars such as Francisco Forrest Martin agree that the Articles of Confederation had lost its binding force because many states had violated it, and thus "other states-parties did not have to comply with the Articles' unanimous consent rule".<ref>Martin, Francisco. ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=xNEjqp2A6ZgC&pg=PA5 The Constitution as Treaty: The International Legal Constructionalist Approach to the U.S. Constitution]'', p. 5 (Cambridge University Press, 2007).</ref> In contrast, law professor [[Akhil Amar]] suggests that there may not have really been any conflict between the Articles of Confederation and the Constitution on this point; Article VI of the Confederation specifically allowed side deals among states, and the Constitution could be viewed as a side deal until all states ratified it.<ref>Amar, Akhil. ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=xfkJRm6VCQ0C&pg=PA517 America's Constitution: A Biography]'', p. 517 (Random House 2012).</ref> ===Final months=== On July 3, 1788 the Congress received [[New Hampshire]]'s all-important ninth ratification of the proposed Constitution, thus, according to its terms, establishing it as the new framework of governance for the ratifying states. The following day delegates considered a bill to admit Kentucky into the Union as a sovereign state. The discussion ended with Congress making the determination that, in light of this development, it would be "unadvisable" to admit Kentucky into the Union, as it could do so "under the Articles of Confederation" only, but not "under the Constitution".<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Kesavan|first1=Vasan|title=When Did the Articles of Confederation Cease to Be Law|journal=Notre Dame Law Review|date=December 1, 2002|volume=78|issue=1|pages=70-71|url=:http://scholarship.law.nd.edu/ndlr/vol78/iss1/3|accessdate=October 31, 2015}}</ref> By the end of July 1788, 11 of the 13 states had ratified the new Constitution. Congress continued to convene under the Articles with a quorum until October.<ref>{{cite web |url= http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/collections/continental/timeline2f.html |title= America During the Age of Revolution, 1776–1789 |publisher=Library of Congress |date= |accessdate= April 16, 2011 |archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20110315050400/http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/collections/continental/timeline2f.html |archivedate= March 15, 2011 |deadurl= no}}</ref><ref>{{cite book| author = Charles Lanman| author2 = Joseph M. Morrison| title = Biographical Annals of the Civil Government of the United States| url = https://books.google.com/?id=pp9GAAAAMAAJ| accessdate = April 16, 2011| year = 1887| publisher = J.M. Morrison }}</ref> On Saturday, September 13, 1788, the Confederation Congress voted the resolve to implement the new Constitution, and on Monday, September 15 published an announcement that the new Constitution had been ratified by the necessary nine states, set the first Wednesday in February 1789 for the presidential electors to meet and select a new president, and set the first Wednesday of March 1789 as the day the new government would take over and the government under the Articles of Confederation would come to an end.<ref name="Maier">{{cite book| last = Maier| first = Pauline| title = Ratification: The People Debate the Constitution, 1787–1788| year = 2010| publisher = Simon and Schuster| isbn = 978-0-684-86855-4| pages = 429–30 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url= http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/h?ammem/bdsbib:@field(NUMBER+@od1(bdsdcc+2410h)) |title= Continental Congress Broadside Collection for 1778-Sep-13 |accessdate= April 17, 2011}}</ref> <!--- here are links (some to original source docs) to indicate earlier (June & July 1788) "announcements" (tho' not *published*) of ratification by needed 9 states http://avalon.law.yale.edu/18th_century/ressub03.asp http://avalon.law.yale.edu/18th_century/ratnh.asp http://www.archives.gov/exhibits/charters/constitution_history.html ---> On that same September 13, it determined that New York would remain the national capital.<ref name=Maier/> ==See also== * [[History of the United States (1776–1789)]] * [[Perpetual Union]] * [[U.S. Constitution]] * [[Vetocracy]] * [[America's Critical Period]] * [[Court of Appeals in Cases of Capture]] ==Notes== {{Reflist|colwidth=30em}} ==References and further reading== {{refbegin}} * {{cite book| last = Bernstein| first = R.B.| editor1-last = Bowling| editor1-first = Kenneth R.| editor2-last = Kennon| editor2-first = Donald R.| title = Inventing Congress: Origins & Establishment Of First Federal Congress| year = 1999| pages = 76–108| chapter = Parliamentary Principles, American Realities: The Continental and Confederation Congresses, 1774–1789| lastauthoramp = y }} * {{cite book| last = Brown| first = Roger H.| title = Redeeming the Republic: Federalists, Taxation, and the Origins of the Constitution| year = 1993| isbn = 978-0-8018-6355-4 }} * {{cite book| last = Burnett| first = Edmund Cody| title = The Continental Congress: A Definitive History of the Continental Congress From Its Inception in 1774 to March 1789| year = 1941 }} * {{cite book| last = Chadwick| first = Bruce| title = George Washington's War| year = 2005| publisher = Sourcebooks, Inc.| isbn = 978-1-4022-2610-6 }} * {{cite book| last = Feinberg| first = Barbara| title = The Articles Of Confederation| year = 2002| publisher = Twenty First Century Books| isbn = 978-0-7613-2114-9 }} * {{cite book |editor1-last= Greene |editor1-first= Jack |editor2-first= J.R. |editor2-last= Pole |title= A Companion to the American Revolution |edition= 2nd |year= 2003 |lastauthoramp=y}} * {{cite book| last = Hendrickson| first = David C.| title = Peace Pact: The Lost World of the American Founding| year = 2003| publisher = University Press of Kansas| isbn = 0-7006-1237-8 }} * {{cite book| last = Hoffert| first = Robert W.| title = A Politics of Tensions: The Articles of Confederation and American Political Ideas| year = 1992| publisher = University Press of Colorado }} * {{cite book| last = Horgan| first = Lucille E.| title = Forged in War: The Continental Congress and the Origin of Military Supply and Acquisition Policy| year = 2002| publisher = Praeger Pub Text| isbn = 978-0-313-32161-0 }} * {{cite book| last = Jensen| first = Merrill| authorlink = Merrill Jensen| title = The Articles of Confederation: An Interpretation of the Social-Constitutional History of the American Revolution, 1774–1781| year = 1959| publisher = University of Wisconsin Press| isbn = 978-0-299-00204-6 }} * {{cite book| last = Jensen| first = Merrill| title = The New Nation| url = http://www.questia.com/read/76864068/the-new-nation-a-history-of-the-united-states-during| year = 1950| publisher = Northeastern University Press| isbn = 978-0-930350-14-7| authormask = —— }} * {{cite journal |authormask= —— |last= Jensen |first=Merrill |title=The Idea of a National Government During the American Revolution |volume=58 |year= 1943 |pages= 356–79 |issue= 3 |doi= 10.2307/2144490 |journal=Political Science Quarterly |jstor=2144490}} * {{cite book| last1 = Jillson| first1 = Calvin| last2 = Wilson| first2 = Rick K.| title = Congressional Dynamics: Structure, Coordination, and Choice in the First American Congress, 1774–1789| year = 1994| publisher = Stanford University Press| isbn = 978-0-8047-2293-3| lastauthoramp = y }} * {{cite book| last = Klos| first = Stanley L.| title = President Who? Forgotten Founders| year = 2004| publisher = Evisum, Inc.| location = Pittsburgh| isbn = 0-9752627-5-0| page = 261 }} * {{cite book| last = McDonald| first = Forrest| authorlink = Forrest McDonald| title = Novus Ordo Seclorum: The Intellectual Origins of the Constitution| year = 1986| publisher = University Press of Kansas| isbn = 0-7006-0311-5 }} * {{cite book| last = Mclaughlin| first = Andrew C.| title = A Constitutional History of the United States| url = http://www.constitution.org/cmt/mclaughlin/chus.htm| year = 1935| publisher = Simon Publications| isbn = 978-1-931313-31-5 }} * {{cite book| last = Morris| first = Richard| title = The Forging of the Union, 1781–1789| series = New American Nation Series| year = 1988| publisher = HarperCollins Publishers }} * {{cite book| last = Main| first = Jackson T.| title = Political Parties before the Constitution| year = 1974| publisher = W W Norton & Company Incorporated| isbn = 978-0-393-00718-3 }} * {{cite book| last = Nevins| first = Allan| title = The American States during and after the Revolution, 1775–1789| url = http://www.questia.com/library/82373527/the-american-states-during-and-after-the-revolution online| year = 1924 }} * {{cite journal |last= Parent |first= Joseph M. |title= Europe's Structural Idol: An American Federalist Republic? |journal= Political Science Quarterly |date= Fall 2009 |volume= 124 |issue= 3 |pages= 513–535 |doi=10.1002/j.1538-165x.2009.tb00658.x}} * {{cite book| last = Phelps| first = Glenn A.| editor-last = Higginbotham| editor-first = Don| editor-link = Don Higginbotham| title = George Washington Reconsidered| year = 2001| publisher = University of Virginia Press| isbn = 0-8139-2005-1| chapter = The Republican General }} * {{cite book| last = Puls| first = Mark| title = Henry Knox: Visionary General of the American Revolution| year = 2008| publisher = Palgrave MacMillan| isbn = 978-1-4039-8427-2 }} * {{cite book| last = Rakove| first = Jack N.| title = The Beginnings of National Politics: An Interpretive History of the Continental Congress| year = 1982| publisher = Johns Hopkins University Press }} * {{cite book| last = Rakove| first = Jack N.| editor1-last = Barlow| editor1-first = J. Jackson| editor2-last = Levy| editor2-first = Leonard W.| editor3-last = Masugi| editor3-first = Ken| title = The American Founding: Essays on the Formation of the Constitution| year = 1988| publisher = Greenwood Press| isbn = 0-313-25610-1| pages = 225–45| chapter = The Collapse of the Articles of Confederation| lastauthoramp = y| authormask = —— }} {{refend}} ==External links== {{Wikisource|Articles of Confederation and Perpetual Union}} {{Commons category|Articles of Confederation and Perpetual Union}} {{Wikiquote}} * [http://www.law.ou.edu/ushistory/artconf.shtml Text version of the Articles of Confederation] * [http://earlyamerica.com/earlyamerica/milestones/articles/cover.html Articles of Confederation and Perpetual Union] * [http://www.loc.gov/rr/program/bib/ourdocs/articles.html Articles of Confederation and related resources], [[Library of Congress]] * [http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/today/nov15.html Today in History: November 15], [[Library of Congress]] * [http://www.usconstitution.net/articles.html United States Constitution Online—The Articles of Confederation] * [http://www.mp3books.com/shop/audio_item.aspx?id=819 Free Download of Articles of Confederation Audio] * [//uscon.mobi/art/index.html Mobile friendly] version of the Articles of Confederation {{Historical American Documents}} {{USArticlesOfConfederationSig}} {{John Dickinson}} {{Presidents of the Continental Congress}} {{US history}} {{Authority control}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Articles Of Confederation}} [[Category:Documents of the American Revolution]] [[Category:Signers of the Articles of Confederation| ]] [[Category:History of the United States (1776–89)]] [[Category:1781 in law]] [[Category:Defunct constitutions]] [[Category:Ordinances of the Continental Congress]] [[Category:Political charters]] [[Category:United States historical documents]] [[Category:1776 in the United States]] [[Category:1781 in the United States]] [[Category:Federalism in the United States]] [[Category:Legal history of the United States]] [[Category:History of York County, Pennsylvania]] [[Category:Pennsylvania in the American Revolution]] [[Category:York, Pennsylvania]] 8s8nmhwxqfso0i6yv2etx3120dlu5o1 0 693 629644481 179567526 2014-10-14T23:58:46Z Jdaloner 4460044 Changed "R from CamelCase" tag to "R from subpage". wikitext text/x-wiki #REDIRECT [[Broch]] {{R from subpage}} ffcnikxl5sg29xnqh3y1fiv9gfh45lt 0 694 659166869 659166083 2015-04-25T17:00:47Z Bkonrad 44062 update wikitext text/x-wiki '''Asia Minor''' is an alternative name for [[Anatolia]], the westernmost protrusion of Asia, comprising the majority of the Republic of Turkey. It may also refer to: * [[Asia Minor (instrumental)|"Asia Minor" (instrumental)]], a 1961 instrumental recording by Jimmy Wisner (operating under the name Kokomo) * [[Asia Minor (album)|''Asia Minor'' (album)]], an album by Jamaican-born jazz trumpeter Dizzy Reece {{Disambiguation}} en9c0mgmpi4hl509f9dwyowcndczs1s 0 696 707884782 666290101 2016-03-02T10:29:10Z ZH8000 17531320 correction wikitext text/x-wiki {{Use dmy dates|date=June 2013}} '''Aa''' is the name of a large number of small European rivers. Aa originated from an Indo-European word meaning water, and it can be seen in the German ''Ach'' or ''Aach'' or the [[North Germanic languages|North Germanic]] ''A'' or ''Aa''.<ref name=EA>{{cite encyclopedia |editor-first=Patricia |editor-last=Bayer |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia Americana |title=A |edition=First |year=2000 |publisher=Grolier Incorporated |volume=I A-Anjou |location=Danbury, CT |isbn=0-7172-0133-3 |pages=1 }}</ref> * [[Aa (river, France)]], a river in northern France * [[Aa (Meuse)]], a river in North Brabant, Netherlands * [[Aa of Weerijs]], a river in North Brabant, Netherlands which joins the [[Mark (Dintel)|Mark]] at [[Breda]] * [[Drentsche Aa]], a river in Drenthe and Groningen, Netherlands * [[Aabach (Greifensee)]], or Ustermer Aa, a river in Switzerland * [[Aabach (Afte)]], formerly called the Große Aa, a river in Germany * [[Aa (Möhne)]], a river in North Rhine-Westphalia, Germany * [[Aa (Nethe)]], a river in North Rhine-Westphalia, Germany * [[Aa (Werre)]], a river in North Rhine-Westphalia, Germany * Aa, a river in Antwerp, Belgium which joins the Nete River * [[Engelberger Aa]], a river in Obwalden and Nidwalden, Switzerland * [[Große Aa]], a river in Lower Saxony, Germany * [[Münstersche Aa]], a river in Germany, one of several Westphalian rivers called Aa * [[Sarner Aa]], a river in Obwalden, Switzerland, tributary of Lake Lucerne * [[Mussel Aa]], a river in [[Groningen (province)|Groningen]], Netherlands * [[Pekel Aa]], a river in [[Groningen (province)|Groningen]], Netherlands * [[Ruiten Aa]], a river in [[Groningen (province)|Groningen]], Netherlands * [[Westerwoldsche Aa]], a river in [[Groningen (province)|Groningen]], Netherlands * [[Aare]], one of the largest rivers in Switzerland == Former names == * [[Gauja]], a river in Latvia, formerly known as ''Livländische Aa'' * [[Lielupe]], a river in Latvia, formerly known as ''Kurländische Aa'' ==See also== * [[AA (disambiguation)]] ==References== {{reflist}} {{geodis}} jsbxyo74ol9z69163a7dlfrtny2ogt7 0 698 715476735 715476638 2016-04-16T01:38:03Z Yamaguchi先生 503067 Reverted edits by [[Special:Contribs/68.191.142.169|68.191.142.169]] ([[User talk:68.191.142.169|talk]]) to last version by Institute of Oceanography wikitext text/x-wiki {{Hatnote|"Atlantic", "North Atlantic", "South Atlantic", "Atlantic Basin" and "Atlantic coast" redirect here. For other uses, see [[Atlantic (disambiguation)]], [[North Atlantic (disambiguation)]], [[South Atlantic (disambiguation)]], [[Atlantic Basin (disambiguation)]], and [[Atlantic Coast (disambiguation)]].}} {{pp-move-indef}} {{refimprove|date=March 2015}} {{Use dmy dates|date=August 2013}} [[File:Atlantic Ocean - en.png|thumb|300px|The Atlantic Ocean, not including [[Arctic]] and [[Antarctic]] regions]] {{Five oceans}} [[File:Atlantic Ocean to Africa.ogv|thumb|300px| This video was taken by the crew of [[Expedition 29]] on board the [[International Space Station|ISS]]. The pass starts from just northeast of the island of [[Newfoundland (island)|Newfoundland]] over the North Atlantic Ocean to [[central Africa]], over [[South Sudan]].]] The '''Atlantic Ocean''' is the second largest of the world's [[ocean]]ic divisions, following the [[Pacific Ocean]]. With a total [[area]] of about {{convert|106,400,000|km2|sqmi}},<ref name="brit">"The New Encyclopædia Britannica", Volume 2, Encyclopædia Britannica, 1974. p. 294</ref> it covers approximately 20 percent of the [[Earth's surface]] and about 29 percent of its [[water]] surface area. Its name refers to [[Atlas (mythology)|Atlas]] of [[Greek mythology]], making the Atlantic the "Sea of Atlas". The oldest known mention of "Atlantic" is in ''[[Histories (Herodotus)|The Histories]]'' of [[Herodotus]] around 450 BC (Hdt. 1.202.4): ''Atlantis thalassa'' (Greek: Ἀτλαντὶς θάλασσα; English: Sea of Atlas). The term Ethiopic Ocean, derived from [[Ethiopia]], was applied to the southern Atlantic as late as the mid-19th century.<ref>{{cite book|author1=George Ripley|author2=Charles Anderson Dana|title=The American cyclopaedia: a popular dictionary of general knowledge|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ROQXAQAAIAAJ&pg=PA69|accessdate=15 April 2011|year=1873|publisher=Appleton|pages=69–}}</ref> Before Europeans discovered other oceans, their term "ocean" was synonymous with the waters beyond the [[Strait of Gibraltar]] that are now known as the Atlantic. The early Greeks believed this ocean to be a [[Oceanus|gigantic river encircling the world]]. The Atlantic Ocean occupies an elongated, S-shaped basin extending longitudinally between [[Eurasia]] and [[Africa]] to the east, and the [[Americas]] to the west. As one component of the interconnected [[World Ocean|global ocean]], it is connected in the north to the [[Arctic Ocean]], to the [[Pacific Ocean]] in the southwest, the [[Indian Ocean]] in the southeast, and the [[Southern Ocean]] in the south (other definitions describe the Atlantic as extending southward to [[Antarctica]]). The [[equator]] subdivides it into the '''North Atlantic Ocean''' and '''South Atlantic Ocean'''. ==Geography== [[File:Porto Covo pano April 2009-4.jpg|thumb|250px|The Atlantic Ocean as seen from the western coast of [[Portugal]]|alt=Photo of surf breaking on rocky shore]] The Atlantic Ocean is bounded on the west by North and South America. It connects to the Arctic Ocean through the [[Denmark Strait]], [[Greenland Sea]], [[Norwegian Sea]] and [[Barents Sea]]. To the east, the boundaries of the ocean proper are [[Europe]]: the [[Strait of Gibraltar]] (where it connects with the [[Mediterranean Sea]]–one of its [[marginal sea]]s–and, in turn, the [[Black Sea]], both of which also touch upon [[Asia]]) and Africa. In the southeast, the Atlantic merges into the Indian Ocean. The [[20th meridian east|20° East meridian]], running south from [[Cape Agulhas]] to [[Antarctica]] defines its border. Some authorities show it extending south to Antarctica, while others show it bounded at the [[60th parallel south|60° parallel]] by the Southern Ocean.<ref>[http://iodeweb5.vliz.be/oceanteacher/index.php?module=contextview&action=contextdownload&id=gen11Srv32Nme37_366 ''Limits of Oceans and Seas'']. International Hydrographic Organization Special Publication No. 23, 1953.</ref> In the southwest, the [[Drake Passage]] connects it to the Pacific Ocean. The [[wikt:man-made|man-made]] [[Panama Canal]] links the Atlantic and Pacific. Besides those mentioned, other large bodies of water that form part of the Atlantic are the [[Caribbean Sea]], the [[Gulf of Mexico]], [[Hudson Bay]], the Mediterranean Sea, the [[North Sea]], the [[Baltic Sea]], and the [[Celtic Sea]]. [[File:Atlantic City skyline from 47th floor of Revel.jpg|left|250px|thumb|The Atlantic Ocean as seen from [[Atlantic City, New Jersey]].]] Covering approximately 22% of Earth's surface, the Atlantic is second in size to the Pacific. With its adjacent seas, it occupies an area of about {{convert|106400000|km2|sqmi}};<ref name="brit" /> without them, it has an area of {{convert|82400000|km2|sqmi}}. The land that drains into the Atlantic covers four times that of either the Pacific or Indian oceans. The volume of the Atlantic with its adjacent seas is 354,700,000&nbsp;cubic kilometers (85,100,000&nbsp;[[cubic mile|cu mi]]) and without them 323,600,000&nbsp;cubic kilometres (77,640,000&nbsp;cu mi). The average depth of the Atlantic with its adjacent seas, is {{convert|3339|m|fathom ft|lk=out}}; without them it is {{convert|3926|m|fathom ft}}.<ref>Amanda Briney, {{cite web|url=http://geography.about.com/od/locateplacesworldwide/tp/fiveoceans.htm | title = Geography of the World's Oceans |publisher = About Education |accessdate=2015-05-22}}</ref> The greatest depth, [[Milwaukee Deep]] with {{convert|8380|m|fathom ft}}, is in the [[Puerto Rico Trench]].{{Citation needed|date=April 2011}} ==Cultural significance== {{Redirect|The Pond}} [[File:Myrtle-Beach-SC-0799.jpg|thumb|right|[[Myrtle Beach, South Carolina]] view of the Atlantic Ocean.]] The Atlantic Ocean was named by the [[ancient Greece|ancient Greeks]] after either [[Atlas (mythology)|Atlas the Titan]] or the [[Atlas Mountains]] named for him;<ref name="MWU">{{Citation | author = Merriam-Webster | authorlink = Merriam-Webster | title = Merriam-Webster Unabridged | publisher = Merriam-Webster |url=http://unabridged.merriam-webster.com/unabridged/ |postscript=.}}</ref><ref name="AHD5">{{Citation |author=Houghton Mifflin Harcourt |authorlink=Houghton Mifflin Harcourt |title=American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language |edition=5th |publisher=Houghton Mifflin Harcourt |url=http://ahdictionary.com/ |postscript=.}}</ref> both involve the concept of holding up the sky. [[Transatlantic crossing|Transatlantic travel]] played a major role in the expansion of Western civilization into the Americas. It is the Atlantic that separates the "[[Old World]]" from the "[[New World]]". In [[modern history|modern times]], some [[idiom]]s refer to the ocean in a humorously diminutive way as '''the Pond''', describing both the geographical and cultural divide between North America and Europe, in particular between the English-speaking nations of both continents. Many Irish or British people refer to the United States and Canada as "across the pond", and vice versa.<ref>Example: BBC Click – Episode 4 April 2009</ref> The "Black Atlantic" refers to the role of this ocean in shaping black people's history, especially through the [[Atlantic slave trade]]. Irish migration to the US is meant when the term "The Green Atlantic" is used. The term "Red Atlantic" has been used in reference to the Marxian concept of an Atlantic working class, as well as to the Atlantic experience of [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|indigenous Americans]]. <ref>{{cite web|last=David|first=Armitage|title=The Red Atlantic|url=http://muse.jhu.edu/login?auth=0&type=summary&url=/journals/reviews_in_american_history/v029/29.4armitage.html|publisher=Project MUSE|accessdate=28 October 2012}}</ref><ref>http://uncpress.unc.edu/books/11603.html</ref><ref>http://web-facstaff.sas.upenn.edu/~cavitch/pdf-library/Armitage_ThreeConcepts.pdf</ref> [[Image:Culloden-point.jpg|thumb|left|Site of the 1781 shipwreck of the ''[[HMS Culloden (1776)|Culloden]]'' near [[Montauk, New York]].]] [[File:Table mountain and the ocean cape town.JPG|thumb|left|The Atlantic and [[Table Mountain]] in the background, in [[Cape Town]].]] ==Ocean floor== [[File:Atlantic bathymetry.jpg|thumb|Atlantic [[bathymetry]]|[[False color]] map of ocean depth in the Atlantic basin]] The principal feature of the [[bathymetry]] (bottom [[topography]]) is a [[Mid-ocean ridge|submarine mountain range]] called the [[Mid-Atlantic Ridge]].<ref>{{cite book| author = Kenneth J. Hsü| title = The Challenger at Sea: A Ship That Revolutionized Earth Science| year = 1992| isbn = 978-0-691-08735-1| page = 57 }}</ref> It extends from [[Iceland]] in the north to approximately [[58th parallel south|58° South latitude]], reaching a maximum width of about {{convert|860|nmi|km mi|-1}}. A great [[rift valley]] also extends along the ridge over most of its length. The depth of water at the apex of the ridge is less than {{convert|2700|m|fathom ft}} in most places, while the bottom of the ridge is three times as deep. Several peaks rise above the water and form islands.<ref>{{cite book| author = Kenneth J. Hsü| title = The Mediterranean Was a Desert: A Voyage of the Glomar Challenger| year = 1987| isbn = 978-0-691-02406-6}}</ref> The South Atlantic Ocean has an additional submarine ridge, the [[Walvis Ridge]].<ref>National Geographic Atlas of the World: Revised Sixth Edition, National Geographic Society, 1992</ref> The Mid-Atlantic Ridge separates the Atlantic Ocean into two large [[trough (geology)|troughs]] with depths from {{convert|3700|-|5500|m|fathom ft}}. Transverse ridges running between the continents and the Mid-Atlantic Ridge divide the ocean floor into numerous basins. Some of the larger basins are the [[Blake Basin|Blake]], Guiana, North American, Cape Verde, and Canaries basins in the North Atlantic. The largest South Atlantic basins are the Angola, Cape, Argentina, and Brazil basins. The deep ocean floor is thought to be fairly flat with occasional deeps, [[abyssal plains]], [[oceanic trench|trenches]], [[seamount]]s, [[Oceanic basin|basins]], [[Oceanic plateau|plateaus]], [[Submarine canyon|canyons]], and some [[guyot]]s. Various shelves along the margins of the continents constitute about 11% of the bottom topography with few deep channels cut across the continental rise. Ocean floor trenches and seamounts: * [[Puerto Rico Trench]], in the North Atlantic, is the deepest trench at {{convert|8605|m|fathom ft}}<ref>[http://www.sea-seek.com/site/Milwaukee_Deep Milwaukee Deep]. sea-seek.com</ref> * [[Laurentian Abyss]] is found off the eastern coast of [[Canada]] * [[South Sandwich Trench]] reaches a depth of {{convert|8428|m|fathom ft}} * [[Romanche Trench]] is located near the [[equator]] and reaches a depth of about {{convert|7454|m|fathom ft}}. Ocean [[sediment]]s are composed of: * [[Terrigenous]] deposits with land origins, consisting of sand, mud, and rock particles formed by [[erosion]], [[weathering]], and volcanic activity on land washed to sea. These materials are found mostly on the [[continental shelf|continental shelves]] and are thickest near large river mouths or off desert coasts. * [[Pelagic]] deposits, which contain the remains of organisms that sink to the ocean floor, include red clays and [[Globigerina]], [[pteropod]], and siliceous oozes. Covering most of the ocean floor and ranging in thickness from {{convert|60|-|3300|m|fathom ft}} they are thickest in the convergence belts, notably at the [[Hamilton Ridge]] and in upwelling zones. * [[Authigenic]] deposits consist of such materials as [[manganese nodule]]s. They occur where sedimentation proceeds slowly or where currents sort the deposits, such as in the [[Hewett Curve]]. ==Water characteristics== [[Image:Vista chinesa.jpg|thumb|center|750px|The Atlantic Ocean as seen from [[Rio de Janeiro]], [[Brazil]]. This view is from Vista Chinesa.]] {{unreferenced section|date=March 2015}} [[File:Circulacion termohalina.jpg|Path of the [[thermohaline circulation]]. Purple paths represent deep-water currents, while blue paths represent surface currents.|thumb|alt=Map displaying a looping line with arrows indicating that water flows eastward in the far Southern ocean, angling north east of Australia, turning sough after passing Alaska, then crossing the mid-Pacific to flow north of Australia, continuing west below Africa, then turning northwest until reaching eastern Canada, then angling east to southern Europe, then finally turning south just below Greenland and flowing down the Americas' eastern coast, and resuming its flow eastward to complete the circle]] [[File:Oceanic gyres.png|thumb|Map of the five major ocean [[Ocean gyre|gyres]]|alt=Map showing 5 circles. The first is between western Australia and eastern Africa. The second is between eastern Australia and western South America. The third is between Japan and western North America. Of the two in the Atlantic, one is in hemisphere.]] On average, the Atlantic is the saltiest major ocean; surface water [[salinity]] in the open ocean ranges from 33 to 37 parts per thousand (3.3 – 3.7%) by mass and varies with latitude and season. Evaporation, precipitation, river inflow and [[sea ice]] melting influence surface salinity values. Although the lowest salinity values are just north of the equator (because of heavy tropical rainfall), in general the lowest values are in the high latitudes and along coasts where large rivers enter. Maximum salinity values occur at about [[25th parallel north|25° north]] and [[25th parallel south|south]], in [[subtropical]] regions with low rainfall and high evaporation. Surface water temperatures, which vary with latitude, current systems, and season and reflect the latitudinal distribution of solar energy, range from below {{convert|-2|C|F}} to over {{convert|30|C|F}}. Maximum temperatures occur north of the equator, and minimum values are found in the polar regions. In the middle latitudes, the area of maximum temperature variations, values may vary by {{convert|7|–|8|C-change|F-change}}. The Atlantic Ocean consists of four major water masses. The North and South Atlantic central waters make up the surface. The sub-Antarctic intermediate water extends to depths of {{convert|1000|m|fathom ft}}. The [[North Atlantic Deep Water]] reaches depths of as much as {{convert|4000|m|fathom ft}}. The [[Antarctic Bottom Water]] occupies ocean basins at depths greater than 4,000 meters. Within the North Atlantic, ocean currents isolate the [[Sargasso Sea]], a large elongated body of water, with above average salinity. The Sargasso Sea contains large amounts of [[seaweed]] and is also the spawning ground for both the [[European eel]] and the [[American eel]]. The [[Coriolis effect]] circulates North Atlantic water in a clockwise direction, whereas South Atlantic water circulates counter-clockwise. The south [[tide]]s in the Atlantic Ocean are semi-diurnal; that is, two high tides occur during each 24 lunar hours. In latitudes above [[40th parallel north|40° North]] some east-west oscillation occurs. ==Climate== [[File:Atlantic hurricane graphic.gif|thumb|right|Waves in the [[trade winds]] in the Atlantic Ocean—areas of converging winds that move along the same track as the prevailing wind—create instabilities in the atmosphere that may lead to the formation of hurricanes.|alt=Map of Caribbean showing seven approximately parallel westward-pointing arrows that extend from east of the Virgin Islands to Cuba. The southern arrows bend northward just east of the Dominican Republic before straightening out again.]] Climate is influenced by the temperatures of the surface waters and water currents as well as winds. Because of the ocean's great capacity to store and release heat, maritime climates are more moderate and have less extreme seasonal variations than inland climates. [[Precipitation (meteorology)|Precipitation]] can be approximated from coastal weather data and air temperature from water temperatures. The oceans are the major source of the atmospheric moisture that is obtained through evaporation. Climatic zones vary with latitude; the warmest zones stretch across the Atlantic north of the equator. The coldest zones are in high latitudes, with the coldest regions corresponding to the areas covered by sea ice. Ocean currents influence climate by transporting warm and cold waters to other regions. The winds that are cooled or warmed when blowing over these currents influence adjacent land areas. The [[Gulf Stream]] and its northern extension towards Europe, the [[North Atlantic Current|North Atlantic Drift]], for example, warms the atmosphere of the British Isles and north-western Europe and influences weather and climate as far south as the northern Mediterranean. The cold water currents contribute to heavy fog off the coast of eastern Canada (the [[Grand Banks of Newfoundland]] area) and Africa's north-western coast. In general, winds transport moisture and air over land areas. [[Tropical cyclone|Hurricanes]] develop in the southern part of the North Atlantic Ocean. More local particular weather examples could be found in examples such as the [[Azores High]], [[Benguela Current]], and [[Nor'easter]]. {{Clear}} ==History== {{main category|History of the Atlantic Ocean}} [[File:Pangea animation 03.gif|thumb|Animation showing the separation of [[Pangaea]], which formed the Atlantic Ocean known today|alt=Animation showing the continents separating from a single mass, making creating the Atlantic in the process]] The Atlantic Ocean appears to be the second youngest of the five oceans. It did not exist prior to 130 million years ago, when the continents that formed from the breakup of the ancestral super continent [[Pangaea]] were drifting apart.{{citation needed|date=January 2014}} The Atlantic has been extensively explored since the earliest settlements along its shores. The [[Norsemen]], the [[Portuguese Discoveries|Portuguese]] and the [[Spanish Empire|Spanish]] were the first to explore and to cross it systematically, from Europe to the Americas, as well as to its islands and archipelagos, and from the North Atlantic to the South Atlantic. It was after the [[Voyages of Christopher Columbus|voyages]] of [[Christopher Columbus]] in 1492, at the service of [[Crown of Castile|Castile]] (later Spain), that the Americas became well known in Europe and European exploration rapidly accelerated, leading to many new trade routes and the [[colonization of the Americas]]. As a result, the Atlantic became and remains the major artery between Europe and the [[Americas]] (known as transatlantic trade). Scientific explorations include the [[Challenger expedition]], the [[German Meteor expedition]], [[Columbia University]]'s [[Lamont-Doherty Earth Observatory]] and the [[United States Navy Hydrographic Office]]. ===Notable crossings=== [[File:RaII.InMuseum.jpg|thumb|right|[[Ra II]], a ship built from [[papyrus]], was successfully sailed across the Atlantic by [[Thor Heyerdahl]] proving that it was possible to cross the Atlantic from Africa using such boats in early epochs of history.]] *Around 600 - 400 BC, [[Hanno the Navigator]] explored West Africa and possibly reached and crossed the Gulf of Guinea and the [[Equator]]. *Around 980 – 982, [[Erik the Red]] discovered [[Greenland]], geographically and geologically a part of the Americas. * In the year 1000, the [[Iceland]]er [[Leif Ericson]] was the first European to set foot on North American soil, corresponding to today's Eastern coast of Canada, i.e., the province of [[Newfoundland and Labrador]], including the area of land named "[[Vinland]]" by Ericson. The [[Vikings|Norse]] discovery was documented in the 13th century [[Icelandic Sagas]] and was corroborated by recent [[L'Anse aux Meadows|L'Anse aux Meadows archeological evidence]]. * Around 1010, [[Thorfinn Karlsefni|Thorfinnr Karlsefni]] led an attempted [[Norsemen]] settlement in North America with 160 settlers, but was later driven off by the natives. His son [[Snorri Thorfinnsson]] was the first American born (somewhere between 1010 and 1013) to European (Icelandic) immigrant parents. * In 1419 and 1427, [[Portuguese Empire|Portuguese navigators]] reached [[Madeira]] and [[Azores]], respectively. * From 1415 to 1488, Portuguese navigators explored the Western African coast, crossed the Equator, and reached the '''South Atlantic''', the [[Southern Hemisphere]], and the [[Cape of Good Hope]] in the southern tip of Africa, entering the Indian Ocean. * In 1492, [[Christopher Columbus]] crossed the Atlantic Ocean and landed on the [[Bahamas]], [[Cuba]] and [[Hispaniola]]. He made three additional voyages over the next few years, during which he explored the [[Caribbean]] coast from [[Honduras]] to [[Venezuela]] as well as numerous Caribbean islands. These explorations, along with Columbus's attempts to establish a permanent settlement on [[Hispaniola]], led to the European colonization of the Americas and a period of [[Columbian Exchange]] that permanently altered human cultures and the environment on both sides of the Atlantic. The establishment of the [[Spanish treasure fleet|first transatlantic trade route]] provided a significant source of revenue to the [[Crown of Castile]], leading to the development of the [[Spanish Empire]]. [[Communicable diseases]], unintentionally brought from the [[Old World]] to the [[New World]] by Europeans, devastated the [[Amerindian]] populations, causing the deaths of an estimated 80-95% of the native population of the Americas within 150 years of Columbus's arrival.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Nunn|first1=Nathan|last2=Qian|first2=Nancy|title=The Columbian Exchange: A History of Disease, Food, and Ideas|journal=Journal of Economic Perspectives|date=2010|volume=24|issue=2|pages=163–188|doi=10.1257/jep.24.2.163|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/25703506?seq=1#page_scan_tab_contents}}</ref> Columbus also hoped to enslave the native residents of Hispaniola and transport them to Europe;<ref>{{cite book|last1=Zinn|first1=Howard|title=The Zinn Reader: Writings on Disobedience and Democracy|date=2011|publisher=Seven Stories Press|location=New York|isbn=9781583229460|page=516}}</ref> although unsuccessful in this endeavor, his efforts marked the beginning of the [[transatlantic slave trade]] that displaced an estimated 11-20 million people from Africa to the Americas over the next several centuries.<ref>{{cite web|last1=M’bokolo|first1=Elikia|title=The impact of the slave trade on Africa|url=http://mondediplo.com/1998/04/02africa|website=Le Monde diplomatique}}</ref> * From 1496 to 1498 [[John Cabot]] made three voyages to North America from [[Bristol]], landing in [[Newfoundland]] and/or possibly the [[Canadian Maritimes]]. * In 1500, [[Pedro Álvares Cabral]] reached [[Brazil]]. * In 1519 [[Ferdinand Magellan]] sailed from [[Spain]] to the South Atlantic, navigating [[Straits of Magellan|the straits named after him]] and entering the Pacific Ocean. * In 1524, [[Republic of Florence|Florentine]] explorer [[Giovanni da Verrazzano]], in the service of the [[King Francis I of France]], discovered the United States of America's east coast. * In 1534, [[Jacques Cartier]] entered the [[Gulf of St. Lawrence]] and reached the mouth of the [[St. Lawrence River]]. * In April 1563, Nicolas Barre and 20 other stranded [[Huguenot]]s were the first to build a (crude) boat in the Americas and sail across the Atlantic. They sailed from Charlesfort, South Carolina to just off the coast of England where they were rescued by an English ship. Though they resorted to cannibalism, seven men survived the voyage, including Barre.<ref>http://churchmousec.wordpress.com/2013/08/27/the-huguenot-settlement-in-16th-century-south-carolina</ref><ref>http://www.jcs-group.com/oldwest/america/1562ribaut.html</ref> * In 1764, William Harrison (the son of [[John Harrison]]) sailed aboard [[HMS Tartar (1756)|HMS ''Tartar'']], with the [[Harrison Number Four|H-4]] time piece. The voyage became the basis for the invention of the global system of [[Longitude]]. * In 1858, [[Cyrus West Field]] laid the first [[transatlantic telegraph cable]] (it quickly failed). * In 1865, [[Isambard Kingdom Brunel|Brunel]]'s ship the [[SS Great Eastern|SS ''Great Eastern'']] laid the first successful transatlantic telegraph cable. * In 1870, the small ''[[City of Ragusa]]'' ([[Dubrovnik]]) became the first small [[Lifeboat (shipboard)|lifeboat]] to cross the Atlantic from [[Cork (city)|Cork]] to [[Boston]] with two crew, John Charles Buckley and Nikola Primorac (di Costa).<ref>{{cite book| author = William H. Longyard| title = A speck on the sea: epic voyages in the most improbable vessels| year = 2003| publisher = International Marine/Ragged Mountain Press| isbn = 978-0-07-141306-0| page = 57 }}</ref> * In 1896, [[Frank Samuelsen and George Harbo]] from Norway became the first people to ever row across the Atlantic Ocean. * On 15 April 1912 the [[RMS Titanic|RMS ''Titanic'']] sank after hitting an [[iceberg]] with a loss of more than 1,500 lives.<ref>{{cite news|last=Jill|first=Lawless|url=http://edition.cnn.com/2009/WORLD/europe/04/16/titanic.auction/index.html?iref=24hours |title=Last Titanic survivor sells mementos|publisher=Associated Press|date=16 October 2008|accessdate=2015-08-06}}</ref> * On 7 May 1915 the [[RMS Lusitania|RMS ''Lusitania'']] was torpedoed en route to [[Queenstown, Ireland]], at the loss of 1,198 passengers. * 1914–1918, during the [[Atlantic U-boat campaign of World War I]], more than 2,100 ships were sunk and 153 U-boats destroyed. * In 1919, the American [[NC-4]] became the first [[seaplane]] to cross the Atlantic (though it made a couple of landings on islands and the sea along the way, and taxied several hundred miles). * Later in 1919, a British [[aeroplane]] piloted by [[Alcock and Brown]] made the first non-stop transatlantic flight, from [[Newfoundland (island)|Newfoundland]] to [[Ireland]]. * In 1921, the British were the first to cross the North Atlantic in an [[airship]]. * In 1922, [[Portugal|Portuguese]] aviators [[Artur de Sacadura Cabral|Sacadura Cabral]] and [[Gago Coutinho]] were the [[First aerial crossing of the South Atlantic]] on a seaplane connecting [[Lisbon]] to [[Rio de Janeiro]]. * In May 1927, [[Charles Nungesser]] and [[François Coli]] in their aircraft ''[[L'Oiseau Blanc]]'' (''The White Bird'') [[List of aerial disappearances|mysteriously disappeared]] in an attempt to make the first non-stop [[transatlantic flight]] from Paris to New York. * In 1927, [[Charles Lindbergh]] made the first solo non-stop transatlantic flight in an aircraft (between [[New York City]] and [[Paris]]). * In 1931, [[Bert Hinkler]] made the first solo non-stop transatlantic flight across the South Atlantic in an aircraft. * In 1932, [[Amelia Earhart]] became the first female to make a solo flight across the Atlantic from Harbour Grace, Newfoundland to Derry, Northern Ireland. * 1939–1945, during [[World War II]], the [[Battle of the Atlantic]] resulted in nearly 3,700 ships sunk and 783 [[U-boat]]s destroyed.<ref>"Introduction" ''U-Boat Operations of the Second World War—Vol 1'' by Wynn, Kenneth, 1998 p. 1</ref> * In 1952, [[Ann Davison]] was the first woman to single-handedly [[sail]] the Atlantic Ocean. * In 1965, [[Robert Manry]] crossed the Atlantic from the U.S. to England non-stop in a {{convert|13.5|ft|m|adj=on|abbr=off|sp=us}} sailboat named "Tinkerbell".<ref>Tinkerbelle (1967; Harper & Row, New York City, N.Y.)</ref> Several others also crossed the Atlantic in very small sailboats in the 1960s, none of them non-stop, though. * In 1969 and 1970 [[Thor Heyerdahl]] launched expeditions to cross the Atlantic in boats built from [[papyrus]]. He succeeded in crossing the Atlantic from [[Morocco]] to [[Barbados]] after a two-month voyage of 6,100&nbsp;km with [[Ra II]] in 1970, thus conclusively proving that boats such as the Ra could have sailed with the [[Canary Current]] across the Atlantic in prehistoric times.<ref>Ryne, Linn. [https://web.archive.org/web/20081221173610/http://www.norway.org/history/expolorers/heyerdahl/heyerdahl.htm Voyages into History]. Retrieved 13 January 2008.</ref> * In 1980, [[Gérard d'Aboville]] was the first man to cross the Atlantic Ocean rowing solo. * In 1984, [[Amyr Klink]] crossed the south atlantic rowing solo from [[Namibia]] to [[Brazil]] in 100 days. * In 1984, five [[Argentina|Argentines]] sail in a 10-meter-long raft made from tree trunks named ''Atlantis'' from [[Canary Islands]] and after 52 days {{convert|3000|mi|km}} journey arrived to [[Venezuela]] in an attempt to prove travelers from Africa may have crossed the Atlantic before [[Christopher Columbus]].<ref>[https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=336&dat=19840712&id=EhYpAAAAIBAJ&sjid=AoMDAAAAIBAJ&pg=5798,4978763 5 cross Atlantic in tiny raft]. News.google.com. 12 July 1984 Retrieved on 27 October 2011.</ref><ref>[http://www.veleromistico.com.ar/atlantis.htm Expedicion Atlantis] {{es icon}}</ref> * In 1994, [[Guy Delage]] was the first man to allegedly swim across the Atlantic Ocean (with the help of a kick board, from [[Cape Verde]] to [[Barbados]]). * In 1998, [[Benoît Lecomte]] was the first man to swim across the northern Atlantic Ocean without a kick board, stopping for only one week in the [[Azores]]. * In 1999, after rowing for 81 days and {{convert|4767|km|mi|abbr=off}}, [[Tori Murden]] became the first woman to cross the Atlantic Ocean by [[rowboat]] alone when she reached [[Guadeloupe]] from the [[Canary Islands]]. * In 2003 [[Alan Priddy]] and three crew members made a record crossing of the North Atlantic in a [[Rigid inflatable boat|RIB]] from Newfoundland to Scotland, via Greenland and Iceland, in 103 hours. ==Economy== The Atlantic has contributed significantly to the development and economy of surrounding countries. Besides major transatlantic transportation and communication routes, the Atlantic offers abundant [[petroleum]] deposits in the [[sedimentary rock]]s of the continental shelves. The Atlantic hosts the world's richest [[fishing]] resources, especially in the waters covering the shelves. The major fish are [[cod]], [[haddock]], [[hake]], [[herring]], and [[mackerel]]. The most productive areas include the [[Grand Banks of Newfoundland]], the [[Nova Scotia]] shelf, [[Georges Bank]] off [[Cape Cod]], the [[Bahama Banks]], the waters around Iceland, the [[Irish Sea]], the [[Dogger Bank]] of the North Sea, and the Falkland Banks. [[Eel]], [[lobster]], and [[whale]]s appear in great quantities. Various international treaties attempt to reduce pollution caused by environmental threats such as oil spills, [[marine debris]], and the [[incineration]] of toxic wastes at sea. <!-- This would be good if it were in an infobox '''Location:''' body of water between Africa, [[Europe]], the [[Southern Ocean]], and the [[Americas]] '''[[Geographic coordinates]]:''' {{coord|0|N|30|W|type:waterbody|display=inline}} '''Map references:''' [[World]] '''Area:''' * ''total:'' 76.762 million km² (29.637 million mi²) * ''note:'' includes the [[Baltic Sea]], [[Black Sea]], [[Caribbean Sea]], [[Davis Strait]], [[Denmark Strait]], part of the [[Drake Passage]], [[Gulf of Mexico]], [[Labrador Sea]], [[Mediterranean Sea]], [[North Sea]], [[Norwegian Sea]], almost all of the [[Scotia Sea]], and other tributary water bodies '''Area – comparative:''' slightly less than 6.5 times the size of the United States '''Coastline:''' 111&nbsp;866 km (69,510 mi) '''Climate:''' Tropical cyclones ([[hurricane]]s) develop anywhere from off the coast of Africa near [[Cape Verde]] to the [[Windward Islands]] and move westward into the Caribbean Sea or up the east coast of [[North America]]; hurricanes can occur from May to December but are most frequent from late July to early November. Storms are common in the North Atlantic during northern winters, making ocean crossings more difficult and dangerous. --> ==Terrain== From October to June the surface is usually covered with sea ice in the [[Labrador Sea]], [[Denmark Strait]], and Baltic Sea. A clockwise warm-water [[gyre]] occupies the northern Atlantic, and a counter-clockwise warm-water gyre appears in the southern Atlantic. The [[Mid-Atlantic Ridge]], a rugged north-south centerline for the entire Atlantic basin, first discovered by the [[Challenger Expedition]] dominates the ocean floor. This was formed by the vulcanism that also formed the ocean floor and the islands rising from it. The Atlantic has irregular coasts indented by numerous bays, gulfs, and seas. These include the [[Norwegian Sea]], [[Baltic Sea]], [[North Sea]], [[Labrador Sea]], [[Black Sea]], [[Gulf of Saint Lawrence]], [[Bay of Fundy]], [[Gulf of Maine]], [[Mediterranean Sea]], [[Gulf of Mexico]], and [[Caribbean Sea]]. [[List of islands in the Atlantic Ocean|Islands]] include [[Newfoundland (island)|Newfoundland]] (including hundreds of surrounding islands), [[Greenland]], [[Iceland]], [[Faroe Islands]], [[British Isles]] (including [[Great Britain]] and [[Ireland]]), [[Rockall]], [[Sable Island]], [[Azores]], [[St. Pierre and Miquelon]], [[Madeira]], [[Bermuda]], [[Canary Islands]], [[Caribbean Islands]] (including [[Greater Antilles]], [[Leeward Islands]], [[Windward Islands]], [[Leeward Antilles]]), [[Cape Verde]], [[São Tomé and Príncipe]], [[Annobón Province]], [[Fernando de Noronha]], [[Rocas Atoll]], [[Ascension Island]], [[Saint Helena]], [[Trindade and Martim Vaz]], [[Tristan da Cunha]], [[Gough Island]] (Also known as Diego Alvarez), [[Falkland Islands]], [[Tierra del Fuego]], [[South Georgia Island]], [[South Sandwich Islands]], and [[Bouvet Island]]. ===Natural resources=== The Atlantic harbors [[petroleum]] and [[gas]] fields, [[fish]], [[marine mammal]]s ([[Pinniped|seals]] and whales), [[sand]] and [[gravel]] aggregates, [[placer deposit]]s, [[polymetallic nodules]], and precious stones. Gold deposits are a mile or two under water on the ocean floor, however the deposits are also encased in rock that must be mined through. Currently, there is no cost-effective way to mine or extract gold from the ocean to make a profit.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://oceanservice.noaa.gov/facts/gold.html|title=Is there gold in the ocean?|last=Administration|first=US Department of Commerce, National Oceanic and Atmospheric|website=oceanservice.noaa.gov|language=EN-US|access-date=2016-03-30}}</ref> ===Natural hazards=== [[File:Iceberg A22A, South Atlantic Ocean.jpg|thumb|Iceberg A22A in the South Atlantic Ocean|alt=Overhead photo of iceberg with surrounding clouds|alt=Overhead photo of iceberg]] [[Iceberg]]s are common from February to August in the [[Davis Strait]], [[Denmark Strait]], and the northwestern Atlantic and have been spotted as far south as [[Bermuda]] and [[Madeira]]. Ships are subject to [[Superstructure (ship)|superstructure]] [[icing (nautical)|icing]] in the extreme north from October to May. Persistent fog can be a maritime hazard from May to September, as can hurricanes north of the equator (May to December). The United States' southeast coast has a long history of shipwrecks due to its many shoals and reefs. The Virginia and North Carolina coasts were particularly dangerous. The [[Bermuda Triangle]] is popularly believed to be the site of numerous aviation and shipping incidents because of unexplained and supposedly mysterious causes, but [[Coast Guard]] records do not support this belief. [[Hurricanes]] are also a natural hazard in the Atlantic, but mainly in the northern part of the ocean, rarely [[tropical cyclones]] form in the southern parts. Hurricanes usually form between 1 June and 30 November of every year. ==Current environmental issues== Endangered marine species include the [[manatee]], [[Pinniped|seals]], [[sea lion]]s, [[turtle]]s, and [[whale]]s. [[Drift net]] fishing can kill [[dolphin]]s, [[albatross]]es and other seabirds ([[petrel]]s, [[auk]]s), hastening the fish stock decline and contributing to international disputes.<ref>[http://www.animallaw.info/articles/arus12bcenvtlafflrev473.htm Problems and Prospects for the Pelagic Driftnet]. animallaw.info. Retrieved on 27 October 2011.</ref> Municipal pollution comes from the eastern United States, southern Brazil, and eastern Argentina; [[oil pollution]] in the [[Caribbean Sea]], [[Gulf of Mexico]], [[Lake Maracaibo]], [[Mediterranean Sea]], and [[North Sea]]; and industrial waste and municipal sewage pollution in the Baltic Sea, North Sea, and Mediterranean Sea. In 2005, there was some concern that warm northern European currents were slowing down.<ref>[http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=5033329 Atlantic Ocean's 'Heat Engine' Chills Down] by Christopher Joyce. All Things Considered, National Public Radio, 30 November 2005.</ref> On 7 June 2006, Florida's wildlife commission voted to take the manatee off the state's endangered species list. Some environmentalists worry that this could erode safeguards for the popular sea creature. ===Marine pollution=== {{Main|Marine pollution}} {{See also|Environmental impact of shipping}} Marine pollution is a generic term for the entry into the ocean of potentially hazardous chemicals or particles. The biggest culprits are rivers and with them many agriculture [[fertilizer]] chemicals as well as [[livestock]] and [[human]] waste. The excess of oxygen-depleting chemicals leads to [[Hypoxia (environmental)|hypoxia]] and the creation of a [[dead zone (ecology)|dead zone]].<ref>Sebastian A. Gerlach "Marine Pollution", Springer, Berlin (1975)</ref> [[Marine debris]], which is also known as marine litter, describes human-created waste floating in a body of water. Oceanic debris tends to accumulate at the center of [[Oceanic gyres|gyres]] and coastlines, frequently washing aground where it is known as beach litter. ==Bordering countries and territories== {{See also|Macaronesia}} The states (territories in italics) with a coastline on the Atlantic Ocean (excluding the Black, Baltic and Mediterranean Seas) are: ===Europe=== {{div col|cols=5}} * ''{{flag|Azores}}'' (PRT) * {{BEL}} * {{DEN}} * ''{{FRO}}'' (DEN) * {{FRA}} * {{DEU}} * ''{{GGY}}'' (UK) * {{ISL}} * {{IRL}} * ''{{IOM}}'' (UK) * ''{{JEY}}'' (UK) * {{NED}} * {{NOR}} * {{POR}} * {{ESP}} * {{UK}} {{div col end}} ===Africa=== {{div col|cols=5}} * {{AGO}} * {{BEN}} * ''{{BVT}}'' (NOR) * {{CMR}} * ''{{flag|Canary Islands}}'' (ESP) * {{CPV}} * {{COD}} * {{GNQ}} * {{GAB}} * {{GMB}} * {{GHA}} * {{GIN}} * {{GNB}} * {{CIV}} * {{LBR}} * ''{{flag|Madeira}}'' (PRT) * {{MRT}} * {{MAR}} * {{NAM}} * {{NGA}} * {{COG}} * ''{{SHN}}'' (UK) * {{STP}} * {{SEN}} * {{SLE}} * {{ZAF}} * {{TGO}} * ''{{ESH}} ([[Political status of Western Sahara|claimed by Morocco]])'' (MAR) {{div col end}} ===South America=== {{div col|cols=5}} * {{ARG}} * {{BRA}} * {{CHI}} * {{COL}} * ''{{FLK}}'' (UK) * ''{{flag|French Guiana|local}}'' (FRA) * {{GUY}} * ''{{SGS}}'' (UK) * {{SUR}} * {{URU}} * {{VEN}} {{div col end}} ===North and Central America=== {{div col|cols=5}} * {{BLZ}} * ''{{BMU}}'' (UK) * {{CAN}} * {{CRI}} * ''{{GRL}}'' (DEN) * {{GTM}} * {{HON}} * {{MEX}} * {{NIC}} * {{PAN}} * ''{{flag|Saint Pierre and Miquelon|local}}'' (FRA) * {{USA}} {{div col end}} ====Caribbean==== {{div col|cols=5}} * ''{{AIA}}'' (UK) * {{ATG}} * ''{{ABW}}'' (NED) * {{BHS}} * {{BRB}} * ''{{flag|Bonaire}}'' (NED) * ''{{VGB}}'' (UK) * ''{{CYM}}'' (UK) * {{CUB}} * ''{{CUR}}'' (NED) * {{DMA}} * {{DOM}} * ''{{flag|Guadeloupe|local}}'' (FRA) * {{GRD}} * {{HTI}} * {{JAM}} * ''{{flag|Martinique|local}}'' (FRA) * ''{{MSR}}'' (UK) * ''{{flag|Saba}}'' (NED) * ''{{PRI}}'' (USA) * ''{{flag|Saint Barthélemy|local}}'' (FRA) * {{SKN}} * {{LCA}} * ''{{SXM}}'' (NED) * ''{{MAF}}'' (FRA) * {{VCT}} * ''{{flag|Sint Eustatius}}'' (NED) * {{TTO}} * ''{{TCA}}'' (UK) * ''{{VIR}}'' (USA) {{div col end}} ==Major ports and harbours== {{Main|List of ports and harbours of the Atlantic Ocean}} ==See also== {{Portal|Environment|Ecology|Geography|Weather}} * [[Ocean Highway]] * [[Seven Seas]] * [[Borders of the oceans#Atlantic Ocean]] * [[Shutdown of thermohaline circulation|Gulf Stream shutdown]] * [[:Category:History of the Atlantic Ocean|History of the Atlantic Ocean articles]] * [[:Category:Shipwrecks in the Atlantic Ocean|Shipwrecks in the Atlantic Ocean]] * [[:Category:Atlantic hurricanes|Atlantic hurricanes]] * [[Territories of the United States on stamps#Explorers]] ==References== <!--This article uses the Cite.php citation mechanism. If you would like more information on how to add references to this article, please see http://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Cite/Cite.php --> {{Reflist|35em}} ==Bibliography== * {{cite book| last = Winchester| first = Simon| authorlink=Simon Winchester|title = Atlantic: A Vast Ocean of a Million Stories| year = 2010| publisher = HarperCollins UK| isbn = 978-0-00-734137-5 }} * Much of this article originated from the public domain site http://oceanographer.navy.mil/atlantic.html ==External links== {{Sister project links|voy=Atlantic Ocean|wikt=Atlantic Ocean|commons=Atlantic Ocean|q=no|v=no|n=no|s=CIA World Fact Book, 2004/Atlantic Ocean|b=no}} * {{dmoz|Science/Environment/Water_Resources/Oceans|Oceans}} * [http://www.cartage.org.lb/en/themes/geoghist/histories/history/hiscountries/A/atlanticocean.html www.cartage.org.lb] * [http://www.wdl.org/en/item/10081 "Map of Atlantic Coast of North America from the Chesapeake Bay to Florida"] from 1639 via the [[World Digital Library]] {{Coord|0|N|30|W|type:waterbody_scale:100000000|display=title}} {{Regions of the world}} {{List of seas}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Atlantic Ocean| ]] [[Category:Oceans]] [[Category:History of the Atlantic Ocean| ]] [[Category:Landforms of the Atlantic Ocean| ]] [[Category:Articles containing video clips]] fldc6qnwz380fpwv0f72j9mbd6dgya6 0 700 move=:edit= 717184509 717163790 2016-04-26T06:33:34Z Stesmo 98915 Reverted 1 edit by [[Special:Contributions/47.17.145.69|47.17.145.69]] identified as test/vandalism using [[WP:STiki|STiki]] wikitext text/x-wiki {{Redirect|Schopenhauer}} {{Use dmy dates|date=September 2013}} {{Infobox philosopher |region = Western philosophy |era = [[19th-century philosophy]] |image = Schopenhauer.jpg |image_size = |caption = Schopenhauer (1855),<br /> by [[Jules Lunteschütz]]. |signature = Arthur Schopenhauer Signature.svg |name = Arthur Schopenhauer |birth_date = {{birth date|1788|02|22|df=y}} |birth_place = [[Gdańsk|Danzig]] (Gdańsk)<!--according to Danzig/Gdansk vote policy. No further Prussia/Poland or other details. Leave that to the city articles --> |death_date = {{Death date and age|1860|9|21|1788|2|22|df=y}} |death_place = [[Frankfurt]], [[German Confederation]] |education = {{ill|de|Gymnasium Ernestinum Gotha|Gymnasium Ernestinum Gotha|Gymnasium illustre zu Gotha}} |alma_mater = [[Georg August University of Göttingen|University of Göttingen]]<br>[[University of Jena]] (PhD, 1813) |nationality = [[German People|German]] |residence = Danzig, Hamburg, Frankfurt |institutions = [[Humboldt University of Berlin|University of Berlin]] |school_tradition = [[Post-Kantian philosophy]]<br>[[German Idealism]]<ref>[http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/idealism/#Sch German Idealism on the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy]</ref><ref>[http://www.iep.utm.edu/germidea/#H6 Idealism (Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy)]</ref><br>[[Transcendental idealism]]<ref>[http://www.iep.utm.edu/schopenh/#H1 Arthur Schopenhauer (1788—1860) (Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy)]</ref><br>[[Metaphysical voluntarism]]<br>[[Philosophical pessimism]] |main_interests = [[Metaphysics]], [[aesthetics]], [[ethics]], [[morality]], [[psychology]] |notable_ideas = [[Will (philosophy)|Will]], [[Fourfold root of the sufficient principle of reason|fourfold root of reason]], [[hedgehog's dilemma]], [[philosophical pessimism]] |influences = [[Buddhism]]{{·}}[[Immanuel Kant]]{{·}}[[Johann Gottlieb Fichte]]{{·}}[[David Hume]]{{·}}[[Gottlob Ernst Schulze]]{{·}}[[Jean-Jacques Rousseau]]{{·}}[[Plato]]{{·}}[[Upanishads]] |influenced = [[Samuel Beckett|Beckett]]{{·}}[[Thomas Bernhard|Bernhard]]{{·}}[[Machado de Assis]]{{·}}[[Jorge Luis Borges|Borges]]{{·}}[[Joseph Campbell|Campbell]]{{·}}[[Albert Einstein|Einstein]]{{·}}[[Sigmund Freud|Freud]]{{·}}[[John Gray (philosopher)|Gray]]<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.independent.co.uk/news/people/profiles/john-gray-forget-everything-you-know-641878.html |title=John Gray: Forget everything you know&nbsp;— Profiles, People |publisher=The Independent |date=3 September 2002 |accessdate=12 March 2010 | location=London| archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20100409072731/http://www.independent.co.uk/news/people/profiles/john-gray-forget-everything-you-know-641878.html| archivedate= 9 April 2010 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}</ref>{{·}} [[Max Horkheimer|Horkheimer]]{{·}}[[Carl Jung|Jung]]{{·}}[[Karl Kraus (writer)|Kraus]]{{·}}[[Thomas Ligotti|Ligotti]]{{·}}[[Thomas Mann|Mann]]{{·}}[[Karl Eugen Neumann|Neumann]]{{·}}[[Friedrich Nietzsche|Nietzsche]]{{·}}[[Gilbert Ryle|Ryle]]{{·}}[[George Santayana|Santayana]]{{·}}[[Erwin Schrödinger|Schrödinger]]{{·}}[[Oswald Spengler|Spengler]]{{·}}[[Leo Tolstoy|Tolstoy]]{{·}}[[Richard Wagner|Wagner]]{{·}}[[Otto Weininger|Weininger]]{{·}}[[Ludwig Wittgenstein|Wittgenstein]]{{·}}[[Peter Wessel Zapffe|Zapffe]] }} '''Arthur Schopenhauer''' ({{IPA-de|ˈaʁtʊʁ ˈʃoːpənˌhaʊ̯ɐ|lang}}; 22 February 1788&nbsp;– 21 September 1860) was a [[Germans|German]] [[philosopher]]. He is best known for his 1818 work ''[[The World as Will and Representation]]'', in which he characterizes the [[phenomenology (philosophy)|phenomenal]] world as the product of a blind, insatiable, and malignant [[#Philosophy_of_the_.22Will.22|metaphysical will]].<ref>{{cite book|title=Essays and Aphorisms|year=2004|publisher=Penguin Classics|isbn=978-0-14-044227-4|author=Arthur Schopenhauer|page=23}}</ref><ref>The Oxford Encyclopedic English Dictionary. 'Schopenhauer': Oxford University Press. 1991. p. 1298. ISBN 978-0-19-861248-3.</ref> Proceeding from the [[transcendental idealism]] of [[Immanuel Kant]], Schopenhauer developed an [[atheistic]] metaphysical and ethical system that has been described as an exemplary manifestation of [[philosophical pessimism]],<ref>{{cite book|title=Essays and Aphorisms|year=2004|publisher=Penguin Classics|isbn=978-0-14-044227-4|author=Arthur Schopenhauer|pages=22–36|quote= …but there has been none who tried with so great a show of learning to demonstrate that the pessimistic outlook is ''justified'', that life itself is really bad. It is to this end that Schopenhauer’s metaphysic of will and idea exists.}}</ref><ref>''[http://librivox.org/studies-in-pessimism-by-arthur-schopenhauer/ Studies in Pessimism]'' – audiobook from [[LibriVox]].</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Encyclopedia of Psychology and Religion, Volume 2|year=2009|publisher=Springer|isbn=978-0-387-71801-9|editor=David A. Leeming, Kathryn Madden, Stanton Marlan|accessdate=2 September 2012|page=824|quote=A more accurate statement might be that for a German – rather than a French or British writer of that time – Schopenhauer was an honest and open atheist.}}</ref> rejecting the contemporaneous [[post-Kantian thought|post-Kantian philosophies]] of [[German idealism]].<ref>Arthur Schopenhauer, The World as Will and Representation, Vol. 1, trans. E. Payne, (New York: Dover Publishing Inc., 1969), Vol. 2, Ch. 50.</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Schopenhauer, Philosophy and the Arts|year=2007|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-04406-6|editor=Dale Jacquette|accessdate=2 September 2012|page=22|quote=For Kant, the mathematical sublime, as seen for example in the starry heavens, suggests to imagination the infinite, which in turn leads by subtle turns of contemplation to the concept of God. Schopenhauer's atheism will have none of this, and he rightly observes that despite adopting Kant's distinction between the dynamical and mathematical sublime, his theory of the sublime, making reference to the struggles and sufferings of struggles and sufferings of Will, is unlike Kant's.}}</ref> Schopenhauer was among the first thinkers in [[Western philosophy]] to share and affirm significant tenets of [[Eastern philosophy]] (e.g., [[asceticism]], the world-as-appearance), having initially arrived at similar conclusions as the result of his own philosophical work.<ref>See the book-length study about oriental influences on the genesis of Schopenhauer's philosophy by [[Urs App]]: ''Schopenhauer's Compass. An Introduction to Schopenhauer's Philosophy and its Origins''. Wil: UniversityMedia, 2014 (ISBN 978-3-906000-03-9)</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=An Introduction to the History of Psychology|edition=6th|year=2009|publisher=Cengage Learning|isbn=978-0-495-50621-8|author=B. R. Hergenhahn|accessdate=2 September 2012|page=216|quote=Although Schopenhauer was an atheist, he realized that his philosophy of denial had been part of several great religions; for example, Christianity, Hinduism, and Buddhism.}}</ref> His writing on [[Schopenhauer's aesthetics|aesthetics]], [[morality]], and [[psychology]] would exert important influence on thinkers and artists throughout the 19th and 20th centuries. Though his work failed to garner substantial attention during his life, Schopenhauer has had a posthumous impact across various disciplines, including philosophy, literature, and science. Those who have cited his influence include [[Friedrich Nietzsche]],<ref name=SchopBR>Addressed in: Cate, Curtis. Friedrich Nietzsche. Chapter 7.</ref> [[Richard Wagner]], [[Leo Tolstoy]], [[Ludwig Wittgenstein]],<ref name="Culture & Value, p.24, 1933–4">Culture & Value, p.24, 1933–4</ref> [[Erwin Schrödinger]], [[Sigmund Freud]], [[Gustav Mahler]], [[Joseph Campbell]], [[Albert Einstein]],<ref>Albert Einstein in [http://www.einstein-website.de/z_biography/credo.html Mein Glaubensbekenntnis] (August 1932): "I do not believe in free will. Schopenhauer's words: 'Man can do what he wants, but he cannot will what he wants,[Der Mensch kann wohl tun, was er will, aber er kann nicht wollen, was er will]' accompany me in all situations throughout my life and reconcile me with the actions of others, even if they are rather painful to me. This awareness of the lack of free will keeps me from taking myself and my fellow men too seriously as acting and deciding individuals, and from losing my temper." Schopenhauer's clearer, actual words were: "You can do what you will, but in any given moment of your life you can ''will'' only one definite thing and absolutely nothing other than that one thing." [Du kannst ''tun'' was du ''willst'': aber du kannst in jedem gegebenen Augenblick deines Lebens nur ''ein'' Bestimmtes ''wollen'' und schlechterdings nichts anderes als dieses eine.] ''[[On the Freedom of the Will]]'', Ch. II.</ref> [[Carl Jung]], [[Thomas Mann]], [[Jorge Luis Borges]], and [[Samuel Beckett]],<ref>[http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/schopenhauer/#8 Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy]</ref> among others. == Life == [[File:Gdansk Schopenhauer House.jpg|thumb|upright|Schopenhauer's birthplace house, ul. Św. Ducha (formerly Heiligegeistgasse)]] Schopenhauer was born on 22 February 1788, in the city of Danzig (then part of the [[Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth]]; present day [[Gdańsk]], [[Poland]]) on Heiligegeistgasse (known in the present day as Św. Ducha 47), the son of [[Johanna Schopenhauer]] (née Trosiener) and Heinrich Floris Schopenhauer,<ref name="Google Books">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fW5Dl-tUS_oC&pg=PR30&dq=Schopenhauer+%2222+February%22|title=Chronology|last=Schopenhauer|first=Arthur|author2=Günter Zöller|author3=Eric F. J. Payne|year=1999|work=Prize Essay on the Freedom of the Will|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|pages=xxx | isbn=978-0-521-57766-3}}</ref> both descendants of wealthy German [[Patrician (post-Roman Europe)|patrician]] families. When Danzig became part of [[Kingdom of Prussia|Prussia]] in 1793, Heinrich moved to Hamburg, although his firm continued trading in Danzig. As early as 1799, Arthur started playing the flute.<ref name=Flute>{{cite book|last=Cartwright|first=David E.|title=Schopenhauer: a Biography|year=2010|publisher=Cambridge University Press|location=End of 2nd paragraph|isbn=978-0-521-82598-6|page=30|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=meD1bGAjO6wC&pg=PA30}}</ref> In 1805, Schopenhauer's father died, possibly by suicide.<ref>Safranski (1990) page 12. "There was in the father's life some dark and vague source of fear which later made him hurl himself to his death from the attic of his house in Hamburg."</ref> Arthur endured two long years of drudgery as a merchant in honor of his dead father, but his mother soon moved with his sister [[Adele Schopenhauer|Adele]] to [[Weimar]]—then the centre of [[German literature]]—to pursue her writing career. He dedicated himself wholly to studies at the [[Gotha]] [[Gymnasium (school)|gymnasium]] ({{ill|de|Gymnasium Ernestinum Gotha|Gymnasium Ernestinum Gotha|Gymnasium illustre zu Gotha}}) in [[Saxe-Gotha-Altenburg]], but left in disgust after seeing one of the masters lampooned. [[File:ArthurSchopenhauer.jpg|thumb|upright|left|Schopenhauer as a youth]] By that time, she had already opened her famous salon, and Arthur was not compatible with what he considered its vain and ceremonious ways. He was also disgusted by the ease with which his mother had forgotten his father's memory. He left to become a student at the [[Georg August University of Göttingen|University of Göttingen]] in 1809. There he studied [[metaphysics]] and [[psychology]] under [[Gottlob Ernst Schulze]], the author of ''[[Aenesidemus (book)|Aenesidemus]]'', who advised him to concentrate on [[Plato]] and [[Immanuel Kant]]. In Berlin, from 1811 to 1812, he had attended lectures by the prominent [[post-Kantian]] philosopher [[Johann Gottlieb Fichte]] and the theologian [[Friedrich Schleiermacher]]. Schopenhauer had a notably strained relationship with his mother [[Johanna Schopenhauer|Johanna]]. He wrote his first book, ''[[On the Fourfold Root of the Principle of Sufficient Reason]]'', while at university. His mother informed him that the book was incomprehensible and it was unlikely that anyone would ever buy a copy. In a fit of temper Arthur Schopenhauer told her that his work would be read long after the "rubbish" she wrote would have been totally forgotten.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://courseweb.stthomas.edu/paschons/language_http/essays/Schopenhauer.html |title=Schopenhauer: |publisher=Courseweb.stthomas.edu |accessdate=12 March 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://archive.org/stream/selectedessaysof033377mbp/selectedessaysof033377mbp_djvu.txt |title=Full text of "Selected Essays Of Schopenhauer" |publisher=Archive.org |accessdate=12 March 2010}}</ref> In fact, although they considered her novels of dubious quality, the [[F.A. Brockhaus AG|Brockhaus publishing firm]] held her in high esteem because they consistently sold well. Hans Brockhaus later recalled that, when she brought them some of her son's work, his predecessors "saw nothing in this manuscript, but wanted to please one of our best-selling authors by publishing her son's work. We published more and more of her son Arthur's work and today nobody remembers Johanna, but her son's works are in steady demand and contribute to Brockhaus'[s] reputation."<ref name=mom>{{citation |last=Fredriksson |first=Einar H. |contribution=The Dutch Publishing Scene: Elsevier and North-Holland <!--|pp=61–76--> |title=A Century of Science Publishing: A Collection of Essays |url=https://books.google.com.au/books?id=mwWrRYyck6AC&printsec=frontcover |editor-last=Fredriksson |editor-first=Einar H. |display-editors=0 |isbn=4-274-90424-5 |publisher=IOS Press |location=Amsterdam |pp=[https://books.google.com.au/books?id=mwWrRYyck6AC&pg=PA61 61–2] }}.</ref> He kept large portraits of the pair in his office in [[Leipzig]] for the edification of his new editors.<ref name=mom/> In 1814, Schopenhauer began his seminal work ''[[The World as Will and Representation]]'' (''Die Welt als Wille und Vorstellung''). He finished it in 1818 and [[F.A. Brockhaus AG|Brockhaus]] published it that December.<ref>Although the first volume was published by December 1818, it was printed with a title page erroneously giving the year as 1819 (see {{citation |last=Braunschweig |first=Yael |contribution=Schopenhauer and Rossinian Universiality: On the Italianate in Schopenhauer's Metaphysics of Music <!--|pp=283–304--> |title=The Invention of Beethoven and Rossini: Historiography, Analysis, Criticism |url=https://books.google.com.au/books?id=NQ_3AQAAQBAJ&printsec=frontcover |editor-last=Mathew |editor-first=Nicholas |editor2-last=Walton |editor2-first=Benjamin |display-editors=0 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=[[Cambridge, England|Cambridge]] |date=2013 |isbn=978-0-521-76805-4 |p=[https://books.google.com.au/books?id=NQ_3AQAAQBAJ&pg=PA297 297, n. 7]}}).</ref> In [[Dresden]] in 1819, Schopenhauer fathered, with a servant, an illegitimate daughter who was born and died the same year.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.reocities.com/c_ansata/timeline.html |title=A Schopenhauer Timeline |publisher=Reocities.com |accessdate=12 March 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.kirjasto.sci.fi/arthursc.htm |title=Arthur Schopenhauer |website=Books and Writers ''(kirjasto.sci.fi)'' |first=Petri |last=Liukkonen |publisher=[[Kuusankoski]] Public Library |location=Finland |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150210175324/http://www.kirjasto.sci.fi/arthursc.htm |archivedate=10 February 2015 |dead-url=yes}}</ref> In 1820, Schopenhauer became a lecturer at the [[Humboldt University of Berlin|University of Berlin]]. He scheduled his lectures to coincide with those of the famous philosopher [[G. W. F. Hegel]], whom Schopenhauer described as a "clumsy charlatan."<ref>Schopenhauer, Arthur. Author's preface to "On The Fourfold Root of the Principle of sufficient reason. Page 1. [[:s:On the Fourfold Root of the Principle of Sufficient Reason|On the Fourfold Root of the Principle of Sufficient Reason]]</ref> However, only five students turned up to Schopenhauer's lectures, and he dropped out of [[academia]]. A late essay, ''On University Philosophy'', expressed his resentment towards the work conducted in academies. While in Berlin, Schopenhauer was named as a defendant in a lawsuit initiated by a woman named Caroline Marquet.<ref name=autogenerated1>Addressed in: Russell, Bertrand (1945).</ref> She asked for damages, alleging that Schopenhauer had pushed her. According to Schopenhauer's court testimony, she deliberately annoyed him by raising her voice while standing right outside his door.<ref>{{cite book |author=Rudiger Safranski, Rüdiger Safranski, Ewald Osers |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DEOTiprvvHIC&pg=PA272 |title=Schopenhauer and the Wild Years of Philosophy |pages=271–2 |isbn=978-0-674-79276-0 |date=1 September 1991 }}</ref> Marquet alleged that the philosopher had assaulted and battered her after she refused to leave his doorway. Her companion testified that she saw Marquet prostrate outside his apartment. Because Marquet won the lawsuit, Schopenhauer made payments to her for the next twenty years.<ref>Safranski (1990), Chapter 19</ref> When she died, he wrote on a copy of her death certificate, ''Obit anus, abit onus'' ("The old woman dies, the burden is lifted").<ref>{{cite book | last = Magee | first = Bryan | title = The Philosophy of Schopenhauer | publisher = Clarendon Press | location = Oxford | year = 1997 | isbn = 978-0-19-823723-5 |page=13}}</ref> In 1819 the fortunes of his mother and sister, and himself, were threatened by the failure of the firm in Danzig in which his father had been a director and shareholder. His sister accepted a compromise compensation package of 70 per cent, but Schopenhauer angrily refused this, and eventually recovered 9400 thalers. In 1821, he fell in love with nineteen-year-old opera singer, Caroline Richter (called Medon), and had a relationship with her for several years. He discarded marriage plans, however, writing, "Marrying means to halve one's rights and double one's duties," and "Marrying means to grasp blindfolded into a sack hoping to find an eel amongst an assembly of snakes." When he was forty-three years old, he took interest in seventeen-year-old Flora Weiss but she rejected him as recorded in her diary.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.hiw.kuleuven.be/eng/alumni/newslet11.pdf |title=The Leuven Philosophy Newsletter |pages=42–43 |publisher=Katholieke Universiteit Leuven}} "But an examination of his life reveals a yearning for marriage frustrated by a train of rejections. In the year 1831, Schopenhauer fell in love with a girl named Flora Weiss. At a boat party in Germany he made his advance by offering her a bunch of grapes. Flora’s diary records this event as follows: "I didn’t want the grapes because old Schopenhauer had touched them, so I let them slide, quite gently into the water." Apparently, she was underwhelmed."</ref> [[File:Schopenhauer-ffm001.jpg|thumb|Grave at Frankfurt ''Hauptfriedhof'']] In 1831, a [[cholera]] epidemic broke out in Berlin and Schopenhauer left the city. Schopenhauer settled permanently in [[Frankfurt]] in 1833, where he remained for the next twenty-seven years, living alone except for a succession of pet poodles named [[Ātman (Hinduism)|Atman]] and Butz. The numerous notes that he made during these years, amongst others on aging, were published [[Posthumous publication|posthumously]] under the title ''Senilia''. Schopenhauer had a robust constitution, but in 1860 his health began to deteriorate. He died of [[Respiratory failure|pulmonary-respiratory failure]],<ref>Dale Jacquette, ''The Philosophy of Schopenhauer'', Routledge, 2015: "Biographical sketch".</ref> on 21 September 1860 while sitting at home on his couch. He was 72.<ref>''Schopenhauer: his life and philosophy'' by H. Zimmern – 1932 – G. Allen & Unwin.</ref> == Thought == === Philosophy of the "Will" <!--linked from 'Death drive'--> === {{main|The World as Will and Representation}} [[Image:Arthur Schopenhauer Portrait by Ludwig Sigismund Ruhl 1815.jpeg|thumb|Schopenhauer in 1815, second of the critical five years of the initial composition of ''Die Welt als Wille und Vorstellung''. Portrait by <br />Ludwig Sigismund Ruhl]] A key focus of Schopenhauer was his investigation of individual motivation. Before Schopenhauer, Hegel had popularized the concept of ''[[Zeitgeist]]'', the idea that society consisted of a [[collective consciousness]] that moved in a distinct direction, dictating the actions of its members. Schopenhauer, a reader of both Kant and Hegel, criticized their logical optimism and the belief that individual morality could be determined by society and reason. Schopenhauer believed that humans were motivated by only their own basic desires, or {{lang|de|''Wille zum Leben''}} ("Will to Live"), which directed all of mankind.<ref>"The reality is what Schopenhauer calls the Will, the Will to Live." Letter to Richard C. Lyon, 1 August 1949, [[George Santayana]], ''The Letters of George Santayana'', Scribner's, New York, 1955</ref> For Schopenhauer, human desire was futile, illogical, directionless, and, by extension, so was all human action in the world. He wrote "Man can indeed do what he wants, but he cannot will what he wants." In this sense, he adhered to the Fichtean principle of idealism: "The world is ''for'' a subject." This idealism so presented, immediately commits it to an ethical attitude, unlike the purely epistemological concerns of [[Descartes]] and [[George Berkeley|Berkeley]]. To Schopenhauer, the Will is a malignant,<ref name="inveigles">{{cite book|title=The Oxford Encyclopedic English Dictionary|year=1991|publisher=Oxford University Press|location='Schopenhauer'|isbn=978-0-19-861248-3|pages=1298}}</ref> metaphysical existence that controls not only the actions of individual, intelligent agents, but ultimately all observable phenomena—an evil to be terminated via mankind's duties: [[asceticism]] and chastity.<ref name="inveigles"/> He is credited with one of the most famous opening lines of philosophy: "The world is my representation." Will, for Schopenhauer, is what Kant called the "[[Noumenon|thing-in-itself]]."<ref> But like Fichte, he rejects the Kantian claim that the thing-in-itself as an unknowable substratum of experience. Schopenhauer's argument is that the thing in-itself in Kant is an incoherent sense of object: it is the opposite to objects, and yet it is said to be an object-in-itself: "the phantom of a dream."</ref> [[Friedrich Nietzsche]] was greatly influenced by this idea of Will, while developing it in a different direction. === Art and aesthetics === {{Main|Arthur Schopenhauer's aesthetics}} For Schopenhauer, human desiring, "willing," and craving cause [[suffering|suffering or pain]]. A temporary way to escape this pain is through aesthetic contemplation (a method comparable to [[Zapffe]]'s "''Sublimation''"). Aesthetic contemplation allows one to escape this pain—albeit temporarily—because it stops one perceiving the world as mere presentation. Instead, one no longer perceives the world as an object of perception (therefore as subject to the Principle of Sufficient Grounds; time, space and causality) from which one is separated; rather one becomes one with that perception: "''one can thus no longer separate the perceiver from the perception''" (''The World as Will and Representation'', section 34). From this immersion with the world one no longer views oneself as an individual who suffers in the world due to one's individual will but, rather, becomes a "''subject of cognition''" to a perception that is "''Pure, will-less, timeless''" (section 34) where the essence, "ideas," of the world are shown. Art is the practical consequence of this brief aesthetic contemplation as it attempts to depict one's immersion with the world, thus tries to depict the essence/pure ideas of the world. Music, for Schopenhauer, was the purest form of art because it was the one that depicted the will itself without it appearing as subject to the Principle of Sufficient Grounds, therefore as an individual object. According to Daniel Albright, "Schopenhauer thought that [[philosophy of music|music]] was the only art that did not merely copy ideas, but actually embodied the will itself."<ref>Daniel Albright, Modernism and Music, 2004, page 39, footnote 34</ref> He deemed music a timeless, universal language comprehended everywhere, that can imbue global enthusiasm, if in possession of a significant melody.<ref name=Music >{{cite book|last=Schopenhauer|first=Arthur|title=Essays and Aphorisms|year=1970|publisher=Penguin Classics|location='10'|isbn=0-14-044227-8|pages=162}}</ref> === Mathematics === Schopenhauer's [[Philosophy of mathematics#Mathematical realism|realist]] views on mathematics are evident in his criticism of the contemporary attempts to prove the [[parallel postulate]] in [[Euclidean geometry]]. Writing shortly before the discovery of [[hyperbolic geometry]] demonstrated the logical independence of the axiom—and long before the [[general theory of relativity]] revealed that it does not necessarily express a property of physical space—Schopenhauer criticized mathematicians for trying to use indirect [[concept]]s to prove what he held to be directly evident from [[perception]]. {{quote|text=The Euclidean method of demonstration has brought forth from its own womb its most striking parody and caricature in the famous controversy over the theory of ''parallels'', and in the attempts, repeated every year, to prove the eleventh axiom<ref>What Schopenhauer calls the eleventh axiom is Euclid's Fifth Postulate.</ref> (also known as the fifth postulate). The [[axiom]] asserts, and that indeed through the indirect criterion of a third intersecting line, that two lines inclined to each other (for this is the precise meaning of "less than two right angles"), if produced far enough, must meet. Now this truth is supposed to be too complicated to pass as self-evident, and therefore needs a proof; but no such proof can be produced, just because there is nothing more immediate.<ref name="ReferenceB">''[[The World as Will and Representation]]'', vol. 2, chap. 13</ref>}} Throughout his writings,<ref>"I wanted in this way to stress and demonstrate the great difference, indeed opposition, between knowledge of perception and abstract or reflected knowledge. Hitherto this difference has received too little attention, and its establishment is a fundamental feature of my philosophy…" ''Ibid.'', chap. 7.</ref> Schopenhauer criticized the logical derivation of philosophies and mathematics from mere concepts, instead of from intuitive perceptions. {{quote|text=In fact, it seems to me that the logical method is in this way reduced to an absurdity. But it is precisely through the controversies over this, together with the futile attempts to demonstrate the ''directly'' certain as merely ''indirectly'' certain, that the independence and clearness of intuitive evidence appear in contrast with the uselessness and difficulty of logical proof, a contrast as instructive as it is amusing. The direct certainty will not be admitted here, just because it is no merely logical certainty following from the concept, and thus resting solely on the relation of predicate to subject, according to the principle of contradiction. But that eleventh axiom regarding parallel lines is a [[synthetic proposition]] ''[[A priori and a posteriori|a priori]]'', and as such has the guarantee of pure, not empirical, perception; this perception is just as immediate and certain as is the [[principle of contradiction]] itself, from which all proofs originally derive their certainty. At bottom this holds good of every geometrical theorem &hellip;.}} Although Schopenhauer could see no justification for trying to prove Euclid's parallel postulate, he did see a reason for examining another of Euclid's axioms.<ref>This comment by Schopenhauer was called "an acute observation" by [[T. L. Heath|Sir Thomas L. Heath]]. In his translation of [[Euclid's Elements|The Elements]], vol. 1, Book I, "Note on Common Notion 4," Heath made this judgment and also noted that Schopenhauer's remark "was a criticism in advance of [[Hermann von Helmholtz|Helmholtz']] theory." Helmholtz had "maintained that geometry requires us to assume the actual existence of rigid bodies and their free mobility in space &hellip;" and is therefore "dependent on mechanics."</ref> {{quote|text=It surprises me that the eighth axiom,<ref>What Schopenhauer calls the eighth axiom is Euclid's Common Notion 4.</ref> "Figures that coincide with one another are equal to one another," is not rather attacked. For "''coinciding with one another''" is either a mere [[Tautology (logic)|tautology]], or something quite [[empirical]], belonging not to pure intuition or perception, but to external sensuous experience. Thus it presupposes mobility of the figures, but [[matter]] alone is movable in [[space]]. Consequently, this reference to coincidence with one another forsakes pure space, the sole element of [[geometry]], in order to pass over to the material and empirical.<ref name="ReferenceB"/>}} This follows [[Immanuel Kant|Kant]]'s reasoning.<ref>”Motion of an ''object'' in space does not belong in a pure science, and consequently not in geometry. For the fact that something is movable cannot be cognized ''a priori'', but can be cognized only through experience.” (Kant, ''[[Critique of Pure Reason]]'', B 155, Note)</ref> === Ethics === Schopenhauer's moral theory proposed that only [[compassion]] can drive moral acts. According to Schopenhauer, compassion alone is the good of the object of the acts, that is, they cannot be inspired by either the prospect of personal utility or the feeling of duty. Mankind can also be guided by [[Ethical egoism|egoism]] and [[wikt:malice|malice]]. Egotistic acts are those guided by self-interest, desire for pleasure or happiness. Schopenhauer believed most of our deeds belong to this class. Acts of malice are different from egotistic acts. As in the case of acts of compassion, these do not target personal utility. Their aim is to cause damage to others, independently of personal gains. He believed, like [[Swami Vivekananda]] in the unity of all with one-self and also believed that ego is the origin of pain and conflicts, that reduction of ego frames the moral principles.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Barua|first1=edited by Arati|last2=Gerhard|first2=Michael|last3=Kossler|first3=Matthias|title=Understanding Schopenhauer through the prism of Indian culture philosophy, religion, and Sanskrit literature|date=2012|publisher=De Gruyter|location=Berlin|isbn=9783110271584|page=187|edition=1. Aufl.}}</ref> ==== Punishment ==== [[File:Schopenhauer 1852.jpg|thumb|Schopenhauer, 1852]] According to Schopenhauer, whenever we make a choice, "We assume as necessary that decision was preceded by something from which it ensued, and which we call the ground or reason, or more accurately the motive, of the resultant action."<ref name="Schopenhauer1974">{{cite book|author=Arthur Schopenhauer|title=On the Fourfold Root of the Principle of Sufficient Reason|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fvlz6t_gUFkC&pg=PA212|year=1974|publisher=Open Court Publishing|isbn=978-0-87548-201-9|page=212}}</ref> Choices are not made freely. Our actions are necessary and determined because "every human being, even every animal, after the motive has appeared, must carry out the action which alone is in accordance with his inborn and immutable character."<ref>''[[On the Fourfold Root of the Principle of Sufficient Reason]]'', § 49.</ref> A definite action inevitably results when a particular motive influences a person's given, unchangeable character. The State, Schopenhauer claimed, punishes criminals to prevent future crimes. It does so by placing "beside every possible motive for committing a wrong a more powerful motive for leaving it undone, in the inescapable punishment. Accordingly, the criminal code is as complete a register as possible of counter-motives to all criminal actions that can possibly be imagined..."<ref name=twwr62>Schopenhauer, ''[[The World as Will and Representation]]'', Vol. I, § 62.</ref> {{quote|text=...the law and its fulfillment, namely punishment, are directed essentially to the ''future'', not to the ''past''. This distinguishes ''punishment'' from ''revenge'', for revenge is motivated by what has happened, and hence by the past as such. All retaliation for wrong by inflicting a pain without any object for the future is revenge, and can have no other purpose than consolation for the suffering one has endured by the sight of the suffering one has caused in another. Such a thing is wickedness and cruelty, and cannot be ethically justified. ...the object of punishment...is deterrence from crime.... Object and purpose for the future distinguish punishment from revenge, and punishment has this object only when it is inflicted ''in fulfillment of a law''. Only in this way does it proclaim itself to be inevitable and infallible for every future case; and thus it obtains for the law the power to deter....<ref name=twwr62/><ref>[[Paul Rée]], in his ''The Origin of Moral Sensation'', reflected Schopenhauer's concerns when he wrote: "The feeling of justice thus arises out of two errors, namely, because the punishments inflicted by authorities and educators appear as acts of retribution, and because people believe in the freedom of the will."</ref>}} Should capital punishment be legal? "For safeguarding the lives of citizens," he asserted, "capital punishment is therefore absolutely necessary."<ref name="ReferenceA">''[[The World as Will and Representation]]'', Vol. II, Ch. XLVII.</ref> "The murderer," wrote Schopenhauer, "who is condemned to death according to the law must, it is true, be now used as a mere ''means'', and with complete right. For public security, which is the principal object of the State, is disturbed by him; indeed it is abolished if the law remains unfulfilled. The murderer, his life, his person, must be the ''means'' of fulfilling the law, and thus of re-establishing public security."<ref>''[[The World as Will and Representation]]'', Vol. I, § 62.</ref> Schopenhauer disagreed with those who would abolish capital punishment. "Those who would like to abolish it should be given the answer: 'First remove murder from the world, and then capital punishment ought to follow.' "<ref name="ReferenceA"/> People, according to Schopenhauer, cannot be improved. They can only be influenced by strong motives that overpower criminal motives. Schopenhauer declared that "real moral reform is not at all possible, but only determent from the deed...."<ref name="ReferenceA"/> He claimed this doctrine was not original to him. Previously, it appeared in the writings of [[Plato]],<ref>"... he who attempts to punish in accordance with reason does not retaliate on account of the past wrong (for he could not undo something which has been done) but for the sake of the future, so that neither the wrongdoer himself, nor others who see him being punished, will do wrong again." Plato, "[[Protagoras (dialogue)|Protagoras]]", 324 B. Plato wrote that punishment should "be an example to other men not to offend." Plato, "[[Laws (dialogue)|Laws]]", Book IX, 863.</ref> [[Seneca the Younger|Seneca]], [[Thomas Hobbes|Hobbes]], [[Samuel von Pufendorf|Pufendorf]], and [[Paul Johann Anselm Ritter von Feuerbach|Anselm Feuerbach]]. Schopenhauer declared that their teaching was corrupted by subsequent errors and therefore was in need of clarification.<ref name="twwr62"/> ==== God ==== Even though Schopenhauer ended his treatise on the freedom of human will with the postulate of everyone's responsibility for their character and, consequently, acts&mdash;the responsibility following from one's being the Will as [[noumenon]] (from which also all the characters and creations come)&mdash;he considered his views incompatible with [[theism]], on grounds of [[fatalism]] and, more generally, responsibility for evil. In Schopenhauer's philosophy the dogmas of Christianity lose their significance,<ref>...for they require [about Judaism] "a man to come into the world as a moral blank, so that, in virtue of an inconceivable free will (...) he may choose whether he is to be an angel or a devil, or anything else that may lie between the two." (''On Human Nature'', c. 3).</ref> and the "Last Judgment" is no longer preceded by anything&mdash;"The world is itself the Last Judgment on it."<ref>A. Schopenhauer, ''On Human Nature'', c. 3 ("Free-Will and Fatalism"). [https://ebooks.adelaide.edu.au/s/schopenhauer/arthur/human/chapter3.html Read online]</ref> Whereas God, if he existed, would be evil.<ref>There; the only Schopenhauer's explanation for the creation of the world would be "the amusement of its manufacturer."</ref> === Psychology === Philosophers have not traditionally been impressed by the tribulations of sex, but Schopenhauer addressed it and related concepts forthrightly: :...one ought rather to be surprised that a thing [sex] which plays throughout so important a part in human life has hitherto practically been disregarded by philosophers altogether, and lies before us as raw and untreated material.<ref>Schopenhauer, Arthur. [[:s:The World as Will and Representation/Supplements to the Fourth Book|''The World as Will and Representation/Supplements to the Fourth Book'']]</ref> He named a force within man that he felt took invariable precedence over reason: the Will to Live or Will to Life (''Wille zum Leben''), defined as an inherent drive within human beings, and indeed all creatures, to stay alive; a force that inveigles<ref name="inveigles"/> us into reproducing. Schopenhauer refused to conceive of love as either trifling or accidental, but rather understood it as an immensely powerful force that lay unseen within man's [[psyche (psychology)|psyche]] and dramatically shaped the world: :The ultimate aim of all love affairs ... is more important than all other aims in man's life; and therefore it is quite worthy of the profound seriousness with which everyone pursues it. What is decided by it is nothing less than the composition of the next generation ...<ref>Schopenhauer, Arthur, [[:s:The World as Will and Representation/Supplements to the Fourth Book|''The World as Will and Representation'', Supplements to the Fourth Book]]</ref> These ideas foreshadowed the [[evolution|discovery of evolution]], [[Sigmund Freud|Freud's]] concepts of the [[libido]] and the [[unconscious mind]], and [[evolutionary psychology]] in general.<ref>"Nearly a century before Freud... in Schopenhauer there is, for the first time, an explicit philosophy of the unconscious and of the body." Safranski pg. 345.</ref> === Political and social thought === ==== Politics ==== [[File:FFM Wallanlagen Schopenhauer-Denkmal.jpg|thumb|Bust in [[Frankfurt am Main]]]] Schopenhauer's politics were, for the most part, an echo of his system of ethics (the latter being expressed in ''Die beiden Grundprobleme der Ethik'', available in English as two separate books, ''[[On the Basis of Morality]]'' and ''[[On the Freedom of the Will]]''). Ethics also occupies about one quarter of his central work, ''[[The World as Will and Representation]]''. In occasional political comments in his ''[[Parerga and Paralipomena]]'' and ''Manuscript Remains'', Schopenhauer described himself as a proponent of [[limited government]]. What was essential, he thought, was that the state should "leave each man free to work out his own [[salvation]]," and so long as government was thus limited, he would "prefer to be ruled by a lion than one of [his] fellow rats" — i.e., by a [[monarch]], rather than a [[Republic|democrat]]. Schopenhauer shared the view of [[Thomas Hobbes]] on the necessity of the state, and of state action, to check the destructive tendencies innate to our species. He also defended the independence of the legislative, judicial and executive branches of power, and a monarch as an impartial element able to practise justice (in a practical and everyday sense, not a cosmological one).<ref>''[[The World as Will and Representation]]'', Vol. 2, Ch. 47</ref> He declared monarchy as "that which is natural to man" for "intelligence has always under a monarchical government a much better chance against its irreconcilable and ever-present foe, stupidity" and disparaged republicanism as "unnatural as it is unfavourable to the higher intellectual life and the arts and sciences."<ref>[[s:Government (Schopenhauer)]]</ref> Schopenhauer, by his own admission, did not give much thought to politics, and several times he writes proudly of how little attention he had paid "to political affairs of [his] day." In a life that spanned several revolutions in French and German government, and a few continent-shaking wars, he did indeed maintain his aloof position of "minding not the times but the eternities." He wrote many disparaging remarks about Germany and the Germans. A typical example is, "For a German it is even good to have somewhat lengthy words in his mouth, for he thinks slowly, and they give him time to reflect."<ref>''[[The World as Will and Representation]]'', Vol. 2, Ch. 12</ref> Schopenhauer attributed civilizational primacy to the northern "white races" due to their sensitivity and creativity (except for the ancient Egyptians and Hindus whom he saw as equal): <blockquote>The highest civilization and culture, apart from the ancient Hindus and Egyptians, are found exclusively among the white races; and even with many dark peoples, the ruling caste or race is fairer in colour than the rest and has, therefore, evidently immigrated, for example, the Brahmans, the Incas, and the rulers of the South Sea Islands. All this is due to the fact that necessity is the mother of invention because those tribes that emigrated early to the north, and there gradually became white, had to develop all their intellectual powers and invent and perfect all the arts in their struggle with need, want and misery, which in their many forms were brought about by the climate. This they had to do in order to make up for the parsimony of nature and out of it all came their high civilization.<ref>''Parerga and Paralipomena'', Volume II, Section 92</ref></blockquote> Despite this, he was adamantly against differing treatment of races, was fervently anti-slavery, and supported the [[Abolitionism in the United States|abolitionist]] movement in the United States. He describes the treatment of "[our] innocent black brothers whom force and injustice have delivered into [the slave-master's] devilish clutches" as "belonging to the blackest pages of mankind's criminal record."<ref>''Parerga and Paralipomena'', "On Ethics," Sec. 5</ref> Schopenhauer additionally maintained a marked metaphysical and political [[anti-Judaism]]. Schopenhauer argued that Christianity constituted a revolt against the materialistic basis of Judaism, exhibiting an Indian-influenced ethics reflecting the [[Aryan]]-[[Vedas|Vedic]] theme of spiritual "self-conquest." This he saw as opposed to what he held to be the ignorant drive toward earthly utopianism and superficiality of a worldly Jewish spirit: <blockquote>While all other religions endeavor to explain to the people by symbols the metaphysical significance of life, the religion of the Jews is entirely immanent and furnishes nothing but a mere war-cry in the struggle with other nations.<ref>"Fragments for the history of philosophy", ''Parerga and Paralipomena'', Volume I.</ref></blockquote> ==== Views on women ==== In Schopenhauer's 1851 essay ''On Women'', he expressed his opposition to what he called "Teutonico-Christian stupidity" of reflexive unexamined reverence ("abgeschmackten Weiberveneration")<ref>{{cite web|url=http://aboq.org/schopenhauer/parerga2/weiber.htm|title=Über die Weiber,§369}}</ref> for the female. Schopenhauer wrote that "Women are directly fitted for acting as the nurses and teachers of our early childhood by the fact that they are themselves childish, frivolous and short-sighted." He opined that women are deficient in artistic faculties and sense of justice, and expressed opposition to [[monogamy]]. Indeed, [[Nigel Rodgers|Rodgers]] and [[Mel Thompson|Thompson]] in ''[[Philosophers Behaving Badly]]'' call Schopenhauer "a misogynist without rival in....Western philosophy." He claimed that "woman is by nature meant to obey." The essay does give some compliments, however: that "women are decidedly more sober in their judgment than [men] are," and are more sympathetic to the suffering of others. Schopenhauer's controversial writings have influenced many, from [[Friedrich Nietzsche]] to nineteenth-century [[feminists]].<ref>''Feminism and the Limits of Equality'' PA Cain – Ga. L. Rev., 1989</ref> Schopenhauer's [[biology|biological]] analysis of the difference between the sexes, and their separate roles in the struggle for survival and reproduction, anticipates some of the claims that were later ventured by [[sociobiology|sociobiologists]] and [[evolutionary psychology|evolutionary psychologists]].<ref name="Young2005">{{cite book|author=Julian Young|title=Schopenhauer|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gfDyeGY0RFMC&pg=PA242|date=23 June 2005|publisher=Psychology Press|isbn=978-0-415-33346-7|page=242}}</ref> After the elderly Schopenhauer sat for a sculpture portrait by [[Elisabet Ney]], he told Richard Wagner's friend [[Malwida von Meysenbug]], "I have not yet spoken my last word about women. I believe that if a woman succeeds in withdrawing from the mass, or rather raising herself above the mass, she grows ceaselessly and more than a man."<ref>Safranski (1990), Chapter 24. Page 348.</ref> ==== Heredity and eugenics ==== [[File:Frankfurt Am Main-Portraits-Arthur Schopenhauer-1845.jpg|thumb|upright|Schopenhauer at age 58 on 16 May 1846]] Schopenhauer believed that personality and [[intellect]] were inherited. He quotes Horace's saying, "From the brave and good are the brave descended" (''Odes'', iv, 4, 29) and Shakespeare's line from ''[[Cymbeline]]'', "Cowards father cowards, and base things sire base" (IV, 2) to reinforce his hereditarian argument.<ref>Payne, ''The World as Will and Representation'', Vol. II, p. 519</ref> Mechanistically, Schopenhauer believed that a person inherits his level of intellect through his mother, and personal character through one's father.<ref>On the Suffering of the World, (1970), Page 35. Penguin Books-Great Ideas</ref> This belief in heritability of traits informed Schopenhauer's view of love – placing it at the highest level of importance. For Schopenhauer the "final aim of all love intrigues, be they comic or tragic, is really of more importance than all other ends in human life. What it all turns upon is nothing less than the composition of the next generation.... It is not the weal or woe of any one individual, but that of the human race to come, which is here at stake." This view of the importance for the species of whom we choose to love was reflected in his views on [[eugenics]] or good breeding. Here Schopenhauer wrote: <blockquote>With our knowledge of the complete unalterability both of character and of mental faculties, we are led to the view that a real and thorough improvement of the human race might be reached not so much from outside as from within, not so much by theory and instruction as rather by the path of generation. Plato had something of the kind in mind when, in the fifth book of his ''Republic'', he explained his plan for increasing and improving his warrior caste. If we could [[castrate]] all [[criminals|scoundrels]] and stick all stupid geese in a convent, and give men of noble character a whole [[harem]], and procure men, and indeed thorough men, for all girls of intellect and understanding, then a generation would soon arise which would produce a better age than that of [[Pericles]].<ref>{{cite book | last = Schopenhauer | first = Arthur | title = The World as Will and Representation |editor=E. F. J. Payne |volume=II | publisher = Dover Publications | location = New York | year = 1969 | isbn = 978-0-486-21762-8 |page=527 |ref=harv}}</ref></blockquote> In another context, Schopenhauer reiterated his antidemocratic-eugenic thesis: "If you want Utopian plans, I would say: the only solution to the problem is the [[despotism]] of the wise and noble members of a genuine aristocracy, a genuine nobility, achieved by [[mating]] the most magnanimous men with the cleverest and most gifted women. This proposal constitutes my Utopia and my Platonic Republic."<ref>''Essays and Aphorisms'', trans. R.J. Hollingdale, Middlesex: London, 1970, p. 154</ref> Analysts (e.g., Keith Ansell-Pearson) have suggested that Schopenhauer's advocacy of anti-[[egalitarianism]] and eugenics influenced the neo-aristocratic philosophy of Friedrich Nietzsche, who initially considered Schopenhauer his mentor.<ref>''Nietzsche and modern German thought'' by K. Ansell-Pearson – 1991 – Psychology Press.</ref> ==== Animal welfare ==== As a consequence of his [[Monism|monistic]] philosophy, Schopenhauer was very concerned about the welfare of animals.<ref>Christina Gerhardt, "Thinking With: Animals in Schopenhauer, Horkheimer and Adorno." Critical Theory and Animals. Ed. John Sanbonmatsu. Lanham: Rowland, 2011. 137–157.</ref> For him, all individual animals, including humans, are essentially the same, being phenomenal manifestations of the one underlying Will. The word "will" designated, for him, force, power, impulse, energy, and desire; it is the closest word we have that can signify both the real essence of all external things and also our own direct, inner experience. Since every living thing possesses will, then humans and animals are fundamentally the same and can recognize themselves in each other.<ref>"Unlike the intellect, it [the Will] does not depend on the perfection of the organism, but is essentially the same in all animals as what is known to us so intimately. Accordingly, the animal has all the emotions of humans, such as joy, grief, fear, anger, love, hatred, strong desire, envy, and so on. The great difference between human and animal rests solely on the intellect's degrees of perfection. ''On the Will in Nature'', "Physiology and Pathology."</ref> For this reason, he claimed that a good person would have sympathy for animals, who are our fellow sufferers. <blockquote>Compassion for animals is intimately associated with goodness of character, and it may be confidently asserted that he who is cruel to living creatures cannot be a good man.<ref>''[[On the basis of morality]]'', § 19</ref></blockquote> <blockquote>Nothing leads more definitely to a recognition of the identity of the essential nature in animal and human phenomena than a study of zoology and anatomy.<ref>{{cite book | last = Schopenhauer | first = Arthur | title = Philosophical Writings | publisher = Continuum | location = London | year = 1994 | isbn = 978-0-8264-0729-0 |page=233}}</ref></blockquote> <blockquote>The assumption that animals are without rights and the illusion that our treatment of them has no moral significance is a positively outrageous example of Western crudity and barbarity. Universal compassion is the only guarantee of morality.<ref>{{cite book | last = Ryder | first = Richard | title = Animal Revolution: Changing Attitudes Towards Speciesism | publisher = Berg Publishers | location = Oxford | year = 2000 | isbn = 978-1-85973-330-1 |page=57}}</ref></blockquote> In 1841, he praised the establishment, in London, of the [[Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals]], and also the Animals' Friends Society in Philadelphia. Schopenhauer even went so far as to protest against the use of the pronoun "it" in reference to animals because it led to the treatment of them as though they were inanimate things.<ref>"... in English all animals are of the neuter gender and so are represented by the pronoun 'it,' just as if they were inanimate things. The effect of this artifice is quite revolting, especially in the case of primates, such as dogs, monkeys, and the like...." ''[[On the basis of morality]]'', § 19.</ref> To reinforce his points, Schopenhauer referred to anecdotal reports of the look in the eyes of a monkey who had been shot<ref>"I recall having read of an Englishman who, while hunting in India, had shot a monkey; he could not forget the look which the dying animal gave him, and since then had never again fired at monkeys." ''[[On the basis of morality]]'', § 19.</ref> and also the grief of a baby elephant whose mother had been killed by a hunter.<ref>"[Sir William Harris] describes how he shot his first elephant, a female. The next morning he went to look for the dead animal; all the other elephants had fled from the neighborhood except a young one, who had spent the night with its dead mother. Forgetting all fear, he came toward the sportsmen with the clearest and liveliest evidence of inconsolable grief, and put his tiny trunk round them in order to appeal to them for help. Harris says he was then filled with real remorse for what he had done, and felt as if he had committed a murder." ''[[On the basis of morality]]'', § 19.</ref> He was very attached to his succession of pet poodles. Schopenhauer criticized [[Baruch Spinoza|Spinoza's]]<ref>"His contempt for animals, who, as mere things for our use, are declared by him to be without rights,...in conjunction with Pantheism, is at the same time absurd and abominable." ''The World as Will and Representation'', Vol. 2, Chapter 50.</ref> belief that animals are to be used as a mere means for the satisfaction of humans.<ref>Spinoza, ''Ethics'', Pt. IV, Prop. XXXVII, Note I.: "Still I do not deny that beasts feel: what I deny is, that we may not consult our own advantage and use them as we please, treating them in a way which best suits us; for their nature is not like ours...." This is the exact opposite of Schopenhauer's doctrine. Also, ''ibid.'', Appendix, 26, "whatsoever there be in nature beside man, a regard for our advantage does not call on us to preserve, but to preserve or destroy according to its various capacities, and to adapt to our use as best we may."</ref><ref>"Such are the matters which I engage to prove in Prop. xviii of this Part, whereby it is plain that the law against the slaughtering of animals is founded rather on vain superstition and womanish pity than on sound reason. The rational quest of what is useful to us further teaches us the necessity of associating ourselves with our fellow-men, but not with beasts, or things, whose nature is different from our own; we have the same rights in respect to them as they have in respect to us. Nay, as everyone's right is defined by his virtue, or power, men have far greater rights over beasts than beasts have over men. Still I affirm that beasts feel. But I also affirm that we may consult our own advantage and use them as we please, treating them in the way which best suits us; for their nature is not like ours, and their emotions are naturally different from human emotions." ''Ethics'', Part 4, Prop. 37, Note 1.</ref> ==== Views on homosexuality and pederasty ==== In the third, expanded edition of ''The World as Will and Representation'' (1859), Schopenhauer added an appendix to his chapter on the ''Metaphysics of Sexual Love''. He also wrote that homosexuality did have the benefit of preventing ill-begotten children. Concerning this, he stated that "the vice we are considering appears to work directly against the aims and ends of nature, and that in a matter that is all important and of the greatest concern to her, it must in fact serve these very aims, although only indirectly, as a means for preventing greater evils."<ref>{{Harvard citation no brackets|Schopenhauer|1969|p=566}}. He wrote that only those who were too old or too young to reproduce strong, healthy children would resort to pederasty (Schopenhauer considered pederasty in itself a [[vice]])."The World as Will and Representation: Volume Two". Dover</ref> Shrewdly anticipating the interpretive distortion, on the part of the popular mind, of his attempted scientific ''explanation'' of [[pederasty]] as personal ''advocacy'' (when he had otherwise described the act, in terms of spiritual ethics, as an "objectionable aberration"), Schopenhauer sarcastically concludes the appendix with the statement that "by expounding these paradoxical ideas, I wanted to grant to the professors of philosophy a small favour, for they are very disconcerted by the ever-increasing publicization of my philosophy which they so carefully concealed. I have done so by giving them the opportunity of slandering me by saying that I defend and commend pederasty."<ref>{{Harvard citation no brackets|Schopenhauer|1969|p=567}}</ref> === Intellectual interests and affinities === ==== Indology ==== Schopenhauer read the Latin translation of the [[Upanisad|Upanishads]], which French writer [[Abraham Hyacinthe Anquetil-Duperron|Anquetil du Perron]] had translated from the Persian translation of Prince [[Dara Shikoh]] entitled ''Sirre-Akbar'' ("The Great Secret"). He was so impressed by their philosophy that he called them "the production of the highest human wisdom," and believed they contained superhuman concepts. The Upanishads was a great source of inspiration to Schopenhauer. Writing about them, he said: <blockquote>It is the most satisfying and elevating reading (with the exception of the original text) which is possible in the world; it has been the solace of my life and will be the solace of my death.<ref>{{cite book|last=Clarke|first=John James|title=Oriental enlightenment|publisher=Routledge|year=1997|page=68|isbn=978-0-415-13376-0}}</ref></blockquote> It is well known that the book ''Oupnekhat'' (Upanishad) always lay open on his table, and he invariably studied it before sleeping at night. He called the opening up of Sanskrit literature "the greatest gift of our century," and predicted that the philosophy and knowledge of the Upanishads would become the cherished faith of the West.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.philosophy.ru/library/asiatica/indica/authors/motives.html|title=Western Indologists: A Study in Motives|last=Dutt|first=Purohit Bhagavan|accessdate=9 May 2009}}</ref> Schopenhauer was first introduced to the 1802 Latin Upanishad translation through Friedrich Majer. They met during the winter of 1813–1814 in [[Weimar]] at the home of Schopenhauer's mother according to the biographer Sanfranski. Majer was a follower of [[Johann Gottfried Herder|Herder]], and an early [[Indologist]]. Schopenhauer did not begin a serious study of the Indic texts, however, until the summer of 1814. Sansfranski maintains that between 1815 and 1817, Schopenhauer had another important cross-pollination with Indian thought in [[Dresden]]. This was through his neighbor of two years, [[Karl Christian Friedrich Krause]]. Krause was then a minor and rather unorthodox philosopher who attempted to mix his own ideas with that of ancient Indian wisdom. Krause had also mastered [[Sanskrit]], unlike Schopenhauer, and the two developed a professional relationship. It was from Krause that Schopenhauer learned [[meditation]] and received the closest thing to expert advice concerning Indian thought.<ref>Christopher McCoy, 3–4</ref> Most noticeable, in the case of Schopenhauer’s work, was the significance of the [[Chandogya Upanishad]], whose [[Mahavakya]], [[Tat Tvam Asi]] is mentioned throughout ''The World as Will and Representation''.<ref>Christopher McCoy, 54–56</ref> ==== Buddhism ==== Schopenhauer noted a correspondence between his doctrines and the [[Four Noble Truths]] of [[Buddhism]].<ref>Abelson, Peter (April 1993). [http://ccbs.ntu.edu.tw/FULLTEXT/JR-PHIL/peter2.htm Schopenhauer and Buddhism]. ''Philosophy East and West Volume 43, Number 2'', pp. 255–278. University of Hawaii Press. Retrieved on: 12 April 2008.</ref> Similarities centered on the principles that life involves suffering, that suffering is caused by desire ([[taṇhā]]), and that the extinction of desire leads to liberation. Thus three of the four "truths of the Buddha" correspond to Schopenhauer's doctrine of the will.<ref>[[Christopher Janaway|Janaway]], Christopher, ''Self and World in Schopenhauer's Philosophy'', p. 28&nbsp;f.</ref> In Buddhism, however, while greed and lust are always unskillful, desire is ethically variable – it can be skillful, unskillful, or neutral.<ref name="David Burton 2004, page 22">David Burton, "Buddhism, Knowledge and Liberation: A Philosophical Study." Ashgate Publishing, Ltd., 2004, page 22.</ref> For Schopenhauer, Will had [[ontology|ontological]] primacy over the [[intellect]]; in other words, desire is understood to be prior to thought. Schopenhauer felt this was similar to notions of [[puruṣārtha]] or goals of life in [[Vedānta]] [[Hinduism]]. In Schopenhauer's philosophy, denial of the will is attained by either: * personal experience of an extremely great suffering that leads to loss of the will to live; or * knowledge of the essential nature of life in the world through observation of the suffering of other people. However, Buddhist [[nirvāṇa]] is not equivalent to the condition that Schopenhauer described as denial of the will. Nirvāṇa is not the extinguishing of the ''person'' as some Western scholars have thought, but only the "extinguishing" (the literal meaning of nirvana) of the flames of greed, hatred, and delusion that assail a person's character.<ref>John J. Holder, ''Early Buddhist Discourses.'' Hackett Publishing Company, 2006, page xx.</ref> Occult historian [[Joscelyn Godwin]] (1945– ) stated, "It was Buddhism that inspired the philosophy of Arthur Schopenhauer, and, through him, attracted [[Richard Wagner]].<ref>Godwin, J: ''Arktos: The Polar Myth in Science, Symbolism, and Nazi Survival'', page 38. Adventures Unlimited Press, 1996, ISBN 978-0-932813-35-0</ref> This [[Orientalism]] reflected the struggle of the German Romantics, in the words of [[Leon Poliakov]], to "free themselves from [[Judeo-Christian]] fetters."<ref>''Arktos'', p. 38.</ref> In contradistinction to Godwin's claim that Buddhism inspired Schopenhauer, the philosopher himself made the following statement in his discussion of religions:<ref> "Schopenhauer is often said to be the first, or indeed the only, modern Western philosopher of any note to attempt any integration of his work with Eastern ways of thinking. That he was the first is surely true, but the claim that he was ''influenced'' by Indian thought needs some qualification. There is a remarkable correspondence, at least in broad terms, between some of the central Schopenhauerian doctrines and Buddhism: notably in the views that empirical existence is suffering, that suffering originates in desires, and that salvation can be attained by the extinction of desires. These three 'truths of the Buddha' are mirrored closely in the essential structure of the doctrine of the will (On this, see Dorothea W. Dauer, ''Schopenhauer as Transmitter of Buddhist Ideas''. Note also the discussion by Bryan Magee, ''The Philosophy of Schopenhauer'', pp. 14–15, 316–21). Janaway, Christopher, ''Self and World in Schopenhauer's Philosophy'', p. 28&nbsp;f. </ref> <blockquote> If I wished to take the results of my philosophy as the standard of truth, I should have to concede to Buddhism pre-eminence over the others. In any case, it must be a pleasure to me to see my doctrine in such close agreement with a religion that the majority of men on earth hold as their own, for this numbers far more followers than any other. And this agreement must be yet the more pleasing to me, inasmuch as ''in my philosophizing I have certainly not been under its influence'' [emphasis added]. For up till 1818, when my work appeared, there was to be found in Europe only a very few accounts of Buddhism.<ref>''[[The World as Will and Representation]]’’, Vol. 2, Ch. 17</ref> </blockquote> Buddhist philosopher [[Nishitani Keiji]], however, sought to distance Buddhism from Schopenhauer.<ref>''Artistic detachment in Japan and the West: psychic distance in comparative aesthetics'' by S. Odin – 2001 – University of Hawaii Press.</ref> While Schopenhauer's philosophy may sound rather mystical in such a summary, his [[methodology]] was resolutely [[empirical]], rather than speculative or transcendental: <blockquote> Philosophy ... is a science, and as such has no articles of faith; accordingly, in it nothing can be assumed as existing except what is either positively given empirically, or demonstrated through indubitable conclusions.<ref>''Parerga & Paralipomena'', vol. I, p. 106., trans. E.F.J. Payne.</ref> </blockquote> Also note: <blockquote> This actual world of what is knowable, in which we are and which is in us, remains both the material and the limit of our consideration.<ref>''World as Will and Representation'', vol. I, p. 273, trans. E.F.J. Payne.</ref> </blockquote> The argument that Buddhism affected Schopenhauer’s philosophy more than any other [[Dharma|Dharmic]] faith loses more credence when viewed in light of the fact that Schopenhauer did not begin a serious study of Buddhism until after the publication of ''The World as Will and Representation'' in 1818.<ref>Christopher McCoy, 3</ref> Scholars have started to revise earlier views about Schopenhauer's discovery of Buddhism. Proof of early interest and influence, however, appears in Schopenhauer's 1815/16 notes (transcribed and translated by Urs App) about Buddhism. They are included in a recent case study that traces Schopenhauer's interest in Buddhism and documents its influence.<ref> App, Urs [http://www.sino-platonic.org/complete/spp200_schopenhauer.pdf Arthur Schopenhauer and China. ''Sino-Platonic Papers'' Nr. 200 (April 2010)] (PDF, 8.7&nbsp;Mb PDF, 164 p.; Schopenhauer's early notes on Buddhism reproduced in Appendix). This study provides an overview of the actual discovery of Buddhism by Schopenhauer.</ref> Other scholarly work questions how similar Schopenhauer's philosophy actually is to Buddhism.<ref>Hutton, Kenneth [http://blogs.dickinson.edu/buddhistethics/files/2014/12/Hutton-Schopenhauer.pdf Compassion in Schopenhauer and Śāntideva. ''Journal of Buddhist Ethics'' Vol. 21 (2014)]</ref> == Influences == Schopenhauer said he was influenced by the [[Upanishads]], [[Immanuel Kant]] and [[Plato]]. References to [[Eastern philosophy|Eastern philosophy and religion]] appear frequently in his writing. As noted above, he appreciated the teachings of the [[Gautama Buddha|Buddha]] and even called himself a Buddhist.<ref>Abelsen, Peter (1993). [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=96540080 "Schopenhauer and Buddhism."] ''Philosophy East & West'', 44:2, p. 255. Retrieved on: 18 August 2007.</ref> He said<ref>''Schopenhauer and Buddhism''. P Abelsen, H Amsterdam, A Schopenhauer – ''Philosophy East & West'', 1993</ref> that his philosophy could not have been conceived before these teachings were available. Concerning the Upanishads and [[Vedas]], he writes in ''The World as Will and Representation'': <blockquote>If the reader has also received the benefit of the Vedas, the access to which by means of the Upanishads is in my eyes the greatest privilege which this still young century (1818) may claim before all previous centuries, if then the reader, I say, has received his initiation in primeval Indian wisdom, and received it with an open heart, he will be prepared in the very best way for hearing what I have to tell him. It will not sound to him strange, as to many others, much less disagreeable; for I might, if it did not sound conceited, contend that every one of the detached statements which constitute the Upanishads, may be deduced as a necessary result from the fundamental thoughts which I have to enunciate, though those deductions themselves are by no means to be found there.<ref>''The World as Will and Representation'' Preface to the first edition, p. xiii</ref></blockquote> Among Schopenhauer's other influences were:{{refimprove|paragraph|date=January 2015}} [[William Shakespeare|Shakespeare]],<ref>{{cite book |last=Magee |first=Bryan |authorlink=Bryan Magee |title=The Philosophy of Schopenhauer |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cfMD0RSjnEwC&pg=PA265&lpg=PA265&dq=shakespeare+schopenhauer |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1977 |page=265 |isbn=978-0-19-823723-5}}</ref> [[Jean-Jacques Rousseau]], [[John Locke]], [[Thomas Reid]], [[Baruch Spinoza]], [[Matthias Claudius]], [[George Berkeley]], [[David Hume]], and [[René Descartes]].<ref>Schopenhauer and the Cartesian Tradition. T Humphrey – ''Journal of the History of Philosophy'', 1981 – muse.jhu.edu</ref> == Critique of Kant and Hegel == [[File:Arthur Schopenhauer by J Schäfer, 1859b.jpg|thumb|right|Schopenhauer in March 1859]] === Critique of the Kantian philosophy === {{Main|Critique of the Kantian philosophy}} {{See also|On the Basis of Morality|Schopenhauer's criticism of Kant's schemata}} Schopenhauer accepted Kant's double-aspect of the universe – the [[phenomena]]l (world of experience) and the [[noumenon|noumenal]] (the true world, independent of experience). Some commentators suggest that Schopenhauer claimed that the noumenon, or thing-in-itself, was the basis for Schopenhauer's concept of the [[will (philosophy)|will]]. Other commentators suggest that Schopenhauer considered [[will (philosophy)|will]] to be only a subset of the "thing-in-itself" class, namely that which we can most directly experience.<ref>Bryan Magee, ''Misunderstanding Schopenhauer'', [[Institute of Germanic and Romance Studies]], University of London, 1990, ISBN 978-0-85457-148-2</ref> Schopenhauer's identification of the Kantian ''noumenon'' (i.e., the actually existing entity) with what he termed "will" deserves some explanation. The noumenon was what Kant called the ''Ding an sich'' (the Thing in Itself), the reality that is the foundation of our [[sense|sensory]] and [[mind|mental]] representations of an external world. In Kantian terms, those sensory and mental representations are mere phenomena. Schopenhauer departed from Kant in his description of the relationship between the phenomenon and the noumenon. According to Kant, things-in-themselves ground the phenomenal representations in our minds; Schopenhauer, on the other hand, believed that phenomena and noumena are two different sides of the same coin. Noumena do not ''cause'' phenomena, but rather phenomena are simply the way by which our minds perceive the noumena, according to the [[principle of sufficient reason]]. This is explained more fully in Schopenhauer's doctoral thesis, ''[[On the Fourfold Root of the Principle of Sufficient Reason]]'' (1813). Schopenhauer's second major departure from Kant's epistemology concerns the body. Kant's philosophy was formulated as a response to the radical [[philosophical skepticism]] of David Hume, who claimed that causality could not be observed empirically. Schopenhauer begins by arguing that Kant's demarcation between external objects, knowable only as phenomena, and the Thing in Itself of noumenon, contains a significant omission. There is, in fact, one physical object we know more intimately than we know any object of sense perception: our own body. We know our [[human anatomy|human bodies]] have boundaries and occupy space, the same way other objects known only through our named senses do. Though we seldom think of our body as a physical object, we know even before reflection that it shares some of an object's properties. We understand that a watermelon cannot successfully occupy the same space as an oncoming truck; we know that if we tried to repeat the experiment with our own body, we would obtain similar results – we know this even if we do not understand the [[physics]] involved. We know that our consciousness inhabits a physical body, similar to other physical objects only known as phenomena. Yet our consciousness is not commensurate with our body. Most of us possess the power of voluntary motion. We usually are not aware of the breathing of our [[human lung|lungs]] or the beating of our [[human heart|heart]] unless somehow our attention is called to them. Our ability to control either is limited. Our [[kidney]]s command our attention on their schedule rather than one we choose. Few of us have any idea what our [[liver]] is doing right now, though this organ is as needful as lungs, heart, or kidneys. The conscious mind is the servant, not the master, of these and other organs. These organs have an agenda the conscious mind did not choose, and over which it has limited power. When Schopenhauer identifies the ''noumenon'' with the desires, needs, and impulses in us that we name "will," what he is saying is that we participate in the reality of an otherwise unachievable world outside the mind through will. We cannot ''prove'' that our mental picture of an outside world corresponds with a reality by reasoning; through will, we know – without thinking – that the world can stimulate us. We suffer fear, or desire: these states arise involuntarily; they arise prior to reflection; they arise even when the conscious mind would prefer to hold them at bay. The rational mind is, for Schopenhauer, a leaf borne along in a stream of pre-reflective and largely unconscious emotion. That stream is will, and through will, if not through logic, we can participate in the underlying reality beyond mere phenomena. It is for this reason that Schopenhauer identifies the ''noumenon'' with what we call our will. In his criticism of Kant, Schopenhauer claimed that sensation and understanding are separate and distinct abilities. Yet, for Kant, an object is known through each of them. Kant wrote: "[T]here are two stems of human knowledge ... namely, sensibility and understanding, objects being given by the former [sensibility] and thought by the latter [understanding]."<ref>''[[Critique of Pure Reason]]'', A 15</ref> Schopenhauer disagreed. He asserted that mere sense impressions, not objects, are given by sensibility. According to Schopenhauer, objects are intuitively perceived by understanding and are discursively thought by reason (Kant had claimed that (1) the understanding thinks objects through concepts and that (2) reason seeks the unconditioned or ultimate answer to "why?"). Schopenhauer said that Kant's mistake regarding perception resulted in all of the obscurity and difficult confusion that is exhibited in the Transcendental Analytic section of his critique. Lastly, Schopenhauer departed from Kant in how he interpreted the [[Platonic forms|Platonic ideas]]. In ''[[The World as Will and Representation]]'' Schopenhauer explicitly stated: <blockquote>...Kant used the word [Idea] wrongly as well as illegitimately, although Plato had already taken possession of it, and used it most appropriately.</blockquote> Instead Schopenhauer relied upon the [[Neoplatonist]] interpretation of the biographer [[Diogenes Laërtius]] from ''[[Lives and Opinions of Eminent Philosophers]]''. In reference to Plato’s Ideas, Schopenhauer quotes Laërtius verbatim in an explanatory footnote. Diogenes Laërtius (III, 12) Plato ideas in natura velut exemplaria dixit subsistere; cetera his esse similia, ad istarum similitudinem consistencia. (Plato teaches that the Ideas exist in nature, so to speak, as patterns or prototypes, and that the remainder of things only resemble them, and exist as their copies.)<ref>McCoy, Christopher Patrick. 2009. Thou Art That: Schopenhauer's Philosophy and the Chandogya Upanishad. Master's thesis, James Madison University: 10–13.</ref> === Critique of Hegel === Schopenhauer expressed his dislike for the philosophy of his contemporary [[Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel]] many times in his published works. The following quotations are typical: :If I were to say that the so-called philosophy of this fellow Hegel is a colossal piece of mystification which will yet provide posterity with an inexhaustible theme for laughter at our times, that it is a [[pseudophilosophy|pseudo-philosophy]] paralyzing all mental powers, stifling all real thinking, and, by the most outrageous misuse of language, putting in its place the hollowest, most senseless, thoughtless, and, as is confirmed by its success, most stupefying verbiage, I should be quite right. :Further, if I were to say that this summus philosophus [...] scribbled nonsense quite unlike any mortal before him, so that whoever could read his most eulogized work, the so-called ''[[The Phenomenology of Spirit|Phenomenology of the Mind]]'', without feeling as if he were in a madhouse, would qualify as an inmate for [[Bethlem Royal Hospital|Bedlam]], I should be no less right.<ref>[[On the Basis of Morality]], pp. 15–16.</ref> :At first Fichte and Schelling shine as the heroes of this epoch; to be followed by the man who is quite unworthy even of them, and greatly their inferior in point of talent --- I mean the stupid and clumsy charlatan Hegel.<ref>[[On the Basis of Morality]], p. 35.</ref> In his Foreword to the first edition of his work ''Die beiden Grundprobleme der Ethik'', Schopenhauer suggested that he had shown Hegel to have fallen prey to the ''[[Post hoc ergo propter hoc]]'' fallacy. Schopenhauer suggested that Hegel's works were filled with "castles of abstraction," and that Hegel used deliberately impressive but ultimately vacuous verbiage.<ref name="orientalia.org">{{cite web|url=http://www.orientalia.org/wisdom/Philosophy/Pseudophilosophy.shtml |title=Philosophy: Pseudophilosophy |publisher=Orientalia.org |accessdate=12 March 2010}}</ref> He also thought that his glorification of church and state were designed for personal advantage and had little to do with the search for philosophical [[truth]].<ref name="orientalia.org"/> For instance, the [[Right Hegelians]] interpreted Hegel as viewing the Prussian state of his day as perfect and the goal of all history up until then.<ref>"... the Hegelians who, in complete unsmiling seriousness, were airing the question of what the further content of world history could possibly be, now that in the Hegelian philosophy the world spirit had reached the goal, the knowledge of itself." Safranski, p. 256.</ref> == Criticism of Schopenhauer's personal life == The British philosopher and historian [[Bertrand Russell]] deemed Schopenhauer an insincere person, because judging by his life: :"He habitually dined well, at a good restaurant; he had many trivial love-affairs, which were sensual but not passionate; he was exceedingly quarrelsome and unusually avaricious. ... It is hard to find in his life evidences of any virtue except kindness to animals ... In all other respects he was completely selfish. It is difficult to believe that a man who was profoundly convinced of the virtue of [[asceticism]] and resignation would never have made any attempt to embody his convictions in his practice."<ref name=Insincere>{{cite book|last=Russell|first=Bertrand|title=HISTORY OF WESTERN PHILOSOPHY|year=1946|publisher=George Allen and Unwin LTD|location=Start of 2nd paragraph|pages=786}}</ref> [[Bryan Magee]] points out that "the answer to such shallow, but not uncommon criticism" is found in a quotation from Schopenhauer: :"It is therefore just as little necessary for the saint to be a philosopher as for the philosopher to be a saint; just as it is not necessary for a perfectly beautiful person to be a great sculptor, or for a great sculptor to be himself a beautiful person. In general, it is a strange demand on a moralist that he should commend no other virtue than that which he himself possesses. To repeat abstractly, universally, and distinctly in concepts the whole inner nature of the world, and thus to deposit it as a reflected image in permanent concepts always ready for the faculty of reason, this and nothing else is philosophy."<ref>The Philosophy of Schopenhauer, Oxford University Press, pg 211</ref> == Influence == [[File:Arthur Schopenhauer by Wilhelm Busch.jpeg|thumb|upright|Caricature of Schopenhauer by [[Wilhelm Busch]] (1832–1908)]] Schopenhauer has had a massive influence upon later thinkers, though more so in the [[arts]] (especially literature and music) and [[psychology]] than in philosophy. His popularity peaked in the early twentieth century, especially during the [[Modernist]] era, and waned somewhat thereafter. Nevertheless, a number of recent publications have reinterpreted and modernised the study of Schopenhauer. His theory is also being explored by some modern philosophers as a precursor to [[evolutionary theory]] and modern evolutionary psychology.<ref>In the book ''Straw Dogs'', John Gray upheld Schopenhauer as one of the few philosophers who has dedicated himself to studying Eastern philosophy as well as Western philosophy. The book argues against free will, and states that humans have much more in common with animals than is commonly admitted in the West. Schopenhauer is praised for his attitude towards animals, and for having addressed the brutality of much of human life.</ref> Russian writer and philosopher [[Leo Tolstoy]] was greatly influenced by Schopenhauer. After reading Schopenhauer's ''The World as Will and Representation'', Tolstoy gradually became converted to the ascetic morality upheld in that work as the proper spiritual path for the upper classes: "Do you know what this summer has meant for me? Constant raptures over Schopenhauer and a whole series of spiritual delights which I've never experienced before. ... no student has ever studied so much on his course, and learned so much, as I have this summer"<ref>Tolstoy's Letter to A.A. Fet, August 30, 1869</ref> [[Richard Wagner]], writing in his autobiography, remembered his first impression that Schopenhauer left on him (when he read ''World as Will and Representation''): :Schopenhauer’s book was never completely out of my mind, and by the following summer I had studied it from cover to cover four times. It had a radical influence on my whole life.<ref>Kimball, Roger. Schopenhauer's world. The New Criterion, 1985</ref> Wagner also commented on that "serious mood, which was trying to find ecstatic expression" created by Schopenhauer inspired the conception of Tristan und Isolde.<ref>{{Cite book|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=2OUsAAAAYAAJ&vq=%22It+was+some+such+mood+that+inspired+the+conception+of+a+Tristan+und+Isolde.%22&pg=PA617&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&f=false|title= My life}}</ref> See also [[Tristan und Isolde#Influence of Schopenhauer on Tristan und Isolde|Influence of Schopenhauer on Tristan und Isolde]]. {{Css Image Crop|Image = DAN-28a-Danzig-500MIL Mark (1923).jpg|bSize = 235|cWidth = 235|cHeight = 133|oTop = 2|oLeft = 0|Location = right|Description= Schopenhauer depicted on a 500 million Danzig [[German Papiermark#German Papiermark of Danzig|papiermark]] note (1923).}} [[Friedrich Nietzsche]] owed the awakening of his philosophical interest to reading ''The World as Will and Representation'' and admitted that he was one of the few philosophers that he respected, dedicating to him his essay ''Schopenhauer als Erzieher''<ref>[[s:Schopenhauer as Educator|Schopenhauer as Educator]]</ref> one of his ''[[Untimely Meditations]]''. [[Jorge Luis Borges]] remarked that the reason he had never attempted to write a systematic account of his world view, despite his penchant for philosophy and metaphysics in particular, was because Schopenhauer had already written it for him.{{sfn|Magee|1997|p=413}} As a teenager, [[Ludwig Wittgenstein]] adopted Schopenhauer's epistemological idealism. However, after his study of the philosophy of mathematics, he rejected epistemological idealism for [[Gottlob Frege]]'s conceptual realism. In later years, Wittgenstein was highly dismissive of Schopenhauer, describing him as an ultimately shallow thinker: "Schopenhauer has quite a crude mind... where real depth starts, his comes to an end."<ref name="Culture & Value, p.24, 1933–4"/><ref>Malcolm, Norman. Ludwig Wittgenstein: A Memoir. Oxford University Press, 1958, page 6</ref> The philosopher [[Gilbert Ryle]] read Schopenhauer's works as a student, but later largely forgot them, only to unwittingly recycle ideas from Schopenhauer in his ''[[The Concept of Mind]]'' (1949).<ref>{{cite book|ref=harv|last=Magee|first=Bryan|title=Confessions of a Philosopher|year=1997}}, Ch. 16</ref> == Selected bibliography == <!--older texts use "Ueber" instead of "Über"--> * ''[[On the Fourfold Root of the Principle of Sufficient Reason]] (Ueber die vierfache Wurzel des Satzes vom zureichenden Grunde''), 1813 * ''[[On Vision and Colors]]'' (''Ueber das Sehn und die Farben''), 1816 ISBN 978-0-85496-988-3 * ''Theory of Colors (Theoria colorum)'', 1830. * ''[[The World as Will and Representation]]'' (alternatively translated in English as ''The World as Will and Idea''; original German is ''Die Welt als Wille und Vorstellung''): vol. 1818/1819, vol. 2, 1844 ** Vol. 1 Dover edition 1966, ISBN 978-0-486-21761-1 ** Vol. 2 Dover edition 1966, ISBN 978-0-486-21762-8 ** Peter Smith Publisher hardcover set 1969, ISBN 978-0-8446-2885-1 ** Everyman Paperback combined abridged edition (290 pp.) ISBN 978-0-460-87505-9 * ''[[The Art of Being Right]] (Eristische Dialektik: Die Kunst, Recht zu Behalten)'', 1831 * ''[[s:On the Will in Nature|On the Will in Nature]] (Ueber den Willen in der Natur)'', 1836 ISBN 978-0-85496-999-9 * ''[[On the Freedom of the Will]] (Ueber die Freiheit des menschlichen Willens''), 1839 ISBN 978-0-631-14552-3 * ''[[On the Basis of Morality]] (Ueber die Grundlage der Moral)'', 1840 * ''The Two Basic Problems of Ethics: On the Freedom of the Will, On the Basis of Morality (Die beiden Grundprobleme der Ethik: Ueber die Freiheit des menschlichen Willens, Ueber das Fundament der Moral''), 1841. * ''[[Parerga and Paralipomena]]'', 1851; English translation by E. F. J. Payne, Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1974, 2 volumes: ** Printings: *** 1974 Hardcover, by ISBN **** Vols. 1 and 2, ISBN 978-0-19-519813-3, **** Vol. 1, ISBN **** Vol. 2, ISBN 978-0-19-824527-8, *** 1974/1980 Paperback, Vol. 1, ISBN 978-0-19-824634-3, Vol. 2, ISBN 978-0-19-824635-0, *** 2001 Paperback, Vol. 1, ISBN 978-0-19-924220-7, Vol. 2, ISBN 978-0-19-924221-4 ** ''Essays and Aphorisms'', being excerpts from Volume 2 of ''Parerga und Paralipomena'', selected and translated by R. J. Hollingdale, with Introduction by R J Hollingdale, Penguin Classics, 1970, Paperback 1973: ISBN 978-0-14-044227-4 * ''An Enquiry concerning Ghost-seeing, and what is connected therewith (Versuch über das Geistersehn und was damit zusammenhangt)'', 1851 * Arthur Schopenhauer, ''Manuscript Remains'', Volume II, Berg Publishers Ltd., ISBN 978-0-85496-539-7 === Online === * {{gutenberg author|id=Arthur+Schopenhauer | name=Arthur Schopenhauer}} * ''[http://www.logicien.fr Illustrated version of the "Art of Being Right"] and links to logic and sophisms used by the stratagems. * ''[http://coolhaus.de/art-of-controversy/ The Art Of Controversy (Die Kunst, Recht zu behalten)]''. (bilingual) [''[[The Art of Being Right]]''] * ''[http://librivox.org/studies-in-pessimism-by-arthur-schopenhauer/ Studies in Pessimism]'' – audiobook from [[LibriVox]] * ''The World as Will and Idea'' at [[Internet Archive]]: ** ''[https://archive.org/details/theworldaswillan01schouoft Volume I]'' ** ''[https://archive.org/details/theworldaswill02schouoft Volume II]'' ** ''[https://archive.org/details/theworldaswillan03schouoft Volume III]'' * ''On the fourfold root of the principle of sufficient reason'' and ''On the will in nature.'' Two essays: ** [https://archive.org/details/onthefourfoldroo00schouoft Internet Archive.] Translated by Mrs. Karl Hillebrand (1903). ** [http://dlxs2.library.cornell.edu/cgi/t/text/text-idx?c=cdl;idno=cdl322 Cornell University Library Historical Monographs Collection.] Reprinted by [http://www.amazon.com/dp/1429739630/ Cornell University Library Digital Collections] * [http://www.schopenhauersource.org/type_list.php?type=manuscript Facsimile edition of Schopenhauer's manuscripts] in [http://www.schopenhauersource.org/ SchopenhauerSource] * ''[http://ebooks.adelaide.edu.au/s/schopenhauer/arthur/essays/ Essays of Schopenhauer]'' == See also == {{Portal|Philosophy}} * [[Antinatalism]], a position advocated by Schopenhauer that one would be better off not having been born * [[God in Buddhism]] * [[Massacre of the Innocents (Guido Reni)]] * [[Misotheism]] * [[Mortal coil]] * [[Nihilism]] == References == === Footnotes === {{Reflist|30em}} === Bibliography === {{Refbegin|30em}} * Albright, Daniel (2004) ''Modernism and Music: An Anthology of Sources''. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-01267-4 * Hannan, Barbara, ''The Riddle of the World: A Reconsideration of Schopenhauer's Philosophy'' (Oxford, OUP, 2009) * Magee, Bryan, ''Confessions of a Philosopher'', Random House, 1998, ISBN 978-0-375-50028-2. Chapters 20, 21 * [[Rüdiger Safranski|Safranski, Rüdiger]] (1990) ''Schopenhauer and the Wild Years of Philosophy''. Harvard University Press, ISBN 978-0-674-79275-3; orig. German ''Schopenhauer und Die wilden Jahre der Philosophie'', Carl Hanser Verlag (1987) * ''The Living Thoughts of Schopenhauer'', [[Thomas Mann]] editor, Longmans Green & Co., 1939 {{Refend}} == Further reading == === Biographies === * Cartwright, David. ''Schopenhauer: A Biography'', Cambridge University Press, 2010. ISBN 978-0-521-82598-6 * [[Frederick Copleston]], ''Arthur Schopenhauer, philosopher of pessimism'' (Burns, Oates & Washbourne, 1946) * O.F.Damm, ''Arthur Schopenhauer – eine Biographie'', (Reclam, 1912) * Kuno Fischer, ''Arthur Schopenhauer'' (Heidelberg: Winter, 1893); revised as ''Schopenhauers Leben, Werke und Lehre'' (Heidelberg: Winter, 1898). * Eduard Grisebach, ''Schopenhauer – Geschichte seines Lebens'' (Berlin: Hofmann, 1876). * D.W. Hamlyn, ''Schopenhauer'', London: Routledge & Kegan Paul (1980, 1985) * Heinrich Hasse, ''Schopenhauer''. (Reinhardt, 1926) * Arthur Hübscher, ''Arthur Schopenhauer – Ein Lebensbild'' (Leipzig: Brockhaus, 1938). * [[Thomas Mann]], ''Schopenhauer'' (Bermann-Fischer, 1938) * [[Jack Matthews (author)|Matthews, Jack]], ''Schopenhauer's Will: Das Testament'', Nine Point Publishing, 2015. ISBN 978-0985827885. A recent creative biography by philosophical novelist [[Jack Matthews (author)|Jack Matthews]]. * Rüdiger Safranski, ''Schopenhauer und die wilden Jahre der Philosophie – Eine Biographie'', hard cover Carl Hanser Verlag, München 1987, ISBN 978-3-446-14490-3, pocket edition Fischer: ISBN 978-3-596-14299-6. * Rüdiger Safranski, ''Schopenhauer and the Wild Years of Philosophy'', trans. Ewald Osers (London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1989) * Walther Schneider, ''Schopenhauer – Eine Biographie'' (Vienna: Bermann-Fischer, 1937). * William Wallace, ''Life of Arthur Schopenhauer'' (London: Scott, 1890; repr., St. Clair Shores, Mich.: Scholarly Press, 1970) * Helen Zimmern, ''[https://archive.org/stream/arthurschopenha00zimmuoft#page/n7/mode/2up Arthur Schopenhauer: His Life and His Philosophy]'' (London: Longmans, Green & Co, 1876) === Other books === * App, Urs. [http://www.sino-platonic.org/complete/spp200_schopenhauer.pdf Arthur Schopenhauer and China. ''Sino-Platonic Papers'' Nr. 200 (April 2010)] (PDF, 8.7&nbsp;Mb PDF, 164 p.). Contains extensive appendixes with transcriptions and English translations of Schopenhauer's early notes about Buddhism and Indian philosophy. * Atwell, John. ''Schopenhauer on the Character of the World, The Metaphysics of Will''. * --------, ''Schopenhauer, The Human Character''. * Edwards, Anthony. ''An Evolutionary Epistemological Critique of Schopenhauer's Metaphysics''. 123 Books, 2011. * [[Frederick Copleston|Copleston, Frederick]], ''Schopenhauer: Philosopher of Pessimism'', 1946 (reprinted London: Search Press, 1975). * [[Patrick Gardiner|Gardiner, Patrick]], 1963. ''Schopenhauer''. Penguin Books. * --------, ''Schopenhauer: A Very Short introduction''. * Janaway, Christopher, 2003. ''Self and World in Schopenhauer's Philosophy''. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-825003-6 * [[Bryan Magee|Magee, Bryan]], ''The Philosophy of Schopenhauer'', Oxford University Press (1988, reprint 1997). ISBN 978-0-19-823722-8 * Mannion, Gerard, "Schopenhauer, Religion and Morality – The Humble Path to Ethics", Ashgate Press, New Critical Thinking in Philosophy Series, 2003, 314pp. * Trottier, Danick. ''L’influence de la philosophie schopenhauerienne dans la vie et l’oeuvre de Richard Wagner ; et, Qu’est-ce qui séduit, obsède, magnétise le philosophe dans l’art des sons? deux études en esthétique musicale'', Université du Québec à Montréal, Département de musique, 2000. * [[Helen Zimmern|Zimmern, Helen]], ''[[s:Arthur Schopenhauer, his Life and Philosophy|Arthur Schopenhauer, his Life and Philosophy]]'', London, [[Longman|Longman, and Co.]], 1876. === Articles === * {{Cite journal | doi = 10.2307/1399616 | last1 = Abelson | first1 = Peter | year = 1993 | title = Schopenhauer and Buddhism | url = http://ccbs.ntu.edu.tw/FULLTEXT/JR-PHIL/peter2.htm | journal = Philosophy East and West | volume = 43 | issue = 2| pages = 255–78 | jstor = 1399616 }} * Jiménez, Camilo, 2006, "[http://www.avinus-magazin.eu/html/jimenez_-_der_junge_schopenhau.html Tagebuch eines Ehrgeizigen: Arthur Schopenhauers Studienjahre in Berlin,]" ''Avinus Magazin'' (in German). * Luchte, James, 2009, "[http://luchte.wordpress.com/the-body-of-sublime-knowledge-the-aesthetic-phenomenology-of-arthur-schopenhauer/ The Body of Sublime Knowledge: The Aesthetic Phenomenology of Arthur Schopenhauer,]" ''Heythrop Journal'', Volume 50, Number 2, pp.&nbsp;228–242. * Mazard, Eisel, 2005, "[http://www.pratyeka.org/schopenhauer/ Schopenhauer and the Empirical Critique of Idealism in the History of Ideas.]" On Schopenhauer's (debated) place in the history of European philosophy and his relation to his predecessors. * Moges, Awet, 2006, "[http://www.galilean-library.org/manuscript.php?postid=43800 Schopenhauer's Philosophy.]" Galileian Library. * [[Sangharakshita]], 2004, "[http://www.centrebouddhisteparis.org/En_Anglais/Sangharakshita_en_anglais/Aesthetic_appreciation/aesthetic_appreciation.html Schopenhauer and aesthetic appreciation.]" * {{Cite journal | last1 = Young | first1 = Christopher | last2 = Brook | first2 = Andrew | year = 1994 | title = Schopenhauer and Freud | url = http://www.carleton.ca/~abrook/SCHOPENY.htm | journal = International Journal of Psychoanalysis | volume = 75 | issue = | pages = 101–18 | pmid = 8005756 }} * [https://books.google.com/books?id=ungVAQAAIAAJ&pg=PP11 Oxenford's "Iconoclasm in German Philosophy," (See p. 388)] == External links == {{Sister project links|v=no|n=no|b=no|wikt=no|author=yes}} * {{Gutenberg author |id=Schopenhauer,+Arthur | name=Arthur Schopenhauer}} * {{Internet Archive author |sname=Arthur Schopenhauer}} * {{Librivox author |id=165}} * {{SEP|schopenhauer|Arthur Schopenhauer|Robert Wicks}} * [http://www.iep.utm.edu/schopenh/ ''Arthur Schopenhauer''] an article by Mary Troxell in [[Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy]] 2011 * [http://www.schopenhauersource.org/ Schopenhauersource: Reproductions of Schopenhauer's manuscripts] * [https://archive.org/details/cu31924029023327 Kant's philosophy as rectified by Schopenhauer] * [http://www.weple.org/timeline.html#ids=14631,12007,12598,700,10671,9518,37304,95184,&title=8%20German%20Philosophers Timeline of German Philosophers] * [http://ljhammond.com/classics/cl1.htm#scho A Quick Introduction to Schopenhauer] * {{Find a Grave|12793}} * Ross, Kelley L., 1998, "[http://www.friesian.com/arthur.htm Arthur Schopenhauer (1788–1860).]" Two short essays, on Schopenhauer's life and work, and on his dim view of academia. {{Schopenhauer|state=uncollapsed}} {{Continental philosophy}} {{metaphysics}} {{ethics}} {{Aesthetics}} {{Authority control}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Schopenhauer, Arthur}} [[Category:Arthur Schopenhauer| ]] [[Category:1788 births]] [[Category:1860 deaths]] [[Category:19th-century German writers]] [[Category:19th-century philosophers]] [[Category:Antinatalists]] [[Category:Atheist philosophers]] [[Category:German atheists]] [[Category:German monarchists]] [[Category:German people of Dutch descent]] [[Category:German philosophers]] [[Category:Anti-nationalists]] [[Category:Humboldt University of Berlin faculty]] [[Category:Idealists]] [[Category:Kantian philosophers]] [[Category:Metaphysicians]] [[Category:Monism]] [[Category:People from Gdańsk]] [[Category:University of Göttingen alumni]] [[Category:Philosophers of art]] [[Category:Burials at Frankfurt Main Cemetery]] eq9cei3h90isf4p44jlgj6231elt7m5 0 701 717066692 715940100 2016-04-25T14:57:06Z 205.197.242.186 /* Justice */Updated tense wikitext text/x-wiki {{other uses}} {{pp-move-indef}} {{Use dmy dates|date=November 2015}} {{Coord|12|30|S|18|30|E|display=title}} {{Infobox country |conventional_long_name = Republic of Angola |native_name = ''{{small|{{native name|pt|República de Angola}}}}'' |common_name = Angola |image_flag = Flag of Angola.svg<!-- DO NOT ADD the proposed flag; you WILL be reverted and warned! --> |image_coat = Coat of arms of Angola.svg |symbol_type = Emblem |national_anthem = ''[[Angola Avante]]''<br>{{small|Onwards Angola}} |image_map = Location Angola AU Africa.svg |map_caption = {{map caption |location_color=dark blue |region=the [[African Union]] |region_color=light blue}} |capital = [[Luanda]] |latd = 8 |latm = 50 |latNS = S |longd = 13 |longm = 20 |longEW = E |largest_city = capital |official_languages = [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]] |national_languages = [[Kongo language|Kikongo]]<br>[[Chokwe language|Chokwe]]<br>[[Umbundu]]<br>[[Kimbundu]]<br>[[Ganguela language|Nganguela]]<br>[[Kwanyama dialect|Kwanyama]] |ethnic_groups = 36% [[Ovimbundu]]<br>25% [[Ambundu]]<br>13% [[Kongo people|Bakongo]]<br>22% other African<br>2% [[Mestiço]]<br>1% [[Overseas Chinese|Chinese]]<br>1% [[White Africans of European ancestry|European]] |ethnic_groups_year = 2000 |demonym = Angolan |government_type = [[Unitary state|Unitary]] [[Presidential system|presidential]] [[republic]] |leader_title1 = [[President of Angola|President]] |leader_name1 = [[José Eduardo dos Santos]] |leader_title2 = [[Vice President of Angola|Vice President]] |leader_name2 = [[Manuel Vicente]] |legislature = [[National Assembly (Angola)|National Assembly]] |sovereignty_type = [[Angolan War of Independence|Independence]] |established_event1 = from [[Portugal]] |established_date1 = 11 November 1975 |area_km2 = 1246700 |area_sq_mi = 481354 |area_rank = 23rd |area_magnitude = 1 E12 |percent_water = negligible |population_estimate = |population_estimate_year = 2014 |population_estimate_rank = 59th |population_census = 24,383,301<ref name=unpop>{{cite web |url=http://www.ine.gov.ao/xportal/xmain?xpid=ine |title=Resultados preliminares do censo geral – 2014 |publisher=''Instituto Nacional de Estatística'' (INE) |accessdate=21 August 2014}}</ref> |population_census_year = 2014 |population_density_km2 = 14.8 |population_density_sq_mi = 38.4 |population_density_rank = 199th |GDP_PPP_year = 2016 |GDP_PPP = $194.055&nbsp;billion<ref name=imf2>{{cite web |url=http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2015/02/weodata/weorept.aspx?sy=2015&ey=2016&scsm=1&ssd=1&sort=country&ds=.&br=1&pr1.x=62&pr1.y=9&c=614%2C668%2C638%2C674%2C616%2C676%2C748%2C678%2C618%2C684%2C624%2C688%2C622%2C728%2C626%2C692%2C628%2C694%2C632%2C714%2C636%2C716%2C634%2C722%2C662%2C718%2C642%2C724%2C643%2C199%2C644%2C733%2C646%2C734%2C648%2C738%2C652%2C742%2C656%2C746%2C654%2C754%2C664%2C698%2C666&s=NGDPD%2CNGDPPC%2CNGDPDPC%2CPPPGDP%2CPPPPC&grp=0&a= |title=Angola |publisher=International Monetary Fund |accessdate=26 April 2014}}</ref> |GDP_PPP_rank = 64th |GDP_PPP_per_capita = $7,501<ref name=imf2/> |GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = 107th |GDP_nominal_year = 2016 |GDP_nominal = $98.815 billion<ref name=imf2/> |GDP_nominal_rank = 61st |GDP_nominal_per_capita = $3,819<ref name=imf2/> |GDP_nominal_per_capita_rank = 91st |Gini_year = 2009 |Gini = 42.7 |Gini_ref = <ref name="wb-gini">{{cite web |url=http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SI.POV.GINI |title=Gini Index |publisher=World Bank |accessdate=2 March 2011}}</ref> |HDI_year = 2014<!-- Please use the year to which the data refers, not the publication year --> |HDI_change = increase<!-- increase/decrease/steady --> |HDI = 0.532<!-- number only --> |HDI_ref = <ref name="HDI">{{cite web |url=http://hdr.undp.org/sites/default/files/hdr_2015_statistical_annex.pdf}} |title=2015 Human Development Report |year=2015 |accessdate=14 December 2015 |publisher=United Nations Development Programme |</ref> |HDI_rank = 149th |currency = [[Angolan kwanza|Kwanza]] |currency_code = AOA |time_zone = [[West Africa Time|WAT]] |utc_offset = +1 |time_zone_DST = {{nowrap|not observed}} |utc_offset_DST = +1 |drives_on = Right |calling_code = [[Telephone numbers in Angola|+244]] |cctld = [[.ao]] }} '''Angola''' {{IPAc-en|æ|ŋ|ˈ|ɡ|oʊ|l|ə}}, officially the '''Republic of Angola''' ({{lang-pt|República de Angola}} {{IPA-pt|ɐ̃ˈɡɔlɐ|pron}}; [[Kikongo]], [[Kimbundu]] and [[Umbundu]]: ''Repubilika ya Ngola''), is a [[country]] in [[Southern Africa]]. It is the seventh-largest country in [[Africa]], and is bordered by [[Namibia]] to the south, the [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]] to the north and east, [[Zambia]] to the east, and the [[Atlantic Ocean]] to west. The [[exclave]] province of [[Cabinda Province|Cabinda]] has borders with the [[Republic of the Congo]] and the [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]]. The capital and largest city of Angola is [[Luanda]]. Although its territory has been inhabited since the [[Paleolithic Era]], modern Angola originates in [[Portuguese colonization of Africa|Portuguese colonization]], which began with, and was for centuries limited to, coastal settlements and trading posts established from the 16th century onwards. In the 19th century, European settlers slowly and hesitantly began to establish themselves in the interior. As a [[Portuguese West Africa|Portuguese colony]], Angola did not encompass its present borders until the early 20th century, following resistance by groups such as the [[Cuamato]], the [[Kwanyama people|Kwanyama]] and the [[Mbunda people|Mbunda]]. Independence was achieved in 1975 after the [[Angolan War of Independence|protracted liberation war]]. That same year, Angola descended into an intense [[Angolan Civil War|civil war]] that lasted until 2002. It has since become a relatively stable [[Unitary state|unitary]] [[presidential republic]]. Angola has vast [[mineral reserve|mineral]] and [[petroleum reserves]], and its economy is among the fastest growing in the world, especially since the end of the civil war. In spite of this, the standard of living remains low for the majority of the population, and [[life expectancy]] and [[infant mortality|infant mortality rates]] in Angola are among the worst in the world.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Life expectancy at birth|year=2014|work=World Fact Book|publisher=United States Central Intelligence Agency|url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/rankorder/2102rank.html}}</ref> Angola's economic growth is highly uneven, with the majority of the nation's [[wealth concentration|wealth concentrated]] in a disproportionately small sector of the population.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.hrw.org/report/2010/04/13/transparency-and-accountability-angola|title="Transparency and Accountability in Angola"|website=Human Rights Watch|access-date=2016-04-01}}</ref> Angola is a member state of the [[United Nations]], [[OPEC]], [[African Union]], the [[Community of Portuguese Language Countries]], the [[Latin Union]] and the [[Southern African Development Community]]. A highly multiethnic country, Angola's 24.3 million people span various tribal groups, customs, and traditions. Angolan culture reflects centuries of Portuguese rule, namely in the predominance of the [[Portuguese language]] and [[Roman Catholicism]], combined with diverse indigenous influences. ==Etymology== The name ''Angola'' comes from the [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]] colonial name ''[[Angola (Portugal)|Reino de Angola]] (Kingdom of Angola)'', appearing as early as [[Dias de Novais]]'s 1571 charter.<ref>Heywood, Linda M. & Thornton, John K. (2007) ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=S42CypbRTlQC&pg=PA82 Central Africans, Atlantic Creoles, and the foundation of the Americas, 1585–1660]''. Cambridge University Press. p. 82. ISBN 0521770653</ref> The [[toponym]] was derived by the Portuguese from the title ''[[List of Ngolas of Ndongo|ngola]]'' held by the kings of [[Kingdom of Ndongo|Ndongo]]. Ndongo was a kingdom in the highlands, between the [[Kwanza River|Kwanza]] and [[Lukala River]]s, nominally tributary to the [[Kingdom of Kongo|king of Kongo]] but which was seeking greater independence during the 16th century. ==History== {{Main|History of Angola}} ===Early migrations and political units=== [[File:KingdomNdongo1711.png|thumb|left|Territory comprising [[Kingdom of Ndongo]], present-day Angola]] [[Khoi]] and [[San people|San]] [[hunter-gatherer]]s are the earliest known modern human inhabitants of the area. They were largely absorbed or replaced by [[Bantu peoples]] during the [[Bantu expansion|Bantu migrations]], though small numbers remain in parts of southern Angola to the present day. The Bantu came from the north, probably from somewhere near the present-day Republic of [[Cameroon]]. During this time, the Bantu established a number of political units ("kingdoms", "empires") in most parts of what today is Angola. The best known of these is the [[Kingdom of the Kongo]] that had its centre in the northwest of contemporary Angola, but included important regions in the west of present-day [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Democratic Republic]] and [[Republic of Congo]] and in southern [[Gabon]]. It established trade routes with other trading cities and civilisations up and down the coast of southwestern and West Africa and even with the [[Great Zimbabwe]] [[Mutapa Empire]], but engaged in little or no transoceanic trade.<ref name="The Story of Africa">{{cite web|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice/specials/1624_story_of_africa/page45.shtml |title=The Story of Africa |publisher=BBC |accessdate=27 June 2010}}</ref> To its south lay the [[Kingdom of Ndongo]], from which the area of the later Portuguese colony was sometimes known as '''Dongo'''.{{sfnp|EB|1878}} ===Portuguese colonization=== {{Main|Colonial history of Angola|Portuguese Angola}} [[File:Queen Nzinga 1657.png|thumb|left|[[Queen Nzinga]] in peace negotiations with the Portuguese governor in [[Luanda]], 1657.]] [[File:Kongo audience.jpg|thumb|left||An image depicting Portuguese encounter with Kongo Royal family]] The region now known as Angola was reached by the [[Kingdom of Portugal|Portuguese]] [[Age of Discovery|explorer]] [[Diogo Cão]] in 1484.{{sfnp|EB|1878}} The year before, the Portuguese had established relations with the [[Kingdom of Kongo]], which stretched at the time from modern [[Gabon]] in the north to the [[Kwanza River]] in the south. The Portuguese established their principal early trading post at [[Soyo]], which now forms the northernmost city in Angola apart from the [[Cabinda enclave]]. [[Paulo Dias de Novais]] founded São Paulo de Loanda ([[Luanda]]) in 1575 with a hundred families of settlers and four hundred soldiers. [[Benguela]] was fortified in 1587 and elevated to a township in 1617. The Portuguese established several other settlements, forts, and trading posts along the Angolan coast, principally trading in [[Slavery in Angola|Angolan slaves]] for [[Captaincies of Brazil|Brazilian]] [[plantations in the American South|plantation]]s. Local slave dealers provided a large number of slaves for the [[Portuguese Empire]],<ref name=Fleisch>{{cite encyclopedia | author = Axel Fleisch |title = Angola: Slave Trade, Abolition of | encyclopedia = Encyclopedia of African History 3-Volume Set|editor-last = Shillington | editor-first = Kevin | volume = 1 | pages = 131–133| publisher = Routledge | year = 2004 | isbn = 1-57958-245-1 }}</ref> usually sold in exchange for manufactured goods from Europe.{{citation needed|date=June 2015}} This part of the [[Atlantic slave trade]] continued until after [[Empire of Brazil|Brazil]]'s [[independence of Brazil|independence]] in the 1820s. Despite Portugal's nominal claims, as late as the 19th century, their control over the interior country of Angola was minimal,{{sfnp|EB|1878}} but the 16th century saw them gain control of the coast through a series of treaties and wars. Life for European colonists was difficult and progress slow. [[John Iliffe (historian)|Iliffe]] notes that "Portuguese records of Angola from the 16th century show that a great [[famine]] occurred on average every seventy years; accompanied by epidemic disease, it might kill one-third or one-half of the population, destroying the demographic growth of a generation and forcing colonists back into the river valleys".<ref>John Iliffe (2007) [https://books.google.com/books?id=bNGN2URP_rUC&pg=&dq&hl=en#v=onepage&q=&f=false ''Africans: the history of a continent'']. Cambridge University Press. p. 68. ISBN 0-521-68297-5</ref> Amid the [[Portuguese Restoration War]], the Dutch occupied [[Luanda]] in 1641, using alliances with local peoples against Portuguese holdings elsewhere. A fleet under [[Salvador de Sá]] retook Luanda for Portugal in 1648; reconquest of the rest of the territory was completed by 1650. New treaties with [[Kingdom of Kongo|Kongo]] were signed in 1649; others with Njinga's Kingdom of [[Matamba]] and [[Ndongo]] followed in 1656. The conquest of [[Pungo Andongo]] in 1671 was the last major Portuguese expansion from Luanda, as attempts to invade Kongo in 1670 and Matamba in 1681 failed. Portugal also expanded inward from Benguela, but until the late 19th century the inroads from Luanda and Benguela were very limited.{{sfnp|EB|1878}} Portugal had neither the intention nor the means to carry out a large scale territorial occupation and colonization. [[File:Embarque tropas para angola 1.jpg|thumb|Portuguese troops heading for Angola during [[German campaign in Angola|World War I]].]] Development of the hinterland began after the [[Berlin Conference]] in 1885 fixed the colony's borders, and British and Portuguese investment fostered mining, railways, and agriculture based on various forced-labour and voluntary labour systems. Full Portuguese administrative control of the hinterland did not establish itself until the beginning of the 20th century. Portugal had a minimalist presence in Angola for nearly five hundred years, and early calls for independence provoked little reaction amongst the population who had no social identity related to the territory as a whole.{{citation needed|date=May 2015}} More overtly political and "nationalist" organisations first appeared in the 1950s and began to make demands for [[self-determination]], especially in international forums such as the [[Non-Aligned Movement]]. The [[Estado Novo (Portugal)|Portuguese regime]], meanwhile, refused to accede to the demands for independence, provoking an armed conflict that started in 1961 when freedom fighters attacked both white and black civilians in cross-border operations in northeastern Angola. The war came to be known as the [[Portuguese Colonial War|Colonial War]]. In this struggle, the principal protagonists included, the [[People's Movement for the Liberation of Angola]] (MPLA), founded in 1956, the [[National Front for the Liberation of Angola]] (FNLA), which appeared in 1961 and the [[National Union for the Total Independence of Angola]] (UNITA), founded in 1966. After many years of conflict that led to the weakening of all the insurgent parties, Angola gained its independence on 11 November 1975, after the [[Carnation Revolution|1974 coup d'état]] in Lisbon, Portugal, which overthrew the Portuguese regime headed by [[Marcelo Caetano]]. Portugal's [[Movimento das Forças Armadas|new revolutionary leaders]] began in 1974 a process of political change at home and accepted independence for its former colonies abroad. In Angola a fight for dominance broke out immediately between the three nationalist movements. The events prompted a mass exodus of Portuguese citizens, creating up to 300 000 destitute Portuguese [[refugee]]s—the ''[[White African#Portuguese in Africa|retornados]]''.<ref>[http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,913229-1,00.html Dismantling the Portuguese Empire], ''Time'' (7 July 1975)</ref> The new Portuguese government tried to mediate an understanding between the three competing movements, and succeeded in getting them to agree, on paper, to form a common government. But in the end none of the African parties respected the commitments made, and military force resolved the issue. ===Independence and civil war=== [[File:View over Lunda 3.JPG|thumb|Monument to the memory of [[Agostinho Neto]] and the [[Angolan War of Independence|Angolan struggle for independence]], in Luanda]] {{Main|Angolan War of Independence|Angolan Civil War}} {{Further|1980s in Angola|1990s in Angola}} After it gained independence in November 1975, Angola experienced a devastating civil war which lasted several decades (with some interludes). It claimed millions of lives and produced many refugees; it came to an end only in 2002.<ref name="Norrie MacQueen">{{cite journal|jstor=723274|title=The Decolonization of Portuguese Africa: Metropolitan Revolution and the Dissolution of Empire by Norrie MacQueen – Mozambique since Independence: Confronting Leviathan by Margaret Hall & Tom Young|author=Stuart A. Notholt|journal=African Affairs|volume=97|issue=387|year=1998|pages=276–278|doi=10.1093/oxfordjournals.afraf.a007936}}</ref> Following [[Alvor Agreement|negotiations held in Portugal]], itself experiencing severe social and political turmoil and uncertainty due to the [[Carnation Revolution|April 1974 revolution]], Angola's three main guerrilla groups agreed to establish a transitional government in January 1975. Within two months, however, the FNLA, MPLA and UNITA had started fighting each other and the country began splitting into zones controlled by rival armed political groups. The [[MPLA]] gained control of the capital [[Luanda]] and much of the rest of the country. With the support of the United States, Zaïre and South Africa intervened militarily in favour of the FNLA and UNITA with the intention of taking Luanda before the declaration of independence.<ref>{{cite web|url= http://www.informationclearinghouse.info/article4068.htm |title= Americas Third World War: How 6 million People Were killed in CIA secret wars against third world countries |publisher= Information Clearing House|location= Imperial Beach, California |date= 16 November 1981 |accessdate= 27 June 2010| archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20100629015838/http://www.informationclearinghouse.info/article4068.htm | archivedate= 29 June 2010 | deadurl= no}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url= https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=c35COXObeo8 |title= CIA & Angolan Revolution 1975 Part 1 |publisher= YouTube |accessdate= 27 June 2010}}</ref> In response, Cuba intervened in favor of the MPLA (see: [[Cuba in Angola]]), which became a flash point for the [[Cold War]]. With Cuban support, the MPLA held Luanda and declared independence on 11 November 1975, with [[Agostinho Neto]] becoming the first president, though the civil war continued. At this time, most of the half-million Portuguese who lived in Angola – and who had accounted for the majority of the skilled work in the public administration, agriculture, industries and trade – fled the country, leaving its once prosperous and growing economy in a state of bankruptcy.<ref>{{cite news|url= http://www.economist.com/node/12079340?story_id=12079340 |title= The Economist: Flight from Angola | date=16 August 1975}}</ref> For most of 1975–1990, the MPLA organised and maintained a socialist régime.<ref>M.R. Bhagavan (1986) ''Angola's Political Economy 1975–1985'', Uppsala: Nordiska Afrikainstitutet. ISBN 9171062483</ref> In 1990, when the Cold War ended, MPLA abandoned its ties to the [[Marxist–Leninist]] ideology and declared [[social democracy]] to be its official ideology,<ref name="Santos">{{Citation |first=Hélia |last=Santos |title=MPLA (Angola) |work=A Historical Companion to Postcolonial Literatures – Continental Europe and its Empires |publisher=Edinburgh University Press |year=2008 |page=480 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ghah5S3usnsC&pg=PA480&lpg=PA480&dq=mpla+angola+social+democratic&source=bl&ots=hxfntx9_9y&sig=UJ_BPW5nx_wwFF7QrYxZtN1Q8uE&hl=en&sa=X&ei=aYwqT9TKL42YOpHK4ZcO&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q=mpla%20angola%20social%20democratic&f=false}}</ref> going on to win the 1992 general election. However, eight opposition parties rejected the elections as [[rigged election|rigged]],<ref name=Multiple1992>National Society for Human Rights, ''Ending the Angolan Conflict'', Windhoek, Namibia, 3 July 2000 (opposition parties, massacres); John Matthew, Letters, ''The Times'', UK, 6 November 1992 (election observer); NSHR, Press Releases, 12 September 2000, 16 May 2001 (MPLA atrocities).</ref> sparking the [[Halloween massacre (Angola)|Halloween massacre]]. ===Ceasefire with UNITA=== [[File:Cabinda, R. Congo, D.R. Congo, Angola.png|thumb|{{legend|#ff0000|[[Cabinda Province]]}}{{legend|#00ff00|Republic of the Congo}}{{legend|#0000ff|Democratic Republic of the Congo}}{{legend|#ff00ff|The rest of Angola}}]] {{Main|2000s in Angola}} On 22 March 2002, [[Jonas Savimbi]], the leader of UNITA, was killed in combat with government troops. A cease-fire was reached by the two factions shortly afterwards.<ref name=CIA/> UNITA gave up its armed wing and assumed the role of major opposition party, although in the knowledge that in the present regime a legitimate democratic election was impossible. Although the political situation of the country began to stabilize, regular democratic processes were not established before the [[Elections in Angola]] in 2008 and 2012 and the adoption of a new [[Constitution of Angola]] in 2010, all of which strengthened the prevailing [[Dominant-party system]]. MPLA head officials continue e.g. to be given senior positions in top level companies or other fields, although a few outstanding UNITA figures are given some shares in the economic as well as in the military share.<ref>In 2006 a former UNITA general, Nduma, was appointed head of the general staff of the armed forces.</ref> Among Angola's major problems are a serious humanitarian crisis (a result of the prolonged war), the abundance of [[minefield]]s, the continuation of the political, and to a much lesser degree, military activities in favour of the independence of the northern [[exclave]] of [[Cabinda (province)|Cabinda]], carried out in the context of the protracted [[Cabinda Conflict]] by the [[Frente para a Libertação do Enclave de Cabinda]], but most of all, the dilapidation of the country's rich mineral resources by the regime. While most of the internally displaced have now settled around the capital, in the so-called "Musseques", the general situation for Angolans remains desperate.<ref>Lari (2004), Human Rights Watch (2005)</ref><ref>For an overall analysis see Ricardo Soares de Oliveira, Magnificant and Beggar Land: Angola since the Civil War, London: Hurst, 2015</ref> ==Geography== [[File:Beach of Coatinha in Benguela, Angola.jpg|thumb||Coatinha beach in [[Benguela]], Angola]] [[File:Miradouro da Lua (Angola).jpg|thumb|Miradouro da Lua, which can be translated as Watchpoint of the Moon, situated at the coast {{convert|40|km|mi|abbr=off}} south of Luanda, Angola]] [[File:Angola Topography.png|thumb|Topographic map of Angola.]] {{Main|Geography of Angola}} At {{convert|481321|sqmi|km2|disp=flip|abbr=on}},<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/rankorder/2147rank.html |title=CIA – The World Factbook – Country Comparison :: Area |publisher=United States Central Intelligence Agency|accessdate=13 July 2014}}</ref> Angola is the world's twenty-third largest country. It is comparable in size to Mali, or twice the size of France or Texas. It lies mostly between latitudes [[4th parallel south|4°]] and [[18th parallel south|18°S]], and longitudes [[12th meridian east|12°]] and [[24th meridian east|24°E]]. Angola is bordered by [[Namibia]] to the south, [[Zambia]] to the east, the [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]] to the north-east, and the [[South Atlantic Ocean]] to the west. The coastal [[exclave]] of [[Cabinda (province)|Cabinda]] in the north, borders the [[Republic of the Congo]] to the north, and the Democratic Republic of the Congo to the south.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Cabinda|publisher=Global Security|url=http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/world/war/cabinda.htm|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140708141035/http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/world/war/cabinda.htm|archivedate=8 July 2014|deadurl=no}}</ref> Angola's capital, [[Luanda]], lies on the Atlantic coast in the northwest of the country. ==Climate== {{Main|Climate of Angola}} [[File:Angola map of Köppen climate classification.svg|thumb|Angola map of Köppen climate classification.]] [[File:Marginal Avenida 4 de Fevreiro Luanda March 2013 02.JPG|thumb|Promenade on [[Luanda]] Bay]] Angola has three seasons, a dry season which lasts from May to October, a transitional season with some rain from November to January and a hot, rainy season from February to April. April is the wettest month.<ref>{{Cite book|author=Mulenga, Henry Mubanga|year=1999|title=Southern African climate anomalies, summer rainfall and the Angola low|series=PhD Dissertation|publisher=University of Cape Town|oclc=85939351}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|author=Jury, M. R.; Matari, E .E. and Matitu, M. |year=2008|title=Equatorial African climate teleconnections|journal=Theoretical and Applied Climatology|volume=95|issue=3–4|pages=407–416|doi=10.1007/s00704-008-0018-4|bibcode=2009ThApC..95..407J}}</ref> ==Politics== {{Main|Politics of Angola}} {{See also|Elections in Angola|Constitution of Angola|List of political parties in Angola||Foreign relations of Angola|List of diplomatic missions of Angola}} [[File:Vladimir Putin with Jose Eduardo dos Santos-1.jpg|thumb|[[José Eduardo dos Santos]] meets with [[Vladimir Putin]]]] Angola's motto is ''Virtus Unita Fortior'', a [[Latin]] phrase meaning "Virtue is stronger when united". The Angolan government is composed of three branches of government: executive, legislative, and judicial. The executive branch of the government is composed of the President, the Vice-Presidents and the Council of Ministers. The legislative branch comprises a 220-seat [[Unicameralism|unicameral]] legislature elected from both provincial and nationwide constituencies. For decades, political power has been concentrated in the presidency. The [[Constitution of Angola|Constitution of 2010]] establishes the broad outlines of government structure and delineates the rights and duties of citizens. The legal system is based on Portuguese and customary law but is weak and fragmented, and courts operate in only 12 of more than 140 municipalities.{{Citation needed|date=February 2015}} A Supreme Court serves as the appellate tribunal; a Constitutional Court does not hold the powers of judicial review.<ref name="CIA" /> Governors of the 18 provinces are appointed by the president. After the end of the Civil War the regime came under pressure from within as well as from the international community to become more democratic and less authoritarian. Its reaction was to implement a number of changes without substantially changing its character.<ref>Didier Péclard (ed.) (2008) ''L'Angola dans la paix: Autoritarisme et reconversions'', special issue of ''Politique africains'' (Paris), p. 110.</ref> Angola is classified as 'not free' by [[Freedom House]] in the [[Freedom in the World]] 2014 report.<ref name=freedomhouse>{{cite web|title=Angola|url=https://freedomhouse.org/report/freedom-world/2014/angola|work=Freedom in the World 2014|publisher=Freedom House|accessdate=7 February 2015}}</ref> The report noted that the [[Angolan legislative election, 2012|August 2012 parliamentary elections]], in which the ruling [[Popular Movement for the Liberation of Angola]] won more than 70% of the vote, suffered from serious flaws, including outdated and inaccurate voter rolls.<ref name=freedomhouse/> Voter turnout dropped from 80% in 2008 to 60%.<ref name=freedomhouse/> Angola scored poorly on the 2013 [[Ibrahim Index of African Governance]]. It was ranked 39 out of 52 [[sub-Saharan Africa]]n countries, scoring particularly badly in the areas of participation and human rights, sustainable economic opportunity, and human development. The Ibrahim Index uses a number of variables to compile its list which reflects the state of governance in Africa.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.moibrahimfoundation.org/iiag/ | title=Ibrahim Index of African Governance | publisher=Mo Ibrahim Foundation | accessdate=9 August 2014}}</ref> The [[Constitution of Angola|new constitution]], adopted in 2010, further sharpened the authoritarian character of the regime. In the future, there will be no presidential elections; the president and the vice-president of the political party which wins the parliamentary elections automatically become president and vice-president of Angola.<ref>In this manner, [[José Eduardo dos Santos]] is now finally in a legal situation. As he had gotten a plurality of votes in the 1992 presidential election, a second round—opposing him to [[Jonas Savimbi]]—was constitutionally necessary to make his election effective, but he did not hold this second round.</ref> Through a variety of mechanisms, the state president controls all the other organs of the state, so that separation of powers is not maintained. As a consequence, Angola no longer has a presidential system in the sense of the systems existing, e.g., in the [[Federal government of the United States|USA]] or in [[French government|France]]. In terms of the classifications used in constitutional law, its regime is considered one of several authoritarian regimes in Africa.<ref>Jorge Miranda (2010) "A Constituição de Angola de 2010", ''O Direito'' (Lisbon), vol. 142.</ref> On 16 October 2014, Angola was elected for the second time as a non-permanent member of the UN Security Council, with 190 favourable votes out of 193. The mandate begins on 1 January 2015 and lasts for two years.<ref>[http://www.reuters.com/article/2014/10/16/us-un-securitycouncil-election-idUSKCN0I522T20141016 Venezuela, Malaysia, Angola, N.Z., Spain win U.N. Council seats] Reuters, 16 October 2014</ref> Also in that month, the country took on the leadership of the Group of African Ministers and Governors at the [[International Monetary Fund]] and the [[World Bank]], following the debates at the annual meetings of both entities.<ref>[http://www.rna.ao/canalA/noticias.cgi?ID=95233 Angola assume presidência do grupo africano junto do FMI e BM (in Portuguese)] Rádio Nacional de Angola, 10 December 2014</ref> Since January 2014 the Republic of Angola has held the presidency of the [[International Conference on the Great Lakes Region]] (ICGLR).<ref>[http://www.portalangop.co.ao/angola/en_us/noticias/politica/2014/0/3/Angola-takes-over-rotative-presidency-Great-Lakes-Region,48aaaa5e-50c6-47cf-9a2f-191c6d9d06ba.html Angola takes over rotative presidency of Great Lakes Region] Angola Press Agency, 13 January 2014</ref> In 2015, the executive secretary of ICGLR, [[Ntumba Luaba]], said that Angola is the example to be followed by members of the organization, because of the significant progress made over the 12 years of peace, particularly in terms of socioeconomic and political-military stability.<ref>[http://www.portalangop.co.ao/angola/en_us/noticias/politica/2015/0/2/Angola-should-example-for-Great-Lakes-region-Ntumba-Luaba,92246d08-3ad0-4fd8-b107-7c87e4965de8.html Angola should be an example for Great Lakes region – Ntumba Luaba] Angola Press Agency, 8 January 2015</ref> ===Military=== [[File:Angolan Air Force Ilyushin Il-76TD Karpezo-1.jpg|thumb|Angolan Air Force Ilyushin Il-76TD Karpezo-1]] {{Main|Angolan Armed Forces}} The Angolan Armed Forces (AAF) is headed by a Chief of Staff who reports to the Minister of Defense. There are three divisions—the Army (Exército), Navy (Marinha de Guerra, MGA), and [[National Air Force of Angola|National Air Force]] (Força Aérea Nacional, FAN). Total manpower is about 110,000.{{citation needed|date=September 2012}} Its equipment includes Russian-manufactured fighters, bombers, and transport planes. There are also Brazilian-made EMB-312 Tucano for training role, Czech-made L-39 for training and bombing role, Czech Zlin for training role and a variety of western made aircraft such as C-212\Aviocar, Sud Aviation Alouette III, etc. A small number of AAF personnel are stationed in the [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]] (Kinshasa) and the [[Republic of the Congo]] (Brazzaville). ===Police=== The National Police departments are Public Order, Criminal Investigation, Traffic and Transport, Investigation and Inspection of Economic Activities, Taxation and Frontier Supervision, Riot Police and the Rapid Intervention Police. The National Police are in the process of standing up an air wing, which will provide helicopter support for operations. The National Police are developing their criminal investigation and forensic capabilities. The force has an estimated 6,000 patrol officers, 2,500 taxation and frontier supervision officers, 182 criminal investigators and 100 financial crimes detectives and around 90 economic activity inspectors.{{citation needed|date=September 2012}} The National Police have implemented a modernization and development plan to increase the capabilities and efficiency of the total force. In addition to administrative reorganization, modernization projects include procurement of new vehicles, aircraft and equipment, construction of new police stations and forensic laboratories, restructured training programs and the replacement of [[AKM rifle]]s with 9&nbsp;mm [[Uzi]]s for officers in urban areas. [[File:Angola transito.jpg|thumb|Chief inspector of Angola's National Police]] ===Justice=== In 2014, a new penal code took effect in Angola. The classification of money-laundering as a crime is one of the novelties in the new legislation.<ref>[http://www.noticiasaominuto.com/mundo/280463/angola-com-novo-codigo-penal-ainda-este-ano Angola com novo Código Penal ainda este ano], Notícias ao Minuto, 24 September 2014</ref> ==Administrative divisions== [[File:Angola Provinces numbered 300px.png|thumb|Map of Angola with the provinces numbered]] {{Main|Provinces of Angola|Municipalities of Angola|Communes of Angola}} Angola is divided into [[Provinces of Angola|eighteen provinces]] (''províncias'') and [[Municipalities of Angola|163 municipalities]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Virtual Angola Facts and Statistics|publisher=The Embassy of the Republic of Angola, UK|url=http://www.angola.org.uk/facts_government.htm|archiveurl =https://web.archive.org/web/20071011135238/http://www.angola.org.uk/facts_government.htm|archivedate = 11 October 2007|deadurl=yes}}</ref> The municipalities are further divided into 475 communes (townships).<ref>{{cite web|title=The Country: Political and Administrative Division|publisher=Consulado Geral da República de Angola, Região Administrativa Especial de Macau|url=http://www.consgeralangola.org.mo/html/en/country.html|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110912030412/http://www.consgeralangola.org.mo/html/en/country.html|archivedate=11 September 2011|deadurl=no}}</ref> The provinces are: {| | #[[Bengo (province)|Bengo]] #[[Benguela Province|Benguela]] #[[Bié (province)|Bié]] #[[Cabinda (province)|Cabinda]] #[[Cuando Cubango]] #[[Cuanza Norte]] #[[Cuanza Sul]] #[[Cunene (province)|Cunene]] #[[Huambo Province|Huambo]] | <ol start=10> <li>[[Huíla Province|Huíla]] <li>[[Luanda Province|Luanda]] <li>[[Lunda Norte]] <li>[[Lunda Sul]] <li>[[Malanje Province|Malanje]] <li>[[Moxico (province)|Moxico]] <li>[[Namibe Province|Namibe]] <li>[[Uíge Province|Uíge]] <li>[[Zaire Province|Zaire]] </ol> |} ===Exclave of Cabinda=== {{Main|Cabinda (province)|l1=Cabinda|Republic of Cabinda}} [[File:Flag of Cabinda.svg|thumb|Flag of the [[Front for the Liberation of the Enclave of Cabinda|Front for the Liberation of the Enclave of Cabinda (FLEC)]]]] With an area of approximately {{convert|7283|km2|sqmi}}, the Northern Angolan province of Cabinda is unusual in being separated from the rest of the country by a strip, some {{convert|60|km}} wide, of the [[Democratic Republic of Congo]] along the lower [[Congo river]]. Cabinda borders the [[Congo Republic]] to the north and north-northeast and the DRC to the east and south. The town of Cabinda is the chief population center. According to a 1995 census, Cabinda had an estimated population of 600,000, approximately 400,000 of whom live in neighboring countries. Population estimates are, however, highly unreliable. Consisting largely of tropical forest, Cabinda produces hardwoods, coffee, cocoa, crude rubber and palm oil. The product for which it is best known, however, is its oil, which has given it the nickname, "the Kuwait of Africa". Cabinda's petroleum production from its considerable offshore reserves now accounts for more than half of Angola's output.<ref>{{cite news|title=Angola profile|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-13036732 | publisher=BBC News | date=22 December 2013}}</ref> Most of the oil along its coast was discovered under [[Portuguese Angola|Portuguese rule]] by the Cabinda Gulf Oil Company (CABGOC) from 1968 onwards. Ever since [[Portugal]] handed over sovereignty of its former overseas province of Angola to the local independence groups (MPLA, UNITA, and FNLA), the territory of Cabinda has been a focus of separatist guerrilla actions opposing the [[Government of Angola]] (which has employed its military forces, the FAA—Forças Armadas Angolanas) and Cabindan separatists. The [[Front for the Liberation of the Enclave of Cabinda]]-[[Forças Armadas de Cabinda|Armed Forces of Cabinda]] (FLEC-FAC) announced a virtual Federal Republic of Cabinda under the Presidency of N'Zita Henriques Tiago. One of the characteristics of the Cabindan independence movement is its constant fragmentation, into smaller and smaller factions. ==Economy== {{Main|Economy of Angola}} [[File:First WAFMAX in Angola 3 (8222830479).jpg|thumb|A booming economy due to oil revenues and stable politics, Angola has seen an increase in its international trading sector]] [[File:Luanda-Sonangol.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Downtown Luanda]] [[File:TAAG 777-3M2ER.jpg|thumb|[[TAAG Angolan Airlines]] is Angola's national airline]] Angola has a rich subsoil heritage, from diamonds, oil, gold, copper, and a rich wildlife (dramatically impoverished during the civil war), forest, and fossils. Since independence, oil and diamonds have been the most important economic resource. Smallholder and plantation agriculture have dramatically dropped because of the [[Angolan Civil War]], but have begun to recover after 2002. The transformation industry that had come into existence in the late colonial period collapsed at independence, because of the exodus of most of the ethnic Portuguese population, but has begun to reemerge (with updated technologies), partly because of the influx of new Portuguese entrepreneurs. Similar developments can be verified in the service sector. Overall, Angola's economy has undergone a period of transformation in recent years, moving from the disarray caused by a quarter century of civil war to being the fastest growing economy in Africa and one of the fastest in the world, with an average GDP growth of 20 percent between 2005 and 2007.<ref>[http://www.mfw4a.org/angola/angola-financial-sector-profile.html Angola Financial Sector Profile: MFW4A – Making Finance Work for Africa]. MFW4A. Retrieved 9 August 2013.</ref> In the period 2001–10, Angola had the world's highest [[annual average GDP growth]], at 11.1 percent. In 2004, China's [[Eximbank]] approved a $2&nbsp;billion line of credit to Angola. The loan is being used to rebuild Angola's infrastructure, and has also limited the influence of the [[International Monetary Fund]] in the country.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.pinr.com/report.php?ac=view_report&report_id=460&language_id=1 |title=The Increasing Importance of African Oil |work=Power and Interest Report |date=20 March 2006 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/20050514082050/http://www.pinr.com:80/report.php?ac=view_report |archivedate=14 May 2005 }}</ref> China is Angola's biggest trade partner and export destination as well as the fourth-largest importer. Bilateral trade reached $27.67&nbsp;billion in 2011, up 11.5 percent year-on-year. China's imports, mainly crude oil and diamonds, increased 9.1 percent to $24.89&nbsp;billion while China's exports, including mechanical and electrical products, machinery parts and construction materials, surged 38.8 percent.{{citation needed|date=January 2013}} The overabundance of oil led to a local unleaded gasoline "pricetag" of [[Pound sterling|£]]0.37 per gallon.<ref>[http://www.telegraph.co.uk/expat/expatnews/8632811/Luanda-capital-of-Angola-retains-title-of-worlds-most-expensive-for-expats.html Luanda, capital of Angola, retains title of world's most expensive for expats]. ''The Daily Telegraph''. Retrieved 9 August 2013.</ref> ''The Economist'' reported in 2008 that diamonds and oil make up 60 percent of Angola's economy, almost all of the country's revenue and are its dominant exports.<ref>[http://www.economist.com/node/12009946 "Marching towards riches and democracy?"] [[The Economist]]. 30 August 2008. p. 46.</ref> Growth is almost entirely driven by rising [[Extraction of petroleum|oil production]] which surpassed {{convert|1.4|Moilbbl/d|m3/d}} in late 2005 and was expected to grow to {{convert|2|Moilbbl/d|m3/d}} by 2007. Control of the [[Petroleum industry|oil industry]] is consolidated in [[Sonangol Group]], a conglomerate which is owned by the Angolan government. In December 2006, Angola was admitted as a member of [[OPEC]].<ref>{{cite news|title=Angola: Country Admitted As Opec Member |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/200612140990.html |date=14 December 2006 |publisher=Angola Press Agency}}</ref> However, operations in [[List of diamond mines|diamond mines]] include partnerships between state-run [[Endiama]] and mining companies such as [[ALROSA]] which continue operations in Angola.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.angolancentenary.com/press6.pdf |title=ACTUAL ARTICLE TITLE BELONGS HERE! |publisher=angolancentenary.com |accessdate=13 July 2014}}</ref> The economy grew 18% in 2005, 26% in 2006 and 17.6% in 2007. However, due to the global recession the economy contracted an estimated −0.3% in 2009.<ref name=CIA/> The security brought about by the 2002 peace settlement has led to the resettlement of 4&nbsp;million displaced persons, thus resulting in large-scale increases in agriculture production. Although the country's economy has developed significantly since achieving political stability in 2002, mainly thanks to the fast-rising earnings of the oil sector, Angola faces huge social and economic problems. These are in part a result of the almost continual state of conflict from 1961 onwards, although the highest level of destruction and socio-economic damage took place after the 1975 independence, during the long years of [[Angolan civil war|civil war]]. However, high poverty rates and blatant social inequality are chiefly the outcome of a combination of a persistent political authoritarianism, of "neo-patrimonial" practices at all levels of the political, administrative, military, and economic apparatuses, and of [[Corruption in Angola|a pervasive corruption]].<ref>Anti-corruption watchdog [[Transparency International]] rates Angola one of the 10 most corrupt countries in the world.</ref><ref>Kerry A. Dolan (23 January 2013). [http://www.forbes.com/sites/kerryadolan/2013/01/23/isabel-dos-santos-daughter-of-angolas-president-is-africas-first-woman-billionaire/ "Isabel Dos Santos, Daughter Of Angola's President, Is Africa's First Woman Billionaire"]. ''Forbes''.</ref> The main beneficiary of this situation is a social segment constituted since 1975, but mainly during the last decades, around the political, administrative, economic, and military power holders, which has accumulated (and continues accumulating) enormous wealth.<ref>This process is well analyzed by authors like Christine Messiant, Tony Hodges and others. For an eloquent illustrating, see now the Angolan magazine ''Infra-Estruturas África'' 7/2010.</ref> "Secondary beneficiaries" are the middle strata which are about to become social classes. However, overall almost half the population has to be considered as poor, but in this respect there are dramatic differences between the countryside and the cities (where by now slightly more than 50% of the people live). An inquiry carried out in 2008 by the Angolan Instituto Nacional de Estatística has it that in the rural areas roughly 58% must be classified as "poor", according to UN norms, but in the urban areas only 19%, while the overall rate is 37%.<ref>[http://web.archive.org/web/20131026082704/http://www.exameangola.com/pt/?det=16943&id=2000&mid= País ao raios X]. ''Angola Exame''. 12 November 2010</ref> In the cities, a majority of families, well beyond those officially classified as poor, have to adopt a variety of survival strategies.<ref>Cristina Udelsmann Rodrigues (2006) ''O Trabalho Dignifica o Homem: Estratégias de Sobrevivência em Luanda'', Lisbon: Colibri.</ref> At the same time, in urban areas social inequality is most evident, and assumes extreme forms in the capital, Luanda.<ref>As an excellent illustration see ''Luanda: A vida na cidade dos extremos'', in: ''Visão'', 11 November 2010.</ref> In the [[Human Development Index]] Angola constantly ranks in the bottom group.<ref>The HDI 2010 lists Angola in the 146th position among 169 countries—one position below that of Haiti. See [http://www.undp.org/publications/hdr2010/en/HDR_2010_EN_Table1.pdf ''Human Development Index and its components.'']</ref> According to [[The Heritage Foundation]], a conservative American [[think tank]], oil production from Angola has increased so significantly that Angola now is China's biggest supplier of oil.<ref>{{cite web|last=Alt |first=Robert |url=http://www.heritage.org/research/africa/HL1006.CFM |title=Into Africa: China's Grab for Influence and Oil |publisher=Heritage.org |accessdate=27 June 2010}}</ref> Growing oil revenues have also created opportunities for [[Corruption in Angola|corruption]]: according to a recent [[Human Rights Watch]] report, 32&nbsp;billion US dollars disappeared from government accounts from 2007 to 2010.<ref>{{cite web |accessdate=22 December 2011 |url=http://www.hrw.org/news/2011/12/20/angola-explain-missing-government-funds |title=Angola: Explain Missing Government Funds |publisher=Human Rights Watch |date=20 December 2011}}</ref> Before independence in 1975, [[Angola (Portugal)|Angola]] was a breadbasket of southern Africa and a major exporter of [[bananas]], coffee and [[sisal]], but [[Angolan Civil War|three decades of civil war]] (1975–2002) destroyed the fertile countryside, leaving it littered with landmines and driving millions into the cities. The country now depends on expensive food imports, mainly from South Africa and [[Portugal]], while more than 90 percent of farming is done at family and subsistence level. Thousands of Angolan small-scale farmers are trapped in poverty.<ref>Louise Redvers, [http://ipsnews.net/africa/nota.asp?idnews=47123 POVERTY-ANGOLA: Inter Press Service News Agency – NGOs Sceptical of Govt's Rural Development Plans]. Retrieved 6 June 2009</ref> The enormous differences between the regions pose a serious structural problem in the Angolan economy. This is best illustrated by the fact that about one third of the economic activities is concentrated in Luanda and the neighbouring Bengo province, while several areas of the interior are characterized by stagnation and even regression.<ref>Manuel Alves da Rocha (2010) [http://www.ceic-ucan.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/01/desigualdades-e-assimetrias-regionais-em-angola.pdf ''Desigualdades e assimetrias regionais em Angola: Os factores da competitividade territorial''], Luanda: Centro de Estudos e Investigação Científica da Universidade Católica de Angola.</ref> One of the economic consequences of the social and regional disparities is a sharp increase in Angolan private investments abroad. The small fringe of Angolan society where most of the accumulation takes place seeks to spread its assets, for reasons of security and profit. For the time being, the biggest share of these investments is concentrated in Portugal where the [[Angolans in Portugal|Angolan presence]] (including that of the family of the state president) in banks as well as in the domains of energy, [[Telecommunications in Angola|telecommunications]], and mass media has become notable, as has the acquisition of vineyards and orchards as well as of touristic enterprises.<ref>"A força do kwanza", ''Visão'' (Lisbon), 993, 15 May 2012, pp. 50–54</ref> [[Sub-Saharan Africa]] nations are globally achieving impressive improvements in well-being, according to a report by [[Tony Blair]] Africa Governance Initiative and [[The Boston Consulting Group]].<ref>[http://www.tonyblairoffice.org/africa/news-entry/The-New-Prosperity-Strategies-for-Improving-Well-Being-in-Sub-Saharan-Afri/ The New Prosperity: Strategies for Improving Well-Being in Sub-Saharan Africa] Tony Blair Africa Governance Initiative 1 May 2013</ref> Angola has upgraded critical infrastructure, an investment made possible by funds from the nation's development of oil resources. According to this report, just slightly more than ten years after the end of the [[Angolan Civil War|civil war]] Angola's standard of living has overall greatly improved. Life expectancy, which was just 46 years in 2002, reached 51 in 2011. Mortality rates for children fell from 25 percent in 2001 to 19 percent in 2010 and the number of students enrolled in primary school has tripled since 2001.<ref>[https://www.bcgperspectives.com/Images/BCG_The_New_Prosperity_tcm80-133457.pdf The New Prosperity: Strategies for Improving Well-Being in Sub-Saharan Africa] Report by The Boston Consulting Group and Tony Blair Africa Governance Initiative, May 2013</ref> However, at the same time the social and economic inequality that has characterised the country since long has not diminished, but on the contrary deepened in all respects. With a stock of assets corresponding to 70&nbsp;billion USD (6.8&nbsp;billion Kz), Angola is now the third largest financial market in sub-Saharan Africa, surpassed only by [[Nigeria]] and South Africa. According to the Angolan Minister of Economy, [[Abraão Gourgel]], the financial market of the country grew modestly from 2002 and now lies in third place at the level of sub-Saharan Africa.<ref>[http://www.macauhub.com.mo/en/2014/07/23/angola-is-the-third-largest-sub-saharan-financial-market/ Angola is the third-largest sub-Saharan financial market], MacauHub, 23 July 2014</ref> Angola's economy is expected to grow by 3.9 percent in 2014 said the [[International Monetary Fund]] (IMF). According to the Fund, robust growth in the nonoil economy, mainly driven by a very good performance in the agricultural sector, is expected to offset a temporary drop in oil production.<ref>[http://en.starafrica.com/news/angolas-economy-to-grow-by-3-9-percent-imf.html Angola’s economy to grow by 3.9 percent-IMF] StarAfrica, 4 September 2014</ref> Angola's financial system is maintained by the [[National Bank of Angola]] and managed by governor [[:no:Jose de Lima Massano|Jose de Lima Massano]]. According to a study on the banking sector, carried out by [[Deloitte]], the monetary policy led by [[Banco Nacional de Angola]] (BNA), the Angolan national bank, allowed a decrease in the inflation rate put at 7.96% in December 2013, which contributed to the sector's growth trend.<ref>[http://www.portalangop.co.ao/angola/pt_pt/noticias/economia/2014/8/39/Angola-Sector-bancario-mantem-crescimento-2013,cd70b614-7123-4e91-b07f-caed89276592.html Angola: Sector bancário mantém crescimento em 2013], Angola Press (26 September 2014)</ref> According to estimates released by Angola's central bank, the country's economy should grow at an annual average rate of 5 percent over the next four years, boosted by the increasing participation of the private sector.<ref>[http://af.reuters.com/article/investingNews/idAFKCN0HV1EN20141006 Angola seen growing average 5 percent: Central Bank], Reuters (Africa), 10 June 2014</ref> On 19 December 2014, the Capital Market in Angola started. [[Angola Stock Exchange|BODIVA]] (Angola Securities and Debt Stock Exchange, in English) received the secondary public debt market, and it is expected to start the corporate debt market by 2015, but the stock market should only be a reality in 2016.<ref>[http://www.portalangop.co.ao/angola/en_us/noticias/economia/2014/11/51/Angola-CMC-prepares-launch-debt-secondary-market,54877cb4-fc83-4047-8752-a27150a365dc.html CMC prepares launch of debt secondary market] Angola Press Agency, 16 December 2014</ref> ===Transport=== {{Main|Transport in Angola}} [[File:Aeroport-4-de-Fevereiro-Chegadas LWS1962.JPG|thumb|[[Luanda Airport|Quatro de Fevereiro Luanda Airport]] arrivals]] Transport in Angola consists of: *Three separate [[Rail transport in Angola|railway systems]] totalling 2,761&nbsp;km (1,715&nbsp;mi) *{{convert|76626|km|0|abbr=on}} of highway of which {{convert|19156|km|0|abbr=on}} is paved *1,295 navigable inland waterways *Eight major [[sea port]]s *243 [[List of airports in Angola|airports]], of which 32 are paved. Travel on highways outside of towns and cities in Angola (and in some cases within) is often not best advised for those without four-by-four vehicles. While a reasonable road infrastructure has existed within Angola, time and the war have taken their toll on the road surfaces, leaving many severely potholed, littered with broken asphalt. In many areas drivers have established alternate tracks to avoid the worst parts of the surface, although careful attention must be paid to the presence or absence of landmine warning markers by the side of the road. The Angolan government has contracted the restoration of many of the country's roads. The road between Lubango and Namibe, for example, was completed recently with funding from the European Union, and is comparable to many European main routes. Progress to complete the road infrastructure is likely to take some decades, but substantial efforts are already being made in the right directions. ===Telecommunications=== The [[telecommunications]] industry is considered one of the main strategic sectors in Angola.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.anip.co.ao/index.php?pag=conteudos&id=6|title=Sectores Económicos Prioritários|publisher=ANIP|language=Portuguese}}</ref> In October 2014, the building of a [[optic fiber]] underwater cable was announced.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.portalangop.co.ao/angola/pt_pt/noticias/economia/2014/9/42/Angola-Cables-parceiros-estrangeiros-anunciam-construcao-cabo-submarino,db62f448-710d-4cc5-80c5-fcee32a1a991.html|title=Angola Cables e parceiros estrangeiros anunciam construção de cabo submarino|date=14 October 2014|publisher=ANGOP|language=Portuguese}}</ref> This project aims to turn Angola into a continental hub, thus improving Internet connections both nationally and internationally.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://oglobo.globo.com/sociedade/tecnologia/cabo-submarino-que-ligara-brasil-africa-tera-capacidade-de-40-terabits-por-segundo-11456022|title=Cabo submarino que ligará Brasil à África terá capacidade de 40 terabits por segundo|author=André Machado|date=30 January 2014|publisher=O Globo|language=Portuguese}}</ref> On 11 March 2015, the First Angolan Forum of Telecommunications and Information Technology was held, in [[Luanda]] under the motto "The challenges of telecommunications in the current context of Angola".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://jornaldeangola.sapo.ao/politica/nacao_esta_mais_ligada|title=Nação está mais ligada|author=Adelina Inácio|date=12 March 2015|publisher=Jornal de Angola|language=Portuguese}}</ref> The purpose of this forum was to promote the debate on topical issues on telecommunications in Angola and worldwide.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.portalangop.co.ao/angola/en_us/noticias/economia/2015/2/11/Angola-has-about-million-mobile-phone-network-users-Minister,2053f698-ce71-4ed2-9910-cd5819ad539d.html|title=Angola has about 14 million mobile phone network users – Minister|date=12 March 2015|publisher=ANGOP}}</ref> A study about this sector was also presented at this forum, and some of its conclusions were: Angola had the first telecommunications operator in Africa to test the High Speed Internet technology (LTE-Advanced with speeds up to 400Mbit/s); It has a mobile penetration rate of about 75%; There are about 3.5 million smartphones in the Angolan market; There are about {{convert|25,000|km|mi|abbr=off}} of optical fiber installed in the country.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.platinaline.com/index.php/component/k2/item/14117-angola-com-crescimento-anual-superior-a-55-no-sector-das-tic|title=Angola com crescimento anual superior a 55% no sector das TIC|date=12 March 2015|publisher=Platina Line|language=Portuguese}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.verangola.net/Artigos/Sector-das-TIC-com-crescimento-anual-superior-a-55-por-cento-na-ultima-decada=005331|title=Sector das TIC com crescimento anual superior a 55 por cento na última década|date=13 March 2015|publisher=Ver Angola|language=Portuguese}}</ref> The first Angolan satellite, AngoSat-1, will be ready for launch into orbit in 2017<ref>{{Cite web|title = Lançamento de satélite angolano volta a ser adiado, agora para 2017|url = http://br.sputniknews.com/portuguese.ruvr.ru/news/2014_04_12/Lan-amento-de-sat-lite-angolano-volta-a-ser-adiado-agora-para-2017-1109/|website = br.sputniknews.com|accessdate = 2015-11-19}}</ref> and it will ensure telecommunications throughout the country.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.portalangop.co.ao/angola/en_us/noticias/ciencia-e-tecnologia/2014/8/37/Conclusion-works-Angosat-project-set-for-2016,580015f8-0b1f-46b1-b6b1-ebfd1beb5253.html|title=Conclusion works of "Angosat" project set for 2016|date=8 September 2014|publisher=ANGOP}}</ref> According to Aristides Safeca, Secretary of State for Telecommunications, the satellite will provide telecommunications services, TV, internet and [[e-government]] and will remain into orbit "at best" for 18 years.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://observador.pt/2014/11/04/primeiro-satelite-angolano-pronto-para-ser-lancado-em-2016/|title=Primeiro satélite angolano pronto para ser lançado em 2016|author=Agência Lusa|date=4 November 2014|publisher=Observador|language=Portuguese}}</ref> ===Technology=== The management of the domain '.ao' on web pages, will go from [[Portugal]] to Angola in 2015, following the approval of a new legislation by the Angolan Government.<ref>[http://www.telecompaper.com/news/angola-to-manage-own-internet-domain-from-2015--1037238 Angola to manage own internet domain from 2015] Telecompaper, 16 September 2014</ref> The joint decree of the minister of Telecommunications and Information Technologies, José Carvalho da Rocha, and the minister of Science and Technology, Maria Cândida Pereira Teixeira, states that "under the massification" of that Angolan domain, "conditions are created for the transfer of the domain root '.ao' of Portugal to Angola".<ref>[http://www.macauhub.com.mo/en/2014/09/16/angola-manages-its-own-internet-domain/ Angola manages its own Internet domain] Macauhub, 16 September 2014</ref> ==Demographics== {{Main|Demographics of Angola}} Angola has a population of 24,383,301 inhabitants according to the preliminary results of its 2014 census, the first one conducted or carried out since 15 December 1970.<ref name=unpop/> It is composed of [[Ovimbundu]] (language [[Umbundu]]) 37%, [[Northern Mbundu people|Ambundu]] (language [[Kimbundu]]) 25%, [[Bakongo]] 13%, and 32% other ethnic groups (including the [[Chokwe people|Chokwe]], the [[Ovambo people|Ovambo]], the [[Ganguela]] and the [[Xindonga]]) as well as about 2% ''mestiços'' (mixed European and African), 1.4% Chinese and 1% European.<ref name=CIA/> The Ambundu and Ovimbundu nations combined form a majority of the population, at 62%.<ref>As no reliable census data exist at this stage (2011), all these numbers are rough estimates only, subject to adjustments and updates.</ref> The population is forecast to grow to over 60 million people to 2050, 2.7 times the 2014 population.<ref>[http://www.prb.org/DataFinder/Topic/Rankings.aspx?ind=1&loc=294 2050 Population as a Multiple of 2014]. PRB 2014 World Population Data Sheet</ref> However, in March 23, 2016, official data revealed by Angola's National Statistic Institute - Instituto Nacional de Estatística (INE), states that Angola has a population of 25.789.024 inhabitants. It is estimated that Angola was host to 12,100 refugees and 2,900 asylum seekers by the end of 2007. 11,400 of those refugees were originally from the Democratic Republic of Congo, who arrived in the 1970s.<ref>U.S. Committee for Refugees and Immigrants. [http://web.archive.org/web/20110126130051/http://www.refugees.org/countryreports.aspx?id=2117 "World Refugee Survey 2008"]. p. 37</ref> {{As of|2008}} there were an estimated 400,000 [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]] migrant workers,<ref>[http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/country,,USCRI,,COD,456d621e2,485f50c0c,0.html World Refugee Survey 2008 – Angola], UNHCR. NB: This figure is highly doubtful, as it makes no clear distinction between migrant workers, refugees, and immigrants.</ref> at least 30,000 [[Portuguese Angolans|Portuguese]],<ref>[http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/6619.htm Angola], U.S. Department of State. NB: Estimations in 2011 put that number at 100,000, and add about 150,000 to 200,000 other Europeans and Latin Americans.</ref> and about 259,000 [[Chinese people in Angola|Chinese living in Angola]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://visao.sapo.pt/angola-cerca-de-259000-chineses-vivem-atualmente-no-pais=f660830|title=Angola: Cerca de 259.000 chineses vivem atualmente no país|work=Visão|date=25 April 2012|accessdate=13 January 2013|postscript={{inconsistent citations}}}}</ref> Since 2003, more than 400,000 [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Congolese]] migrants have been expelled from Angola.<ref>"[http://www.ipsnews.net/2012/05/calls-for-angola-to-investigate-abuse-of-congolese-migrants/ Calls for Angola to Investigate Abuse of Congolese Migrants]". [[Inter Press Service]]. 21 May 2012</ref> Prior to independence in 1975, Angola had a community of approximately 350,000 Portuguese,<ref>{{cite journal|author=Gerald Bender |author2= Stanley Yoder|title=Whites in Angola on the Eve of Independence. The Politics of Numbers|journal=Africa Today|volume= 21 |issue=4|year=1974|pages=23–27|jstor=4185453}} [http://www.economist.com/world/mideast-africa/displayStory.cfm?story_id=12079340 Flight from Angola], ''The Economist '', 16 August 1975 puts the number at 500,000, but this is an estimate lacking appropriate sources.</ref> but the vast majority left after independence and the ensuing civil war. However, Angola has recovered its Portuguese minority in recent years; currently, there are about 200,000 registered with the consulates, and increasing due to the debt crisis in Portugal and the relative prosperity in Angola.<ref>{{cite news| url=http://www.publico.pt/economia/noticia/jose-eduardo-dos-santos-diz-que-trabalhadores-portugueses-sao-bem-vindos-em-angola-1596693 |location=Lisbon |work=Público | first1=Rita | last1=Siza | title=José Eduardo dos Santos diz que trabalhadores portugueses são bem-vindos em Angola | date=6 June 2013}}</ref> The Chinese population stands at 258,920, mostly composed of temporary migrants.<ref>Tom Phillips (26 August 2012) "[http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/asia/china/9500517/Chinese-gangsters-repatriated-from-Angola.html Chinese 'gangsters' repatriated from Angola]", ''The Daily Telegraph''</ref> Also, there is a small [[Brazil]]ian community of about 5,000 people.<ref>[http://globalvoicesonline.org/2008/08/17/angola-brazil-a-culture-shock-divide/: Angola, Brazil – A culture shock divide]</ref> The [[total fertility rate]] of Angola is 5.54 children born per woman (2012 estimates), the 11th highest in the world.<ref name=CIA>{{cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/ao.html |title=CIA – The World Factbook |publisher=United States Central Intelligence Agency }}</ref> ===Languages=== {{Main|Languages of Angola}} [[File:CPLP map-pt.svg|thumb|upright=1.7|Angola is a member of [[CPLP]] – Community of Portuguese-speaking nations]] The languages in Angola are those originally spoken by the different ethnic groups and [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]], introduced during the Portuguese colonial era. The indigenous languages with the largest usage are [[Umbundu]], [[Kimbundu]], and [[Kikongo]], in that order. Portuguese is the official language of the country. Mastery of the official language is probably more extended in Angola than it is elsewhere in Africa, and this certainly applies to its use in everyday life. Moreover, and above all, the proportion of native (or near native) speakers of the language of the former colonizer, turned official after independence, is no doubt considerably higher than in any other African country.{{Citation needed|date=January 2011}} There are three intertwined historical reasons for this situation. #In the Portuguese "bridgeheads" [[Luanda]] and [[Benguela]], which existed on the coast of what today is Angola since the 15th and 16th century, respectively, Portuguese was spoken not only by the Portuguese and their ''mestiço'' descendents, but—especially in and around Luanda—by a significant number of Africans, although these always remained native speakers of their local African language. #Since the Portuguese conquest of the present territory of Angola, and especially since its "effective occupation" in the mid-1920s, schooling in Portuguese was slowly developed by the colonial state as well as by Catholic and Protestant missions. The rhythm of this expansion was considerably accelerated during the late colonial period, 1961–1974, so that by the end of the colonial period children all over the territory (with relatively few exceptions) had at least some access to the Portuguese language.<ref>An illustration is Franz-Wilhelm Heimer, ''Educação e sociedade nas áreas rurais de Angola: Resultados de um inquérito’’, vol. 2, ''Análise do universo agrícola'' (survey report), Serviços de Planeamento e Integração Económica de Angola, Luanda, 1974</ref> #In the same late colonial period, the legal discrimination of the black population was abolished, and the state apparatus in fields like health, education, social work, and rural development was enlarged. This entailed a significant increase in jobs for Africans, under the condition that they spoke Portuguese. As a consequence of all this, the African "lower middle class" which at that stage formed in Luanda and other cities began to often prevent their children from learning the local African language, in order to guarantee that they learned Portuguese as their native language. At the same time, the white and "mestiço" population, where some knowledge of African languages could previously often been found, neglected this aspect more and more, to the point of frequently ignoring it totally. After independence, these tendencies continued, and were even strengthened, under the rule of the MPLA which has its main social roots exactly in those social segments where the mastery of Portuguese as well as the proportion of native Portuguese speakers was highest. This became a political side issue, as FNLA and UNITA, given their regional constituencies, came out in favour of a greater attention to the African languages, and as the FNLA favoured French over Portuguese. The dynamics of the language situation, as described above, were additionally fostered by the massive migrations triggered by the Civil War. [[Ovimbundu]], the most populous ethnic group and the most affected by the war, appeared in great numbers in urban areas outside their areas, especially in Luanda and surroundings. At the same time, a majority of the [[Bakongo]] who had fled to the [[Democratic Republic of Congo]] in the early 1960s, or of their children and grandchildren, returned to Angola, but mostly did not settle in their original "habitat", but in the cities—and again above all in Luanda. As a consequence, more than half the population is now living in the cities which, from the linguistic point of view, have become highly heterogeneous. This means, of course, that Portuguese as the overall national language of communication is by now of paramount importance, and that the role of the African languages is steadily decreasing among the urban population—a trend which is beginning to spread into rural areas as well. The exact numbers of those fluent in Portuguese or who speak Portuguese as a first language are unknown, although a census is expected to be carried out in July–August 2013.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.paris21.org/node/1176|title=Angola: Population Census Dates Set|publisher=[[PARIS21]]|quote=Angola has set dates for their population census: from 16 July to 18 August 2013|date=19 April 2011|accessdate=22 April 2013}}</ref>{{update after|2013|07|16|reason=According to the source, the census will have started as of 16 July 2013.}} Quite a number of voices demand the recognition of "Angolan Portuguese" as a specific variant, comparable to those spoken in Portugal or in Brazil. However, while there exists a certain number of idiomatic particularities in everyday Portuguese, as spoken by Angolans, it remains to be seen whether or not the Angolan government comes to the conclusion that these particularities constitute a configuration that justifies the claim to be a new language variant. ===Religion=== {{Main|Religion in Angola|Christianity in Angola|Islam in Angola}} [[File:Angola Ethnic map 1970.svg|thumb|Ethnic groups of Angola 1970 (with areas where the so-called "Ganguela" groups are dominant, marked green)]] There are about 1000 mostly Christian religious communities in Angola.<ref>Fátima Viegas (2008) ''Panorama das Religiões em Angola Independente (1975–2008)'', Ministério da Cultura/Instituto Nacional para os Assuntos Religiosos, Luanda</ref> While reliable statistics are nonexistent, estimates have it that more than half of the population are Catholics, while about a quarter adhere to the Protestant churches introduced during the colonial period: the [[Congregationalist]]s mainly among the [[Ovimbundu]] of the Central Highlands and the coastal region to its West, the [[Methodists]] concentrating on the [[Kimbundu]] speaking strip from Luanda to Malanje, the [[Baptists]] almost exclusively among the [[Bakongo]] of the Northwest (now present in Luanda as well) and dispersed [[Adventists]], [[Reformed]] and [[Lutherans]].<ref>Benedict Schubert (1997) ''Der Krieg und die Kirchen: Angola 1961–1991''. Exodus, Luzern/Switzerland</ref><ref>Lawrence W. Henderson (1989) ''The Church in Angola: A river of many currents'', Cleveland: Pilgrim Press</ref> In Luanda and region there subsists a nucleus of the "[[syncretic]]" [[Tocoists]] and in the northwest a sprinkling of [[Kimbanguism]] can be found, spreading from the Congo/Zaïre. Since independence, hundreds of [[Pentecostal]] and similar communities have sprung up in the cities, where by now about 50% of the population is living; several of these communities/churches are of Brazilian origin. The U.S. Department of State estimates the Muslim population at 80,000–90,000,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.state.gov/j/drl/rls/irf/2008/108352.htm |title=Angola |publisher=State.gov |date=19 September 2008 |accessdate=13 July 2014}}</ref> while the [[Islam in Angola|Islamic Community of Angola]] puts the figure closer to 500,000.<ref>[http://www.opais.net/pt/opais/?id=1657&det=23057 Surgimento do Islão em Angola]. ''O Pais''. 2 September 2011. p. 18</ref> Muslims consist largely of migrants from West Africa and the Middle East (especially [[Lebanon]]), although some are local converts.<ref name="customs">Oyebade, Adebayo O. ''Culture And Customs of Angola'', 2006. Pages 45–46.</ref> The Angolan government does not [[Islam in Angola#Legal status|legally recognize]] any Muslim organizations and often shuts down mosques or prevents their construction.<ref name=IRFR2012>{{cite web|title=ANGOLA 2012 INTERNATIONAL RELIGIOUS FREEDOM REPORT|url=http://www.state.gov/documents/organization/208328.pdf|publisher=state.gov}}</ref> In a study assessing nations' levels of religious regulation and persecution with scores ranging from 0 to 10 where 0 represented low levels of regulation or persecution, Angola was scored 0.8 on Government Regulation of Religion, 4.0 on Social Regulation of Religion, 0 on Government Favoritism of Religion and 0 on Religious Persecution.<ref>[http://www.thearda.com/internationalData/countries/Country_7_3.asp Angola: Religious Freedom Profile at the Association of Religion Data Archives] Brian J Grim and Roger Finke. "International Religion Indexes: Government Regulation, Government Favoritism, and Social Regulation of Religion". Interdisciplinary Journal of Research on Religion. 2 (2006) Article 1: www.religjournal.com.</ref> Foreign [[missionary|missionaries]] were very active prior to independence in 1975, although since the beginning of the anti-colonial fight in 1961 the Portuguese colonial authorities expelled a series of Protestant missionaries and closed mission stations based on the belief that the missionaries were inciting pro-independence sentiments. Missionaries have been able to return to the country since the early 1990s, although security conditions due to the civil war have prevented them until 2002 from restoring many of their former inland mission stations.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2001/5511.htm |title=International Religious Freedom Report – Angola|publisher=U.S. Department of State |date=1 January 2004 |accessdate=27 June 2010| archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20100528135031/http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2001/5511.htm| archivedate= 28 May 2010 | deadurl= no}}</ref> The Catholic Church and some major Protestant denominations mostly keep to themselves in contrast to the "New Churches" which actively proselytize. Catholics, as well as some major Protestant denominations, provide help for the poor in the form of crop seeds, farm animals, medical care and education.<ref name="books.google.com">{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/?id=DeVqVy21g9sC&pg=PA40|title=Culture and customs of Angola |publisher=Greenwood Press |location=Westport, Connecticut|isbn=978-0-313-33147-3 |page=40 |year=2007}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.pcusa.org/hunger/downloads/2005intgrants.pdf |title=International Grants 2005 |format=PDF |accessdate=27 June 2010 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/20081113131805/http://www.pcusa.org/hunger/downloads/2005intgrants.pdf |archivedate=13 November 2008 }}</ref> ===Largest cities=== {{Largest cities of Angola}} ==Culture== [[File:African Art, Yombe sculpture, Louvre.jpg|thumb|[[Yombe people|Yombe]]-sculpture, 19th century]] {{Main|Culture of Angola}} {{see also|Music of Angola|Angolan cuisine}} In Angola, there is a Culture Ministry that is managed by Culture Minister Rosa Maria Martins da Cruz e Silva.<ref>[http://www.portalangop.co.ao/motix/en_us/noticias/lazer-e-cultura/2013/6/28/Country-needs-modern-dynamic-culture-minister,3b0ecf06-a014-42e8-af5a-fc06395011f6.html Angola Press – Leisure & Culture – Country needs modern, dynamic culture – minister]. Portalangop.co.ao (28 June 2013). Retrieved 9 August 2013.</ref><ref>[http://www.mincultura.gv.ao/nota_legal.htm Ministério da Cultura – República de Angola]. Mincultura.gv.ao. Retrieved 9 August 2013.</ref> [[Portugal]] has been present in [[Portuguese West Africa|Angola for 400&nbsp;years]], occupied the territory in the 19th and early 20th century, and ruled over it for about 50 years. As a consequence, both countries share cultural aspects: language ([[Portuguese Language|Portuguese]]) and main religion (Roman Catholic Christianity). The ''[[Substratum|substrate]]'' of Angolan culture is African, mostly [[Bantu people|Bantu]], while [[culture of Portugal|Portuguese culture]] has been imported. The diverse ethnic communities – the [[Ovimbundu]], [[Northern Mbundu people|Ambundu]], [[Bakongo]], [[Chokwe people|Chokwe]], [[Mbunda people|Mbunda]] and other peoples – maintain to varying degrees their own cultural traits, traditions and languages, but in the cities, where slightly more than half of the population now lives, a mixed culture has been emerging since colonial times – in [[Luanda]] since its foundation in the 16th century. In this urban culture, the Portuguese heritage has become more and more dominant. An African influence is evident in music and dance, and is moulding the way in which Portuguese is spoken, but is almost disappearing from the vocabulary. This process is well reflected in contemporary Angolan literature, especially in the works of [[Pepetela]] and [[Ana Paula Ribeiro Tavares]]. [[Leila Lopes (model)|Leila Lopes]], [[Miss Angola]] 2011, was crowned [[Miss Universe 2011]] in Brazil on 12 September 2011 making her the first Angolan to win the pageant. In 2014, Angola resume the National Festival of Angolan Culture (FENACULT), after a 25-years break. The festival took place in all the provincial capitals of the country between 30 August and 20 September and had as theme "Culture as a Factor of Peace and Development".<ref>[http://www.portalangop.co.ao/angola/en_us/noticias/lazer-e-cultura/2014/11/51/Retrospect2014-Fenacult-marks-cultural-year,58a0fcae-b594-4edd-bc8b-1d7e2e798f14.html Retrospect2014: Fenacult marks cultural year] Angola Press Agency, 18 December 2014</ref> ==Health== [[File:Angolan woman with children outside health clinic (5686703351).jpg|thumb|Angolan woman with children outside health clinic]] {{Main|Health in Angola}} Epidemics of [[cholera]], [[malaria]], [[rabies]] and African [[hemorrhagic]] fevers like [[Marburg virus|Marburg hemorrhagic fever]], are common diseases in several parts of the country. Many regions in this country have high incidence rates of [[tuberculosis]] and high HIV prevalence rates. [[Dengue]], [[filariasis]], [[leishmaniasis]], and [[onchocerciasis]] (river blindness) are other diseases carried by insects that also occur in the region. Angola has one of the highest [[infant mortality rate]]s in the world and one of the world's lowest [[life expectancies]]. A 2007 survey concluded that low and deficient [[niacin]] status was common in Angola.<ref>{{cite journal |author=AJ Seal|title=Low and deficient niacin status and pellagra are endemic in postwar Angola |journal=Am. J. Clin. Nutr. |volume=85 |issue=1 |pages=218–24 |date=January 2007 |pmid=17209199|last2=Creeke |last3=Dibari |last4=Cheung |last5=Kyroussis |last6=Semedo |last7=Van Den Briel }}</ref> [[Demographic and Health Surveys]] is currently conducting several surveys in Angola on malaria, domestic violence and more.<ref name="Angola Surveys">[http://www.measuredhs.com/countries/metadata.cfm?surv_id=344&ctry_id=76&SrvyTp=ctry&cn=Angola Angola Surveys], measuredhs.com</ref> In September 2014, the Angolan Institute for Cancer Control (IACC) was created by presidential decree, and it will integrate the National Health Service in Angola.<ref>[http://www.noticiasaominuto.com/mundo/273191/novo-instituto-oncologico-de-angola-quer-ser-referencia-em-africa Novo instituto oncológico de Angola quer ser referência em África], Notícias ao Minuto (Source: Lusa Agency), 9 September 2014</ref> The purpose of this new center is to ensure the health and medical care in [[oncology]], policy implementation, programs and plans for prevention and specialized treatment.<ref>[http://diariodigital.sapo.pt/news.asp?id_news=728577 Novo instituto oncológico de Angola quer ser referência em África], Diário Digital (Source: Lusa Agency), 9 September 2014</ref> This cancer institute will be assumed as a reference institution in the central and southern regions of Africa.<ref>[http://www.verangola.net/Artigos/Novo-instituto-oncologico-angolano-quer-ser-instituicao-de-referencia-no-continente=004333 Novo instituto oncológico angolano quer ser instituição de referência no continente], Ver Angola, 11 September 2014</ref> In 2014, Angola launched a national campaign of vaccination against [[measles]], extended to every child under ten years old and aiming to go to all 18 provinces in the country.<ref>[http://allafrica.com/stories/201410010149.html Angola: Over 30,000 Children Vaccinated Against Measles in Huila], All Africa, 30 September 2014</ref> The measure is part of the Strategic Plan for the Elimination of Measles 2014–2020 created by the Angolan Ministry of Health which includes strengthening routine immunization, a proper dealing with measles cases, national campaigns, introducing a second dose of vaccination in the national routine vaccination calendar and active epidemiological surveillance for measles. This campaign took place together with the vaccination against [[polio]] and [[vitamin A]] supplementation.<ref>[http://www.noticiasaominuto.com/mundo/277391/angola-lanca-vacinacao-nacional-contra-sarampo Angola lança vacinação nacional contra sarampo], Notícias ao Minuto (Source: Lusa Agency), 18 September 2014</ref> ==Education== [[File:Lyceum Salvador Correia in Luanda, Angola.jpg|thumb|Lyceum Salvador Correia in Luanda]] [[File:Kuito class.jpg|thumb|Kuito class, Angola]] {{Main|Education in Angola}} Although by law education in Angola is compulsory and free for eight years, the government reports that a percentage of students are not attending due to a lack of school buildings and teachers.<ref name=ilab>"Botswana". [http://web.archive.org/web/20140109071239/http://www.dol.gov/ilab/media/reports/iclp/tda2005/tda2005.pdf ''2005 Findings on the Worst Forms of Child Labor'']. [[Bureau of International Labor Affairs]], [[U.S. Department of Labor]] (2006). ''This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the [[public domain]].</ref> Students are often responsible for paying additional school-related expenses, including fees for books and supplies.<ref name=ilab/> In 1999, the gross primary enrollment rate was 74 percent and in 1998, the most recent year for which data are available, the net primary enrollment rate was 61 percent.<ref name=ilab/> Gross and net enrollment ratios are based on the number of students formally registered in primary school and therefore do not necessarily reflect actual school attendance.<ref name=ilab/> There continue to be significant disparities in enrollment between rural and urban areas. In 1995, 71.2 percent of children ages 7 to 14 years were attending school.<ref name=ilab/> It is reported that higher percentages of boys attend school than girls.<ref name=ilab/> During the [[Angolan Civil War]] (1975–2002), nearly half of all schools were reportedly looted and destroyed, leading to current problems with overcrowding.<ref name=ilab/> The Ministry of Education hired 20,000 new teachers in 2005 and continued to implement teacher trainings.<ref name=ilab/> Teachers tend to be underpaid, inadequately trained, and overworked (sometimes teaching two or three shifts a day).<ref name=ilab/> Some teachers may reportedly demand payment or bribes directly from their students.<ref name=ilab/> Other factors, such as the presence of landmines, lack of resources and identity papers, and poor health prevent children from regularly attending school.<ref name=ilab/> Although budgetary allocations for education were increased in 2004, the education system in Angola continues to be extremely under-funded.<ref name=ilab/> According to estimates by the [[UNESCO Institute for Statistics]], the adult literacy rate in 2011 was 70.4%.<ref name=unescolit>{{cite web|title=National adult literacy rates (15+), youth literacy rates (15–24) and elderly literacy rates (65+)|url=http://stats.uis.unesco.org/unesco/TableViewer/tableView.aspx?ReportId=210|publisher=UNESCO Institute for Statistics}}</ref> 82.9% of males and 54.2% of women are literate as of 2001.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.unicef.org/infobycountry/angola_statistics.html |title=Angola – Statistics |publisher=UNICEF |accessdate=27 June 2010| archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20100613004722/http://www.unicef.org/infobycountry/angola_statistics.html| archivedate= 13 June 2010 | deadurl= no}}</ref> Since independence from Portugal in 1975, a number of Angolan students continued to be admitted every year at high schools, [[politechnic|polytechnical]] institutes, and universities in [[Portugal]], Brazil and [[Cuba]] through bilateral agreements; in general, these students belong to the elites. In September 2014, the Angolan Ministry of Education announced an investment of 16 million Euros in the computerization of over 300 classrooms across the country. The project also includes training teachers at a national level, "as a way to introduce and use new information technologies in primary schools, thus reflecting an improvement in the quality of teaching."<ref>[http://www.ionline.pt/artigos/mundo/angola-investe-16-milhoes-na-informatizacao-300-salas-aula-todo-pais Angola investe 16 milhões na informatização de 300 salas de aula em todo o país], jornal i (28 September 2014)</ref> In 2010, the Angolan government started building the [[Angolan Media Libraries Network]], distributed throughout several provinces in the country to facilitate the people's access to information and knowledge. Each site has a bibliographic archive, multimedia resources and computers with Internet access, as well as areas for reading, researching and socializing.<ref>[http://mediatecas.ao/wp-content/uploads/2013/11/Plano_Director_Maio_2013.pdf Sumário Executivo do Plano Director da ReMA]</ref> The plan envisages the establishment of one media library in each Angolan province by 2017. The project also includes the implementation of several media libraries, in order to provide the several contents available in the fixed media libraries to the most isolated populations in the country.<ref>[http://www.portalangop.co.ao/angola/en_us/noticias/educacao/2015/0/2/Government-open-digital-libraries-every-province,744c2f6f-7d66-49cf-8e56-85c0d6969725.html Government to open digital libraries in every province] Angola Press Agency, 8 January 2015</ref> At this time, the mobile media libraries are already operating in the provinces of Luanda, Malanje, Uíge, Cabinda and Lunda South. As for REMA, the provinces of Luanda, Benguela, Lubango and Soyo have currently working media libraries.<ref>[http://jornaldeangola.sapo.ao/regioes/malanje/mediateca_movel_aberta_ao_publico Mediateca móvel aberta ao público] Jornal de Angola, 9 January 2015</ref> ==Sports== Angola is the top [[Angola national basketball team|basketball team]] of [[FIBA Africa]], and a regular competitor at the [[Basketball at the Summer Olympics|Summer Olympic Games]] and the [[FIBA World Cup]]. The [[Angola national football team]] qualified for the [[2006 FIFA World Cup]], as this was their first appearance on the World Cup finals stage. They were eliminated after one defeat and two draws in the group stage. They won 3 [[COSAFA Cup]]s and finished runner up in [[2011 African Nations Championship]]. Angola has participated in the [[World Women's Handball Championship]] for several years. The country has also appeared in the [[Angola at the Olympics|Summer Olympics]] for seven years and both compete and have hosted the [[FIRS Roller Hockey World Cup]]. Angola is also often believed to have historic roots in the [[martial art]] "[[Capoeira Angola]]" and "[[Batuque (game)|Batuque]]" which were practiced by [[Slavery in Angola|enslaved African Angolans]] transported as part of the [[Atlantic slave trade]].<ref>{{cite book|author1=Mestre Poncianinho|author2=Ponciano Almeida|title=Capoeira: The Essential Guide to Mastering the Art|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fKKGUCJ5PAwC&pg=PA18|year=2007|publisher=New Holland Publishers|isbn=978-1-84537-761-8|pages=18–}}</ref> ==See also== {{portal|Angola|Africa|Geography}} *[[Outline of Angola]] *[[Index of Angola-related articles]] {{clear}} ==References== {{reflist|colwidth=30em}} * {{citation |contribution=[[s:Encyclopædia Britannica, Ninth Edition/Angola|Angola]] |title=''[[s:Encyclopædia Britannica, Ninth Edition|''Encyclopædia Britannica'', 9th ed.]], [[s:Encyclopædia Britannica, Ninth Edition/Volume II|Vol.&nbsp;II]]'' |editor-last=Baynes |editor-first=Thomas Spencer |display-editors=0 |publisher=Charles Scribner's Sons |location=New York |date=1878 |ref={{harvid|EB|1878}} |p=45 }}. * {{citation |contribution=[[s:1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Angola|Angola]] |title=''[[s:1911 Encyclopædia Britannica|''Encyclopædia Britannica'', 11th ed.]], [[s:1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Volume II|Vol.&nbsp;II]]'' |editor-last=Chisholm |editor-first=Hugh |editor2-last=Phillips |editor2-first=Walter Alison |display-editors=0 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=[[Cambridge, England|Cambridge]] |date=1911 |ref={{harvid|EB|1911}} |pp=38–40 }}. *Much of the material in this article comes from the [[CIA World Factbook]] 2000 and the 2003 U.S. Department of State website. The information given there is, however, corrected and updated on the basis of the other sources indicated. ==External links== {{Sister project links|voy=Angola|Angola}} {{Wikibooks|Wikijunior:Countries A-Z|Angola}} *{{pt icon}} {{official website|http://www.angola.gov.ao}} *{{CIA World Factbook link|ao|Angola}} *{{dmoz|Regional/Africa/Angola}} *[http://ucblibraries.colorado.edu/govpubs/for/angola.htm Angola] from ''UCB Libraries GovPubs''. *[http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-13036732 Angola profile] from the [[BBC News]]. *{{Wikiatlas|Angola}} *[http://www.ifs.du.edu/ifs/frm_CountryProfile.aspx?Country=AO Key Development Forecasts for Angola] from [[International Futures]]. *[http://www.bti-project.org/country-reports/esa/ago Bertelsmann Transformation Index 2012 – Angola Country Report] *Markus Weimer, "[http://www.chathamhouse.org/sites/default/files/public/Research/Africa/0312pp_weimer.pdf The Peace Dividend: Analysis of a Decade of Angolan Indicators, 2002–2012]". * [https://www.academia.edu/12759680/The_participation_of_Hungarian_soldiers_in_UN_peacekeeping_operations_in_Angola The participation of Hungarian soldiers in UN peacekeeping operations in Angola] {{Angola topics}} {{Countries of Africa}} {{Navboxes |title = International membership and history |list = {{Southern African Development Community}} {{African Union}} {{Community of Portuguese Language Countries |collapsed}} {{Portuguese overseas empire}} }} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Angola|*]] [[Category:Bantu countries and territories]] [[Category:Central African countries]] [[Category:Countries in Africa]] [[Category:Former Portuguese colonies]] [[Category:Least developed countries]] [[Category:Member states of OPEC]] [[Category:Member states of the African Union]] [[Category:Member states of the Community of Portuguese Language Countries]] [[Category:Member states of the United Nations]] [[Category:Portuguese-speaking countries and territories]] [[Category:Republics]] [[Category:States and territories established in 1975]] [[Category:World Digital Library related]] 9phwvd6x040f111eqap1652mk2z8i6v 0 704 704637555 704628316 2016-02-12T17:33:23Z Widr 13975403 Reverted 1 edit by [[Special:Contributions/165.138.96.22|165.138.96.22]] using [[WP:STiki|STiki]] wikitext text/x-wiki {{Use mdy dates|date=June 2013}} This article is about the [[demographics|demographic]] features of the [[population]] of [[Angola]], including [[population density]], [[Ethnic group|ethnicity]], education level, health of the populace, economic status, religious affiliations and other aspects of the population. [[Image:Angola demography.png|thumb|300px|right|Demographics of [[Angola]], Data of [[Food and Agriculture Organization|FAO]], year 2005 ; Number of inhabitants in thousands.]] According to 2014 census data, Angola had a population of 24.3 million inhabitants in 2014.<ref>http://www.embajadadeangola.com/pdf/Publicacao%20Resultados%20Preliminares%20%20Censo%202014_FINAL.13.10.14.pdf</ref> Ethnically, there are three main groups, each speaking a [[Bantu language]]: the [[Southern Mbundu people|Ovimbundu]] who represent 37% of the population, the [[Northern Mbundu people|(Ambundu)]] with 25%, and the [[Kongo people|Bakongo]] 13%. Other numerically important groups include the closely interrelated [[Chokwe people|Chokwe]] and Lunda, the [[Ganguela]] and [[Nyaneka]]-[[Khumbi]] (in both cases classification terms that stand for a variety of small groups), the [[Ovambo people|Ovambo]], the [[Herero people|Herero]], the [[Xindonga]] and scattered residual groups of [[Khoisan]]. In addition, mixed race (European and African) people amount to about 2%, with a small (1%) population of whites, mainly ethnically [[Portuguese people|Portuguese]]. As a [[Angola (Portugal)|former overseas territory of Portugal]] until 1975, Angola possesses a Portuguese population of over 200,000, a number that has been growing from 2000 onwards, because of Angola's growing demand for qualified human resources.<ref>In 1974, white Angolans made up a population of 330,000 to 350,000 people in an overall population of 6.3 million Angolans at that time. The only reliable source on these numbers is Gerald Bender & Stanley Yoder, ''Whites in Angola on the Eve of Independence: The Politics of Numbers'', ''Africa Today'', 21 (4) 1974, pp. 23 - 37. Today, many Angolans who are not ethnic Portuguese can claim Portuguese nationality under Portuguese law. Estimates on the overall population are given in [http://www.opais.net/pt/opais/?det=7192 O País]</ref><ref>[http://www.economist.com/node/12079340?story_id=12079340 www.economist.com]</ref><ref>[http://countrystudies.us/angola/34.htm Country Studies]</ref><ref>{{pt icon}} [http://jn.sapo.pt/PaginaInicial/Sociedade/Interior.aspx?content_id=1165354 Portugueses em Angola quadruplicaram], [[Jornal de Notícias]] (March 10, 2009)</ref> Besides the Portuguese, significant numbers of people from other European and from diverse Latin American countries (especially Brazil) can be found. From the 2000s, many Chinese have settled and started up small businesses, while at least as many have come as workers for large enterprises (construction or other). Observers claim that the Chinese community in Angola might include as many as 300,000 persons at the end of 2010, but reliable statistics are not at this stage available.<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/programmes/from_our_own_correspondent/9052011.stm Chinese karaoke fans sing Angola's praises]</ref> In 1974/75, over 25,000 [[Cuba]]n soldiers arrived in Angola to help the MPLA forces during the decolonization conflict. Once this was over, a massive development cooperation in the field of health and education brought in numerous civil personnel from Cuba. However, only a very small percentage of all these people has remained in Angola, either for personal reasons (intermarriage) or as professionals (e.g., medical doctors). The largest religious denomination is [[Roman Catholicism]], to which adheres about half the population. Roughly 26% are followers of traditional forms of [[Protestantism]] (Congregationals, Methodists, Baptista, Lutherans, Reformed), but over the last decades there has in addition been a growth of Pentecostal communities and [[African Initiated Church]]es. In 2006, one out of 221 people were [[Jehovah's Witnesses]]. Blacks from Mali, Nigeria and Senegal are mostly Sunnite Muslims, but do not make up more than 1 - 2% of the population. By now few Angolans retain [[African traditional religion]]s following different ethnic faiths. ==Population== According to the 2010 revison of the World Population Prospects the total population was 19 082 000 in 2010, compared to only 4 148 000 in 1950. The proportion of children below the age of 15 in 2010 was 46.6%, 50.9% was between 15 and 65 years of age, while 2.5% was 65 years or older .<ref name="WPP 2010">[http://esa.un.org/unpd/wpp/index.htm Population Division of the Department of Economic and Social Affairs of the United Nations Secretariat, World Population Prospects: The 2010 Revision]</ref> [[Image:Angola Population Pyramid 2012.png|thumb|370px|[[Population pyramid]] for Angola]] {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: right;" |- ! ! width="80pt"|Total population (x 1000) ! width="80pt"|Population aged 0–14 (%) ! width="80pt"|Population aged 15–64 (%) ! width="80pt"|Population aged 65+ (%) |- | 1950 |4 148||41.2||55.7||3.1 |- | 1955 |4 542||42.4||54.9||2.7 |- | 1960 |4 963||43.7||53.6||2.7 |- | 1965 |5 431||45.3||52.0||2.7 |- | 1970 |5 926||46.0||51.3||2.7 |- | 1975 |6 637||46.2||51.1||2.7 |- | 1980 |7 638||46.5||50.8||2.7 |- | 1985 |9 066||47.0||50.4||2.7 |- | 1990 |10 335||47.5||49.9||2.6 |- | 1995 |12 105||47.6||49.8||2.5 |- | 2000 |13 926||47.7||49.9||2.5 |- | 2005 |16 489||47.6||49.9||2.5 |- | 2010 |19 082||46.6||50.9||2.5 |- | 2014 |24 383<ref>http://www.ine.gov.ao/xportal/xmain?xpid=ine&xpgid=publications_detail&publications_detail_qry=BOUI=19329053</ref>|||||| |} Structure of the population (DHS 2011) (Males 19 707, Females 20 356 = 40 063) : {| class="wikitable" |- ! width="80pt"|Age Group ! width="80pt"|Male (%) ! width="80pt"|Female (%) ! width="80pt"|Total (%) |- | align="right" | 0-4 | align="right" | 21,3 | align="right" | 21,3 | align="right" | 21,3 |- | align="right" | 5-9 | align="right" | 15,5 | align="right" | 13,7 | align="right" | 14,6 |- | align="right" | 10-14 | align="right" | 12,2 | align="right" | 12,1 | align="right" | 12,1 |- | align="right" | 15-19 | align="right" | 9,7 | align="right" | 10,9 | align="right" | 10,3 |- | align="right" | 20-24 | align="right" | 8,1 | align="right" | 10,1 | align="right" | 9,1 |- | align="right" | 25-29 | align="right" | 7,8 | align="right" | 7,7 | align="right" | 7,7 |- | align="right" | 30-34 | align="right" | 5,5 | align="right" | 5,0 | align="right" | 5,3 |- | align="right" | 35-39 | align="right" | 4,4 | align="right" | 4,5 | align="right" | 4,4 |- | align="right" | 40-44 | align="right" | 3,4 | align="right" | 2,8 | align="right" | 3,1 |- | align="right" | 45-49 | align="right" | 3,1 | align="right" | 2,0 | align="right" | 2,5 |- | align="right" | 50-54 | align="right" | 2,9 | align="right" | 4,7 | align="right" | 3,8 |- | align="right" | 55-59 | align="right" | 2,0 | align="right" | 1,9 | align="right" | 1,9 |- | align="right" | 60-64 | align="right" | 1,6 | align="right" | 1,5 | align="right" | 1,6 |- | align="right" | 65-69 | align="right" | 1,0 | align="right" | 0,7 | align="right" | 0,8 |- | align="right" | 70-74 | align="right" | 0,8 | align="right" | 0,5 | align="right" | 0,6 |- | align="right" | 75-79 | align="right" | 0,4 | align="right" | 0,3 | align="right" | 0,3 |- | align="right" | 80+ | align="right" | 0,4 | align="right" | 0,3 | align="right" | 0,4 |- | align="right" | unknown | align="right" | 0,1 | align="right" | 0,0 | align="right" | 0,1 |- |} {| class="wikitable" |- ! width="50"|Age group ! width="80pt"|Male (%) ! width="80"|Female (%) ! width="80"|Total (%) |- | align="right" | 0-14 | align="right" | 49,0 | align="right" | 47,1 | align="right" | 48,0 |- | align="right" | 15-64 | align="right" | 48,3 | align="right" | 51,1 | align="right" | 49,8 |- | align="right" | 65+ | align="right" | 2,6 | align="right" | 1,8 | align="right" | 2,1 |- |} ==Vital statistics== Registration of vital events is in Angola not complete. The Population Department of the United Nations prepared the following estimates. <ref name="WPP 2010"/> {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: right;" |- ! width="40pt"|Period ! width="70pt"|Live births per year ! width="70pt"|Deaths per year ! width="70pt"|Natural change per year ! width="70pt"|CBR* ! width="70pt"|CDR* ! width="70pt"|NC* ! width="70pt"|TFR* ! width="70pt"|IMR* |- | 1950-1955 || 235 000|| 156 000|| 79 000||54.0||35.9||18.1||7.00||230 |- | 1955-1960 || 259 000|| 159 000|| 99 000||54.4||33.5||20.9||7.20||215 |- | 1960-1965 || 282 000|| 162 000|| 121 000||54.3||31.1||23.2||7.40||200 |- | 1965-1970 || 302 000|| 163 000|| 139 000||53.2||28.7||24.5||7.40||186 |- | 1970-1975 || 325 000|| 166 000|| 160 000||51.8||26.4||25.5||7.20||173 |- | 1975-1980 || 374 000|| 176 000|| 197 000||52.4||24.7||27.7||7.20||161 |- | 1980-1985 || 441 000|| 202 000|| 239 000||52.8||24.2||28.6||7.20||157 |- | 1985-1990 || 512 000|| 228 000|| 284 000||52.8||23.5||29.3||7.20||153 |- | 1990-1995 || 584 000|| 259 000|| 325 000||52.1||23.1||29.0||7.10||150 |- | 1995-2000 || 664 000|| 274 000|| 390 000||51.0||21.1||29.9||6.92||138 |- | 2000-2005 || 746 000|| 268 000|| 478 000||49.0||17.6||31.4||6.63||116 |- | 2005-2010 || 774 000|| 272 000|| 502 000||43.5||15.3||28.2||5.79||104 |- |align="left" colspan="9" | * <small> CBR = crude birth rate (per 1000); CDR = crude death rate (per 1000); NC = natural change (per 1000); IMR = infant mortality rate per 1000 births; TFR = total fertility rate (number of children per woman)</small> |} ===Fertility and Births=== Total Fertility Rate (TFR) and Crude Birth Rate (CBR):<ref>http://microdata.worldbank.org/index.php/catalog/dhs#_r=&collection=&country=&dtype=&from=1890&page=1&ps=&sk=&sort_by=nation&sort_order=&to=2014&topic=&view=s&vk=</ref> {| class="wikitable" |- ! style="width:50pt;"| Year ! style="width:50pt;"| CBR (Total) ! style="width:50pt;"| TFR (Total) ! style="width:50pt;"| CBR (Urban) ! style="width:50pt;"| TFR (Urban) ! style="width:50pt;"| CBR (Rural) ! style="width:50pt;"| TFR (Rural) |- | 2006-2007 | style="text-align:right;"| 42,4 | style="text-align:right;"| 5,8 | style="text-align:right;"| 35,0 | style="text-align:right;"| 4,4 | style="text-align:right;"| 50,2 | style="text-align:right;"| 7,7 |- | 2011 | style="text-align:right;"| 45,5 | style="text-align:right;"| 6,3 | style="text-align:right;"| 36,5 | style="text-align:right;"| 4,6 | style="text-align:right;"| 51,8 | style="text-align:right;"| 7,7 |- |} ==CIA World Factbook demographic statistics== The following demographic statistics are from the [[CIA World Factbook]], unless otherwise indicated.<ref>It should be underlined that many of these statistics are not fully reliable or outdated. Updated and reliable data are expected from the population census scheduled for 2014.</ref> ===Population=== *18,056,072 (July 2012 est.) ====Population growth==== The population is growing by 2.184% annually. There are 44.51 births and 24.81 deaths per 1,000 citizens. The net migration rate is 2.14 migrants per 1,000 citizens. The fertility rate of Angola is 5.97 children born per woman as of 2011. The [[infant mortality]] rate is 184.44 deaths for every 1,000 live births with 196.55 deaths for males and 171.72 deaths for females for every 1,000 live births. Life expectancy at birth is 37.63 years; 36.73 years for males and 38.57 years for females. ===Sex ratio=== *At birth: 1.05 male(s)/female *Under 15 years: 1.02 male(s)/female *15–64 years: 1.03 male(s)/female *65 years and older: .79 male(s)/female *Total population: 1.02 male(s)/female (2011 est.) ===Health=== {{See also|HIV/AIDS in Angola}} According to the CIA World Factbook, 2% of adults (aged 15–49) are living with HIV/AIDS (as of 2009).<ref>https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/rankorder/2155rank.html</ref> The risk of contracting disease is very high. There are food and waterborne diseases, bacterial and protozoal diarrhea, hepatitis A, and typhoid fever; vectorborne diseases, malaria, African trypanosomiasis (sleeping sickness); respiratory disease: meningococcal meningitis, and schistosomiasis, a water contact disease, as of 2005. ===Ethnic groups=== [[File:Angola Ethnic map 1970.svg|thumb|right|300px|Ethnic groups of Angola 1970]] Roughly 37% of Angolans are [[Ovimbundu]], 25% are [[Northern Mbundu people|Ambundu]], 13% are [[Bakongo]], 2% are [[mestiço]], 1-2% are [[White Africans of European ancestry|white Africans]], and people from other Afrucan ethnicities make up 22% of Angola's population. ===Religions=== {{Main|Religion in Angola}} Angola is a majority Christian country. Reliable statistics don't exist, but well over 80% belong in principle to a Christian church or community, although many of them don't practice their religion and are in fact non believers. More than half of the Christians (whether practising or not) are [[Roman Catholic]], the remaining ones comprising members of traditional [[Protestant]] churches as well as of new, often [[Pentecostalism|Pentecostal]] communities. Only 1 - 2% are [[Muslim]]s - generally immigrants from other African countries. Traditional indigenous religions are practized by a very small minority, generally in peripheral rural societies; however, some traditional beliefs are held by a substantial number of Christians. ===Education=== {{Main|Education in Angola}} Literacy is quite low, with 67.4% of the population over the age of 15 able to read and write in Portuguese. 82.9% of males and 54.2% of women are literate as of 2001. ===Languages=== {{Main|Languages of Angola}} [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]] is the official language of Angola, but [[Bantu language|Bantu]] and other African languages are also widely spoken. In fact, [[Kikongo]], [[Kimbundu languages|Kimbundu]], [[Umbundu]], [[Chokwe language|Tuchokwe]], [[Ganguela|Nganguela]], and [[Kwanyama dialect|Ukanyama]] have the official status of "national languages". The mastery of Portuguese is widespread; in the cities the overwhelming majority are either fluent in Portuguese or have at least a reasonable working knowledge of this language; an increasing minority are native Portuguese speakers and have a poor, if any, knowledge of an African language. ==References== {{reflist}} *{{CIA World Factbook|year=2007}} *{{StateDept}} 2003 ==External links== * [https://web.archive.org/20091005014319/http://www.worldmapper.org:80/countrycartograms/carto_ago.htm Population cartogram of Angola] {{Ethnic groups in Angola}} {{Africa in topic|Demographics of}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Demographics Of Angola}} [[Category:Angolan society]] [[Category:Demographics by country|Angola]] [[Category:Demographics of Africa|Angola]] 2gdxxfv24q60b4g2hygntcmhnb0fpux 0 705 705919290 705704141 2016-02-20T09:32:26Z Magioladitis 1862829 empy? wikitext text/x-wiki {{mergefrom| Cabinet of Angola|discuss=Talk:Politics of Angola#Merger proposal|date=July 2015}} {{Politics of Angola}} Since the adoption of a new [[Constitution of Angola#2010 constitution|constitution in 2010]], the '''politics of Angola''' takes place in a framework of a [[presidential system|presidential]] [[republic]], whereby the [[President of Angola]] is both [[head of state]] and [[head of government]], and of a [[multi-party system]]. [[Executive power]] is exercised by the government. [[Legislative power]] is vested in the President, the [[government]] and parliament.<ref>{{cite web|title=Constituent Assembly approves Angolan Constitution|url=http://www.portalangop.co.ao/motix/en_us/noticias/politica/2010/0/3/Constituent-Assembly-approves-Angolan-Constitution,7c03e88b-4d2c-425f-bacd-caf923937062.html|website=Angola Press|accessdate=4 July 2015}}</ref> [[Angola]] changed from a [[One-party state|one-party]] [[Marxist]]-[[Leninist]] system ruled by the [[Popular Movement for the Liberation of Angola]] (MPLA), in place since independence in 1975, to a multiparty democracy based on a new constitution adopted in 1992. That same year the first parliamentary and presidential elections were held. The MPLA won an absolute majority in the parliamentary elections. In the presidential elections, President [[José Eduardo dos Santos]] won the first round election with more than 49% of the vote to [[Jonas Savimbi]]'s 40%. A runoff election would have been necessary, but never took place. The renewal of civil war immediately after the elections, which were considered as fraudulent by UNITA, and the collapse of the [[Lusaka Protocol]], created a split situation. To a certain degree the new democratic institutions worked, notably the [[National Assembly of Angola|National Assembly]], with the active participation of UNITA's and the FNLA's elected MPs - while José Eduardo dos Santos continued to exercise his functions without democratic legitimation. However the armed forces of the MPLA (now the official armed forces of the Angolan state) and of UNITA fought each other until the leader of UNITA, Jonas Savimbi, was killed in action in 2002.<ref>From 1998 to 2002, there existed even a Government of National Unity and Reconciliation which included ministers from both FNLA and UNITA.</ref> From 2002 to 2010, the system as defined by the [[Constitution of Angola#1992 constitution|constitution of 1992]] functioned in a relatively normal way. The executive branch of the government was composed of the President, the Prime Minister and Council of Ministers. The Council of Ministers, composed of all ministers and vice ministers, met regularly to discuss policy issues. Governors of the 18 provinces were appointed by and served at the pleasure of the president.<ref>{{cite web|title=Angola: Constitution of 1992|url=http://www.content.eisa.org.za/old-page/angola-constitution-1992|website=Electoral Institute for Sustainable Democracy in Africa|accessdate=4 July 2015}}</ref> The Constitutional Law of 1992 established the broad outlines of government structure and the rights and duties of citizens. The legal system was based on Portuguese and customary law but was weak and fragmented. Courts operated in only 12 of more than 140 municipalities. A Supreme Court served as the appellate tribunal; a Constitutional Court with powers of judicial review was never constituted despite statutory authorization. In practice, power was more and more concentrated in the hands of the President who, supported by an ever increasing staff, largely controlled parliament, government, and the judiciary.<ref>http://www.bertensmann-transformation-index.de/bti/laendergutachten/laendergutachten/oestliches-und-suedliches-afrika/angola</ref> The 26-year-long civil war has ravaged the country's political and social institutions. The UN estimates of 1.8 million [[internally displaced person]]s (IDPs), while generally the accepted figure for war-affected people is 4 million. Daily conditions of life throughout the country and specifically [[Luanda]] (population approximately 6 million) mirror the collapse of administrative infrastructure as well as many social institutions. The ongoing grave economic situation largely prevents any government support for social institutions. Hospitals are without medicines or basic equipment, schools are without books, and public employees often lack the basic supplies for their day-to-day work. ==Executive branch== The 2010 constitution grants the President almost absolute power. Elections for the National assembly are to take place every five years, and the President is automatically the leader of the winning party or coalition. It is for the President to appoint (and dismiss) all of the following: * The members of the government (state ministers, ministers, state secretaries and vice-ministers); * The members of the Constitutional Court; * The members of the Supreme Court; * The members of the Court of Auditors; * The members of the Military Supreme Court; * The Governor and Vice-Governors of the Nacional Angolan Bank; * The General-Attorney, the Vice-General-Attorneys and their deputies (as well as the military homologous); * The Governors of the provinces; * The members of the Republic Council; * The members of the National Security Council; * The members of the Superior Magistrates Councils; * The General Chief of the Armed Forces and his deputy; * All other command posts in the military; * The Police General Commander, and the 2nd in command; * All other command posts in the police; * The chiefs and directors of the intelligence and security organs. The President is also provided a variety of powers, like defining the policy of the country. Even though it's not up to him/her to make laws (only to promulgate them and make edicts), the President is the leader of the winning party. The only "relevant" post that is not directly appointed by the President is the Vice-President, which is the second in the winning party.<ref>http://www.angolaembassy.org.il/documents/AngolaConstitution05.02.2010.pdf</ref> ==Legislative branch== The [[National Assembly of Angola|National Assembly]] (''Assembleia Nacional'') has 223 members, elected for a four-year term, 130 members by [[proportional representation]], 90 members in provincial districts, and 3 members to represent Angolans abroad. The next general elections, due for 1997, have been rescheduled for 5 September 2008. The ruling party MPLA won 82% (191 seats in the National Assembly) and the main opposition party won only 10% (16 seats). The elections however have been described as only partly free but certainly not fair.<ref>http://www.kas.de/proj/home/pub/8/2/year-2008/dokument_id-15323/index.html</ref> A White Book on the elections in 2008 lists up all irregularities surrounding the Parliamentary elections of 2008.<ref>http://www.kas.de/proj/home/pub/8/2/year-2009/dokument_id-17396/index.html</ref> ==Political parties and elections== {{elect|List of political parties in Angola|Elections in Angola}} ==Judicial branch== Supreme Court (or "Tribunal da Relacao") judges of the Supreme Court are appointed by the president. The Constitutional Court, with the power of judicial review, contains 11 justices. Four are appointed by the President, four by the National Assembly, two by the Superior Council of the Judiciary, and one elected by the public.<ref>http://www.tribunalconstitucional.ao/Conteudos/Artigos/detalhe_artigo.aspx?idc=148&idsc=156&idl=1</ref> ==Administrative divisions== Angola has eighteen provinces (provincias, singular - provincia); Bengo, Benguela, Bie, Cabinda, Cuando Cubango, Cuanza Norte, Cuanza Sul, Cunene, Huambo, Huila, Luanda, Lunda Norte, Lunda Sul, Malanje, Moxico, Namibe, Uige, Zaire ==Political pressure groups and leaders== [[Front for the Liberation of the Enclave of Cabinda]] or FLEC ([[Henrique N'zita Tiago]]; [[António Bento Bembe]]) * ''note:'' FLEC is waging a small-scale, highly factionalized, armed struggle for the independence of Cabinda Province ==International organization participation== [[African, Caribbean and Pacific Group of States]], [[AfDB]], [[CEEAC]], [[United Nations Economic Commission for Africa]], [[FAO]], [[Group of 77]], [[IAEA]], [[IBRD]], [[ICAO]], [[International Criminal Court]] (signatory), [[ICFTU]], [[International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement]], [[International Development Association]], [[IFAD]], [[International Finance Corporation|IFC]], [[IFRCS]], [[International Labour Organization]], [[International Monetary Fund]], [[International Maritime Organization]], [[Interpol (organization)|Interpol]], [[IOC]], [[International Organization for Migration]], [[International Organization for Standardization|ISO]] (correspondent), [[ITU]], Non-Aligned Council (temporary), [[UNCTAD]], [[UNESCO]], [[UNIDO]], [[UPU]], [[World Customs Organization]], [[World Federation of Trade Unions]], [[World Health Organization|WHO]], [[WIPO]], [[WMO]], [[WToO]], [[WTrO]] ==References== {{reflist}} ==Further reading== *ANGOLA LIVRO BRANCO SOBRE AS ELEIÇÕES DE 2008. http://www.kas.de/proj/home/pub/8/2/year-2009/dokument_id-17396/index.html *Bösl, Anton (2008). Angola's Parliamentary Elections in 2008. A Country on its Way to One-Party-Democracy, KAS Auslandsinformationen 10/2008. http://www.kas.de/wf/de/33.15186/ * Amundsen, I. (2011) Angola Party Politics: Into the African Trend. ''Angola Brief vol. 1 no. 9'' [http://www.cmi.no/publications/file/4025-angola-party-politics-into-the-african-trend.pdf] ==External links== *[http://www.cmi.no The Chr. Michelsen Institute] The largest centre for development research in Scandinavia. In particular, see their collaborative [http://www.cmi.no/angola/ Angola Programme]. {{Africa in topic|Politics of}} {{Angola topics|state=uncollapsed}} {{use dmy dates|date=September 2010}} [[Category:Politics of Angola| ]] sp6kzzv7ezhi20b6t246hzjtttfxy6j 0 706 715700540 703053998 2016-04-17T13:19:44Z Antiqueight 14001857 /* 1990s */clean up, [[WP:AWB/T|typo(s) fixed]]: between 1986 to → between 1986 and using [[Project:AWB|AWB]] wikitext text/x-wiki {{Use mdy dates|date=June 2013}} {{Infobox economy |country = Angola |image = Marginal Avenida 4 de Fevreiro Luanda March 2013 14.JPG |width = 270px |caption = [[Luanda]] is the financial center of [[Angola]] |currency = [[Angolan kwanza]] (AOA) |fixed exchange = |year = Calendar Year |organs = [[African Union|AU]], [[African Development Bank]], [[Southern African Development Community|SADC]], [[World Bank]], [[IMF]], [[World Trade Organization|WTO]], [[Group of 77]], [[OPEC]] |gdp = {{increase}} $130.4 billion ([[purchasing power parity|PPP]]) (2012 est.)<br />Rank: 66 (2012 est.) |growth = {{increase}} 8.4% (2012 est.) |per capita = $6,500 ([[purchasing power parity|PPP]]) (2012 est.)<br />Rank: 144 (2012 est.) |sectors = [[agriculture]] 10.2% <br> [[industry]] 61.4% <br> [[Service (economics)|services]] 28.4% (2011 est.) |components = |inflation = {{decrease}} 8.8% (2013) |poverty = 40.5% (2006 est.) |gini = N/A |labor = 8.468 million (2012 est.) |occupations = [[agriculture]] 85% <br> [[industry]] and [[Service (economics)|services]] 15% (2003 est.) |unemployment = N/A |average gross salary = |average net salary = |industries = [[petroleum]], [[uranium]], [[diamonds]], [[gold]], [[bauxite]], [[iron ore]], [[phosphates]], [[feldspar]], [[metal]] products, [[fish processing]], [[food processing]], [[brewing]], [[tobacco]] products, [[sugar]], [[textile]]s, commercial [[ship]] repair |edbr = 172nd<ref name=" World Bank and International Financial Corporation ">{{cite web|url= http://www.doingbusiness.org/data/exploreeconomies/angola/|title= Doing Business in Angola 2012|publisher=[[World Bank]]|accessdate=2011-11-18}}</ref> |exports = {{increase}} $69.26 billion (2012 est.) |export-goods = [[crude oil]], [[petroleum product]]s, [[diamond]]s, [[fish]], [[fish products]], [[coffee]], [[sisal]], [[cotton]], [[lumber]] |export-partners = {{flag|China}} 45.8% <br> {{flag|United States}} 13.7% <br> {{flag|India}} 11.0% <br> {{flag|South Africa}} 4.1% (2012 est.)<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2050.html#ao|title=Export Partners of Angola|publisher=[[CIA World Factbook]]|year=2012|accessdate=2013-07-27}}</ref> |imports = {{increase}} $22.86 billion (2012 est.) |import-goods = [[machinery]], [[electrical equipment]], [[vehicle]]s and spare parts, [[military technology]], [[medicines]], [[textile]]s, [[food]] |import-partners = {{flag|China}} 20.8% <br> {{flag|Portugal}} 19.5% <br> {{flag|United States}} 7.7% <br> {{flag|South Africa}} 7.1% <br> {{flag|Brazil}} 5.9% (2012 est.)<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2061.html#ao|title=Import Partners of Angola|publisher=[[CIA World Factbook]]|year=2012|accessdate=2013-07-27}}</ref> |FDI = {{increase}} $17.15 billion (31 December 2012 est.) |gross external debt = {{increase}} $21.78 billion (31 December 2012 est.) |debt = {{Decrease}} 16.2% of GDP (2012 est.) |deficit = {{increase}} 5.9% of GDP (2012 est.) |revenue = $51.24 billion (2012 est.) |expenses = $44.23 billion (2012 est.) |aid = $383.5 million (1999 est.) |credit = |reserves = {{increase}} $33.41 billion (31 December 2012 est.) |cianame = ao |spelling = }} The '''Economy of Angola''' is one of the fastest-growing economies in the world,<ref name="fastest">Birgitte Refslund Sørensen and Marc Vincent. ''Caught Between Borders: Response Strategies of the Internally Displaced'', 2001. Page 17.</ref> with reported annual average GDP growth of 11.1 percent for the period from 2001 to 2010.<ref>{{cite news|author=Graphic detail Charts, maps and infographics |url=http://www.economist.com/blogs/dailychart/2011/01/daily_chart |title=Daily chart: Africa's impressive growth |publisher=The Economist |date=2011-01-06 |accessdate=2014-07-13}}</ref> It is still recovering from the [[Angolan Civil War]] that plagued the country from [[Alvor Agreement|independence in 1975]] until 2002. Despite extensive [[Crude oil|oil and gas]] resources, [[diamond]]s, hydroelectric potential, and rich agricultural land, Angola remains poor, and a third of the population relies on subsistence agriculture. Since 2002, when the 27-year civil war ended, the nation has worked to repair and improve ravaged infrastructure and weakened political and social institutions. High international oil prices and rising oil production have contributed to the very strong economic growth since 1998,<ref>[[Google Public Data]]. Retrieved 2013-8-14.</ref> but corruption and public-sector mismanagement remain, particularly in the oil sector, which accounts for over 50 percent of GDP, over 90 percent of export revenue, and over 80 percent of government revenue. ==History== The [[Portuguese exploration of Africa|Portuguese explorer]] [[Diogo Cão]] reached the Angolan coast in 1484,{{sfnp|EB|1878}} after which [[Kingdom of Portugal|Portugal]] began to found trading posts and forts along the shore. [[Paulo Dias de Novais]] founded Sāo Paulo de Loanda ([[Luanda]]) in 1575. São Felipe de Benguella ([[Benguela]]) followed in 1587. The principal early trade was in [[Atlantic slave trade|slaves]]. Portuguese merchants purchased the slaves from the local [[Imbangala]] and [[Northern Mbundu people|Mbundu]] peoples, [[Slavery in Africa|notable slave hunters]], and sold them to the [[sugarcane]] [[Sugar plantations in the Caribbean|plantation]]s in [[Captaincies of Brazil|Brazil]]. Brazilian ships were frequent visitors to Luanda and Benguela and Angola functioned as a kind of colony of Brazil, with Brazilian [[Jesuits]] active in its religious and educational centers. The [[Portuguese Empire]] was neglected during the period of the [[Iberian Union]], which lasted from 1580 to 1640. The [[Netherlands|Dutch]], bitter enemies of their former masters in [[Kingdom of Spain|Spain]], invaded many Portuguese overseas possessions. During Portugal's separatist war against Spain, the Dutch occupied Luanda as "Fort Aardenburgh" from 1640 to 1648. They used the territory to supply their own slaves to the sugarcane plantations of [[Northeast Region, Brazil|Northeastern Brazil]] ([[Pernambuco]], [[Olinda]], [[Recife]]), which they had also seized from Portugal. [[John Maurice, Prince of Nassau-Siegen]], conquered the Portuguese possessions of [[Elmina|Saint George del Mina]], Saint Thomas, and Luanda, Angola, on the west coast of Africa. Portugal recovered the territory from 1648 to 1650. In the high plains, the Planalto, the most important native states were [[Bié Province|Bié]] and [[Bailundo]], the latter being noted for its production of foodstuffs and rubber. Portugal expanded into their territory,{{when|date=June 2015}} but did not control much of the interior prior to the late 19th century.{{sfnp|EB|1878}} The Portuguese started to develop townships, trading posts, logging camps and small processing factories. From 1764 onwards,{{citation needed|date=June 2015}} there was a gradual change from a slave-based society to one based on production for domestic consumption and export. Following the [[independence of Brazil]] in 1822, the slave trade was formally abolished in 1836 (although it continued locally into the 20th century). In 1844, Angola's ports were opened to foreign shipping. By 1850, Luanda was one of the greatest and most developed Portuguese cities in the vast [[Portuguese Empire]] outside [[Mainland Portugal]],{{citation needed|date=June 2015}} full of trading companies,{{citation needed|date=June 2015}} exporting peanut oil,{{citation needed|date=June 2015}} copal,{{citation needed|date=June 2015}} timber,{{citation needed|date=June 2015}} and cocoa.{{citation needed|date=June 2015}} The principal exports of the post-slave economy in the 19th century were [[rubber]], beeswax, and ivory.{{sfnp|EB|1878}} Maize, tobacco, dried meat and cassava flour also began to be produced locally.{{citation needed|date=June 2015}} Prior to the [[First World War]], exportation of [[coffee]], [[palm tree|palm]] kernels and [[palm oil|oil]], [[cattle]], [[leather]] and [[hides]], and [[salt fish]] joined the principal exports, with small quantities of gold and [[cotton]] also being produced.{{sfnp|EB|1911}} Grains, sugar, and rum were also produced for local consumption.{{sfnp|EB|1911}} The principal imports were foodstuffs, cotton goods, hardware, and British coal.{{sfnp|EB|1911}} Legislation against foreign traders was implemented in the 1890s. The territory's prosperity, however, continued to depend on plantations worked by labor "indentured" from the interior.{{sfnp|EB|1911}} From the 1920s to the 1960s, strong economic growth, abundant natural resources and development of infrastructure, led to the arrival of even more Portuguese settlers.{{citation needed|date=June 2015}} [[Petroleum]] was known to exist from the mid-19th century,{{sfnp|EB|1878}} but modern exploitation began in 1955. Production began in the [[Cuanza basin]] in the 1950s, in the [[Congo basin]] in the 1960s, and in the [[exclave]] of [[Cabinda (province)|Cabinda]] in 1968. The [[Portuguese government]] granted operating rights for Block Zero to the Cabinda Gulf Oil Company, a subsidiary of [[ChevronTexaco]], in 1955.<ref name="opec"/> Oil production surpassed the exportation of [[coffee]] as Angola's largest export in 1973. {|class=wikitable |- !colspan=3|Angolan oil production rates |- !Year !thousand barrels per day !thousand cubic metres per day |- |1974 |{{convert|172|oilbbl|0|disp=table}} |- |1991 |{{convert|490|oilbbl|0|disp=table}} |- |1995<ref name="oilhistory">Tvedten, Inge. ''Angola: Struggle for Peace and Reconstruction'', 1997. Page 82.</ref> |{{convert|635|oilbbl|0|disp=table}} |- |2001<ref name="fastest"/> |{{convert|800|oilbbl|0|disp=table}} |- |2006<ref name="oilview">OECD, International Energy Agency. ''Angola: towards an energy strategy'', 2006. Page 19.</ref> |{{convert|1460|oilbbl|0|disp=table}} |} A leftist military-led coup d'état, started on April 25, 1974, in Lisbon, overthrew the [[Marcelo Caetano]] government in Portugal, and promised to hand over power to an independent Angolan government. [[Mobutu Sese Seko]], the [[President of Zaire]], met with [[António de Spínola]], the transitional [[President of Portugal]], on September 15, 1974 on [[Sal island]] in [[Cape Verde]], crafting a plan to empower [[Holden Roberto]] of the [[National Liberation Front of Angola]], [[Jonas Savimbi]] of [[UNITA]], and [[Daniel Chipenda]] of the [[MPLA]]'s eastern faction at the expense of MPLA leader [[Agostinho Neto]] while retaining the façade of national unity. Mobutu and Spínola wanted to present Chipenda as the MPLA head, Mobutu particularly preferring Chipenda over Neto because Chipenda supported autonomy for [[Cabinda (province)|Cabinda]]. The Angolan [[exclave]] has immense petroleum reserves estimated at around 300 million tons (~300{{e|9}}&nbsp;kg) which Zaire, and thus the Mobutu government, depended on for economic survival.<ref name="petroleum">Erik P. Hoffmann and Frederic J. Fleron. ''The Conduct of Soviet Foreign Policy'', 1980. Page 524.</ref> After independence thousands of white Portuguese left, most of them to [[Portugal]] and many travelling overland to [[South Africa]]. There was an immediate crisis because the indigenous African population lacked the skills and knowledge needed to run the country and maintain its well-developed infrastructure. The Angolan government created [[Sonangol]], a state-run oil company, in 1976. Two years later Sonangol received the rights to oil exploration and production in all of Angola.<ref name="opec">{{cite web |url=http://www.eia.doe.gov/emeu/cabs/Angola/pdf.pdf |format=PDF |title=Angola |work= Energy Information Administration |publisher=Eia.doe.gov}}</ref> After independence from Portugal in 1975, Angola was ravaged by a horrific [[Angolan Civil War|civil war]] between 1975 and 2002. ===1990s=== [[United Nations Angola Verification Mission III]] and [[MONUA]] spent [[USD]]1.5 billion overseeing implementation of the [[Lusaka Protocol]], a 1994 peace accord that ultimately failed to end the civil war. The protocol prohibited UNITA from buying foreign arms, a provision the [[United Nations]] largely did not enforce, so both sides continued to build up their stockpile. UNITA purchased weapons in 1996 and 1997 from private sources in [[Albania]] and [[Bulgaria]], and from [[Zaire]], [[South Africa]], [[Republic of the Congo]], [[Zambia]], [[Togo]], and [[Burkina Faso]]. In October 1997 the UN imposed travel sanctions on UNITA leaders, but the UN waited until July 1998 to limit UNITA's exportation of diamonds and freeze UNITA bank accounts. While the U.S. government gave USD250 million to UNITA between 1986 and 1991, UNITA made USD1.72 billion between 1994 and 1999 exporting diamonds, primarily through Zaire to Europe. At the same time the Angolan government received large amounts of weapons from the governments of [[Belarus]], [[Brazil]], Bulgaria, [[China]], and [[South Africa]]. While no arms shipment to the government violated the protocol, no country informed the U.N. Register on Conventional Weapons as required.<ref name="lusaka">Vines, Alex. ''Angola Unravels: The Rise and Fall of the Lusaka Peace Process'', 1999. Human Rights Watch.</ref> Despite the increase in civil warfare in late 1998, the economy grew by an estimated 4% in 1999. The government introduced new currency denominations in 1999, including a 1 and 5 kwanza note.{{Citation needed|date=July 2007}} ===2000s=== An economic reform effort was launched in 1998.<ref>"[[Angola.]]" U.S. Department of State Website. Retrieved 2013-8-14.</ref> Angola ranked 160 out of 174 nations in the [[United Nations Human Development Index]] of 2000.<ref name="fastest"/> In April 2000 Angola started an International Monetary Fund (IMF) Staff-Monitored Program (SMP). The program formally lapsed in June 2001, but the IMF remains engaged. In this context the Government of Angola has succeeded in unifying exchange rates and has raised fuel, electricity, and water rates. The Commercial Code, telecommunications law, and Foreign Investment Code are being modernized. A privatization effort, prepared with [[World Bank]] assistance, has begun with the [[Banco do Comércio e Indústria|BCI]] bank. Nevertheless, a legacy of fiscal mismanagement and corruption persists.{{Citation needed|date=July 2007}} The civil war [[Internally displaced person|internally displaced]] 3.8 million people, 32% of the population, by 2001.<ref name="fastest"/> The security brought about by the 2002 peace settlement has led to the resettlement of 4 million displaced persons, thus resulting in large-scale increases in agriculture production.{{Citation needed|date=July 2007}} Angola produced over {{convert|3|e6carat|kg|abbr=off}} of diamonds per year in 2003,<ref name="threemct">{{cite web|url=http://www.mbendi.co.za/indy/ming/dmnd/af/p0005.htm |title=Diamond Mining in Africa - Overview |publisher=Mbendi.co.za |date=2014-03-31 |accessdate=2014-07-13}}</ref> and production was expected to grow to {{convert|10|e6carat|kg|abbr=off}} per year by 2007. In 2004 China's Eximbank approved a $2 billion line of credit to Angola to rebuild infrastructure.<ref name="eximbank">[http://www.iie-angola-us.org/full_headlines.php?id=440 ] {{wayback|url=http://www.iie-angola-us.org/full_headlines.php?id=440 |date=20090805192137 }}</ref> The economy grew 18% in 2005 and growth was expected to reach 26% in 2006 and stay above 10% for the rest of the decade.{{Citation needed|date=July 2007}} The construction industry is another sector taking advantage of the growing economy, with various housing projects stimulated by the government that created various initiatives for this. Examples are the program ''Angola Investe'' and the projects ''[[Grupo Opaia SA#Casa Feliz|Casa Feliz]]'' or ''[[Grupo Opaia SA#Opaia Águas (Water)|Meña]]''. However, not all public construction projects are functional; a case in point is [[Kilamba Kiaxi]] where a whole new satellite town of Luanda, consisting in the main of housing facilities for several hundreds of thousands of people, was completely inhibited for over four years because of the skyrocket prices but it completely sold out after the government decreased the original price and created mortgage plans at around the election time thus made it affordable for middle-class people. ChevronTexaco started pumping {{convert|50|koilbbl/d|abbr=on}} from Block 14 in January 2000, but production has decreased to {{convert|57|koilbbl/d|abbr=on}} in 2007 due to the poor quality of the oil.<ref name="opec"/> Angola joined the [[Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries]] on January 1, 2007.<ref name="opec"/> Cabinda Gulf Oil Company found Malange-1, an oil reservoir in Block 14, on August 9, 2007.<ref name="malfound">{{cite web|url=http://www.rigzone.com/news/article.asp?a_id=48798 |title=Chevron Finds Success on Angolan Block 14, Again |publisher=Rigzone |date=2007-08-09 |accessdate=2014-07-13}}</ref> ==Overview== {{See also|Agriculture in Angola|Fishing in Angola}} [[Image:Africa by GDP, 2002.png|right|frame|National GDP per capita ranges from wealthier states in the north and south to poorer states in the east. These figures from the 2002 World Bank are converted to US dollars.]] Despite its abundant natural resources, output per capita is among the world's lowest. Subsistence agriculture provides the main livelihood for 85% of the population. Oil production and the supporting activities are vital to the economy, contributing about 45% to GDP and 90% of exports. Growth is almost entirely driven by rising oil production which surpassed {{convert|1.4|Moilbbl/d}} in late-2005 and which is expected to grow to {{convert|2|Moilbbl/d}} by 2007. Control of the oil industry is consolidated in [[Sonangol Group]], a conglomerate which is owned by the Angolan government. With revenues booming from oil exports, the government has started to implement ambitious development programs in building roads and other basic infrastructure for the nation.{{Citation needed|date=July 2007}} In the last decade of the colonial period, Angola was a major African food exporter but now imports almost all its food. Because of severe wartime conditions, including extensive planting of landmines throughout the countryside, agricultural activities have been brought to a near standstill. Some efforts to recover have gone forward, however, notably in fisheries. [[Coffee]] production, though a fraction of its pre-1975 level, is sufficient for domestic needs and some exports. In sharp contrast to a bleak picture of devastation and bare subsistence is expanding oil production, now almost half of GDP and 90% of exports, at {{convert|800|koilbbl/d}}. Diamonds provided much of the revenue for [[Jonas Savimbi]]'s [[UNITA]] rebellion through illicit trade. Other rich resources await development: gold, forest products, fisheries, iron ore, coffee, and fruits.{{Citation needed|date=July 2007}} This is a chart of trend of [[Real versus nominal value (economics)|nominal]] [[gross domestic product]] of Angola at market prices using International Monetary Fund data;<ref name="gdptrend">{{cite web|url=http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2006/01/data/dbcoutm.cfm?SD=1995&ED=2005&R1=1&R2=1&CS=3&SS=2&OS=C&DD=0&OUT=1&C=614&S=NGDP-NGDPD&RequestTimeout=120&CMP=0 |title=Report for Selected Countries and Subjects |publisher=Imf.org |date=2003-04-29 |accessdate=2014-07-13}}</ref> figures are in millions of units. {|class="wikitable" |- !Year || Gross Domestic Product (*$1,000,000) || US Dollar Exchange || Per Capita Income<br/> (as % of USA) |- |1980 || || || 6.33 |- |1985 || || || 4.46 |- |1990 || || || 4.42 |- |1995 || 5,066 || 14 Angolan Kwanza || 1.58 |- |2000 || 9,135 || 91,666 Angolan Kwanza || 1.96 |- |2005 || 28,860 || 2,515,452 Angolan Kwanza || 4.73 |} ==Foreign trade== {{see also|Angola–United States relations}} Exports in 2004 reached [[United States dollar|US$]]10,530,764,911. The vast majority of Angola's exports, 92% in 2004, are petroleum products. US$785 million worth of diamonds, 7.5% of exports, were sold abroad that year.<ref name="exports">{{cite web|url=http://www.afrol.com/articles/16248 |title=afrol News - 99.4% of Angola's exports are oil, diamonds |publisher=Afrol.com |date= |accessdate=2014-07-13}}</ref> Nearly all of Angola's oil goes to the United States, {{convert|526|koilbbl/d|abbr=on}} in 2006, making it the eighth largest supplier of oil to the United States, and to [[China]], {{convert|477|koilbbl/d|abbr=on}} in 2006. In the first quarter of 2008, Angola became the main exporter of oil to China.<ref name="China">{{cite web|last=Zhu |first=Winnie |url=http://www.bloomberg.com/apps/news?pid=newsarchive&sid=aqJ3Wjxs.OWs |title=Angola Overtakes Saudi Arabia as Biggest Oil Supplier to China |publisher=Bloomberg |date=2008-04-21 |accessdate=2014-07-13}}</ref> The rest of its petroleum exports go to [[Europe]] and [[Latin America]].<ref name="opec"/> U.S. companies account for more than half the investment in Angola, with Chevron-Texaco leading the way. The U.S. exports industrial goods and services, primarily oilfield equipment, mining equipment, chemicals, aircraft, and food, to Angola, while principally importing petroleum.{{Citation needed|date=July 2007}} Trade between Angola and [[South Africa]] exceeded USD&nbsp;300 million in 2007.<ref name="safrica">[http://www.macauhub.com.mo/en/news.php?ID=3726 ] {{wayback|url=http://www.macauhub.com.mo/en/news.php?ID=3726 |date=20071228175919 }}</ref> From the 2000s many Chinese have settled and started up businesses.<ref>{{cite web|last=Rowlatt |first=Justin |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/programmes/from_our_own_correspondent/9052011.stm |title=Chinese karaoke fans sing Angola's praises |publisher=BBC News |date=2010-10-02 |accessdate=2014-07-13}}</ref> ==Resources== ===Petroleum=== [[File:Tree map export 2009 Angola.jpeg|thumb|Angolan exports in 2009]] Angola produces and exports more petroleum than any other nation in [[sub-Saharan Africa]], surpassing [[Nigeria]] in the [[2000s in Angola|2000s]]. In January 2007 Angola became a member of [[OPEC]]. By 2010 production is expected to double the 2006 output level with development of deep-water offshore oil fields. Oil sales generated USD&nbsp;1.71 billion in tax revenue in 2004 and now makes up 80% of the government's budget, a 5% increase from 2003, and 45% of [[GDP]].<ref name="oilview"/><ref name="budgincrease">OECD (2006). Page 30.</ref> [[Chevron Corporation]] produces and receives {{convert|400|koilbbl/d|abbr=on}}, 27% of Angolan oil. [[Total S.A.]], [[Chevron Corporation]], [[ExxonMobil]], [[Eni]], [[Petrobras]], and [[BP]] also operate in the country.<ref name="oilhistory"/> Block Zero provides the majority of Angola's crude oil production<ref name="zero">OECD (2006). Page 132.</ref> with {{convert|370|koilbbl/d|abbr=on}} produced annually<!-- per day per year ...? -->. The largest fields in Block Zero are Takula (Area A), Numbi (Area A), and Kokongo (Area B). Chevron operates in Block Zero with a 39.2% share. [[SONANGOL]], the state oil company, Total, and Eni own the rest of the block. Chevron also operates Angola's first producing deepwater section, Block 14, with {{convert|57|koilbbl/d|abbr=on}}.<ref name="opec"/> The [[United Nations]] has criticized the Angolan government for using torture, rape, summary executions, arbitrary detention, and disappearances, actions which Angolan government has justified on the need to maintain oil output.<ref name="hroil">Omeje, Kenneth C. ''High Stakes And Stakeholders: Oil Conflict And Security in Nigeria'', 2006. Page 157.</ref> Angola is the third-largest trading partner of the United States in Sub-Saharan Africa, largely because of its petroleum exports.<ref name="thirdlargest">United States Congress. ''Foreign Operations, Export Financing, and Related Programs Appropriations for 1998: Hearings'', 1997. Page 269.</ref> The U.S. imports 7% of its oil from Angola, about three times as much as it imported from [[Kuwait]] just prior to the [[Gulf War]] in 1991. The U.S. Government has invested USD $4 billion in Angola's petroleum sector.<ref name="kuwait">Vines, Alex. ''Angola Unravels: The Rise and Fall of the Lusaka Peace Process'', 1999. Human Rights Watch. Page 189.</ref> ===Diamonds=== {{Main|Mining in Angola}} Angola is the third largest producer of diamonds in Africa and has only explored 40% of the diamond-rich territory within the country, but has had difficulty in attracting foreign investment because of corruption, human rights violations, and diamond smuggling.<ref name="cfr">http://allafrica.com/stories/200705071105.html</ref> Production rose by 30% in 2006 and [[Endiama]], the national diamond company of Angola, expects production to increase by 8% in 2007 to 10 million carats annually. The government is trying to attract foreign companies to the [[Provinces of Angola|provinces]] of [[Bié (province)|Bié]], [[Malanje (province)|Malanje]] and [[Uíge Province|Uíge]].<ref name="diaexploration">{{cite web|url=http://africa.reuters.com/business/news/usnBAN637551.html |title=Reuters.com |publisher=Africa.reuters.com |date=2009-02-09 |accessdate=2014-07-13}}</ref> The Angolan government loses $375 million annually from diamond smuggling. In 2003 the government began Operation Brilliant, an anti-smuggling investigation that arrested and deported 250,000 smugglers between 2003 and 2006. Rafael Marques, a journalist and human rights activist, described the diamond industry in his 2006 ''Angola's Deadly Diamonds'' report as plagued by "murders, beatings, arbitrary detentions and other human rights violations." Marques called on foreign countries to boycott Angola's "[[conflict diamonds]]".<ref name="marques">{{cite web|url=http://www.afrol.com/articles/15888 |title=afrol News - Angola to double diamond production in 2006 |publisher=Afrol.com |date= |accessdate=2014-07-13}}</ref><br /> In December 2014, the [[Bureau of International Labor Affairs]] issued a ''[[List of Goods Produced by Child Labor or Forced Labor]]''<ref>[http://www.dol.gov/ilab/reports/child-labor/list-of-goods/ List of Goods Produced by Child Labor or Forced Labor]</ref> that classified Angola as one of the major diamond producing African countries relying on both child labor and forced labor. The [[United States Department of Labor|U.S. Department of Labor]] reported that "there is little publicly available information on [Angola's] efforts to enforce child labor law".<ref>[http://www.dol.gov/ilab/reports/child-labor/angola.htm 2013 Findings on the Worst Forms of Child Labor - Angola -]</ref> ===Iron=== {{Main|Mining in Angola}} Under Portuguese rule, [[Angola (Portugal)|Angola]] began mining [[iron]] in 1957, producing 1.2 million tons in 1967 and 6.2 million tons by 1971. In the early 1970s, 70% of Portuguese Angola's iron exports went to [[Western Europe]] and [[Japan]].<ref name="diaexploration"/> After independence in 1975, the [[Angolan Civil War]] (1975–2002) destroyed most of the territory's mining infrastructure. The redevelopment of the Angolan mining industry started in the late 2000s. ==See also== *[[Banco Espírito Santo Angola]] ==Further reading== *McCormick, Shawn H. ''The Angolan Economy: Prospects for Growth in a Postwar Environment'', 1994. *OECD, International Energy Agency. ''Angola: Towards an Energy Strategy'', 2006. *Making Finance Work for Africa (MFW4A): Angola Financial Sector Profile,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.mfw4a.org/angola/angola-financial-sector-profile.html |title=Angola Financial Sector Profile: MFW4A - Making Finance Work for Africa |publisher=MFW4A |date= |accessdate=2014-07-13}}</ref> ==References== {{Reflist|2}} * {{citation |contribution=[[s:Encyclopædia Britannica, Ninth Edition/Angola|Angola]] |title=''[[s:Encyclopædia Britannica, Ninth Edition|''Encyclopædia Britannica'', 9th ed.]], [[s:Encyclopædia Britannica, Ninth Edition/Volume II|Vol.&nbsp;II]]'' |editor-last=Baynes |editor-first=Thomas Spencer |display-editors=0 |publisher=Charles Scribner's Sons |location=New York |date=1878 |ref={{harvid|EB|1878}} |p=45 }}. * {{citation |contribution=[[s:1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Angola|Angola]] |title=''[[s:1911 Encyclopædia Britannica|''Encyclopædia Britannica'', 11th ed.]], [[s:1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Volume II|Vol.&nbsp;II]]'' |editor-last=Chisholm |editor-first=Hugh |editor2-last=Phillips |editor2-first=Walter Alison |display-editors=0 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=[[Cambridge, England|Cambridge]] |date=1911 |ref={{harvid|EB|1911}} |pp=38–40}}. ==External links== *{{dmoz|Regional/Africa/Angola/Business_and_Economy/Economic_Development}} *[http://www.mbendi.co.za/land/af/an/p0005.htm MBendi overview of Angola] *[http://www.trademap.org/open_access/Index.aspx?proceed=true&reporter=024 Angola latest trade data on ITC Trade Map] *[http://www.cotecna.com/en/Tools/~/media/Documents/Datasheets%20-%20Factsheets/Angola/Angola-Cotecna-Datasheet.ashx Exports to Angola Datasheet] {{Economy of Angola}} {{OPEC}}{{Africa in topic|Economy of}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Economy Of Angola}} [[Category:African Union member economies|Angola]] [[Category:Economy of Angola| ]] [[Category:OPEC|Angola]] [[Category:World Trade Organization member economies|Angola]] [[Category:Blood diamonds]] 627bhr76a2zn4cnjg53topid4ju1ydv 0 708 633996293 631200237 2014-11-15T22:32:09Z Filedelinkerbot 20611691 Bot: Removing [[Commons:File:Sonair Boeing 737, Lubango, 2009.JPG]] ([[:File:Sonair Boeing 737, Lubango, 2009.JPG|en]]). It was deleted on Commons by [[:Commons:User:JuTa|JuTa]] ([[Commons:COM:OTRS|No permission]] since 6 November 2014). wikitext text/x-wiki {{Use dmy dates|date=July 2012}} {{More footnotes|date=February 2012}} '''Transport in [[Angola]]''' comprises: == Railways == {{main|Rail transport in Angola}} There are three separate railway lines in Angola: * [[Luanda Railway]] ([[Caminhos de Ferro de Luanda|CFL]]) (northern) * [[Benguela Railway]] ([[Caminho de Ferro de Benguela|CFB]]) (central) * [[Moçâmedes Railway]] ([[Moçâmedes Railway|CFM]]) (southern) Reconstruction of these three lines began in 2005 and is expected to be completed by the end of the year 2012. The [[Benguela Railway]] already connects to the [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]]. == Waterways == * 1,300&nbsp;km navigable (2008) :''country comparison to the world:'' 36 == Pipelines == * gas, 2&nbsp;km; crude oil 87&nbsp;km (2008) In April 2012, the Zambian Development Agency (ZDA) and an Angolan company signed a memorandum of understanding (MoU) to build a multi-product pipeline from [[Lobito]] to [[Lusaka]], [[Zambia]], to deliver various refined products to Zambia.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.times.co.zm/?p=4888|title=Govt, Angola Ink U.S.$2.5 Billion Oil Deal |author=Chila Namaiko |publisher=Times of Zambia|location=Lusaka, Zambia|date=14 April 2012|accessdate=29 May 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.times.co.zm/?p=8706 |title=Angola ready to ‘oil’ Zambia|work=Times of Zambia|location=Lusaka, Zambia|date=9 May 2012|accessdate=29 May 2012}}</ref> Angola plans to build an oil refinery in Lobito in the coming years. == Ports and harbors == [[File:Cargamento de mineirios, Namibe.JPG|thumb|Ship loading minerals at Namibe harbour, Angola]] The government plans to build a deep-water port at [[Barra do Dande]], north of Luanda, in [[Bengo (province)|Bengo]] province near [[Caxito]].<ref name="Angop_2011-11-26_17-44">[http://www.portalangop.co.ao/motix/pt_pt/noticias/transporte/2011/10/47/Futuro-porto-Barra-Dande-sera-dos-maiores-Africa,f783485b-ea77-47e9-b395-a74ed09d6188.html Article in ''Angop'' web portal reporting on the presentation of the general director of the ''Instituto Marítimo e Portuário de Angola'', Victor Carvalho]</ref> == Merchant marine == * ''total:'' 6 :''country comparison to the world:'' 128 * ''by type:'' cargo 1, passenger/cargo 2, petroleum tanker 2, roll on/roll off 1 * ''foreign owned:'' 1 (Spain) * ''registered in other countries:'' 6 (Bahamas) (2008) {{Portal:Nautical/Fleet/Angola}} == Airports == * 211 (2008) {{main|List of airports in Angola}} === Airports - with paved runways === * ''total:'' 30 * ''over 3,047 m:'' 5 * ''2,438 to 3,047 m:'' 8 * ''1,524 to 2,437 m:'' 12 * ''914 to 1,523 m:'' 4 * ''under 914 m:'' 1 (2008) === Airports - with unpaved runways === * ''total:'' 181 (2008) * ''over 3,047 m:'' 2 * ''2,438 to 3,047 m:'' 5 * ''1,524 to 2,437 m:'' 32 * ''914 to 1,523 m:'' 100 * ''under 914 m:'' 42 (2008) === National Airlines === * [[TAAG Angola Airlines]] * [[Sonair]] === History === Angola had an estimated total of 43 airports as of 2004, of which 31 had paved runways as of 2005. There is an [[Luanda International Airport|international airport at Luanda]]. International and domestic services are maintained by [[TAAG Angola Airlines]], [[Aeroflot]], [[British Airways]], [[Brussels Airlines]], [[Lufthansa]], [[Air France]], [[Air Namibia]], [[Cubana]], [[Ethiopian Airlines]], [[Emirates (airline)|Emirates]], [[Delta Air Lines]], [[Royal Air Maroc]], [[Iberia Airlines|Iberia]], [[Hainan Airlines]], [[Kenya Airways]], [[South African Airways]], [[TAP Air Portugal]] and several regional carriers. In 2003, domestic and international carriers carried 198,000 passengers. There are airstrips for domestic transport at [[Benguela]], [[Cabinda (city)|Cabinda]], [[Huambo]], [[Namibe]], and [[Catumbela]]. == References == ''This article comes from the [[CIA World Factbook]] 2003.'' <references/> {{CIA World Factbook}} {{Economy of Angola}} {{Angola topics}} {{Africa topic|Transport in}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Transport In Angola}} [[Category:Transport in Angola| ]] 89i26xl6rgkhltopg21kedvksp3krjl 0 709 711347002 711285222 2016-03-22T09:42:08Z Greenman 7323 Reverted to revision 705812359 by [[Special:Contributions/Yobot|Yobot]] ([[User talk:Yobot|talk]]): Restore according to source. ([[WP:TW|TW]]) wikitext text/x-wiki {{Use mdy dates|date=June 2013}} {{refimprove|date=November 2012}} {{Infobox national military |country =Angola |name = Angolan Armed Forces |native_name = Forças Armadas Angolanas |image =Flag of Angola.svg|200px |caption =Flag of Angola |image2 = |caption2 = |founded = |current_form = |disbanded = |branches = [[Angolan Army]]<br>[[Angolan Navy]]<br>[[National Air Force of Angola]] |headquarters = [[Ministry of Defence (Angola)|Ministry of Defence]], Rua 17 de Setembro, Luanada, Angola<ref name="Military Technology 2008, p.301">Military Technology, World Defence Almanac, Vol. XXXII, Issue 1, 2008, p.301</ref> <!-- Leadership --> |commander-in-chief = [[José Eduardo dos Santos]] |commander-in-chief_title = [[President of Angola]], Commander-in-Chief |minister = João Lourenço |minister_title = Minister of Defence |commander=General Geraldo Nunda <ref>http://portangola.co.ao Geraldo Sachipengo Nunda is a former [[UNITA]] general. See http://www.angonoticias.com/Artigos/item/27403.</ref> |commander_title = Chief of General Staff <!-- Manpower --> |age = |conscription = Universal compulsory service for 24 months plus training |manpower_data = |active = 87,000<ref name="Defenceweb.co.za">Defenceweb.co.za, [http://www.defenceweb.co.za/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=29331:angola&catid=119:african-militaries&Itemid=255 Angola], February 2013.</ref> |ranked = |reserve = 30,000<ref name="Defenceweb.co.za" /> |deployed = Small numbers <!-- Financial --> |amount = est. 4.784 billion USD |percent_GDP = 3.63 (2012)<ref>[https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/ao.html] retrieved April 29, 2014 (en)</ref> <!-- Industrial --> |domestic_suppliers = |foreign_suppliers = |imports = |exports = <!-- Related articles --> |history = [[South African Border War]] <br /> [[Angolan War of Independence]] <br /> [[Angolan Civil War]] <br /> [[First Congo War]] <br /> [[Republic of the Congo Civil War]] <br /> [[Second Congo War]] <br /> [[2012 Guinea-Bissau coup d'état]] |ranks = }} The '''Angolan Armed Forces''' ([[Portuguese language|Portuguese]]: ''Forças Armadas Angolanas'') are the [[military]] in [[Angola]] that succeeded the [[Armed Forces for the Liberation of Angola]] (FAPLA) following the abortive [[Bicesse Accord]] with the National Union for the Total Independence of Angola ([[UNITA]]) in 1991. As part of the peace agreement, troops from both armies were to be [[demilitarized]] and then integrated. Integration was never completed as UNITA went back to war in 1992. Later, consequences for UNITA members in Luanda were harsh with FAPLA veterans persecuting their erstwhile opponents in certain areas and reports of [[vigilantism]]. The FAA is headed by Chief of Staff [[Geraldo Sachipengo Nunda]] since 2010, who reports to the Minister of Defense, currently [[João Lourenço]]. There are three components, the Army (''Forças Armadas''), Navy (''Marinha de Guerra'') and Air Force ''[[National Air Force of Angola|Força Aérea Nacional Angolana]]''. Reported total manpower in 2013 was about 107,000.<ref>International Institute for Strategic Studies, The Military Balance 2013, 493.</ref> == Angolan Army == [[File:Angolan soldiers training in Russia.png|300px|right|thumb|Angolan Second Lieutenant, First Lieutenant, and Captain training in Russia in August 2015]] On August 1, 1974 a few months after a military [[coup d'état]] had overthrown the [[Lisbon]] regime and proclaimed its intention of granting independence to Angola, the MPLA announced the formation of FAPLA, which replaced the EPLA. By 1976 FAPLA had been transformed from lightly armed guerrilla units into a national [[army]] capable of sustained field operations.<ref name="ReferenceA">[[Library of Congress Country Studies]]</ref> In 1990-91, the Army had ten military regions and an estimated 73+ 'brigades', each with a mean strength of 1,000 and comprising inf, tank, APC, artillery, and AA units as required.<ref>IISS Military Balance 1990 or 1991</ref> The [[Library of Congress]] said in 1990 that '[t]he regular army's 91,500 troops were organized into more than seventy brigades ranging from 750 to 1,200 men each and deployed throughout the ten military regions. Most regions were commanded by lieutenant colonels, with majors as deputy commanders, but some regions were commanded by majors. Each region consisted of one to four provinces, with one or more infantry brigades assigned to it. The brigades were generally dispersed in battalion or smaller unit formations to protect strategic terrain, urban centers, settlements, and critical infrastructure such as bridges and factories. Counterintelligence agents were assigned to all field units to thwart UNITA infiltration. The army's diverse combat capabilities were indicated by its many regular and motorised infantry brigades with organic or attached armor, artillery, and air defense units; two militia infantry brigades; four antiaircraft artillery brigades; ten tank battalions; and six artillery battalions. These forces were concentrated most heavily in places of strategic importance and recurring conflict: the oil-producing [[Cabinda Province]], the area around the capital, and the southern provinces where UNITA and South African forces operated.' It was reported in 2011 that the army was by far the largest of the services with about 120,000 men and women.<ref>[http://www.globaldefence.net/streitkraefte-der-welt/afrika/346-angola.html Global Defence.net: Angolan Armed Forces] retrieved August 21, 2011 (de)</ref> The Angolan Army has around 29,000 "ghost workers" who remain enrolled in the ranks of the FAA and therefore receive a salary.<ref>[http://www.radioecclesia.org/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=1686:18-anos-das-for-armadas-angolanas&catid=130:sociedade&Itemid=483, Rádio Ecclesia: 18 anos das Forças Armadas Angolanas] retrieved August 22, 2011 (pt)</ref> In 2013, the [[International Institute for Strategic Studies]] reported that the FAA had six divisions, the 1st, 5th, and 6th with two or three infantry brigades, and the 2nd, 3rd, and 4th with five to six infantry brigades. The 4th Division included a tank regiment. A separate tank brigade and special forces brigade were also reported.<ref>IISS 2013, 493.</ref> As of 2011, the IISS reported the ground forces had 42 armoured/infantry regiments ('detachments/groups - strength varies') and 16 infantry '[[brigade]]s'.<ref>IISS Military Balance 2011, 410.</ref> These probably comprised [[infantry]], [[tank]]s, [[Armoured personnel carriers|APC]], [[artillery]], and [[Anti-aircraft warfare|AA units]] as required. Major equipment included over 140 [[main battle tank]]s, 600 [[reconnaissance]] vehicles, over 920 [[armored fighting vehicles|AFV]]s, [[infantry fighting vehicle]]s, 298 [[howitzers]].<ref name="Defenceweb.co.za" /> It was reported on May 3, 2007, that the Special Forces Brigade of the Angolan Armed Forces (FAA) located at Cabo Ledo region, northern [[Bengo Province]], would host a 29th anniversary celebration for the entire armed forces. The brigade was reportedly formed on 5 May 1978 and under the command at the time of Colonel Paulo Falcao.<ref>[http://www.portalangop.co.ao/angola/en_us/noticias/politica/2007/4/18/Army-Special-Forces-Brigade-Celebrate-Years,38c72dcf-fced-44c2-a0c8-cdc9689f0ecd.html Army Special Forces Celebrate Years], May 3, 2007.</ref> ===Army Equipment=== {{main|List of equipment of the Angolan Army}} The Army operates a large amount of Russian, Soviet and ex-Warsaw pact hardware. A large amount of its equipment was acquired in the 1980s and 1990s most likely because of hostilities with neighbouring countries and its [[Angolan Civil War|civil war]] which lasted from November 1975 until 2002. There is an interest from the Angolan Army for the Brazilian [[Astros II MLRS|ASTROS II]] multiple rocket launcher.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.defesanet.com.br/africa/noticia/16305/ANGOLA--quer-comprar-o-novo-sistema-ASTROS-da-AVIBRAS/|title=DefesaNet - Africa - ANGOLA: quer comprar o novo sistema ASTROS da AVIBRAS|work=DefesaNet|accessdate=December 25, 2014}}</ref> ====Infantry Weapons==== Many of Angola's weapons are of [[Portuguese Angola|Portuguese colonial]] and [[Warsaw Pact]] origin. [[Jane's Information Group]] lists the following as in service: * Rifles in service with Army include the [[AK-47]], [[AKM]], [[FN FAL]], [[Heckler & Koch G3|G3 Assault Rifle]], [[SKS]] and [[IMI Tavor]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.operacional.pt/37-o-aniversario-das-forcas-especiais-angolanas/|title=37.º ANIVERSÁRIO DAS FORÇAS ESPECIAIS ANGOLANAS - Operacional|publisher=|accessdate=12 December 2015}}</ref> * Pistols include the [[Makarov pistol]], [[Stechkin automatic pistol]] and the [[TT pistol|Tokarev TT pistol]]. * Submachine guns include the [[Škorpion vz. 61]], [[Star Bonifacio Echeverria|Star Z-45]], [[Uzi]] and the [[FBP submachine gun]]. * Machine guns include the [[Degtyaryov machine gun|RP-46]], [[RPD machine gun]], [[Vz. 52 machine gun]] and the [[DShK]] [[Heavy machine gun]]. * Grenade launchers include the [[AGS-17]] [[automatic grenade launcher]]. * Mortars include the [[120-PM-43 mortar]] (500 in service) and the [[82-PM-41]] (250 in service).<ref name=DWequipment>{{cite web|title=Angolan Armed Forces|url=http://www.defenceweb.co.za/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=29331:angola&catid=119:african-militaries&Itemid=255|publisher=Defenceweb|accessdate=7 May 2014}}</ref> * Anti-Tank weapons include the [[RPG-7]], [[9K111 Fagot]] (650 ordered in 1987),<ref name="SIPRI">{{cite web|url=http://armstrade.sipri.org/arms_trade/trade_register.php|title=Trade Registers|publisher=|accessdate=December 25, 2014}}</ref> [[9K11 Malyutka]], [[B-10 recoilless rifle]] and the [[B-11 recoilless rifle]].<ref name="janes2009">Jones, Richard D. ''Jane's Infantry Weapons 2009/2010''. Jane's Information Group; 35 edition (January 27, 2009). ISBN 978-0-7106-2869-5.</ref> ====Main Battle Tanks==== * Between 116 and 267 [[T-54/55|T-55AM-2]] [[Medium tank]]s.<ref name=GSangola>{{cite web|title=Angolan Army Equipment|url=http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/world/angola/army-equipment.htm|publisher=Globalsecurity.org|accessdate=7 May 2014}}</ref> 281 T-55's were ordered between 1975 and 1999. 267 T-55AM-2's were delivered from [[Bulgaria]] and [[Slovakia]] in 1999.<ref name="SIPRI" /> * 22 [[T-72|T-72M1]] [[main battle tank]]s. Delivered from [[Belarus]] in 1999.<ref name=DWequipment /> * 18 [[T-62]] [[Main battle tank]]s. 364 were ordered in the 1980s and 1990s.<ref name="SIPRI"/> * 12 [[PT-76]] [[Amphibious vehicle|Amphibious]] [[Light tank]]s.<ref name=GSangola /> 68 ordered in 1975 from the Soviet Union.<ref name="SIPRI"/> ====Armoured Vehicles==== * 150 [[BMP-1]] [[infantry fighting vehicle]]s.<ref name=GSangola /> * 62 [[BMP-2]] [[infantry fighting vehicle]]s.<ref name=GSangola /> * 195 [[BRDM-2]] and 120 [[BRDM-1]] [[Armored car (military)|Amphibious Armoured Scout Car]]s.<ref name="armyrecognition.com">{{cite web|url=http://www.armyrecognition.com/angola_angolan_army_land_forces_uk/angola_angolan_army_land_ground_forces_military_equipment_armoured_vehicle_pictures_information_desc.html|title=Angola Angolan army land ground forces military equipment armoured vehicle pictures information desc - Army Recognition|publisher=|accessdate=December 25, 2014}}</ref> * 62 [[BTR-60PB|BTR-60]] and 50 [[OT-62 TOPAS]] [[armored personnel carrier]]s<ref name=DWequipment /><ref name="SIPRI" /> * 45 [[Casspir| Casspir NG 2000B]] [[Infantry mobility vehicle]]s<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.defenceweb.co.za/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=32759:angola-orders-casspirs&catid=50:Land&Itemid=105|title=Angola orders Casspirs|author=Guy Martin|publisher=|accessdate=December 25, 2014}}</ref> * 24 [[EE-11 Urutu]] [[armored personnel carrier]]s<ref name=GSangola /> ====Artillery==== * 12 [[2S1 Gvozdika]] 122&nbsp;mm [[Self-propelled gun]]s (Acquired in 2000 from the Czech Republic). * 4 [[2S3 Akatsiya]] 152&nbsp;mm [[Self-propelled gun]]s (Acquired in 1999 from the Bulgaria). * 12 [[2S7 Pion]] 203&nbsp;mm [[Self-propelled gun]]s (Acquired in 2000 from the Czech Republic).<ref name="SIPRI" /> * Unknown amounts of [[76 mm divisional gun M1942 (ZiS-3)|M1942 ZiS-3]] Anti-tank field guns * ~280 [[122 mm howitzer 2A18 (D-30)|D-30]] 122&nbsp;mm [[Howitzer]]s (28 from [[Kazakhstan]] in 1998, 12 from [[Belarus]], 240 from the [[Soviet Union]] in the 1980s)<ref name="SIPRI" /> * 4 [[152 mm towed gun-howitzer M1955 (D-20)|D-20]] Howitzers.<ref name="SIPRI" /> * Unknown amounts of [[85 mm divisional gun D-44]] Field Guns. * 48 [[130 mm towed field gun M1954 (M-46)|M-46]] 130&nbsp;mm field guns<ref name=GSangola /> * 75 [[BM-21 Grad]] multiple rocket launchers * 40 [[RM-70 multiple rocket launcher]]s ====Anti-Aircraft weaponry==== * 20 [[ZSU-23-4 Shilka]] Self-propelled anti-aircraft guns. * 40 [[ZSU-57-2]] Self-propelled anti-aircraft guns<ref name="armyrecognition.com"/> * Unknown amounts of [[ZU-23-2]], [[57 mm AZP S-60]], [[37 mm automatic air defense gun M1939 (61-K)|M-1939]], [[ZPU|ZPU-4]] and M-55 anti-aircraft guns.<ref name=GSangola /> * 40 [[S-75 Dvina|SA-2 Guideline]] high-altitude air defense systems. * 12 [[S-125 Neva/Pechora|SA-3 Goa]] * 25 [[2K12 Kub|SA-6]] * Unknown amounts of [[Strela 2|SA-7 Grail]] * 15 [[9K33 Osa|SA-8]] * 20 [[9K31 Strela-1|SA-9 Gaskin]] * 10 [[9K35 Strela-10|SA-13]] * Unknown amounts of [[9K34 Strela-3|SA-14 Gremlin]] and [[9K38 Igla|SA-16 Gimlet]]. ====Other Vehicles==== * [[Ural-4320]] trucks == Angolan Air Force == {{main|National Air Force of Angola}} The [[Angolan Air Force]]'s personnel total about 8,000; its equipment includes transport aircraft and six [[Russia]]n-manufactured [[Sukhoi Su-27]] [[fighter aircraft]].<ref>IISS Military Balance 2013, 494</ref> In 2002 one was lost during the civil war with UNITA forces.<ref>[http://www.globaldefence.net/streitkraefte-der-welt/afrika/346-angola.html globaldefence.net: Angolan Armed Forces] retrieved August 22, 2011 (de)</ref> In 1991, the Air Force/Air Defense Forces had 8,000 personnel and 90 combat-capable aircraft, including 22 fighters, 59 fighter ground attack aircraft and 16 attack helicopters. == Angolan Navy (Marinha de Guerra) == {{main|Angolan Navy}} The Navy numbers about 1,000 personnel and operates only a handful of small patrol craft and barges. The Angolan Navy (MGA) has been neglected and ignored as a military arm mainly due to the guerrilla struggle against the Portuguese and the nature of the civil war. From the early 1990s to the present the Angolan Navy has shrunk from around 4,200 personnel to around 1,000, resulting in the loss of skills and expertise needed to maintain equipment. In order to protect Angola’s 1 600&nbsp;km long coastline, the Angolan Navy is undergoing modernisation but is still lacking in many ways.{{citation needed|date=May 2013}} Portugal has been providing training through its Technical Military Cooperation (CTM) programme. The Navy is requesting procurement of a frigate, three corvettes, three offshore patrol vessel and additional fast patrol boats. Most of the vessels in the navy's inventory dates back from the 1980s or earlier, and many of its ships are inoperable due to age and lack of maintenance. However the navy acquired new boats from Spain and France in the 1990s. Germany has delivered several [[Fast Attack Craft]] for border protection in 2011. In September 2014 it was reported that the Angolan Navy would acquire seven [[Macaé-class patrol vessel]]s from Brazil as part of a Technical Memorandum of Understanding (MoU) covering the production of the vessels as part of Angola’s Naval Power Development Programme (Pronaval).<ref name=DWMacae>{{cite news|title=Angolan Navy acquiring seven patrol vessels|url=http://www.defenceweb.co.za/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=36188:angolan-navy-acquiring-seven-patrol-vessels-from-brazil&catid=51:Sea&Itemid=106|accessdate=14 November 2014|agency=defenceWeb|publisher=defenceWeb|date=9 September 2014}}</ref> The military of Angola aims to modernize its naval capability, presumably due to a rise in maritime piracy within the Gulf of Guinea which may have an adverse effect on the country's economy. The navy's current known inventory includes the following: * [[Fast attack craft]] ** 4 Mandume class craft (Bazan Cormoran type, refurbished in 2009) * [[Patrol boat|Patrol Boats]] ** 3 18.3m long Patrulheiro patrol boats (refurbished in 2002)<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.engineeringnews.co.za/print-version/sa-boat-builder-refurbishes-vessels-for-angola-2002-11-22|title=Engineering News - SA boat builder refurbishes vessels for Angola|publisher=|accessdate=December 25, 2014}}</ref> ** 5 ARESA PVC-170 ** 2 [[Namacurra-class harbour patrol boat]]s * Fisheries Patrol Boats ** Ngola Kiluange and Nzinga Mbandi (delivered in September and October 2012 from [[Damen Group|Damen Shipyards]])(Operated by Navy personnel under the Ministry of Agriculture, Rural Development and Fisheries) ** 28 metre FRV 2810 (Pensador) (Operated by Navy personnel under the Ministry of Agriculture, Rural Development and Fisheries)<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.defenceweb.co.za/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=29331:angola&catid=119:african-militaries&Itemid=255|title=Angola|author=Guy Martin|publisher=|accessdate=December 25, 2014}}</ref> * Landing craft ** [[LDM-400]] - 1 or 3 (reportedly has serviceability issues) * Coastal defense equipment (CRTOC) ** [[SS-C1]] Sepal radar system The navy also has several aircraft for maritime patrol: {| class="wikitable" ! Aircraft ! Origin ! Type ! Versions ! In service<ref name="awst_20070115">"World Military Aircraft Inventory", Aerospace Source Book 2007, ''[[Aviation Week & Space Technology]]'', January 15, 2007.</ref> ! Notes |- | [[Fokker F27]] | [[Netherlands]] | Medium transport | | 1 | |- | [[EMB 110|EMB 111]] | [[Brazil]] | Maritime patrol | | 2 | |- | [[Boeing 707]] | [[United States|USA]] | Maritime patrol | | 1 | |- |} == Foreign deployments == The FAPLA's main counterinsurgency effort was directed against UNITA in the southeast, and its conventional capabilities were demonstrated principally in the undeclared [[South African Border War]].<ref name="ReferenceA"/> The FAPLA first performed its external assistance mission with the dispatch of 1,000 to 1,500 troops to [[São Tomé and Príncipe]] in 1977 to bolster the socialist regime of President Manuel Pinto da Costa. During the next several years, Angolan forces conducted joint exercises with their counterparts and exchanged technical operational visits. The Angolan expeditionary force was reduced to about 500 in early 1985. The Angolan Armed Forces were controversially involved in training the armed forces of fellow [[Lusophone]] states [[Cape Verde]] and Guinea-Bissau. In the case of the latter, the [[2012 Guinea-Bissau coup d'état]] was cited by the coup leaders as due to Angola's involvement in trying to "reform" the military in connivance with the civilian leadership. A small number of FAA personnel are stationed in the [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]] (Kinshasa) and the [[Republic of the Congo]] (Brazzaville). A presence during the unrest in [[Ivory Coast]], 2010&ndash;2011, were not officially confirmed. However, the ''[[Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung]]'', citing ''[[Jeune Afrique]]'', said that among President [[Gbagbo]]'s guards were 92 personnel of President Dos Santos's Presidential Guard Unit.<ref>[http://www.faz.net/aktuell/politik/ausland/elfenbeinkueste-gbagbos-letzte-trumpfkarte-als-maertyrer-sterben-1628414.html Gbagbos letzte Trumpfkarte: als Märtyrer sterben], 7 April 2011</ref> Angola is basically interested in the participation of the FAA operations of the [[African Union]] and has formed special units for this purpose. ==References== {{reflist|2}} ==Further reading== *{{cite journal |last= |first= |authorlink= |coauthors= |year=2008 |month= |title=World Defence Almanac |journal=Military Technology |volume= XXXII |issue= 1 |pages=301–302 |publisher=Monch Publishing Group |location=Bonn, Germany |issn=0722-3226 }} *[[Human Rights Watch]], [http://www.hrw.org/reports/1999/angola/ Angola Unravels: The Rise and Fall of the Lusaka Peace Process], October 1999 *Utz Ebertz and Marie Müller, Legacy of a resource-fueled war: The role of generals in Angola’s mining sector, BICC Focus, June 2013 *Area Handbook for Angola, August 1967, Angola, A Country Study (1979 and 1991) *Rocky Williams, "National defence reform and the African Union." [[SIPRI]] Yearbook 2004: 231-249. *Weigert, Stephen L. Angola: a modern military history, 1961-2002. Palgrave Macmillan, 2011. *Martin Rupiya et al., 'Angola', in Evolutions and Revolutions *The Twenty-Seventh of May: An Historical Note on the Abortive 1977 "coup" in Angola David Birmingham, African Affairs, Vol. 77, No. 309 (Oct., 1978), pp.&nbsp;554–564 Published by: Oxford University Press on behalf of The Royal African Society ==External links== *[http://www.minden.gov.ao/Default.aspx Official site of the Angolan Ministry of National Defence] *[http://worldnavies.glt.pl/ World Navies] *[http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qa4106/is_200412/ai_n10298510 Brinkman, Inge "Language, Names, and War: The Case of Angola", African Studies Review] {{Military of Africa}} {{Angola topics}} [[Category:Military of Angola]] [[Category:Military history of Angola]] rt8e7hgx5kdz8batp931tr8e22kxcke 0 710 716080504 685036524 2016-04-19T19:47:19Z Biogeographist 18201938 added wikilink wikitext text/x-wiki {{Use dmy dates|date=June 2013}} {{Politics of Angola}} The '''foreign relations of Angola''' are based on Angola's strong support of [[U.S. foreign policy]] as the [[Angolan economy]] is dependent on U.S. foreign aid. From 1975 to 1989, [[Angola]] was aligned with the [[Eastern bloc]], in particular the [[Soviet Union]], [[History of Libya under Muammar Gaddafi#Great Socialist People's Libyan Arab Jamahiriya (1977–2012)|Libya]], and [[Cuba]]. Since then, it has focused on improving relationships with [[Western world|Western countries]], cultivating links with other Portuguese-speaking countries, and asserting its own national interests in [[Central Africa]] through military and diplomatic intervention. In 1993, it established formal diplomatic relations with the [[United States]]. It has entered the [[Southern African Development Community]] as a vehicle for improving ties with its largely Anglophone neighbors to the south. [[Zimbabwe]] and [[Namibia]] joined Angola in its military intervention in the [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]], where Angolan troops remain in support of the [[Joseph Kabila]] government. It also has intervened in the [[Republic of the Congo]] (Brazzaville) to support the existing government in that country. Since 1998, Angola has successfully worked with the [[United Nations Security Council]] to impose and carry out sanctions on [[UNITA]]. More recently, it has extended those efforts to controls on [[conflict diamonds]], the primary source of revenue for UNITA. At the same time, Angola has promoted the revival of the Community of Portuguese-Speaking Countries ([[CPLP]]) as a forum for cultural exchange and expanding ties with [[Portugal]] (its former ruler) and [[Brazil]] (which shares many cultural affinities with Angola) in particular. ==Sub-Saharan Africa== ===Cape Verde=== {{main|Angola–Cape Verde relations}} [[Cape Verde]] signed a friendship accord with [[Angola]] in December 1975, shortly after Angola gained its independence. Cape Verde and [[Guinea-Bissau]] served as stop-over points for [[Cuban troops]] on their way to Angola to fight [[UNITA]] rebels and [[South Africa]]n troops. [[Prime Minister of Cape Verde|Prime Minister]] [[Pedro Pires]] sent [[Revolutionary Armed Forces of the People|FARP]] soldiers to Angola where they served as the personal bodyguards of [[Angolan President]] [[José Eduardo dos Santos]].<ref name=b>{{cite book|last=Lobban|first=Richard|year=1995|title=Cape Verde:Crioulo Colony to Independent Nation|pages=111–112}}</ref> ===Democratic Republic of the Congo=== Many thousands of Angolans fled the country after the civil war. More than 20,000 people were forced to leave the [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]] in 2009, an action the DR Congo said was in retaliation for regular expulsion of Congolese diamond miners who were in Angola illegally. Angola sent a delegation to DR Congo's capital [[Kinshasa]] and succeeded in stopping government-forced expulsions which had become a "tit-for-tat"<ref name=Bearak /> immigration dispute. "Congo and Angola have agreed to suspend expulsions from both sides of the border," said Lambert Mende, DR Congo information minister, in October 2009.<ref>{{cite news|title=Congo and Angola 'end expulsions' |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/8304282.stm|date=October 13, 2009|publisher=BBC News|accessdate=2009-10-13 | location=London}}</ref> "We never challenged the expulsions themselves; we challenged the way they were being conducted — all the beating of people and looting their goods, even sometimes their clothes," Mende said.<ref name=Bearak>{{cite news|author=Bearak, Barry|title=Congo and Angola Agree to End Expulsions |url=http://www.nytimes.com/2009/10/14/world/africa/14angola.html|date=October 13, 2009|publisher=[[The New York Times]]|accessdate=2009-10-13}}</ref> ===Guinea-Bissau=== Following a request by the government of [[Guinea-Bissau]], Angola sent there a contingent of about 300 troops meant to help putting an end to the political-military unrest in that country, and to reorganize the local military forces. In fact, these troops were perceived as a kind of [[Pretorian Guard]] for the ruling party, [[PAIGC]]. In the beginning of April 2012, when a new military [[Coup d'état]] was under preparation, the Angolan regime decided to withdraw its military mission from Guinea-Bissau. ===Namibia=== {{main|Angola–Namibia relations}} Namibia borders Angola to the south. In 1999 Namibia signed a mutual defense pact with its northern neighbor [[Angola]].<ref name="Situation Report">{{cite web |first=Vincent |last=William |url=http://www.unhcr.org/cgi-bin/texis/vtx/publ/opendoc.pdf?tbl=RSDCOI&id=3ae6a6cb8&page=publ |title=Namibia: Situation Report |publisher=United Nations High Commission on Refugees |accessdate=2006-08-26 }}</ref> This affected the [[Angolan Civil War]] that had been ongoing since Angola's independence in 1975. Namibia's ruling party [[SWAPO]] sought to support the ruling party [[MPLA]] in Angola against the rebel movement [[UNITA]], whose stronghold is in southern Angola, bordering to Namibia. The defence pact allowed Angolan troops to use Namibian territory when attacking [[Jonas Savimbi]]'s UNITA. ===Nigeria=== {{main|Angola–Nigeria relations}} Angolan-Nigerian relations are primarily based on their roles as oil exporting nations. Both are members of the [[Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries]], the [[African Union]] and other multilateral organizations. ===South Africa=== {{main|Angola–South Africa relations}} Angola-South Africa relations are quite strong as the ruling parties in both nations, the African National Congress in South Africa and the MPLA in Angola, fought together during the Angolan Civil War and South African Border War. They fought against UNITA rebels, based in Angola, and the apartheid-era government in South Africa who supported them. Nelson Mandela mediated between the MPLA and UNITA factions during the last years of Angola's civil war. ===Zimbabwe=== {{main|Angola–Zimbabwe relations}} Angola-Zimbabwe relations have remained cordial since the birth of both states, Angola in 1975 and Zimbabwe in 1979, during the [[Cold War]]. While Angola's foreign policy shifted to a pro-U.S. stance based on [[Economy of Angola|substantial economic ties]], under the rule of [[President of Zimbabwe|President]] [[Robert Mugabe]] Zimbabwe's ties with the [[Western world|West]] soured in the late 1990s. ==Europe== ===Bulgaria=== * Date started: 1975-11-20 * Since 1976, Bulgaria has an embassy in [[Luanda]].<ref>[http://www.mfa.bg/luanda/index.php?lang=en Bulgarian embassy in Luanda]</ref> * Angola is represented in Bulgaria through its embassy in [[Athens]] ([[Greece]]).<ref>[http://www.angolanembassy.gr/ Angolan embassy in Athens (also accredited to Bulgaria)]</ref> ===Denmark=== * Denmark is represented in Angola through its embassy in [[Lusaka]] ([[Zambia]]). * Angola is represented in Denmark, through its embassy in [[Stockholm]], ([[Sweden]]).<ref>[http://www.angolaemb.se/ Angolan embassy in Sweden]</ref> ===France=== {{main|Angola–France relations}} Relations between the two countries have not always been cordial due to the former [[French government]]'s policy of supporting militant separatists in Angola's [[Cabinda province]] and the international [[Angolagate]] scandal embarrassed both governments by exposing corruption and illicit arms deals. Following French President [[Nicolas Sarkozy]]'s visit in 2008, relations have improved. ===Portugal=== {{main|Angola–Portugal relations}} Angola-Portugal relations have significantly improved since the [[Angola]]n government abandoned [[communism]] and nominally embraced [[democracy]] in 1991, embracing a pro-[[Angola-United States relations|U.S.]] and to a lesser degree pro-[[Europe]] foreign policy. [[Portugal]] ruled Angola for 400 years,<ref name=a>{{cite book|last=Alker|first=Hayward R.|author2=Ted Robert Gurr |author3=[[Kumar Rupesinghe]] |year=2001|title=Journeys Through Conflict: Narratives and Lessons|pages=204}}</ref> colonizing the territory from 1483 until independence in 1975. Angola's war for [[Angolan War for Independence|independence]] did not end in a military victory for either side, but was suspended as a result of a [[Carnation Revolution|coup in Portugal]] that replaced the [[Marcelo Caetano|Caetano regime]]. ===Russia=== {{main|Angola–Russia relations}} Russia has an [[embassy]] in [[Luanda]]. Angola has an [[Embassy of Angola in Moscow|embassy in Moscow]] and an honorary consulate in [[Saint Petersburg]]. Angola and the precursor to Russia, the Soviet Union, established relations upon Angola's independence. ===Serbia=== * Serbia is represented in Angola through its embassy in [[Luanda]] ([[Angola]]), with ambassador Danilo Milić. * Angola is represented in Serbia, through its embassy in [[Belgrade]], ([[Serbia]]), with ambassador Toko Diakenga Serao. The Defence Minister of Serbia, [[Dragan Šutanovac]], stated in a 2011 meeting in Luanda that Serbia would negotiate with the Angolan military authorities for the construction of a new military hospital in Angola.<ref>[http://allafrica.com/stories/201109230717.html Serbia Negotiates Building of New Military Hospital]</ref> ===Vatican=== * Date started: 1975-04-14 * Since 1975, the [[Holy See]] of the [[Roman Catholic Church]] has an [[Apostolic Nuncio to Angola]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Apostolic Nunciature Angola|url=http://www.gcatholic.org/dioceses/nunciature/nunc004.htm|website=GCatholic.org|accessdate=22 May 2015}}</ref> ==Americas== ===Argentina=== * Date started: 1977-09-02 * Angola has an embassy in [[Buenos Aires]]. * Argentina has an embassy in [[Luanda]]. * [[Argentina|Argentine]] [[reggae]] musician [[Fidel Nadal (reggae musician)|Fidel Nadal]] is descended from Angolan slaves. *[http://www.mrecic.gov.ar/portal/seree/ditra/ao.html Argentine Ministry of Foreign Relations: list of bilateral treaties with Angola (in Spanish only)] ===Brazil=== {{main|Angola–Brazil relations}} Commercial and economic ties dominate the relations of each country. Parts of both countries were part of the [[Portuguese Empire]] from the early 16th century until Brazil's independence in 1822. As of November 2007, "trade between the two countries is booming as never before"<ref>[http://ipsnews.net/news.asp?idnews=40040 ANGOLA-BRAZIL: Portuguese - the Common Language of Trade] by Mario de Queiroz, ipsnews.net, 13 November 2007</ref> ===Cuba=== {{main|Angola–Cuba relations}} During [[Angola's civil war]] [[Cuba]]n forces fought to install a Marxist–Leninist MPLA-PT government, against [[Western world|Western]]-backed [[UNITA]] and [[FLNA]] guerrillas and the South-African army.<ref>[[Piero Gleijeses]], Conflicting Missions: Havana, Washington and Africa, 1959-1976 ISBN 978-0-8078-5464-8</ref> ===Mexico=== {{main|Angola–Mexico relations}} Relations between Angola and [[Mexico]] have become of increasing priority due to the cultural similarities between the two nations. * Angola has an embassy in [[Mexico City]].<ref>[http://embajadadeangolaenmexico.org Embassy of Angola in Mexico City (in Spanish)]</ref> * Mexico has an embassy in Luanda.<ref>[http://directorio.sre.gob.mx/index.php/90-directorio/embajadas/1778-angola Embassy of Mexico in Luanda (in Spanish)]</ref> [[File:Embassy of Angola (Washington, D.C.).JPG|thumb|Embassy of Angola in [[Washington, D.C.]]]] ===United States=== {{main|Angola–United States relations}} From the mid-1980s through at least 1992, the United States was the primary source of military and other support for the [[UNITA]] rebel movement, which was led from its creation through 2002 by [[Jonas Savimbi]]. The U.S. refused to recognize Angola diplomatically during this period. Relations between the [[United States|United States of America]] and the [[Angola|Republic of Angola]] (formerly the [[People's Republic of Angola]]) have warmed since Angola's ideological renunciation of [[Marxism]] before the [[Angolan presidential election, 1992|1992 elections]]. * Angola has an embassy in [[Washington, DC]]. * United States has an embassy in Luanda.<ref>[http://angola.usembassy.gov Embassy of the United States in Luanda (in English and Portuguese)]</ref> ==Asia== ===China=== {{main|Angola–People's Republic of China relations}} [[Chinese Prime Minister]] [[Wen Jiabao]] visited Angola in June 2006, offering a US$9 billion loan for infrastructure improvements in return for petroleum. The PRC has invested heavily in Angola since the end of the civil war in 2002.<ref name="wenvis">{{cite web|author=|year=2007|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/5080626.stm|title=Angola: China's African foothold|publisher=BBC News|accessdate=2007-11-19 | date=2006-06-20 | location=London}}</ref> [[João Manuel Bernardo]], the current [[ambassador]] of [[Angola]] to China, visited the PRC in November 2007.<ref name="chinabasador">{{cite web|author=|year=2007|url=http://allafrica.com/stories/200711150442.html|title=Angola: Ambassador Considers Relations With China Excellent|publisher=Angola Press Agency via AllAfrica|accessdate=2007-11-19}}</ref> In February 2006, Angola surpassed Saudi Arabia to become the number one supplier of oil to China.[http://codrinarsene.com/2008/10/angola-china-relations/] [http://www.african-politics.com/2008/10/angola-china-relations/] ===Israel=== {{main|Angola–Israel relations}} Angola-Israel relations, primarily based on trade and pro-United States foreign policies, are excellent. In March 2006, the trade volume between the two countries amounted to $400 million. The Israeli ambassador to Angola is Avraham Benjamin.[1] In 2005, President José Eduardo dos Santos visited Israel. * [http://www.angoladigital.net/negocios/index.php?Itemid=47&id=150&option=com_content&task=view Angola/Israel business volume amounted at USD 400 million] Angola Press, 22 March 2006 * [http://www.angolapress-angop.ao/noticia-e.asp?ID=437778 Israeli Ambassador Highlights Relations With Angola] Angola Press ===Japan=== {{main|Angola–Japan relations}} As of 2007, economic relations played "a fundamental role in the bilateral relations between the two governments". Japan has donated towards demining following the civil war.<ref>[http://www.reliefweb.int/rw/rwb.nsf/db900SID/SODA-7SEPJV?OpenDocument Angola: Japan grants USD one million to boost demining activity]</ref> ===Pakistan=== The Government of Angola called for the support of [[Pakistan]] for the candidature of Angola to the seat of non-permanent member of the UN Security Council, whose election is set for September this year, during the 69th session of the General Assembly of United Nations. On the fringes of the ceremony, the Angolan diplomat also met with officials in charge of the economic and commercial policy of Pakistan, to assess the business opportunities between the two states. It asked to discuss aspects related to the cooperation on several domains of common interest. ===South Korea=== {{main|Foreign relations of South Korea}} Establishment of diplomatic relations 6 January 1992. The number of South Koreans living in Angola in 2011 was 279.<ref>http://www.mofa.go.kr/ENG/countries/middleeast/countries/20070804/1_24504.jsp?menu=m_30_50</ref> ===Vietnam=== {{main|Angolan–Vietnamese relations}} Angola-Vietnam relations were established in August 1971, four years before [[Angolan War of Independence|Angola gained its independence]], when future [[President of Angola]] [[Agostinho Neto]] visited [[Vietnam]].<ref name="2007 Vietnam">{{cite web|author= |year=2007|url=http://www.vietnamembassy-angola.org/nr070521165956/ns070920094601|title=Vietnam – Angola Relations|publisher=Embassy of the Socialist Republic of Vietnam in Angola|accessdate=2008-01-04}}</ref> [[Angola]] and Vietnam have steadfast partners as both transitioned from [[Cold War]]-era foreign policies of [[Proletarian internationalism|international communism]] to pro-[[Western world|Western]] pragmatism following the fall of the [[Soviet Union]]. ==See also== * [[List of diplomatic missions in Angola]] * [[List of diplomatic missions of Angola]] * [[Visa requirements for Angolan citizens]] ==References== {{Reflist}} {{CIA World Factbook}} *{{StateDept}} {{Foreign relations of Angola}} {{Angola topics}} {{Africa in topic|Foreign relations of}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Foreign Relations Of Angola}} [[Category:Foreign relations of Angola| ]] 1rd39l2fx91lzi2z3dn59oih8kwznl3 0 711 717028263 714432776 2016-04-25T08:50:52Z Floridasand 1537711 /* Texas Army */ wikitext text/x-wiki {{Use mdy dates|date=November 2013}} {{Infobox military person |honorific_prefix= [[General officers in the Confederate States Army#General (Full general)|General]] |name= Albert Sidney Johnston |birth_date= {{Birth date|1803|2|2}} |death_date= {{Death date and age|1862|4|6|1803|2|2}} |image= ASJohnston.jpg |image_size=220 |signature= Albert Sidney Johnston signature.svg |caption= Albert Sidney Johnston<br/>photo between 1860 and 1862 |nickname= |birth_place= [[Washington, Kentucky|Washington]], [[Kentucky]] |death_place= [[Hardin County, Tennessee|Hardin County]], [[Tennessee]] |placeofburial=[[Texas State Cemetery]], [[Austin]], [[Texas]] |allegiance= {{flag|United States of America|1861}}<br/>{{flag|Republic of Texas}}<br/>{{flag|Confederate States of America|1861}} |serviceyears= 1826–1834; 1846; 1849–1861 ([[United States Army|USA]])<br />1836–1840 (Texas)<br/ >1861–1862 ([[Confederate States Army|CSA]]) |rank=[[File:Union army brig gen rank insignia.jpg|border|35px]] [[Brevet (military)|Brevet]] [[Brigadier general (United States)|Brigadier General (USA)]]<br/>{{nowrap|[[File:Commissioned Officer All Other Departments Major General.svg|border|35px]] Senior Brigadier General (Texas)}}<br/>[[File:Confederate States of America General-collar.svg|35px]] [[General (CSA)]] |branch= {{army|USA|1861}}<br/>{{flagicon|Republic of Texas }} [[Army of the Republic of Texas|Texian Army]]<br/>{{army|CSA}} |unit= [[2nd Infantry Regiment (United States)|2nd U.S. Infantry]]<br>[[6th Infantry Regiment (United States)|6th U.S. Infantry]]<br>Los Angeles Mounted Rifles (CSA) |commands= 1st Texas Rifles (USV)<br>[[2nd Cavalry Regiment (United States)|2nd U.S. Cavalry]]<br>[[Department of the Pacific]] (USA)<br />[[Army of Central Kentucky]] (CSA)<br />[[Army of Mississippi]] (CSA)<br>Department No. 2 (CSA) |battles= [[Black Hawk War]]<br />[[Texas Revolution]]<br />[[Mexican–American War]] * [[Battle of Monterrey]] * [[Battle of Buena Vista]] [[Utah War]]<br/>[[American Civil War]] * [[Battle of Shiloh]]{{KIA}} |awards= |relations= |laterwork= }} [[File:AlbertSJohnston.jpg|thumb|Brig. Gen. Albert S. Johnston as commander, Department of Utah. Portrait taken by [[Samuel C. Mills]] at [[Camp Floyd]], Utah Territory, winter of 1858-59. Courtesy National Archives.]] '''Albert Sidney Johnston''' (February 2, 1803 – April 6, 1862) served as a [[General officer|general]] in three different armies: the [[Texian Army|Texian (''i.e.'', Republic of Texas) Army]], the [[United States Army]], and the [[Confederate States Army]]. He saw extensive combat during his military career, fighting actions in the [[Texas War of Independence]], the [[Mexican–American War]], the [[Utah War]], and the [[American Civil War]]. Considered by [[President of the Confederate States of America|Confederate President]] [[Jefferson Davis]] to be the finest general officer in the Confederacy before the emergence of [[Robert E. Lee]], he was killed early in the Civil War at the [[Battle of Shiloh]]. Johnston was the highest-ranking officer, Union or Confederate, killed during the entire war. Davis believed the loss of Johnston "was the turning point of our fate". Johnston was unrelated to Confederate general [[Joseph E. Johnston]]. ==Early life and education== Johnston was born in [[Washington, Kentucky]], the youngest son of Dr. John and Abigail (Harris) Johnston. His father was a native of [[Salisbury, Connecticut]]. Although Albert Johnston was born in Kentucky, he lived much of his life in Texas, which he considered his home. He was first educated at [[Transylvania University]] in [[Lexington, Kentucky|Lexington]], where he met fellow student [[Jefferson Davis]]. Both were appointed to the [[United States Military Academy]], Davis two years behind Johnston.<ref name="Woodworth46">Woodworth, p. 46.</ref> In 1826 Johnston graduated eighth of 41 cadets in his class from West Point with a commission as a [[brevet (military)|brevet]] [[Second Lieutenant#United States|second lieutenant]] in the [[2nd Infantry Regiment (United States)|2nd U.S. Infantry]].<ref name="Eicher322">Eicher, p. 322.</ref> Johnston was assigned to posts in New York and [[Missouri]] and served in the [[Black Hawk War]] in 1832 as chief of staff to Bvt. Brig. Gen. [[Henry Atkinson (soldier)|Henry Atkinson]]. ==Marriage and family== In 1829 he married Henrietta Preston, sister of Kentucky politician and future Civil War general [[William Preston (Kentucky)|William Preston]]. They had one son, [[William Preston Johnston]], who became a colonel in the Confederate Army.<ref>[http://www.csawardept.com/history/Cabinet/WPJohnston/index.html W.P. Johnston biography.]</ref> The senior Johnston resigned his commission in 1834 in order to care for his dying wife in Kentucky, who succumbed two years later to [[tuberculosis]].<ref name=Woodworth46/> After serving as Secretary of War for the Republic of Texas from 1838 to 1840, Johnston resigned and returned to Kentucky. In 1843, he married Eliza Griffin, his late wife's first cousin. The couple moved to Texas, where they settled on a large [[Plantations in the American South|plantation]] in [[Brazoria County, Texas|Brazoria County]]. Johnston named the property China Grove. Here they raised Johnston's two children from his first marriage and the first three children born to Eliza and him. (A sixth child was born later when they lived in Los Angeles, California). ==Texas Army== In April 1834, Johnston took up farming in Texas. In 1836, he enlisted as a [[Private (rank)|private]] in the Texas Army during the [[Texas War of Independence]] against the Republic of [[Mexico]]. One month later, Johnston was promoted to [[Major (United States)|major]] and the position of ''[[aide-de-camp]]'' to General [[Sam Houston]]. He was named [[Adjutant General]] as a [[Colonel (United States)|colonel]] in the Republic of Texas Army on August 5, 1836. On January 31, 1837, he became senior [[brigadier general]] in command of the Texas Army. On February 7, 1837, he fought in a [[duel]] with Texas Brig. Gen. [[Felix Huston]], as they challenged each other for the command of the Texas Army; Johnston refused to fire on Huston and lost the position after he was wounded in the pelvis. On December 22, 1838, [[Mirabeau B. Lamar]], the second president of the [[Republic of Texas]], appointed Johnston as Secretary of War. He provided for the defense of the Texas border against Mexican invasion, and in 1839 conducted a campaign against [[Native Americans in the United States|Indians]] in northern Texas. In February 1840, he resigned and returned to Kentucky. ==U.S. Army== Johnston returned to the Texas Army during the [[Mexican–American War]] under General [[Zachary Taylor]] as a [[Colonel (United States)|colonel]] of the 1st Texas Rifle Volunteers. The enlistments of his volunteers ran out just before the [[Battle of Monterrey]]. Johnston convinced a few volunteers to stay and fight as he served as the inspector general of volunteers and fought at the battles of Monterrey and [[Battle of Buena Vista|Buena Vista]]. He remained on his plantation after the war until he was appointed by President [[Zachary Taylor]] to the U.S. Army as a [[Major (United States)|major]] and was made a paymaster in December 1849. He served in that role for more than five years, making six tours, and traveling more than {{convert|4000|mi|km}} annually on the Indian frontier of Texas. He served on the Texas frontier at [[Fort Mason (Texas)|Fort Mason]] and elsewhere in the West. In 1855 President [[Franklin Pierce]] appointed him colonel of the new 2nd U.S. Cavalry (the unit that preceded the modern [[5th Cavalry Regiment (United States)|5th U.S.]]), a new regiment, which he organized. On August 19, 1856, Gen. [[Persifor Smith]], at the request of Kansas Territorial Governor Wilson Shannon, sent Col. Johnston with 1300 men composed of the 2d Cavalry Dragoons from [[Fort Riley]], a battalion of the 6th Infantry and [[Albion P. Howe|Capt. Howe's]] artillery company from [[Jefferson Barracks Military Post|Jefferson Barracks]], to protect the territorial capital at Lecompton from an imminent attack by Jim Lane and his abolitionist "Army of the North." ==Utah War== As a key figure in the [[Utah War]], Johnston led U.S. troops who established a non-Mormon government in the formerly [[The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints|Mormon]] territory. He received a [[Brevet (military)|brevet]] promotion to [[Brigadier general (United States)|brigadier general]] in 1857 for his service in Utah. He spent 1860 in Kentucky until December 21, when he sailed for California to take command of the Department of the Pacific. ==Civil War== [[File:Albert S. Johnston, head and shoulders portrait (cropped).jpg|thumb|Albert S. Johnston in Confederate Army uniform wearing Three Gold Stars and Wreath on a General's Collar]] At the outbreak of the Civil War, Johnston was the commander of the U.S. Army [[Department of the Pacific]] in [[California and the Civil War|California]]. Like many regular army officers from the South, he was opposed to secession. But he resigned his commission soon after he heard of the [[secession]] of his adopted state Texas. It was accepted by the War Department on May 6, 1861, effective May 3.<ref>Johnston, p. 273.</ref> On April 28 he moved to Los Angeles, the home of his wife's brother John Griffin. Considering staying in California with his wife and five children, Johnston remained there until May. Soon, under suspicion by local Union officials, he evaded arrest and joined the [[California in the American Civil War|Los Angeles Mounted Rifles]] as a private, leaving [[Warner's Ranch]] May 27.<ref>Johnston, pp. 268, 275-91.</ref> He participated in their trek across the southwestern deserts to Texas, crossing the [[Colorado River]] into the [[Confederate Territory of Arizona]] on July 4, 1861. Early in the Civil War, Confederate President [[Jefferson Davis]] decided that the Confederacy would attempt to hold as much of its territory as possible, and therefore distributed military forces around its borders and coasts.<ref>Woodworth, pp. 18–19.</ref> In the summer of 1861, Davis appointed several generals to defend Confederate lines from the Mississippi River east to the Allegheny Mountains.<ref>Woodworth, pp. 17–33.</ref> The most sensitive, and in many ways the most crucial areas, along the Mississippi River and in western Tennessee along the [[Tennessee River|Tennessee]] and the [[Cumberland River|Cumberland]] rivers<ref>Woodworth, pp. 20–22</ref> were placed under the command of [[Major General (CSA)|Maj. Gen.]] [[Leonidas Polk]] and [[Brigadier General (CSA)|Brig. Gen.]] [[Gideon J. Pillow]]. The latter had initially been in command in Tennessee as that State's top general.<ref>Woodworth, pp. 30–32.</ref> Their impolitic occupation of [[Columbus, Kentucky]], on September 3, 1861, two days before Johnston arrived in the Confederacy's capital of [[Richmond in the American Civil War|Richmond, Virginia]], after his cross–country journey, drove Kentucky from its stated neutrality.<ref>Woodworth, pp. 35, 45.</ref><ref>Long, p. 114.</ref> The majority of Kentuckians allied with the Union camp.<ref>Woodworth, pp. 39, 50.</ref> Polk and Pillow's action gave Union [[Brigadier general (United States)|Brig. Gen.]] [[Ulysses S. Grant]] an excuse to take control of the strategically located town of [[Paducah, Kentucky]], without raising the ire of most Kentuckians and the pro-Union majority in the State legislature.<ref>Woodworth, p. 39.</ref><ref>Long, p. 115.</ref> ===Confederate command in Western Theater=== On September 10, 1861, Johnston was assigned to command the huge area of the Confederacy west of the Allegheny Mountains, except for coastal areas.<ref name="Woodworth51">Woodworth, p. 51.</ref><ref name="Long, p. 116">Long, p. 116.</ref> He became commander of the Confederacy's western armies in the area often called the [[Western Theater of the American Civil War|Western Department]] or Western Military Department.<ref name="Woodworth51"/><ref name="Long, p. 116"/><ref>Johnston's appointment as a [[General (CSA)|full general]] by his friend and admirer Jefferson Davis already had been confirmed by the Confederate Senate on August 31, 1861. The appointment had been backdated to rank from May 30, 1861, making him the second highest ranking general in the Confederate States Army. Only Adjutant General and Inspector General [[Samuel Cooper (general)|Samuel Cooper]] ranked ahead of him. Eicher, ''Civil War High Commands.'' p. 807. From General Command Line List. Weigley, p. 110. McPherson, p. 394.</ref> After his appointment, Johnston immediately headed for his new territory.<ref name="Woodworth52">Woodworth, p. 52.</ref> He was permitted to call on governors of Arkansas, Tennessee and Mississippi for new troops, although this authority was largely stifled by politics, especially with respect to Mississippi.<ref name="Woodworth51"/> On September 13, 1861, Johnston ordered Brig. Gen. [[Felix Zollicoffer]] with 4,000 men to occupy [[Cumberland Gap]] in Kentucky in order to block Union troops from coming into eastern Tennessee. The Kentucky legislature had voted to side with the Union after the occupation of Columbus by Polk.<ref name="Woodworth52"/> By September 18, Johnston had Brig. Gen. [[Simon Bolivar Buckner]] with another 4,000 men blocking the railroad route to Tennessee at [[Bowling Green, Kentucky]].<ref name="Woodworth52"/><ref>Long, p. 119.</ref> Johnston had fewer than 40,000 men spread throughout Kentucky, Tennessee, Arkansas and Missouri.<ref name="Woodworth53">Woodworth, p. 53.</ref> Of these, 10,000 were in Missouri under [[Missouri State Guard]] Maj. Gen. [[Sterling Price]].<ref name="Woodworth53"/> Johnston did not quickly gain many recruits when he first requested them from the governors, but his more serious problem was lacking sufficient arms and ammunition for the troops he already had.<ref name="Woodworth53"/> As the Confederate government concentrated efforts on the units in the East, they gave Johnston small numbers of reinforcements and minimal amounts of arms and material.<ref name="Woodworth55">Woodworth, p. 55.</ref> Johnston maintained his defense by conducting raids and other measures to make it appear he had larger forces than he did, a strategy that worked for several months.<ref name="Woodworth55"/> Johnston's tactics had so annoyed and confused Union Brig. Gen. [[William Tecumseh Sherman]] that he became somewhat unnerved, overestimated Johnston's forces, and had to be relieved by Brig. Gen. [[Don Carlos Buell]] on November 9, 1861.<ref>Woodworth, pp. 55–56</ref><ref>Long, p. 138.</ref><ref>McPherson, p. 394 says Johnston had 70,000 troops to defend his territory between the Appalachians and the Ozarks by the end of 1861.</ref> ===Battle of Mill Springs=== Eastern Tennessee was held for the Confederacy by two unimpressive brigadier generals appointed by Jefferson Davis: Felix Zollicoffer, a brave but untrained and inexperienced officer' and soon-to-be Maj. Gen. [[George B. Crittenden]], a former U.S. Army officer with apparent alcohol problems.<ref>Woodworth, p. 61</ref> While Crittenden was away in Richmond, Zollicoffer moved his forces to the north bank of the upper Cumberland River near Mill Springs (now [[Nancy, Kentucky]]), putting the river to his back and his forces into a trap.<ref>Woodworth, p. 65.</ref><ref>Long, pp. 161–162.</ref> Zollicoffer decided it was impossible to obey orders to return to the other side of the river because of scarcity of transport and proximity of Union troops.<ref name="Woodworth, p. 66">Woodworth, p. 66.</ref> When Union Brig. Gen. [[George H. Thomas]] moved against the Confederates, Crittenden decided to attack one of the two parts of Thomas's command at Logan's Cross Roads near Mill Springs before the Union forces could unite.<ref name="Woodworth, p. 66"/> On January 19, 1862, the ill-prepared Confederates, after a night march in the rain, attacked the Union force with some initial success.<ref>Woodworth, pp. 66–67.</ref> As the battle progressed, Zollicoffer was killed, Crittenden was unable to lead the Confederate force (he may have been intoxicated), and the Confederates were turned back and routed by a Union bayonet charge, suffering 533 casualties from their force of 4,000.<ref>Woodworth, p. 67.</ref><ref>Long, p. 162.</ref> The Confederate troops who escaped were assigned to other units as Crittenden faced an investigation of his conduct.<ref>Woodworth, p. 69.</ref> After this Confederate defeat at the [[Battle of Mill Springs]], Davis sent Johnston a brigade and a few other scattered reinforcements. He also assigned him Gen. [[P. G. T. Beauregard]], who was supposed to attract recruits because of his victories early in the war, and act as a competent subordinate for Johnston.<ref>Woodworth, pp. 71–72.</ref> The brigade was led by Brig. Gen. [[John B. Floyd]], considered incompetent. He took command at [[Fort Donelson]] as the senior general present just before Union Brig. Gen. [[Ulysses S. Grant]] attacked the fort.<ref>Woodworth, pp. 80, 84.</ref> Historians believe the assignment of Beauregard to the west stimulated Union commanders to attack the forts before Beauregard could make a difference in the theater.<ref name="Woodworth7278">Woodworth, pp. 72, 78.</ref> Union officers heard that he was bringing 15 regiments with him, but this was an exaggeration of his forces.<ref name="Woodworth7278"/> ===Fort Henry, Fort Donelson, Nashville=== Based on the assumption that Kentucky neutrality would act as a shield against a direct invasion from the north, Tennessee initially had sent men to Virginia and concentrated defenses in the Mississippi Valley, circumstances that no longer applied in September 1861.<ref>Woodworth, p. 54.</ref><ref>Eicher, ''The Longest Night''. pp. 111–113.</ref> Even before Johnston arrived in Tennessee, construction of two forts had been started to defend the [[Tennessee River|Tennessee]] and the [[Cumberland River|Cumberland]] rivers, which provided avenues into the State from the north.<ref name="Woodworth56">Woodworth, p. 56.</ref> Both forts were located in Tennessee in order to respect Kentucky neutrality, but these were not in ideal locations.<ref name="Woodworth56"/><ref name="Long142">Long, p. 142</ref><ref>Weigley, p. 108</ref><ref>McPherson, p. 393.</ref> [[Battle of Fort Henry|Fort Henry]] on the Tennessee River was in an unfavorable low–lying location, commanded by hills on the Kentucky side of the river.<ref name="Woodworth56"/> [[Fort Donelson]] on the Cumberland River, although in a better location, had a vulnerable land side and did not have enough heavy artillery to defend against gunboats.<ref name="Woodworth56"/> Maj. Gen. Polk ignored the problems of the forts when he took command. After Johnston took command, Polk at first refused to comply with Johnston's order to send an engineer, Lt. Joseph K. Dixon, to inspect the forts.<ref name="Woodworth57">Woodworth, p. 57.</ref> After Johnston asserted his authority, Polk had to allow Dixon to proceed. Dixon recommended that the forts be maintained and strengthened, although they were not in ideal locations, because much work had been done on them and the Confederates might not have time to build new ones. Johnston accepted his recommendations.<ref name="Woodworth57"/> Johnston wanted Major, later [[Lieutenant General (CSA)|Lt. Gen.]], [[Alexander P. Stewart]] to command the forts but President Davis appointed Brig. Gen. [[Lloyd Tilghman]] as commander.<ref name="Long142"/><ref name="Woodworth57"/> To prevent Polk from dissipating his forces by allowing some men to join a partisan group, Johnston ordered him to send Brig. Gen. Gideon Pillow and 5,000 men to Fort Donelson.<ref name="Woodworth58">Woodworth, p. 58.</ref> Pillow took up a position at nearby [[Clarksville, Tennessee]] and did not move into the fort until February 7, 1862.<ref>Long, pp. 167–168.</ref><ref>Eicher, ''The Longest Night'', p. 171 says the garrison at Fort Donelson numbered 1,956 men before the Fort Henry garrison and the men under Floyd and Pillow joined them in early February 1862.</ref> Alerted by a Union reconnaissance on January 14, 1862, Johnston ordered Tilghman to fortify the high ground opposite Fort Henry, which Polk had failed to do despite Johnston's orders.<ref name="Woodworth71">Woodworth, p. 71.</ref> Tilghman failed to act decisively on these orders, which in any event were too late to be adequately carried out.<ref name="Woodworth71"/><ref>McPherson, p. 396.</ref><ref>A Confederate battery and the beginning of some fortifications were sited across the river at [[Fort Heiman]] but these were of little value when the Union flotilla appeared.</ref> Gen. Beauregard arrived at Johnston's headquarters at Bowling Green on February 4, 1862 and was given overall command of Polk's force at the western end of Johnston's line at Columbus, Kentucky.<ref>Woodworth, p. 78.</ref><ref>After some preliminary work with Johnston, Beauregard assumed command of this force, which he named the Army of the Mississippi, on March 5, 1862 while at Jackson, Tennessee. Like the other Confederate commander, he had to withdraw to the south after the fall of the forts or be surrounded by the advancing Union forces. Long, p. 178.</ref> On February 6, 1862, [[Union Navy]] gunboats quickly reduced the defenses of ill-sited Fort Henry, inflicting 21 casualties on the small remaining Confederate force.<ref name="Woodworth7879">Woodworth, pp. 78–79.</ref><ref name="Long167">Long, p. 167.</ref> Brig. Gen. Lloyd Tilghman surrendered the 94 remaining officers and men of his approximately 3,000-man force which had not been sent to Fort Donelson before U.S. Grant's force could even take up their positions.<ref name="Woodworth7879"/><ref>Long, pp. 166–167</ref><ref>Weigley, p. 109.</ref> Johnston knew he could be trapped at Bowling Green if Fort Donelson fell, so he moved his force to [[Nashville, Tennessee|Nashville]], the capital of Tennessee and an increasingly important Confederate industrial center, beginning on February 11, 1862.<ref name="Woodworth79">Woodworth, p. 79.</ref><ref>Loing, pp. 169–170.</ref> Johnston also reinforced Fort Donelson with 12,000 more men, including those under Floyd and Pillow, a curious decision in view of his thought that the Union gunboats alone might be able to take the fort.<ref name="Woodworth79"/> He did order the commanders of the fort to evacuate the troops if the fort could not be held.<ref name="Woodworth80">Woodworth, p. 80.</ref> The senior generals sent to the fort to command the enlarged garrison, Gideon J. Pillow and John B. Floyd, squandered their chance to avoid having to surrender most of the garrison<ref>McPherson, pp. 400–401.</ref> and on February 16, 1862, Brig. Gen. Simon Buckner, having been abandoned by Floyd<ref>Floyd was able to ferry his four Virginia regiments out of the fort with him but left his Mississippi regiment behind to surrender with the rest of the garrison. Pillow escaped only with his chief of staff. Woodworth, p. 83. Long, p. 171.</ref> and Pillow, surrendered Fort Donelson.<ref>Woodworth, pp. 82–84.</ref> Colonel [[Nathan Bedford Forrest]] escaped with his cavalry force of about 700 men before the surrender.<ref>Woodworth, p. 84.</ref><ref>McPherson, pp. 401–402.</ref><ref>This included about 200 men not in Forrest's immediate command. Weigley, p. 111</ref> The Confederates suffered about 1,500 casualties with an estimated 12,000 to 14,000 taken prisoner.<ref>Long, p. 172.</ref><ref name="Weigley111">Weigley, p. 111.</ref> Union casualties were 500 killed, 2,108 wounded, 224 missing.<ref name="Weigley111"/> Johnston, who had little choice in allowing Floyd and Pillow to take charge at Fort Donelson on the basis of seniority after he ordered them to add their forces to the garrison, took the blame and suffered calls for his removal because a full explanation to the press and public would have exposed the weakness of the Confederate position.<ref>Woodworth, pp. 84–85.</ref> His passive defensive performance while positioning himself in a forward position at Bowling Green, spreading his forces too thinly, not concentrating his forces in the face of Union advances, and appointing or relying upon inadequate or incompetent subordinates subjected him to criticism at the time and by later historians.<ref>Weigley, p. 112.</ref><ref>McPherson, pp. 405–406.</ref><ref>Davis defended Johnston, saying: "If Sidney Johnston is not a general, we had better give up the war, for we have no general." McPherson, p. 495.</ref> The fall of the forts exposed Nashville to imminent attack, and it fell without resistance to Union forces under Brig. Gen. Buell on February 25, 1862, two days after Johnston had to pull his forces out in order to avoid having them captured as well.<ref name="Woodworth86">Woodworth, p. 86.</ref><ref>Long, p. 175.</ref><ref>McPherson, p. 402.</ref> ===Concentration at Corinth=== Johnston had various remaining military units scattered throughout his territory and retreating to the south to avoid being cut off.<ref>Woodworth, pp. 85–86.</ref> Johnston himself retreated with the force under his personal command, the [[Army of Central Kentucky]], from the vicinity of Nashville.<ref name="Woodworth86"/> With Beauregard's help,<ref>McPherson, p. 406.</ref> Johnston decided to concentrate forces with those formerly under Polk and now already under Beauregard's command at the strategically located railroad crossroads of [[Corinth, Mississippi]], which he reached by a circuitous route.<ref>Woodworth, pp. 86–88.</ref> Johnston kept the Union forces, now under the overall command of the ponderous Maj. Gen. [[Henry Halleck]], confused and hesitant to move, allowing Johnston to reach his objective undetected.<ref>Woodworth, p. 88.</ref> This delay allowed Jefferson Davis finally to send reinforcements from the garrisons of coastal cities and another highly rated but prickly general, [[Braxton Bragg]], to help organize the western forces.<ref>Woodworth, pp. 90, 94.</ref> Bragg at least calmed the nerves of Beauregard and Polk who had become agitated by their apparent dire situation in the face of numerically superior forces before the arrival of Johnston on March 24, 1862.<ref name="Woodworth95">Woodworth, p. 95.</ref><ref>Long, p. 188.</ref> Johnston's army of 17,000 men gave the Confederates a combined force of about 40,000 to 44,669 men at Corinth.<ref name="Woodworth95"/><ref>McPherson,p. 406.</ref><ref>Eicher, ''The Longest Night'', p. 223.</ref> On March 29, 1862, Johnston officially took command of this combined force, which continued to use the Army of the Mississippi name under which it had been organized by Beauregard on March 5.<ref>Long, 190.</ref><ref>Eicher, ''Civil War High Commands'' p. 887 and Eicher, ''The Longest Night'' p. 219 are nearly alone in referring to this army as the Army of Mississippi. Muir, p. 85, in discussing the first "Army of Mississippi" includes this army as one of three in the article with that title but states: "Historians have pointed out that the Army of Mississippi is frequently mentioned in the Official Records as the Army of the Mississippi." Contemporaries, including Johnston and Beauregard, and modern historians call this Confederate army the Army of the Mississippi. [http://ebooks.library.cornell.edu/cgi/t/text/pageviewer-idx?c=moawar;cc=moawar;q1=Army%20of%20the%20Mississippi;rgn=full%20text;idno=waro0010;didno=waro0010;view=image;seq=0114 'The war of the rebellion: a compilation of the official records of the Union and Confederate armies.'], Volume X, Part 1, index, pp. 96–99; 385 (Beauregard's report on the Battle of Shiloh, April 11, 1862, from Headquarters, Army of the Mississippi) and Part 2, p. 297 (Beauregard's announcement on taking command of Army of the Mississippi); p. 370 (Johnston General Orders of March 29, 1862 assuming command and announcing the army would retain the name Army of the Mississippi); pp. 405-409. Beauregard, p. 579. Boritt, p. 53. Connelly, ''Army of the Heartland: The Army of Tennessee, 1861-1862''. p. 151. ("The Army retained Beauregard's chosen name...") Connelly, ''Civil War Tennessee: Battles And Leaders''. p. 35. Cunningham, pp. 98, 122, 397. Engle, p. 123. Hattaway, p. 163. Hess, pp. 47, 49, 112 ("...Braxton Bragg's renamed Army of Tennessee (formerly the Army of the Mississippi)..."). Isbell, p. 102. McDonough, pp. 60, 66, 78. Kennedy, p. 48. Noe, p. 19. Williams, p. 122.</ref> Johnston now planned to defeat the Union forces piecemeal before the various Union units in Kentucky and Tennessee under Grant with 40,000 men at nearby [[Pittsburg Landing, Tennessee]], and the now Maj. Gen. Don Carlos Buell on his way from Nashville with 35,000 men, could unite against him.<ref name="Woodworth95"/> Johnston started his army in motion on April 3, 1862, intent on surprising Grant's force as soon as the next day, but they moved slowly due to their inexperience, bad roads and lack of adequate staff planning.<ref>Woodworth, pp. 96–97.</ref><ref>Long, p. 192</ref> Johnston's army was finally in position within a mile or two of Grant's force, and undetected, by the evening of April 5, 1862.<ref>Woodworth, p. 97.</ref><ref>Long, pp. 193–194.</ref><ref>Weigley, p. 113.</ref><ref>McPherson, pp. 406–407.</ref><ref>Johnston did not achieve total surprise as some Union pickets were alerted to the Confederate presence and provided warning to some Union units before the attack began.</ref> ===Battle of Shiloh and death=== [[File:Johnston Shiloh Monument.jpg|thumb|right|Monument to Johnston at [[Shiloh National Military Park]].]] Johnston launched a massive surprise attack with his concentrated forces against Grant at the [[Battle of Shiloh]] on April 6, 1862. As the Confederate forces overran the Union camps, Johnston seemed to be everywhere, personally leading and rallying troops up and down the line on his horse. At about 2:30&nbsp;p.m., while leading one of those charges against a Union camp near the "Peach Orchard", he was wounded, taking a bullet behind his right knee. He apparently did not think the wound was serious at the time, or even possibly did not feel it, and so he sent his personal physician away to attend to some wounded captured Union soldiers instead. It is possible that Johnston's duel in 1837 had caused nerve damage or numbness to his right leg and that he did not feel the wound to his leg as a result. The bullet had in fact clipped a part of his [[popliteal artery]] and his boot was filling up with blood. Within a few minutes, Johnston was observed by his staff to be nearly fainting. Among his staff was [[Isham G. Harris]], the [[Governor of Tennessee]], who had ceased to make any real effort to function as governor after learning that [[Abraham Lincoln]] had appointed [[Andrew Johnson]] as military governor of Tennessee. Seeing Johnston slumping in his saddle and his face turning deathly pale, Harris asked: "General, are you wounded?" Johnston glanced down at his leg wound, then faced Harris and replied in a weak voice his last words: "Yes... and I fear seriously." Harris and other staff officers removed Johnston from his horse and carried him to a small ravine near the "Hornets Nest" and desperately tried to aid the general by trying to make a [[tourniquet]] for his leg wound, but little could be done by this point since he had already lost so much blood. He soon lost consciousness and bled to death a few minutes later. It is believed that Johnston may have lived for as long as one hour after receiving his fatal wound. Harris and the other officers wrapped General Johnston's body in a blanket so as not to damage the troops' morale with the sight of the dead general. Johnston and his wounded horse, named Fire Eater, were taken to his field headquarters on the Corinth road, where his body remained in his tent until the Confederate Army withdrew to Corinth the next day, April 7, 1862. From there, his body was taken to the home of Colonel William Inge, which had been his headquarters in Corinth. It was covered in the Confederate flag and lay in state for several hours.<ref>Sword, pp. 270-73, 443-46; Cunningham, pp. 273-76; Smith, pp. 26-34. Sword offers evidence that Johnston lived as long as an hour after receiving his fatal wound.</ref> It is probable that a Confederate soldier fired the fatal round. No Union soldiers were observed to have ever gotten behind Johnston during the fatal charge, while it is known that many Confederates were firing at the Union lines while Johnston charged well in advance of his soldiers.<ref>Sword, p. 444.</ref> Johnston was the highest-ranking fatality of the war on either side,<ref>Johnston is the only four-star (full) American general ever killed in battle. Muir, p. 84.</ref><ref name="Eicher322">Eicher, p. 322.</ref> and his death was a strong blow to the morale of the Confederacy. Jefferson Davis considered him the best general in the country;<ref>Dupuy, p. 378.</ref> this was two months before the emergence of [[Robert E. Lee]] as the pre-eminent general of the Confederacy. ==Legacy and honors== [[File:Albert Sidney Johnston Tomb.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Johnston's tomb in the [[Texas State Cemetery]] in [[Austin, Texas]]]] [[File:Johnston tomb.jpeg|thumb|right|200px|Sculpted by [[Elisabet Ney]]]] Johnston was survived by his wife Eliza and six children. His wife and five younger children, including one born after he went to war, chose to live out their days at home in Los Angeles with Eliza's brother, Dr. [[John Strother Griffin]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.tshaonline.org/handbook/online/articles/fjoba|title=JOHNSTON, ELIZA GRIFFIN|publisher=Texas State Historical Association}}</ref> Johnston's eldest son, Albert Sidney Jr. (born in Texas), had already followed him into the Confederate States Army. In 1863, after taking home leave in Los Angeles, Albert Jr. was on his way out of [[San Pedro, California|San Pedro]] harbor on a ferry. While a steamer was taking on passengers from the ferry, a wave swamped the smaller boat, causing its boilers to explode. Albert Jr. was killed in the accident.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://digitallibrary.usc.edu/cdm/compoundobject/collection/p15799coll68/id/1003/rec/36|title=Los Angeles Star, vol. 13, no. 2, May 16, 1863}}</ref> Killed in action, General Johnston received the highest praise ever given by the Confederate government; accounts were published, on December 20, 1862 and thereafter, in the Los Angeles ''Star'' of his family's hometown.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://digitallibrary.usc.edu/cdm/compoundobject/collection/p15799coll68/id/1019/rec/1|title=Los Angeles Star, vol. 12, no. 33, December 20, 1862}}</ref> Johnston Street, Hancock Street, and Griffin Avenue, each in [[Lincoln Heights, Los Angeles|northeast Los Angeles]], are named after the general and his family, who lived in the neighborhood. Johnston was initially buried in [[New Orleans, Louisiana|New Orleans]]. In 1866, a joint resolution of the [[Texas Legislature]] was passed to have his body moved and reinterred at the [[Texas State Cemetery]] in [[Austin, Texas|Austin]]. The re-interment occurred in 1867. Forty years later, the state appointed [[Elisabet Ney]] to design a monument and sculpture of him to be erected at the gravesite. The [[Texas Historical Commission]] has erected a historical marker near the entrance of what was once Johnston's [[plantations in the American South|plantation]]. An adjacent marker was erected by the San Jacinto Chapter of the [[Daughters of The Republic of Texas]] and the Lee, Roberts, and Davis Chapter of the [[United Daughters of the Confederacy|United Daughters of the Confederate States of America]]. The [[University of Texas at Austin]] has recognized Johnston with a statue on the South Mall. ==See also== {{Portal|Biography|United States Army| American Civil War}} * [[List of American Civil War generals#Confederate-J|List of American Civil War generals]] ==Notes== {{Reflist|colwidth=30em}} ==References== * Beauregard, G. T. ''The Campaign of Shiloh''. p.&nbsp;579. In ''Battles and Leaders of the Civil War'', vol. I, edited by Robert Underwood Johnson and Clarence C. Buel. New York: Century Co., 1884–1888. {{OCLC|2048818}}. * {{cite book| author = G. S. Boritt| title = Jefferson Davis' Generals| year = 1999| publisher = Oxford University Press on Demand| isbn = 978-0-19-512062-2 }} * {{cite book| author = Thomas Lawrence Connelly| title = Army of the Heartland: The Army of Tennessee, 1861-1862| year = 2001| publisher = LSU Press| isbn = 978-0-8071-2737-7 }} * {{cite book| author = Thomas Lawrence Connelly| title = Civil War Tennessee: battles and leaders| year = 1979| publisher = University of Tennessee Press| isbn = 978-0-87049-284-6 }} * {{cite book| author = O. Edward Cunningham| title = Shiloh and the Western Campaign of 1862| year = 2007| isbn = 978-1-932714-27-2 }} * Dupuy, Trevor N., Curt Johnson, and David L. Bongard. ''[[Harper Encyclopedia of Military Biography]]''. New York: HarperCollins, 1992. ISBN 978-0-06-270015-5. * {{cite book| author = David J. Eicher| title = The longest night: a military history of the Civil War| year = 2001| isbn = 0-684-84944-5 }} * {{cite book| title = Civil War high commands| year = 2001| publisher = Stanford University Press| isbn = 978-0-8047-3641-1 }} * {{cite book| author = Stephen Douglas Engle|author2= Bison Book| title = Struggle For The Heartland: The Campaigns From Fort Henry To Corinth| year = 2005| publisher = Bison Books| isbn = 978-0-8032-6753-4 }} * Hattaway, Herman, and Archer Jones. ''How the North Won: A Military History of the Civil War''. Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1983. ISBN 0-252-00918-5. * {{cite book| author = Earl J. Hess| title = The Civil War in the West: Victory and Defeat from the Appalachians to the Mississippi| year = 2012| publisher = University of North Carolina Press| isbn = 978-0-8078-3542-5 }} * {{cite book| title = Shiloh and Corinth: Sentinels of Stone| year = 2007| publisher = University Press of Mississippi| isbn = 978-1-934110-08-9 }} * {{cite book| author = William Preston Johnston| title = The life of Gen. Albert Sidney Johnston: embracing his services in the armies of the United States, the republic of Texas, and the Confederate States| url = https://books.google.com/?id=ExITAAAAYAAJ| year = 1878| publisher = D. Appleton }} * {{cite book| author = Frances H. Kennedy |author2=Conservation Fund (Arlington, Va) | title = The Civil War Battlefield Guide| year = 1998| publisher = Mariner Books| isbn = 978-0-395-74012-5 }} * Long, E. B. ''The Civil War Day by Day: An Almanac, 1861–1865.'' Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1971. {{OCLC|68283123}}. * {{cite book| author = James Lee McDonough| title = Shiloh, in Hell Before Night| year = 1977| isbn = 978-0-87049-199-3 }} * {{cite book| author = [[James M. McPherson|McPherson, James M.]]| title = Battle Cry of Freedom: The Civil War Era| year = 1988| publisher = New York : Oxford University Press| isbn = 978-0-19-503863-7 }} * {{cite book| author = David Stephen Heidler|author2=Jeanne T. Heidler|author3=David J. Coles| title = Encyclopedia of the American Civil War: A Political, Social, and Military History| year = 2002| publisher = W. W. Norton & Company| isbn = 978-0-393-04758-5 }} * {{cite book| last = Noe| first = Kenneth| title = Perryville| year = 2001| isbn = 978-0-8131-2209-0 }} * {{cite book| last = Smith| first = Derek| title = The Gallant Dead: Union and Confederate Generals Killed in the Civil War| year = 2005| publisher = Stackpole Books| isbn = 978-0-8117-0132-7 }} * {{cite book| last = Sword| first = Wiley| title = The Confederacy's Last Hurrah: Spring Hill, Franklin, and Nashville| year = 1992| isbn = 978-0-7006-0650-4 }} * {{cite book| author = Russell F. Weigley| title = A great Civil War: a military and political history, 1861-1865| year = 2000| publisher = Indiana University Press| isbn = 978-0-253-33738-2 }} * {{cite book| author = T. Harry Williams| title = P. G. T. Beauregard: Napoleon in Gray| year = 1995| publisher = LSU Press| isbn = 978-0-8071-1974-7 }} * {{cite book| author = [[Steven E. Woodworth|Woodworth, Steven E.]]| title = Jefferson Davis and his generals: the failure of Confederate command in the West| year = 1990| publisher = University Press of Kansas| isbn = 0-7006-0461-8 }} ==Further reading== * {{cite book| author = Larry J. Daniel| title = Shiloh: the battle that changed the Civil War| year = 1997| isbn = 0-684-80375-5 }} * {{cite book| author = Kendall D. Gott| title = Where the South Lost the War: An Analysis of the Fort Henry-Fort Donelson Campaign, February 1862| year = 2003| isbn = 978-0-8117-0049-8 }} * {{cite book| author = Albert A. Nofi |authorlink=Albert Nofi| title = The Alamo: And the Texas War for Independence September 30, 1835 to April 21, 1836 : Heroes, Myths and History| year = 2001| isbn = 978-0-306-81040-4 }} * {{cite book| author = Charles Pierce Roland| title = Albert Sidney Johnston: Soldier of Three Republics| year = 1964| isbn = 978-0-8131-9000-6 }} * {{cite book| author = Charles Pierce Roland| title = Jefferson Davis's Greatest General: Albert Sidney Johnston| year = 2000| publisher = McWhiney Foundation Press| isbn = 1-893114-20-1 }} ==External links== {{commonscat-inline|Albert Sidney Johnston}} {{TXRepublicSecWar}} {{Authority control}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Johnston, Albert Sidney}} [[Category:1803 births]] [[Category:1862 deaths]] [[Category:Confederate States military personnel killed in the American Civil War]] [[Category:Burials at Texas State Cemetery]] [[Category:Confederate States Army full generals]] [[Category:People from Washington, Kentucky]] [[Category:People from Texas]] [[Category:People of California in the American Civil War]] [[Category:People of Texas in the American Civil War]] [[Category:American people of the Black Hawk War]] [[Category:Transylvania University alumni]] [[Category:United States Army generals]] [[Category:United States Military Academy alumni]] [[Category:People of the Texas Revolution]] [[Category:People of the Utah War]] 76ka65yxfd0ksv0ecwudn7kfmx4tq50 0 713 717567319 711056569 2016-04-28T13:37:23Z Ubcule 8377723 Title fully qualified, thus unlikely to be confused with OS wikitext text/x-wiki {{redirect|Mechanoid}} {{Other uses|Android (disambiguation){{!}}Android}} {{Use dmy dates|date=June 2013}} An '''android''' is a [[robot]]<ref name="Van Riper 10">{{Cite book|last=Van Riper|first=A. Bowdoin|title=Science in popular culture: a reference guide|publisher=[[Greenwood Press]]|location=Westport|year=2002|page=10|isbn=0-313-31822-0}}</ref> or [[synthetic biology|synthetic organism]]<ref name="Prucher2007">{{cite book|author=Jeff Prucher|title=Brave new words: the Oxford dictionary of science fiction|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=iYzi8m8FbEsC&pg=PA6|accessdate=22 November 2011|date=7 May 2007|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-530567-8|pages=6–7}}</ref><ref name="Stableford2006">{{cite book|author=Brian M. Stableford|title=Science fact and science fiction: an encyclopedia|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=uefwmdROKTAC&pg=PA22|accessdate=22 November 2011|year=2006|publisher=CRC Press|isbn=978-0-415-97460-8|pages=22–23}}</ref><ref name="Wilson2006">{{cite book|author=Eric G. Wilson|title=The melancholy android: on the psychology of sacred machines|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=mSLiPUPESGcC&pg=PA27|accessdate=22 November 2011|date=10 August 2006|publisher=SUNY Press|isbn=978-0-7914-6846-3|pages=27–28}}</ref> designed to look and act like a [[human]], especially one with a body having a flesh-like resemblance.<ref name="Prucher2007"/> Historically, androids remained completely within the domain of [[science fiction]] where they are frequently seen in film and television. Only recently have advancements in [[robotics|robot technology]] allowed the design of functional and realistic humanoid robots.<ref>Ishiguro, Hiroshi. [http://www.androidscience.com/proceedings2005/IshiguroCogSci2005AS.pdf "Android science."], ''[[Cognitive Science Society]]'', Osaka, 2005. Retrieved on 3 October 2013.</ref> ==Etymology== The word was coined from the [[Greek language|Greek]] root ἀνδρ- 'man' (male, as opposed to anthrop- = human being) and the suffix ''[[Wiktionary:-oid|-oid]]'' 'having the form or likeness of'.<ref>[[Oxford English Dictionary]], Draft Revision, December 2008</ref> The ''Oxford English Dictionary'' traces the earliest use (as "Androides") to [[Ephraim Chambers]]' ''[[Cyclopaedia, or an Universal Dictionary of Arts and Sciences|Cyclopaedia]],'' in reference to an [[automaton]] that St. [[Albertus Magnus]] allegedly created.<ref name="Stableford2006"/><ref>''OED'' at "android" citing Ephraim Chambers, ''Cyclopædia; or, a universal dictionary of arts and sciences.'' 1728.</ref> The term "android" appears in US patents as early as 1863 in reference to miniature human-like toy automatons.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.google.com/patents?id=QhIAAAAAEBAJ&dq=patent:40891%7C|title=U.S. Patent and Trademark Office, Patent# 40891, ''Toy Automation''|publisher=[[Google Patents]]| accessdate = 7 January 2007}}</ref> The term ''android'' was used in a more modern sense by the French author [[Auguste Villiers de l'Isle-Adam]] in his work ''[[The Future Eve|Tomorrow's Eve]]'' (1886).<ref name="Stableford2006"/> This story features an artificial humanlike robot named Hadaly. As said by the officer in the story, "In this age of Realien advancement, who knows what goes on in the mind of those responsible for these mechanical dolls." The term made an impact into English [[pulp science fiction]] starting from [[Jack Williamson]]'s ''[[The Cometeers]]'' (1936) and the distinction between mechanical robots and fleshy androids was popularized by [[Edmond Hamilton]]'s [[Captain Future]] (1940–1944).<ref name="Stableford2006"/> Although [[Karel Capek|Karel Čapek's]] robots in ''[[R.U.R.|R.U.R. (Rossum's Universal Robots)]]'' (1921)—the play that introduced the word ''[[robot]]'' to the world—were organic artificial humans, the word "robot" has come to primarily refer to mechanical humans, animals, and other beings.<ref name="Stableford2006"/> The term "android" can mean either one of these,<ref name="Stableford2006"/> while a [[cyborg]] ("cybernetic organism" or "bionic man") would be a creature that is a combination of organic and mechanical parts. The term "[[Droid (robot)|droid]]", popularized by [[George Lucas]] in the original ''[[Star Wars (film)|Star Wars]]'' film and now used widely within science fiction, originated as an abridgment of "android", but has been used by Lucas and others to mean any robot, including distinctly non-human form machines like [[R2-D2]]. The word "android" was used in ''[[Star Trek: The Original Series]]'' episode "[[What Are Little Girls Made Of?]]" The abbreviation "andy", coined as a [[pejorative]] by writer [[Philip K. Dick]] in his novel ''[[Do Androids Dream of Electric Sheep?]]'', has seen some further usage, such as within the TV series ''[[Total Recall 2070]]''.<ref name="TR2070">{{Cite episode|title=Rough Whimper of Insanity|url=http://www.fancast.com/tv/Total-Recall-2070/10604/full-episodes|series=Total Recall 2070|serieslink=Total Recall 2070|credits=Levin, Drew S. (exec. prod.)|network=[[Channel Zero Inc.|Channel Zero]]|station=[[CHCH-TV]]|city=[[Toronto]]|airdate=23 February 1999|season=1|number=7|minutes=2:10}}</ref> Authors have used the term ''android'' in more diverse ways than ''[[robot]]'' or ''[[cyborg]]''. In some fictional works, the difference between a robot and android is only their appearance, with androids being made to look like humans on the outside but with robot-like internal mechanics.<ref name="Stableford2006"/> In other stories, authors have used the word "android" to mean a wholly organic, yet artificial, creation.<ref name="Stableford2006"/> Other fictional depictions of androids fall somewhere in between.<ref name="Stableford2006"/> Eric G. Wilson, who defines androids as a "synthetic human being", distinguishes between three types of androids, based on their body's composition: * the mummy type - where androids are made of "dead things" or "stiff, inanimate, natural material", such as mummies, puppets, dolls and statues * the golem type - androids made from flexible, possibly organic material, including golems and homunculi * the automaton type - androids which are a mix of dead and living parts, including automatons and robots<ref name="Wilson2006"/> Although human morphology is not necessarily the ideal form for working robots, the fascination in developing robots that can mimic it can be found historically in the assimilation of two concepts: ''[[Simulacrum|simulacra]]'' (devices that exhibit likeness) and ''[[Automata theory|automata]]'' (devices that have independence). ==Projects== Several projects aiming to create androids that look, and, to a certain degree, speak or act like a human being have been launched or are underway. ===Japan=== [[File:Actroid-DER 01.jpg|thumb|DER 01, a Japanese [[actroid]]]] The Intelligent Robotics Lab, directed by [[Hiroshi Ishiguro]] at [[Osaka University]], and Kokoro Co., Ltd. have demonstrated the [[Actroid]] at [[Expo 2005]] in [[Aichi Prefecture]], Japan and released the [[Telenoid R1]] in 2010. In 2006, Kokoro Co. developed a new ''DER 2'' android. The height of the human body part of DER2 is 165&nbsp;cm. There are 47 mobile points. DER2 can not only change its expression but also move its hands and feet and twist its body. The "air servosystem" which Kokoro Co. developed originally is used for the actuator. As a result of having an actuator controlled precisely with air pressure via a servosystem, the movement is very fluid and there is very little noise. DER2 realized a slimmer body than that of the former version by using a smaller cylinder. Outwardly DER2 has a more beautiful proportion. Compared to the previous model, DER2 has thinner arms and a wider repertoire of expressions. Once programmed, it is able to choreograph its motions and gestures with its voice. The Intelligent Mechatronics Lab, directed by Hiroshi Kobayashi at the [[Tokyo University of Science]], has developed an android head called ''Saya'', which was exhibited at Robodex 2002 in [[Yokohama]], Japan. There are several other initiatives around the world involving humanoid research and development at this time, which will hopefully introduce a broader spectrum of realized technology in the near future. Now Saya is ''working'' at the Science University of Tokyo as a guide. The [[Waseda University]] (Japan) and [[NTT docomo|NTT Docomo's]] manufacturers have succeeded in creating a shape-shifting robot ''WD-2''. It is capable of changing its face. At first, the creators decided the positions of the necessary points to express the outline, eyes, nose, and so on of a certain person. The robot expresses its face by moving all points to the decided positions, they say. The first version of the robot was first developed back in 2003. After that, a year later, they made a couple of major improvements to the design. The robot features an elastic mask made from the average head dummy. It uses a driving system with a 3DOF unit. The WD-2 robot can change its facial features by activating specific facial points on a mask, with each point possessing three [[degrees of freedom (mechanics)|degrees of freedom]]. This one has 17 facial points, for a total of 56 degrees of freedom. As for the materials they used, the WD-2's mask is fabricated with a highly elastic material called Septom, with bits of steel wool mixed in for added strength. Other technical features reveal a shaft driven behind the mask at the desired facial point, driven by a DC motor with a simple pulley and a slide screw. Apparently, the researchers can also modify the shape of the mask based on actual human faces. To "copy" a face, they need only a 3D scanner to determine the locations of an individual's 17 facial points. After that, they are then driven into position using a laptop and 56 motor control boards. In addition, the researchers also mention that the shifting robot can even display an individual's hair style and skin color if a photo of their face is projected onto the 3D Mask. ===Singapore=== Prof Nadia Thalmann, a Nanyang Technological University scientist, directed efforts of the Institute for Media Innovation along with the School of Computer Engineering in the development of a social robot, Nadine. Nadine is powered by software similar to Apple’s [[Siri]] or Microsoft’s Cortana. Nadine may become a personal assistant in offices and homes in future, or she may become a companion for the young and the elderly. Assoc Prof Gerald Seet from the School of Mechanical & Aerospace Engineering and the BeingThere Centre led a three-year R&D development in tele-presence robotics, creating EDGAR. A remote user can control EDGAR with the user’s face and expressions displayed on the robot’s face in real time. The robot also mimics their upper body movements. <ref name="singapore_NTU">{{cite web|url=http://media.ntu.edu.sg/NewsReleases/Pages/newsdetail.aspx?news=fde9bfb6-ee3f-45f0-8c7b-f08bc1a9a179|title=NTU scientists unveil social and telepresence robots|accessdate=31 December 2015}}</ref> ===South Korea=== [[File:Ever-2.jpg|thumb|200px|[[EveR-2]], the first android that has the ability to [[singing|sing]]]] [[KITECH]] researched and developed [[EveR-1]], an android interpersonal communications model capable of emulating human emotional expression via facial "musculature" and capable of rudimentary conversation, having a vocabulary of around 400 words. She is {{nowrap|160 cm}} tall and weighs {{nowrap|50 kg}}, matching the average figure of a Korean woman in her twenties. EveR-1's name derives from the [[Eve|Biblical Eve]], plus the letter ''r'' for ''robot''. EveR-1's advanced computing processing power enables [[speech recognition]] and vocal synthesis, at the same time processing [[lip synchronization]] and visual recognition by 90-degree micro-[[charge-coupled device|CCD]] cameras with [[facial recognition system|face recognition technology]]. An independent microchip inside her artificial brain handles gesture expression, body coordination, and emotion expression. Her whole body is made of highly advanced synthetic jelly silicon and with 60 artificial joints in her face, neck, and lower body; she is able to demonstrate realistic facial expressions and sing while simultaneously dancing. In South Korea, the [[Ministry of Information and Communication (South Korea)|Ministry of Information and Communication]] has an ambitious plan to put a robot in every household by 2020.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2006/09/060906-robots.html |title=A Robot in Every Home by 2020, South Korea Says |publisher=News.nationalgeographic.com |date=28 October 2010 |accessdate=22 November 2011}}</ref> Several robot cities have been planned for the country: the first will be built in 2016 at a cost of 500 billion won, of which 50 billion is direct government investment.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.engadget.com/2007/08/27/south-korea-set-to-build-robot-land/ |title=South Korea set to build "Robot Land" |publisher=Engadget |accessdate=22 November 2011}}</ref> The new robot city will feature research and development centers for manufacturers and part suppliers, as well as exhibition halls and a stadium for robot competitions. The country's new Robotics Ethics Charter will establish ground rules and laws for human interaction with robots in the future, setting standards for robotics users and manufacturers, as well as guidelines on ethical standards to be programmed into robots to prevent human abuse of robots and vice versa.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2007/03/070316-robot-ethics.html |title=Robot Code of Ethics to Prevent Android Abuse, Protect Humans |publisher=News.nationalgeographic.com |date=28 October 2010 |accessdate=22 November 2011}}</ref> ===United States=== Walt Disney and a staff of [[Imagineers]] created [[Great Moments with Mr. Lincoln]] that debuted at the [[1964 New York World's Fair]].<ref name="illinois_pavillion">{{cite web|url=http://www.nywf64.com/illinois02.shtml|title=Pavilions &amp; Attractions - Illinois - Page Two|accessdate=23 March 2011}}</ref> [[David Hanson (robotics designer)|Hanson Robotics, Inc.]], of Texas and [[KAIST]] produced an android portrait of [[Albert Einstein]], using Hanson's facial android technology mounted on KAIST's life-size walking bipedal robot body. This Einstein android, also called "[[Albert Hubo]]", thus represents the first full-body walking android in history (see video at<ref>[http://www.hansonrobotics.wordpress.com Einstein Video<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref>). Hanson Robotics, the FedEx Institute of Technology,<ref>[http://www.fedex.memphis.edu FedEx Institute of Technology :: FedEx Institute of Technology :: University of Memphis<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> and the University of Texas at Arlington also developed the android portrait of sci-fi author [[Philip K. Dick]] (creator of ''[[Do Androids Dream of Electric Sheep?]]'', the basis for the film ''[[Blade Runner]]''), with full conversational capabilities that incorporated thousands of pages of the author's works.<ref>[http://www.pkdandroid.org/about.htm About the Philip K Dick Android]</ref> In 2005, the PKD android won a first place [[artificial intelligence]] award from [[Association for the Advancement of Artificial Intelligence|AAAI]]. ==Use in fiction== {{See also|List of fictional robots and androids}} <!-- Please add descriptions of individual androids to that list, not here, so as to avoid duplication. Thanks! --> Androids are a staple of [[science fiction]]. [[Isaac Asimov]] pioneered the fictionalization of the science of [[robotics]] and [[artificial intelligence]], notably in his 1950s series ''[[I, Robot]]''.<ref>{{cite web|last=Jonathan Barra|first=Roger Caille|title=The Android Generation|url=http://midnighttracks.net/2012/2012_rdr_8.html|publisher=West Coast Midnight Run/Citadel Consulting Group LLC|accessdate=9 February 2013|display-authors=etal}}</ref> One thing common to most fictional androids is that the real-life technological challenges associated with creating thoroughly human-like robots—such as the creation of [[artificial general intelligence|strong artificial intelligence]]—are assumed to have been solved.<ref name="Van Riper 11">Van Riper, op.cit., p. 11.</ref> Fictional androids are often depicted as mentally and physically equal or superior to humans—moving, thinking and speaking as fluidly as them.<ref name="Stableford2006"/><ref name="Van Riper 11"/> The tension between the nonhuman substance and the human appearance—or even human ambitions—of androids is the dramatic impetus behind most of their fictional depictions.<ref name="Wilson2006"/><ref name="Van Riper 11"/> Some android heroes seek, like [[Pinocchio]], to become human, as in the films ''[[Bicentennial Man (film)|Bicentennial Man]]'', ''[[Hollywood (Kannada film)|Hollywood]]'', ''[[Enthiran]]'' and ''[[A.I. Artificial Intelligence]]'',<ref name="Van Riper 11" /> or [[Data (Star Trek)|Data]] in ''[[Star Trek: The Next Generation]]''. Others, as in the film ''[[Westworld]]'', rebel against abuse by careless humans.<ref name="Van Riper 11"/> Android hunter [[Rick Deckard|Deckard]] in ''[[Do Androids Dream of Electric Sheep?]]'' and its film adaptation ''[[Blade Runner]]'' discovers that his targets are, in some ways, more human than he is.<ref name="Van Riper 11"/> Android stories, therefore, are not essentially stories "about" androids; they are stories about the [[human condition]] and what it means to be human.<ref name="Van Riper 11"/> One aspect of writing about the meaning of humanity is to use discrimination against androids as a mechanism for exploring [[racism]] in society, as in ''Blade Runner''.<ref name="Dinello76">{{Cite book|last=Dinello|first=Daniel|title=Technophobia!: Science Fiction Visions of Posthuman Technology|publisher=[[University of Texas Press]]|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=BA_1sOD40K4C&pg=PA76|accessdate=22 November 2011|year=2005|page=76}}</ref> Perhaps the clearest example of this is [[John Brunner (novelist)|John Brunner's]] 1968 novel ''[[Into the Slave Nebula]]'', where the blue-skinned android slaves are explicitly shown to be fully human.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Encyclopedia of Science Fiction|last= D'Ammassa|first=Don|year=2005|publisher=Facts on File|page = 58|isbn = 978-0-8160-5924-9}}</ref> More recently, the androids [[Bishop (Aliens)|Bishop]] and Annalee Call in the films ''[[Aliens (film)|Aliens]]'' and ''[[Alien Resurrection]]'' are used as vehicles for exploring how humans deal with the presence of an "[[Other]]".<ref>{{Cite journal|doi=10.1353/cj.2005.0011|last=Nishime|first=LeiLani|title=The Mulatto Cyborg: Imagining a Multiracial Future|journal = Cinema Journal|volume=44|issue=2|pages=34–49|publisher=[[University of Texas Press]]|date=Winter 2005|accessdate=10 January 2007|url=https://muse.jhu.edu/login?auth=0&type=summary&url=/journals/cinema_journal/v044/44.2nishime.pdf}}</ref> Female androids, or "[[gynoid]]s", are often seen in science fiction, and can be viewed as a continuation of the long tradition of men attempting to create the stereotypical "perfect woman".<ref name=melzer202>{{Cite book|title=Alien Constructions: Science Fiction and Feminist Thought|last=Melzer|first=Patricia|year=2006|publisher=[[University of Texas Press]]|page=202|isbn= 978-0-292-71307-9}}</ref> Examples include the [[Greek mythology|Greek myth]] of ''[[Pygmalion (mythology)|Pygmalion]]'' and [[Maschinenmensch|the female robot Maria]] in [[Fritz Lang]]'s ''[[Metropolis (1927 film)|Metropolis]]''. Some gynoids, like Pris in ''Blade Runner'', are designed as sex-objects, with the intent of "pleasing men's violent sexual desires,"<ref>Melzer, p. 204</ref> or as submissive, servile companions, such as in ''[[The Stepford Wives]]''. Fiction about gynoids has therefore been described as reinforcing "essentialist ideas of femininity",<ref>{{Cite book|title = SciFi in the mind's eye: reading science through science fiction|last=Grebowicz|first=Margret|authorlink= |author2=L. Timmel Duchamp |author3=Nicola Griffith |author4=Terry Bisson |year=2007|publisher=Open Court|page=xviii|isbn=978-0-8126-9630-1}}</ref> although others have suggested that the treatment of androids is a way of exploring racism and [[misogyny]] in society.<ref name = "Dinello77">Dinello, op. cit., p 77.</ref> The 2015 Japanese film ''[[Sayonara (2015 film)|Sayonara]]'', starring [[Geminoid F]], was promoted as "the first movie to feature an android performing opposite a human actor".<ref>{{cite web |url= http://variety.com/2015/film/asia/sayonara-filmmakers-debate-future-of-robot-actors-1201626092/|title= Tokyo: ‘Sayonara’ Filmmakers Debate Future of Robot Actors|author= James Hadfield|date= October 24, 2015|accessdate= November 9, 2015|work= [[variety.com]]}}</ref> ==See also== {{Portal|Robotics}} {{div col|3|RoboTurk=RoboTurk}} *[[Agalmatophilia]] *[[Android science]] *[[Audio-Animatronics]] *[[ASIMO]] *[[Cylon (reimagining)|Cylon]] *[[Domestic robot]] *[[Gynoid]] *[[HUBO]] *[[Humanoid robot]] *[[Justin (robot)]] *[[MAHRU]] *[[RealDoll]] *[[REEM|REEM-B]] *[[Replicant]] *[[Robot fetishism]] *[[Synthoid]] *[[Three Laws of Robotics]] *[[TOPIO]] *[[Transhumanism]] *[[Uncanny valley]] *[[The Turk]] *[[RoboTurk]] *[[Kryten (Red Dwarf)|Kryten]] {{div col end}} ==References== {{Reflist|30em}} ==Further reading== * Kerman, Judith B. (1991). ''Retrofitting Blade Runner: Issues in Ridley Scott's Blade Runner and Philip K. Dick's Do Androids Dream of Electric Sheep?'' Bowling Green, OH: Bowling Green State University Popular Press. ISBN 0-87972-509-5. * Perkowitz, Sidney (2004). ''Digital People: From Bionic Humans to Androids''. Joseph Henry Press. ISBN 0-309-09619-7. * Shelde, Per (1993). ''Androids, Humanoids, and Other Science Fiction Monsters: Science and Soul in Science Fiction Films''. New York: New York University Press. ISBN 0-8147-7930-1. * [[RoboTurk (robot)]] *Ishiguro, Hiroshi. "Android science." Cognitive Science Society. 2005. *Glaser, Horst Albert and Rossbach, Sabine: The Artificial Human, Frankfurt/M., Bern, New York 2011 [http://www.amazon.com/The-Artificial-Human-Tragical-History/dp/3631578083/ref=sr_1_1?s=books&ie=UTF8&qid=1335701088&sr=1-1 "The Artificial Human"] *TechCast Article Series, Jason Rupinski and Richard Mix, [http://www.techcast.org/Upload/PDFs/050804104155TC.androids2.pdf "Public Attitudes to Androids: Robot Gender, Tasks, & Pricing"] *An-droid, [http://www.an-droidx.com "Similar to the Android name"] * Carpenter, J. (2009). Why send the Terminator to do R2D2s job?: Designing androids as rhetorical phenomena. Proceedings of HCI 2009: Beyond Gray Droids: Domestic Robot Design for the 21st Century. Cambridge, UK. Sept. 1. *Telotte, J.P. ''Replications: A Robotic History of the Science Fiction Film.'' University of Illinois Press, 1995. ==External links== {{Sister project links|voy=no|wikt=android|commons=Androids|v=no|n=no|q=no|s=no|b=no}} {{Androids|state=uncollapsed}} {{Humanoid robots}} {{Mobile robots}} {{Robotics}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Android (Robot)}} [[Category:Androids| ]] [[Category:Science fiction themes]] [[Category:Android (robot)| ]] [[Category:Osaka University research]] icuvloxg66nboc74f5u912mnahaajt2 0 717 717830852 717314663 2016-04-29T23:58:21Z 41.130.42.144 /* Tourism */ wikitext text/x-wiki {{Other uses}} {{Use Canadian English|date=July 2015}} {{Use mdy dates|date=October 2015}} {{Infobox province or territory of Canada | Name = Alberta | AlternateName = | EntityAdjective = Provincial | Flag = Flag of Alberta.svg | CoatOfArms = Alberta coat of arms.svg | Map = Alberta in Canada.svg | Label_map = yes | Motto = {{lang-la|Fortis et liber}}<br /><small>("Strong and free")</small> | OfficialLang = [[English language|English]] | Demonym = Albertan | Flower = [[File:Wild Rose.svg|24px]]{{spaces|1}}[[Rosa acicularis|Wild rose]] | Tree = [[File:Pinus contorta in the Oregon Cascades.JPG|24px]]{{spaces|1}}[[Lodgepole pine]] | Bird = [[File:Horned1b.jpg|24px]]{{spaces|1}}[[Great horned owl#Subspecies|Great horned owl]] | Capital = [[Edmonton]] | LargestCity = [[Calgary]] | LargestMetro = [[Calgary Region]] | Premier = [[Rachel Notley]] | PremierParty = [[Alberta New Democratic Party|NDP]] | Viceroy = [[Lois Mitchell]] | ViceroyType = Lieutenant Governor | Legislature= Legislative Assembly of Alberta | PostalAbbreviation = AB | PostalCodePrefix = [[List of T postal codes of Canada|T]] | AreaRank = 6th | TotalArea_km2 = 661848 | LandArea_km2 = 640081 | WaterArea_km2 = 19531 | PercentWater = 2.95 | PopulationRank = 4th | Population = 3645257 <!-- 2011 StatCan federal census population only per [[WP:CANPOP]]. Do not update until 2016 census population released on Feb-8/17. Use "Population_est" below for latest StatCan quarterly estimate. --> | PopulationRef = <ref name="Alberta">{{cite web | url=http://www12.statcan.gc.ca/census-recensement/2011/dp-pd/hlt-fst/pd-pl/Table-Tableau.cfm?LANG=Eng&T=101&S=50&O=A | title=Population and dwelling counts, for Canada, provinces and territories, 2011 and 2006 censuses | work=[[Statistics Canada]] | date=January 24, 2012 | accessdate=February 8, 2012}}</ref> | PopulationYear = 2011 | Population_est = 4231959 <!-- Latest StatCan quarterly estimate only. --> | Pop_est_as_of = 2016 Q1 | Pop_est_ref = <ref name=StatCan2016Q1Est>{{cite web | url=http://www5.statcan.gc.ca/cansim/a26?lang=eng&retrLang=eng&id=0510005&paSer=&pattern=&stByVal=1&p1=1&p2=31&tabMode=dataTable&csid= | title=Population by year of Canada of Canada and territories | publisher=[[Statistics Canada]] | date=September 26, 2014 | accessdate=March 20, 2016}}</ref> | DensityRank = 6th | Density_km2 = 5.7 <ref name="Alberta"/> | GDP_year = 2011 | GDP_total = C$295.276&nbsp;billion<ref name=GDP2011>{{cite web | url=http://www.statcan.gc.ca/tables-tableaux/sum-som/l01/cst01/econ15-eng.htm | title=Gross domestic product, expenditure-based, by province and territory (2011) | publisher=Statistics Canada | date=November 19, 2013 | accessdate=September 26, 2013}}</ref> | GDP_rank = 2nd | GDP_per_capita = C$78,154 | GDP_per_capita_rank = 2nd | AdmittanceOrder = 11th | AdmittanceDate = September 1, 1905 (split from [[Northwest Territories]]) | TimeZone = [[Mountain Time Zone|Mountain]]: [[Coordinated Universal Time|UTC]]-7 | HouseSeats = 34 | SenateSeats = 6 | ISOCode = CA-AB | Website = www.alberta.ca }} '''Alberta''' ({{IPAc-en|æ|l|ˈ|b|ɜr|t|ə}}) is a western [[provinces and territories of Canada|province]] of [[Canada]]. With an estimated population of 4,196,457 as of July 1, 2015,<ref name="Alberta" /><ref name=estimates/> it is [[List of Canadian provinces and territories by population|Canada's fourth-most populous province]] and the most populous of Canada's three [[Canadian Prairies|prairie provinces]]. Alberta and its neighbour [[Saskatchewan]] were [[districts of the Northwest Territories]] until they were established as provinces on September 1, 1905.<ref name="Alberta becomes a Province">{{cite web | url=http://www.abheritage.ca/abpolitics/events/becoming_province.html | title=Alberta becomes a Province | publisher=Alberta Online Encyclopedia | accessdate=August 6, 2009}}</ref> The [[premier of Alberta|premier]] has been [[Rachel Notley]] since May 2015. Alberta is bounded by the provinces of [[British Columbia]] to the west and Saskatchewan to the east, the [[Northwest Territories]] to the north, and the US state of [[Montana]] to the south. Alberta is one of three Canadian provinces and territories to border only a single US state and one of only two landlocked provinces. It has a predominantly [[humid continental climate]], with stark contrasts over a year but seasonal temperature average swings are smaller than to areas further east, due to winters being warmed by occasional [[chinook wind]]s bringing sudden warming.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.theweathernetwork.com/news/articles/chinook-winds-and-alberta-weather/43265/ | title=Chinook winds and Alberta weather | author=Erin Wenckstern | publisher=The Weather Network | date=January 8, 2015 | accessdate=October 3, 2015}}</ref> Alberta's capital [[Edmonton]] is near the geographic centre of the province and is the primary supply and service hub for Canada's [[crude oil]], [[oil sands]] ([[Athabasca oil sands]])<ref name="NEB_CEO_Reserve">{{cite web | author=NEB | title=Canadian Energy Overview 2007 | publisher=National Energy Board of Canada | date=May 2008 | url=http://www.neb.gc.ca/clf-nsi/rnrgynfmtn/nrgyrprt/nrgyvrvw/cndnnrgyvrvw2007/cndnnrgyvrvw2007-eng.html#s4_2 | accessdate=July 30, 2008}}</ref> and other northern resource industries. About {{convert|290|km|sigfig=2|abbr=on}} south of the capital is [[Calgary]], the [[List of cities in Alberta|largest city in Alberta]]. Calgary and Edmonton centre Alberta's two [[census metropolitan area]]s, both of which have populations exceeding one million,<ref name=StatCan2011CMAs/> while the province has [[List of census agglomerations in Alberta|16 census agglomerations]].<ref name=2011censusCAs>{{cite web | url=http://www12.statcan.ca/census-recensement/2011/dp-pd/hlt-fst/pd-pl/Table-Tableau.cfm?LANG=Eng&T=202&SR=1&S=0&O=D&RPP=50&CMA=0&PR=48 | title=Population and dwelling counts, for Canada, provinces and territories, census metropolitan areas and census agglomerations, 2011 and 2006 censuses (Alberta) | publisher=Statistics Canada | date=February 8, 2012 | accessdate=April 22, 2012}}</ref> Tourist destinations in the province include [[Banff, Alberta|Banff]], [[Canmore, Alberta|Canmore]], [[Drumheller]], [[Jasper, Alberta|Jasper]] and [[Sylvan Lake, Alberta|Sylvan Lake]]. ==Etymology== Alberta is named after [[Princess Louise, Duchess of Argyll|Princess Louise Caroline Alberta]] (1848–1939),<ref>{{cite web | url=http://alberta.ca/history.cfm | title=History | publisher=[[Government of Alberta]] | accessdate=August 20, 2012}}</ref> the fourth daughter of [[Queen Victoria|Victoria]], [[Monarchy of Canada|Queen of Canada]], and [[Albert, Prince Consort]]. Princess Louise was the wife of the [[John Campbell, 9th Duke of Argyll|Marquess of Lorne]], [[Governor General of Canada]] (1878–83). [[Lake Louise (Alberta)|Lake Louise]] and [[Mount Alberta]] were also named in her honour.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.albertacentennial.ca/history/viewpost.aspx~id=249.html | title=A land of freedom and beauty, named for love | publisher=Government of Alberta | year=2002 | accessdate=January 30, 2013 | deadurl=yes | archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/20120311014923/http://www.albertacentennial.ca/history/viewpost.aspx~id=249.html |archivedate=March 11, 2012 }}</ref><ref name=PlaceNames>{{cite book | authors=Larry Donovan & Tom Monto | title=Alberta Place Names: The Fascinating People & Stories Behind the Naming of Alberta | publisher=Dragon Hill Publishing Ltd. | year=2006 | page=121 | isbn=1-896124-11-9}}</ref> == Geography == [[File:AB-Relief.jpg|thumb|upright|Topographic map of Alberta]] {{Main|Geography of Alberta}} Alberta, with an area of {{convert|661848|km2|-2|abbr=on}}, is the fourth largest province after [[Quebec]], Ontario, and British Columbia.<ref name=area>{{cite web| url= http://www40.statcan.ca/l01/cst01/phys01.htm | title= Land and freshwater area, by province and territory | publisher= Statistics Canada | date=February 2005 | accessdate=March 7, 2007| archiveurl= //web.archive.org/web/20070210220013/http://www40.statcan.ca/l01/cst01/phys01.htm| archivedate= February 10, 2007 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}{{Dead link|date=March 2015}}</ref> To the south, the province borders on the [[49th parallel north]], separating it from the US state of [[Montana]], while on the north the [[60th parallel north]] divides it from the [[Northwest Territories]]. To the east, the [[110th meridian west]] separates it from the province of [[Saskatchewan]], while on the west its boundary with British Columbia follows the [[120th meridian west]] south from the Northwest Territories at 60°N until it reaches the [[Continental Divide]] at the [[Rocky Mountains]], and from that point follows the line of peaks marking the Continental Divide in a generally southeasterly direction until it reaches the Montana border at 49°N. The province extends {{convert|1223|km|abbr=on}} north to south and {{convert|660|km|abbr=on}} east to west at its maximum width. Its highest point is {{convert|3747|m|abbr=on|0}} at the summit of [[Mount Columbia (Canada)|Mount Columbia]] in the Rocky Mountains along the southwest border, while its lowest point is {{convert|152|m|abbr=on|0}} on the [[Slave River]] in [[Wood Buffalo National Park]] in the northeast.<ref name="aboutab"> {{cite web | title=Climate and Geography | work=About Alberta | publisher=Government of Alberta | year=2008 | url=http://www.alberta.ca/home/90.cfm | archiveurl=//web.archive.org/web/20101119101021/http://alberta.ca/home/90.cfm | archivedate=November 19, 2010 | accessdate=October 1, 2008}} </ref> With the exception of the [[semi-arid]] [[steppe]] of the southeastern section, the province has adequate [[water resources]]. There are numerous [[list of rivers of Alberta|rivers]] and [[list of lakes in Alberta|lakes]] used for swimming, fishing and a range of water sports. There are three large lakes, [[Lake Claire (Albertan lake)|Lake Claire]] ({{convert|1436|km2|abbr=on }}) in [[Wood Buffalo National Park]], [[Lesser Slave Lake]] ({{convert|1168|km2|abbr=on}}), and [[Lake Athabasca]] ({{convert|7898|km2}}) which lies in both Alberta and Saskatchewan. The longest river in the province is the [[Athabasca River]] which travels {{convert|1538|km|abbr=on}} from the [[Columbia Icefield]] in the Rocky Mountains to Lake Athabasca.<ref>{{cite web | title=Athabasca River | publisher=The Canadian Heritage Rivers System | year=2011 | url=http://www.chrs.ca/Rivers/Athabasca/Athabasca-F_e.php | accessdate=December 12, 2011}}</ref> The largest river is the [[Peace River (Canada)|Peace River]] with an average flow of 2161 m³/s. The [[Peace River (Canada)|Peace River]] originates in the Rocky Mountains of northern British Columbia and flows through northern Alberta and into the [[Slave River]], a tributary of the [[Mackenzie River]]. [[File:Moraine Lake 17092005.jpg|thumb|[[Moraine Lake]] in [[Banff National Park]]]] Alberta's capital city, [[Edmonton]], is located approximately in the geographic centre of the province. It is the most northerly major city in Canada, and serves as a gateway and hub for resource development in northern Canada. The region, with its proximity to Canada's largest oil fields, has most of western Canada's oil refinery capacity. [[Calgary]] is located approximately {{convert|280|km|abbr=on}} south of Edmonton and {{convert|240|km|abbr=on}} north of Montana, surrounded by extensive ranching country. Almost 75% of the province's population lives in the [[Calgary–Edmonton Corridor]]. The land grant policy to the railroads served as a means to populate the province in its early years.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://railways.library.ualberta.ca/Maps-2-2-5/ | title=Atlas of Alberta Railways Maps -- Alberta Land Grants | work=ualberta.ca}}</ref> Most of the northern half of the province is [[boreal forest]], while the [[Rocky Mountains]] along the southwestern boundary are largely forested (see [[Alberta Mountain forests]] and [[Alberta-British Columbia foothills forests]]). The southern quarter of the province is [[prairie]], ranging from [[shortgrass prairie]] in the southeastern corner to mixed grass prairie in an arc to the west and north of it. The central [[aspen parkland]] region extending in a broad arc between the prairies and the forests, from Calgary, north to Edmonton, and then east to [[Lloydminster]], contains the most fertile soil in the province and most of the population. Much of the unforested part of Alberta is given over either to grain or to [[dairy farming]], with [[mixed farming]] more common in the north and centre, while [[ranching]] and [[irrigated agriculture]] predominate in the south.<ref> {{cite web | title=Alberta | work=The Canadian Encyclopedia | publisher=Historica Foundation of Canada | year=2008 | url=http://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.com/en/article/alberta/ | accessdate=October 1, 2008}}</ref> The Alberta [[badlands]] are located in southeastern Alberta, where the [[Red Deer River]] crosses the flat prairie and farmland, and features deep canyons and striking landforms. [[Dinosaur Provincial Park]], near [[Brooks, Alberta]], showcases the badlands terrain, desert flora, and remnants from Alberta's past when dinosaurs roamed the then lush landscape. === Climate === [[File:Banff Trail 2.jpg|thumb|left|Winter scene at [[Banff Trail (C-Train)|Banff Trail station]] in Calgary]] Alberta has a [[humid continental climate]] with warm summers and cold winters. The province is open to cold arctic weather systems from the north, which often produce extremely cold conditions in winter. As the fronts between the air masses shift north and south across Alberta, the temperature can change rapidly. Arctic air masses in the winter produce extreme minimum temperatures varying from {{convert|-54|C|sigfig=2}} in northern Alberta to {{convert|-46|C|sigfig=2}} in southern Alberta, although temperatures at these extremes are rare. In the summer, continental air masses have produced record maximum temperatures from {{convert|32|C}} in the mountains to over {{convert|40|C}} in southeastern Alberta.<ref name="climatlas">{{cite web | title=Climate of Alberta | work=Agroclimatic Atlas of Alberta | publisher=Government of Alberta | year=2003 | url=http://www1.agric.gov.ab.ca/$department/deptdocs.nsf/all/sag6299 | accessdate =October 1, 2008}}</ref> [[File:Prairie Alberta.jpg|thumb|[[Prairie]] in Alberta]] Alberta extends for over {{convert|1200|km|abbr=on}} from north to south; its climate, therefore, varies considerably. Average high temperatures in January range from {{convert|0|C|sigfig=2}} in the southwest to {{convert|-24|C|sigfig=2}} in the far north. The climate is also influenced by the presence of the Rocky Mountains to the southwest, which disrupt the flow of the [[prevailing westerlies|prevailing westerly winds]] and cause them to drop most of their moisture on the western slopes of the mountain ranges before reaching the province, casting a [[rain shadow]] over much of Alberta. The northerly location and isolation from the weather systems of the Pacific Ocean cause Alberta to have a dry climate with little moderation from the ocean. Annual precipitation ranges from {{convert|300|mm|abbr=on}} in the southeast to {{convert|450|mm|abbr=on}} in the north, except in the foothills of the Rocky Mountains where total precipitation including snowfall can reach {{convert|600|mm|abbr=on}} annually.<ref name="aboutab"/><ref>{{cite web | title=Alberta Weather and Climate Data | publisher=Government of Alberta, Department of Agriculture and Rural Development | year=2012 | url=http://agriculture.alberta.ca/acis }}</ref> The province is the namesake of the [[Alberta clipper]], a type of intense, fast-moving winter storm that generally forms over or near the province and pushed with great speed by the continental polar jetstream descends over the rest of Southern Canada and the northern tier of the United States.<ref name="Alberta Clipper">{{cite web | title=Alberta Clipper | url=http://www.weathernotebook.org/transcripts/2000/02/15.html | publisher=The Weather Notebook | accessdate=October 1, 2012}}</ref> [[File:May 2011 Wildfires in Alberta, Canada.jpg|thumb|Satellite image of wildfires in Alberta]] In the summer, the average daytime temperatures range from around {{convert|21|C}} in the Rocky Mountain valleys and far north, up to around {{convert|28|C}} in the dry prairie of the southeast. The northern and western parts of the province experience higher rainfall and lower evaporation rates caused by cooler summer temperatures. The south and east-central portions are prone to drought-like conditions sometimes persisting for several years, although even these areas can receive heavy precipitation and sometimes resulting in flooding. Alberta is a sunny province. Annual bright sunshine totals range between 1900 up to just under 2600 hours per year. Northern Alberta gets about 18 hours of daylight in the summer.<ref name="climatlas"/> In southwestern Alberta, the cold winters are frequently interrupted by warm, dry chinook winds blowing from the mountains, which can propel temperatures upward from frigid conditions to well above the freezing point in a very short period. During one chinook recorded at [[Pincher Creek]], temperatures soared from {{convert|-19|to|22|C|F|sigfig=2}} in just one hour.<ref name="aboutab"/> The region around [[Lethbridge]] has the most chinooks, averaging 30 to 35 chinook days per year. Calgary has a 56% chance of a [[white Christmas (weather)|white Christmas]], while Edmonton has an 86% chance.<ref name=Canadawhitechristmas>{{cite web | title=Chance of White Christmas | url=http://www.ec.gc.ca/meteo-weather/default.asp?lang=En&n=642F4B39-1 | publisher=Environment Canada | accessdate=December 6, 2012 | deadurl=yes | archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130301190705/http://www.ec.gc.ca/meteo-weather/default.asp?lang=En |archivedate=March 1, 2013 }}</ref> Northern Alberta is mostly covered by [[taiga|boreal forest]] and has a [[subarctic climate]]. The agricultural area of southern Alberta has a [[Semi-arid climate|semi-arid]] [[steppe]] climate because the annual precipitation is less than the water that [[evapotranspiration|evaporates or is used by plants]]. The southeastern corner of Alberta, part of the [[Palliser Triangle]], experiences greater summer heat and lower rainfall than the rest of the province, and as a result suffers frequent [[crop yield]] problems and occasional severe droughts. Western Alberta is protected by the mountains and enjoys the mild temperatures brought by winter [[chinook wind]]s. Central and parts of northwestern Alberta in the Peace River region are largely aspen parkland, a [[biome]] transitional between prairie to the south and boreal forest to the north. After Saskatchewan, Alberta experiences the most [[tornadoes]] in Canada with an average of 15 verified per year.<ref name=tornados>{{cite web | last=Vettese | first=Dayna | title=Tornadoes in Canada: Everything you need to know | url=http://www.theweathernetwork.com/news/articles/tornadoes-in-canada-everything-you-need-to-know/25876/0/ | publisher=[[The Weather Network]] | date=September 4, 2014 | accessdate=January 8, 2015}}</ref> Thunderstorms, some of them severe, are frequent in the summer, especially in central and southern Alberta. The region surrounding the [[Calgary–Edmonton Corridor]] is notable for having the highest frequency of [[hail]] in Canada, which is caused by [[orographic lifting]] from the nearby Rocky Mountains, enhancing the updraft/downdraft cycle necessary for the formation of hail. <center> {| class="wikitable sortable" |+'''Climate averages for communities in Alberta'''<ref name="Cities Climate">{{cite web | title=Canadian Climate Normals | url=http://climate.weather.gc.ca/climate_normals/index_e.html#1971 | publisher=Environment Canada | accessdate=February 17, 2014}}</ref> |- !Community !Region !July daily<br/>maximum<ref name="Cities Climate"/> !January daily<br/>maximum<ref name="Cities Climate"/> !Annual<br/>precipitation<ref name="Cities Climate"/> !Plant<br/>hardiness<br/>zone<ref name="Canada's Plant Hardiness">{{cite web | title=Canada's Plant Hardiness | url=http://www.planthardiness.gc.ca/images/PHZ_2014_CFS_Map_30M.pdf | website=http://www.planthardiness.gc.ca/ | publisher=Natural Resources Canada | accessdate=September 6, 2014}}</ref> |- |[[Medicine Hat]] || [[Southern Alberta]] || {{convert|28|C|0}} || {{convert|-3|C|0}} || {{convert|323|mm|0}} || 5a |- |[[Brooks, Alberta|Brooks]] || Southern Alberta || {{convert|27|C|0}} || {{convert|-4|C|0}} || {{convert|348|mm|0}} || 4b |- |[[Lethbridge]] || Southern Alberta || {{convert|26|C|0}} || {{convert|0|C|0}} || {{convert|380|mm|0}} || 5a |- |[[Fort McMurray]] || [[Northern Alberta]] || {{convert|24|C|0}} || {{convert|-12|C|0}} || {{convert|419|mm|0}} || 3a |- |[[Wetaskiwin]] || [[Central Alberta]] || {{convert|24|C|0}} || {{convert|-5|C|0}} || {{convert|497|mm|0}} || 3b |- |[[Edmonton]] || [[Edmonton Capital Region]] || {{convert|23|C|0}} || {{convert|-6|C|0}} || {{convert|456|mm|0}} || 4b |- |[[Cold Lake, Alberta|Cold Lake]] || Central Alberta || {{convert|23|C|0}} || {{convert|-10|C|0}} || {{convert|421|mm|0}} || 3a |- |[[Camrose, Alberta|Camrose]] || Central Alberta || {{convert|23|C|0}} || {{convert|-6|C|0}} || {{convert|438|mm|0}} || 4a |- |[[Fort Saskatchewan]] || Edmonton Capital Region || {{convert|23|C|0}} || {{convert|-6|C|0}} || {{convert|455|mm|0}} || 4a |- |[[Lloydminster]] || Central Alberta || {{convert|23|C|0}} || {{convert|-10|C|0}} || {{convert|409|mm|0}} || 4a |- |[[Red Deer, Alberta|Red Deer]] || Central Alberta || {{convert|23|C|0}} || {{convert|-5|C|0}} || {{convert|486|mm|0}} || 4a |- |[[Grande Prairie]] || Northern Alberta || {{convert|23|C|0}} || {{convert|-8|C|0}} || {{convert|445|mm|0}} || 4a |- |[[Leduc, Alberta|Leduc]] || Edmonton Capital Region || {{convert|23|C|0}} || {{convert|-6|C|0}} || {{convert|446|mm|0}} || 4a |- |[[Calgary]] || [[Calgary Region]] || {{convert|23|C|0}} || {{convert|-2|C|0}} || {{convert|419|mm|0}} || 4b |- |[[Spruce Grove]] || Edmonton Capital Region || {{convert|23|C|0}} || {{convert|-6|C|0}} || {{convert|488|mm|0}} || 4b |- |[[St. Albert, Alberta|St. Albert]] || Edmonton Capital Region || {{convert|22|C|0}} || {{convert|-6|C|0}} || {{convert|466|mm|0}} || 4b |- |[[Lacombe, Alberta|Lacombe]] || Central Alberta || {{convert|22|C|0}} || {{convert|-5|C|0}} || {{convert|446|mm|0}} || 4a |} </center> === Ecology === {{refimprove section|date=June 2014}} ==== Flora ==== [[File:DinosaurProvincialParkHoodoo.jpg|thumb|[[Hoodoo (geology)|Hoodoo]]s in [[Dinosaur Provincial Park]]]] In central and northern Alberta the arrival of spring is marked by the early flowering of the prairie crocus [[anemone]]; this member of the buttercup family has been recorded flowering as early as March though April is the usual month for the general population.<ref>[http://plantwatch.naturealberta.ca/plant-information/prairie-crocus Prairie Crocus Information] Alberta Plant Watch. Author Annora Brown. Published: no date given. Retrieved August 28, 2013.</ref> Other prairie flora known to flower early are the [[golden bean]] and [[Rosa acicularis|wild rose]].<ref name="Jennings2010">{{cite book | author=Neil L. Jennings | title=In Plain Sight: Exploring the Natural Wonders of Southern Alberta | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BuUCxztT6ycC&pg=PA98 | accessdate=August 28, 2013 | year=2010 | publisher=Rocky Mountain Books Ltd | isbn=978-1-897522-78-3 | page=98}}</ref> Members of the [[sunflower]] family blossom on the prairie in the summer months between July and September.<ref name="Angier1974">{{cite book | author=Bradford Angier | title=Field Guide to Edible Wild Plants | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Z8TqkPYXOR4C&pg=PA220 | accessdate=August 31, 2013 | year=1974 | publisher=Stackpole Books | isbn=978-0-8117-2018-2 | page=220}}</ref> The southern and east central parts of Alberta are covered by short prairie grass,<ref name="Johnsgard2005">{{cite book | author=Paul A. Johnsgard | title=Prairie Dog Empire: A Saga of the Shortgrass Prairie | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=v1DKQL0OBigC&pg=PA181 | accessdate=August 31, 2013 | year=2005 | publisher=U of Nebraska Press | isbn=978-0-8032-2604-3 | page=181}}</ref> which dries up as summer lengthens, to be replaced by hardy perennials such as the prairie coneflower, [[fleabane]], and [[Sagebrush|sage]]. Both yellow and white [[sweet clover]] can be found throughout the southern and central areas of the province. The trees in the parkland region of the province grow in clumps and belts on the hillsides. These are largely [[deciduous]], typically [[aspen]], [[Populus|poplar]], and [[willow]]. Many species of willow and other shrubs grow in virtually any terrain. On the north side of the North Saskatchewan River evergreen forests prevail for thousands of square kilometres. [[aspen|Aspen poplar]], [[balsam poplar]] (or in some parts [[Populus deltoides|cottonwood]]), and [[paper birch]] are the primary large deciduous species. [[Conifer]]s include [[jack pine]], Rocky Mountain pine, [[lodgepole pine]], both white and black [[spruce]], and the deciduous conifer [[tamarack]]. ==== Fauna ==== [[File:Ovis canadensis 2.jpg|thumb|The [[bighorn sheep]] is Alberta's provincial animal]] The four climatic regions ([[alpine climate|alpine]], [[boreal forest]], [[Aspen parkland|parkland]], and [[prairie]]) of Alberta are home to many different species of animals. The south and central prairie was the land of the [[American bison|bison]], commonly known as buffalo, its grasses providing pasture and breeding ground for millions of buffalo. The buffalo population was decimated during early settlement, but since then buffalo have made a comeback, living on farms and in parks all over Alberta. Alberta is home to many large [[carnivore]]s. Among them are the [[grizzly bear|grizzly]] and [[American black bear|black bears]], which are found in the mountains and wooded regions. Smaller carnivores of the [[canidae|canine]] and [[Felidae|feline]] families include [[coyote]]s, [[wolf|wolves]], fox, [[lynx]], [[bobcat]] and [[mountain lion]] (cougar). [[Herbivorous]] animals are found throughout the province. [[Moose]], [[mule deer]], [[elk]], and [[white-tail deer]] are found in the wooded regions, and [[pronghorn]] can be found in the prairies of southern Alberta. [[Bighorn sheep]] and [[mountain goat]]s live in the [[Rocky Mountains]]. Rabbits, [[porcupine]]s, [[skunk]]s, [[squirrel]]s and many species of rodents and reptiles live in every corner of the province. Alberta is home to only one variety of venomous snake, the prairie [[rattlesnake]]. [[File:Mill woods edmonton waterfowl.JPG|thumb|left|Water birds in Edmonton]]Central and northern Alberta and the region farther north is the nesting ground of many migratory birds. Vast numbers of [[duck]]s, [[goose|geese]], [[swan]]s and [[pelican]]s arrive in Alberta every spring and nest on or near one of the hundreds of small lakes that dot northern Alberta. [[Eagle]]s, [[hawk]]s, [[owl]]s and [[crow]]s are plentiful, and a huge variety of smaller seed and insect-eating birds can be found. Alberta, like other [[temperate]] regions, is home to [[mosquito]]es, [[fly|flies]], [[wasp]]s, and bees. Rivers and lakes are populated with [[pike (fish)|pike]], [[walleye]], [[Freshwater whitefish|whitefish]], [[rainbow trout|rainbow]], [[Brook trout|speckled]], [[brown trout]], and [[sturgeon]]. [[Bull trout]], native to the province, is the Alberta's provincial fish. Turtles are found in some water bodies in the southern part of the province. Frogs and [[salamander]]s are a few of the [[amphibian]]s that make their homes in Alberta. Alberta is the only province in Canada—as well as one of the few places in the world—that is free of [[brown rat|Norwegian rat]]s.<ref>{{cite web| url=http://www1.agric.gov.ab.ca/$department/deptdocs.nsf/all/agdex3441?opendocument | title=The History of Rat Control in Alberta| publisher=Alberta Department of Agriculture| accessdate=January 11, 2007}}</ref> Since the early 1950s, the [[Government of Alberta]] has operated a rat-control program, which has been so successful that only isolated instances of wild rat sightings are reported, usually of rats arriving in the province aboard trucks or by rail. In 2006, Alberta Agriculture reported zero findings of wild rats; the only rat interceptions have been domesticated rats that have been seized from their owners. It is illegal for individual Albertans to own or keep Norwegian rats of any description; the animals can only be kept in the province by zoos, universities and colleges, and recognized research institutions. In 2009, several rats were found and captured, in small pockets in southern Alberta,<ref name="Rodents defying Alberta's rat-free claim">{{Cite news | url=http://www2.canada.com/calgaryherald/news/story.html?id=e2e136e9-fa2d-45ab-91dc-fe9951d40c3e&p=2 | title=Rodents defying Alberta's rat-free claim | last=Markusoff | first=Jason | date=September 1, 2009 | publisher=Calgary Herald | accessdate=November 12, 2011}}</ref> putting Alberta's rat-free status in jeopardy. A colony of rats were subsequently found in a landfill near Medicine Hat in 2012, and again in 2014.<ref>{{cite news | url=http://www.theglobeandmail.com/news/national/albertas-rat-free-status-in-jeopardy-more-than-dozen-found-in-landfill/article4483243/ | title=Alberta’s rat-free status in jeopardy: More than dozen found in landfill | newspaper=[[The Globe and Mail]] | date=August 15, 2012 | accessdate=August 18, 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite news | url=http://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/calgary/several-rats-found-at-medicine-hat-landfill-one-spotted-at-nearby-farm-1.2602916 | title=Several rats found at Medicine Hat landfill, one spotted at nearby farm | website=[[CBC News]] | date=April 8, 2014 | accessdate=August 18, 2012}}</ref> === Paleontology === [[File:Pachyrhinosaurus skull.jpg|thumb|''[[Pachyrhinosaurus]]'' skull; large quantities of this genus are preserved in the [[Wapiti Formation]]]] Alberta has one of the greatest diversities and abundances of [[Late Cretaceous]] dinosaur fossils in the world.<ref name="alberta-paleo" /> [[Taxa]] are represented by complete fossil skeletons, isolated material, microvertebrate remains, and even [[Bone bed|mass graves]].<ref name="alberta-paleo" /> At least 38 dinosaur [[type specimens]] were collected in the [[Canadian province|province]].<ref name="alberta-paleo" /> The [[Foremost Formation]], [[Oldman Formation]] and [[Dinosaur Park Formation]]s collectively comprise the Judith River Group and are the most thoroughly studied dinosaur-bearing strata in Alberta.<ref name="alberta-paleo" /> Dinosaur-bearing strata are distributed widely throughout Alberta.<ref name="alberta-paleo" /> The [[Dinosaur Provincial Park]] area contains outcrops of the Dinosaur Park Formation and Oldman Formation.<ref name="alberta-paleo" /> In the central and southern regions of Alberta are intermittent [[Scollard Formation]] outcrops.<ref name="alberta-paleo" /> In the Drumheller Valley and [[Edmonton]] regions there are exposed [[Horseshoe Canyon Formation|Horseshoe Canyon]] [[facies]]. Other [[Geologic formation|formations]] have been recorded as well, like the [[Milk River Formation|Milk River]] and Foremost Formations.<ref name="alberta-paleo" /> However, these latter two have a lower diversity of documented dinosaurs, primarily due to their lower total fossil quantity and neglect from collectors who are hindered by the isolation and scarcity of exposed outcrops.<ref name="alberta-paleo" /> Their dinosaur fossils are primarily teeth recovered from microvertebrate fossil sites.<ref name="alberta-paleo" /> Additional geologic formations that have produced only few fossils are the [[Belly River Group]] and [[St. Mary River Formation]]s of the southwest and the northwestern [[Wapiti Formation]].<ref name="alberta-paleo" /> The Wapiti Formation contains two ''[[Pachyrhinosaurus]]'' bone beds that break its general trend of low productivity, however.<ref name="alberta-paleo" /> The [[Bearpaw Formation]] represents strata deposited during a [[marine transgression]].<ref name="alberta-paleo" /> Dinosaurs are known from this Formation, but represent specimens washed out to sea or reworked from older [[sediment]]s.<ref name="alberta-paleo">Ryan, M. J., and Russell, A. P., 2001. Dinosaurs of Alberta (exclusive of Aves): In: Mesozoic Vertebrate Life, edited by Tanke, D. H., and Carpenter, K., Indiana University Press, pp. 279–297.</ref> == History == [[File:Alexander Rutherford.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Alexander C. Rutherford]], Alberta's first premier]] [[File:Bow-river-banff-np.jpg|thumb|View from Morant's Curve beside the Bow Valley Parkway and the Bow River within Banff National Park]] {{Main|History of Alberta}} {{Refimprove section|date=February 2011}} [[Paleo-Indians]] arrived in Alberta at least 10,000 years ago, toward the end of the [[last glacial period|last ice age]]. They are thought to have migrated from [[Siberia]] to [[Alaska]] on a [[Beringia|land bridge]] across the [[Bering Strait]], and then may have moved down the east side of the [[Rocky Mountains]] through Alberta to [[Settlement of the Americas|settle the Americas]]. Others may have [[Coastal Migration#Coastal migration hypothesis in the New World|migrated down the coast]] of British Columbia and then moved inland.<ref>{{cite web | title=Canada's First Nations | work=Applied History | publisher=University of Calgary | year=2000 | url=http://www.ucalgary.ca/applied_history/tutor/firstnations/theories.html | accessdate=February 1, 2011 | deadurl=yes | archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/20101221041745/http://www.ucalgary.ca:80/applied_history/tutor/firstnations/theories.html |archivedate=December 21, 2010}}</ref> Over time they differentiated into various [[First Nations]] peoples, including the [[Plains Indian]] tribes of southern Alberta such as those of the [[Blackfoot Confederacy]] and the [[Plains Cree]], who generally lived by hunting buffalo ([[American bison]]), and the more northerly tribes such as the [[Woodland Cree]] and [[Chipewyan]] who hunted, trapped, and fished for a living.<ref>{{cite web | title=First Nations | work=History | publisher=Government of Alberta | date=1995–2011 | url=http://alberta.ca/home/182.cfm#Nations | archiveurl=//web.archive.org/web/20110716160911/http://alberta.ca/home/182.cfm#Nations | archivedate=July 16, 2011 | accessdate =February 1, 2011}}{{Dead link|date=March 2015}}</ref> After the [[British America|British arrival in Canada]], approximately half of the province of Alberta, south of the [[Athabasca River]] drainage, became part of [[Rupert's Land]] which consisted of all land drained by rivers flowing into [[Hudson Bay]]. This area was granted by [[Charles II of England]] to the [[Hudson's Bay Company]] (HBC) in 1670, and rival fur trading companies were not allowed to trade in it. After the arrival of [[French Canadian]]s in the west around 1731, they settled near fur trading posts, establishing communities such as [[Lac La Biche, Alberta|Lac La Biche]] and [[Bonnyville, Alberta|Bonnyville]]. Fort La Jonquière was established near what is now Calgary in 1752. The Athabasca River and the rivers north of it were not in HBC territory because they drained into the Arctic Ocean instead of Hudson Bay, and they were prime habitat for fur-bearing animals. The first explorer of the Athabasca region was [[Peter Pond]], who learned of the [[Methye Portage]], which allowed travel from southern rivers into the rivers north of Rupert's Land. Fur traders formed the [[North West Company]] (NWC) of [[Montreal]] to compete with the HBC in 1779. The NWC occupied the northern part of Alberta territory. Peter Pond built Fort Athabasca on [[Lac la Biche (Alberta)|Lac la Biche]] in 1778. Roderick Mackenzie built [[Fort Chipewyan]] on Lake Athabasca ten years later in 1788. His cousin, Sir [[Alexander Mackenzie (explorer)|Alexander Mackenzie]], followed the [[North Saskatchewan River]] to its northernmost point near Edmonton, then setting northward on foot, trekked to the Athabasca River, which he followed to Lake Athabasca. It was there he discovered the mighty outflow river which bears his name—the [[Mackenzie River]]—which he followed to its outlet in the Arctic Ocean. Returning to Lake Athabasca, he followed the [[Peace River (Canada)|Peace River]] upstream, eventually reaching the Pacific Ocean, and so he became the first European to cross the North American continent north of Mexico.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.biographi.ca/009004-119.01-e.php?&id_nbr=2521 | title=Alexander Mackenzie Biography | publisher=Dictionary of Canadian Biography | accessdate=January 5, 2006}}</ref> The extreme southernmost portion of Alberta was part of the French (and Spanish) territory of [[Louisiana (New France)|Louisiana]], [[Louisiana Purchase|sold to the United States]] in 1803; in 1818, the portion of Louisiana north of the [[49th parallel north|Forty-Ninth Parallel]] was ceded to Great Britain.<ref>{{cite book | last1=Kennedy | first1=D. | last2=Cohen | first2=L. | last3=Bailey | first3=T. | title=The American Pageant: Volume I: To 1877 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gwP8bQsT908C&pg=PA265&dq=1818,+louisiana,+forty&hl=en&sa=X&ei=4uGtU-7uFpebqAbVxIGwDA&ved=0CCEQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q=1818%2C%20louisiana%2C%20forty&f=false | publisher=Cengage Learning | date=2010 | location=Boston, MA | page=265 | isbn=978-0-547-16659-9}}</ref> Fur trade expanded in the north, but bloody battles occurred between the rival HBC and NWC, and in 1821 the British government forced them to merge to stop the hostilities.<ref>{{cite book | last=Easterbrook | first=W. T. Easterbrook | title=Canadian Economic History | publisher=University of Toronto Press | date=1988 | location=Toronto, ON | page=320 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QjmE2bSRzEUC&pg=PA320&dq=1821,+hudson+bay+company,+northwest&hl=en&sa=X&ei=VOatU5GRIMedqAaKuIHwDA&ved=0CC8Q6AEwAg#v=onepage&q=1821%2C%20hudson%20bay%20company%2C%20northwest&f=false | isbn=0-8020-6696-8}}</ref> The amalgamated Hudson's Bay Company dominated trade in Alberta until 1870, when the newly formed [[Canadian Government]] purchased Rupert's Land. Northern Alberta was included in the [[North-Western Territory]] until 1870, when it and Rupert's land became Canada's [[Northwest Territories]]. The [[District of Alberta]] was created as part of the North-West Territories in 1882. As settlement increased, local representatives to the North-West Legislative Assembly were added. After a long campaign for autonomy, in 1905 the District of Alberta was enlarged and given provincial status, with the election of [[Alexander Cameron Rutherford]] as the first premier. On June 21, 2013, during the [[2013 Alberta floods]] Alberta experienced heavy rainfall that triggered catastrophic flooding throughout much of the southern half of the province along the [[Bow River|Bow]], [[Elbow River|Elbow]], [[Highwood River|Highwood]] and [[Oldman River|Oldman]] rivers and tributaries. A dozen municipalities in Southern Alberta declared local states of emergency on June 21 as water levels rose and numerous communities were placed under evacuation orders.<ref>{{cite news | last=Kaufmann | first=Bill | title=Thousands flee rising waters from Red Deer to Crowsnest | work=Calgary Sun | date=June 21, 2013 | page=3}}</ref> == Demographics == {{Main|Demographics of Alberta}} {{Historical populations |align = right |footnote = <ref>[http://www.statcan.gc.ca/tables-tableaux/sum-som/l01/cst01/demo62j-eng.htm], Population, urban and rural, by province and territory</ref><ref>[http://www12.statcan.gc.ca/census-recensement/2011/dp-pd/hlt-fst/pd-pl/Table-Tableau.cfm?LANG=Eng&T=101&S=50&O=A], Population and dwelling counts, for Canada, provinces and territories, 2011 and 2006 censuses</ref> |1901|73022 |[[Canada 1911 Census|1911]]|374295 |1921|588454 |1931|731605 |1941|796169 |1951|939501 |1956|1123116 |1961|1331944 |1966|1463203 |1971|1627875 |1976|1838035 |1981|2237724 |1986|2365830 |1991|2545553 |[[Canada 1996 Census|1996]]|2696826 |[[Canada 2001 Census|2001]]|2974807 |[[Canada 2006 Census|2006]]|3290350 |[[Canada 2011 Census|2011]]|3645257 }} [[File:Alberta population.svg|thumb|Alberta's population has grown steadily for over a century.]] The [[Canada 2011 Census|2011 census]] reported Alberta had a population of 3,645,257 living in 1,390,275 of its 1,505,007 total dwellings, a 10.8% change from its 2006 population of 3,290,350. With a land area of {{convert|640081.87|km2|sqmi|abbr=on}}, it had a population density of {{Pop density|3645257|640081.87|km2|sqmi|prec=1}} in 2011.<ref name=Alberta/> [[Statistics Canada]] estimated the province to have a population of 4,196,457 in 2015.<ref name=estimates>{{cite web | url=http://www5.statcan.gc.ca/cansim/a26 | title=CANSIM Table 051-0001: Estimates of population, by age group and sex for July 1, Canada, provinces and territories | publisher=Statistics Canada | date=September 29, 2015 | accessdate=October 9, 2015}}</ref> Alberta has experienced a relatively high rate of growth in recent years,{{when|date=December 2015}} mainly because of its burgeoning economy. Between 2003 and 2004, the province had high birthrates (on par with some larger provinces such as British Columbia), relatively high immigration, and a high rate of interprovincial migration compared to other provinces.<ref name="Components of population growth of Alberta">{{cite web | url=http://www40.statcan.ca/l01/cst01/demo33c.htm | title=Components of population growth, by province and territory | publisher=Statistics Canada | accessdate=August 7, 2009 | deadurl=yes | archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/20080930052549/http://www40.statcan.ca:80/l01/cst01/demo33c.htm |archivedate=September 30, 2008}}</ref> About 81% of the population lives in urban areas and only about 19% in rural areas. The [[Calgary–Edmonton Corridor]] is the most urbanized area in the province and is one of the most densely populated areas of Canada.<ref name="muntypes">{{cite web | url=http://www.municipalaffairs.gov.ab.ca/ms_TypesMunicipalitiesAlberta.htm | archiveurl=//web.archive.org/web/20061214100557/http://www.municipalaffairs.gov.ab.ca/ms_TypesMunicipalitiesAlberta.htm|archivedate=December 14, 2006 | publisher=Alberta Municipal Affairs | title=Types of Municipalities in Alberta | date=May 16, 2006 | accessdate=December 18, 2006}}</ref> Many of Alberta's cities and towns have experienced very high rates of growth in recent history.{{when|date=December 2015}} Alberta's population rose from 73,022 in 1901<ref name="Population urban and rural Alberta">{{cite web | url=http://www40.statcan.ca/l01/cst01/demo62j.htm | title=Population urban and rural, by province and territory | publisher=Statistics Canada | accessdate=August 7, 2009 | deadurl=yes | archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/20081104232541/http://www40.statcan.ca:80/l01/cst01/demo62j.htm |archivedate=November 4, 2008}}</ref> to 3,290,350 according to the [[Canada 2006 Census|2006 census]].<ref name="Population and dwelling counts, for Alberta">{{cite web | url=http://www12.statcan.ca/english/census06/data/popdwell/Table.cfm?T=101 | title=Population and dwelling counts, for Canada, provinces and territories, 2006 and 2001 censuses – 100% data | publisher=Statistics Canada | accessdate=August 7, 2009}}</ref> [[File:Alberta Population by Mother Tongue.PNG|thumb|English is the most common mother tongue of Albertans.<ref>{{cite web| title=Language Highlight Tables | work=2006 Census | publisher=Statistics Canada | year=2008 | url=http://www12.statcan.ca/english/census06/data/highlights/Language/Index.cfm | accessdate =August 19, 2008}}</ref>]] The 2006 census found that English, with 2,576,670 native speakers, was the most common mother tongue of Albertans, representing 79.99% of the population. The next most common mother tongues were [[Chinese language|Chinese]] with 97,275 native speakers (3.02%), followed by German with 84,505 native speakers (2.62%) and French with 61,225 (1.90%).<ref name="Detailed Mother Tongue Alberta">{{cite web | url=http://www12.statcan.ca/census-recensement/2006/dp-pd/tbt/Rp-eng.cfm?LANG=E&APATH=3&DETAIL=0&DIM=0&FL=A&FREE=0&GC=0&GID=838045&GK=0&GRP=1&PID=89201&PRID=0&PTYPE=88971,97154&S=0&SHOWALL=0&SUB=0&Temporal=2006&THEME=70&VID=0&VNAMEE=&VNAMEF= | title=Detailed Mother Tongue (186), Knowledge of Official Languages (5), Age Groups (17A) and Sex (3) for the Population of Canada, Provinces, Territories, Census Metropolitan Areas and Census Agglomerations, 2001 and 2006 Censuses – 20% Sample Data | publisher=Statistics Canada | accessdate=August 7, 2009}}</ref> Other mother tongues include: [[Punjabi language|Punjabi]], with 36,320 native speakers (1.13%); [[Tagalog language|Tagalog]], with 29,740 (0.92%); [[Ukrainian language|Ukrainian]], with 29,455 (0.91%); Spanish, with 29,125 (0.90%); [[Polish language|Polish]], with 21,990 (0.68%); [[Arabic]], with 20,495 (0.64%); [[Dutch language|Dutch]], with 19,980 (0.62%); and [[Vietnamese language|Vietnamese]], with 19,350 (0.60%). The most common aboriginal language is [[Cree language|Cree]] 17,215 (0.53%). Other common mother tongues include Italian with 13,095 speakers (0.41%); [[Urdu]] with 11,275 (0.35%); and [[Korean language|Korean]] with 10,845 (0.33%); then [[Standard Hindi|Hindi]] 8,985 (0.28%); [[Persian language|Persian]] 7,700 (0.24%); [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]] 7,205 (0.22%); and [[Hungarian language|Hungarian]] 6,770 (0.21%).<br /><small>''(Figures shown are for the number of single language responses and the percentage of total single-language responses.)''<ref name="Detailed Mother Tongue Alberta"/></small> Alberta has considerable ethnic diversity. In line with the rest of Canada, many immigrants originated from [[English Canadian|England]], [[Scottish Canadian|Scotland]], [[Irish Canadian|Ireland]] and [[Canadians of Welsh descent|Wales]], but large numbers also came from other parts of Europe, notably [[German Canadian|Germany]], [[French Canadian|France]], [[Ukrainian Canadian|Ukraine]] and [[Scandinavia]].<ref>{{cite web| title=Ethnocultural Portrait of Canada Highlight Tables | work=2006 Census | publisher=Statistics Canada | year=2008 | url=http://www12.statcan.ca/english/census06/data/highlights/ethnic/index.cfm?Lang=E | accessdate =August 19, 2008}} </ref> According to Statistics Canada, Alberta is home to the second highest proportion (two percent) of [[Francophones]] in western Canada (after [[Manitoba]]). Despite this, relatively few Albertans claim French as their mother tongue. Many of [[Franco-Albertan|Alberta's French-speaking residents]] live in the central and northwestern regions of the province. As reported in the 2001 census, the Chinese represented nearly four percent of Alberta's population, and East Indians represented more than two percent. Both Edmonton and Calgary have historic [[Chinatown]]s, and Calgary has Canada's third largest Chinese community. The Chinese presence began with workers employed in the building of the Canadian Pacific Railway in the 1880s. [[Aboriginal peoples in Alberta|Aboriginal Albertans]] make up approximately three percent of the population. In the 2006 [[Census in Canada|Canadian census]], the most commonly reported ethnic origins among Albertans were: 885,825 [[English-Canadian|English]] (27.2%); 679,705 [[German-Canadian|German]] (20.9%); 667,405 Canadian (20.5%); 661,265 [[Scottish Canadian|Scottish]] (20.3%); 539,160 [[Irish Canadian|Irish]] (16.6%); 388,210 [[French Canadian|French]] (11.9%); 332,180 [[Ukrainian Canadian|Ukrainian]] (10.2%); 172,910 [[Canadians of Dutch descent|Dutch]] (5.3%); 170,935 [[Polish Canadians|Polish]] (5.2%); 169,355 [[North American Indian]] (5.2%); 144,585 [[Norwegian people|Norwegian]] (4.4%); and 137,600 [[Chinese Canadian|Chinese]] (4.2%). (Each person could choose as many ethnicities as were applicable.)''<ref name="Ethnic origins, 2006 counts, for Alberta">{{cite web | url=http://www12.statcan.ca/census-recensement/2006/dp-pd/hlt/97-562/pages/page.cfm?Lang=E&Geo=PR&Code=48&Table=2&Data=Count&StartRec=1&Sort=3&Display=All&CSDFilter=5000 | title=Ethnic origins, 2006 counts, for Canada, provinces and territories – 20% sample data | publisher=Statistics Canada | accessdate=August 7, 2009}}</ref> Amongst those of British origins, the [[Scottish Canadian|Scots]] have had a particularly strong influence on place-names, with the names of many cities and towns including [[Calgary]], [[Airdrie, Alberta|Airdrie]], [[Canmore, Alberta|Canmore]], and [[Banff, Alberta|Banff]] having [[Scottish place names in Canada|Scottish]] origins. Alberta is the third most diverse province in terms of [[visible minorities]] after British Columbia and [[Ontario]] with 13.9% of the population consisting of [[visible minorities]].<ref name="Visible minority groups Alberta">{{cite web | url=http://www12.statcan.ca/census-recensement/2006/as-sa/97-562/p14-eng.cfm | title=Canada's Ethnocultural Mosaic, 2006 Census: Provinces and territories | publisher=Statistics Canada | accessdate=December 13, 2011}}</ref> Nearly one-fourth of the populations of [[Calgary]] and [[Edmonton]] belong to a visible minority group.<ref name="Visible minority groups, percentage distribution Alberta">{{cite web | url=http://www12.statcan.ca/census-recensement/2006/dp-pd/hlt/97-562/pages/page.cfm?Lang=E&Geo=CSD&Code=01&Table=1&Data=Dist&StartRec=1&Sort=5&Display=Page&CSDFilter=5000 | title=Visible minority groups, percentage distribution (2006), for Canada and census subdivisions (municipalities) with 5,000-plus population – 20% sample data | publisher=Statistics Canada | accessdate=August 9, 2009}}</ref> Aboriginal Identity Peoples make up 5.8% of the population, about half of whom consist of [[North American Indians]] and the other half are [[Métis people (Canada)|Metis]]. There are also small number of [[Inuit]] people in Alberta.<ref name="Aboriginal identity population by age groups Alberta">{{cite web | url=http://www12.statcan.ca/census-recensement/2006/dp-pd/hlt/97-558/pages/page.cfm?Lang=E&Geo=PR&Code=01&Table=1&Data=Count&Sex=1&Age=1&StartRec=1&Sort=2&Display=Page | title=Aboriginal identity population by age groups, median age and sex, 2006 counts, for Canada, provinces and territories – 20% sample data | publisher=Statistics Canada | accessdate=August 9, 2009}}</ref> The number of Aboriginal Identity Peoples have been increasing at a rate greater than the population of Alberta.<ref name="Aboriginal identity population by age groups Alberta"/> [[File:AB Pop. by Religion.jpg|thumb|left|As of 2011, Christians comprised approximately 60% of Alberta's population, while 32% of the province had no religious affiliation.]] As of the [[Canada 2011 Census|2011 National Household Survey]], the largest religious group was Roman Catholic, representing 24.3% of the population. Alberta had the second highest percentage of [[non-religious]] residents among the provinces (after British Columbia) at 31.6% of the population. Of the remainder, 7.5% of the population identified themselves as belonging to the [[United Church of Canada]], while 3.9% were [[Anglican Church in Canada|Anglican]]. [[Lutherans]] made up 3.3% of the population while [[Baptists]] comprised 1.9%. <ref name="NHS Profile, Alberta, 2011">{{cite web | url=http://www12.statcan.gc.ca/nhs-enm/2011/dp-pd/prof/details/Page.cfm?Lang=E&Geo1=PR&Code1=48&Data=Count&SearchText=Alberta&SearchType=Begins&SearchPR=01&A1=All&B1=All&GeoLevel=PR&GeoCode=48 | title=NHS Profile, Alberta, 2011 | publisher=Statistics Canada | accessdate=November 7, 2014}}</ref> The remainder belonged to a wide variety of different religious affiliations, none of which constituted more than 2% of the population. The [[The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints|LDS Church]] of Alberta reside primarily in the extreme south of the province. Alberta has a population of [[Hutterite]]s, a communal [[Anabaptist]] sect similar to the [[Mennonites]], and has a significant population of [[Seventh-day Adventist Church|Seventh-day Adventists]]. Alberta is home to several [[Byzantine Rite]] Churches as part of the legacy of Eastern European immigration, including the [[Ukrainian Catholic Eparchy of Edmonton]], and the [[Ukrainian Orthodox Church of Canada]]'s [[Archbishop of Edmonton and Western Canada|Western Diocese]] which is based in Edmonton. [[Muslim]]s, [[Sikh]]s, [[Buddhist]]s, and [[Hindu]]s live in Alberta. Muslims made up 3.2% of the population, Sikhs 1.5%, Buddhists 1.2%, and Hindus 1.0%. Many of these are recent immigrants, but others have roots that go back to the first settlers of the prairies. Canada's oldest mosque, the [[Al-Rashid Mosque]], is located in Edmonton,<ref name="Al-Rashid Mosque">{{cite web | url=http://muslim-canada.org/alrashidmosque.html | title=Al-Rashid Mosque | publisher=Canadian Islamic Congress | accessdate=August 7, 2009}}</ref> whereas Calgary is home to Canada's largest mosque, the [[Baitun Nur]] mosque.<ref name="Baitun Nur">{{cite web | url=http://www.canada.com/topics/news/story.html?id=c1ce5c3b-de23-4093-85b8-36162ac636a6 | title=Politicians and faithful open Canada’s largest mosque | accessdate=September 2, 2010 | date=July 5, 2008}}</ref> Jews constituted 0.3% of Alberta's population. Most of Alberta's 11,000 Jews live in Calgary (6,200) and Edmonton (3,800). === Municipalities === {{Main|List of communities in Alberta}} <div style="float:right:width:260px;margin-right:40px;"> {{Cities in Alberta}} </div> ;Largest metro areas and municipalities by population as of 2006 {| class="wikitable" |- ! '''[[Census metropolitan area]]s:''' ! 2011&nbsp;<ref name=StatCan2011CMAs>{{cite web | url=http://www12.statcan.gc.ca/census-recensement/2011/dp-pd/hlt-fst/pd-pl/Table-Tableau.cfm?LANG=Eng&T=205&S=3&RPP=50 | title=Population and dwelling counts, for census metropolitan areas, 2011 and 2006 censuses | publisher=Statistics Canada | accessdate=April 3, 2012}}</ref> ! 2006&nbsp;<ref name=StatCan2006CMAs>{{cite web | url=http://www12.statcan.gc.ca/english/census06/data/popdwell/Table.cfm?T=202&SR=1&S=3&O=D&RPP=50&PR=48 | title=Population and dwelling counts, for Canada, provinces and territories, census metropolitan areas and census agglomerations, 2006 and 2001 censuses – 100% data (Alberta) | year=2006| publisher=[[Statistics Canada]] | accessdate=December 5, 2010}}</ref> ! 2001&nbsp;<ref name=StatCan2001CMAs>{{cite web | url=http://www12.statcan.gc.ca/english/census01/products/standard/popdwell/Table-CMA-N.cfm?T=1&SR=1&S=3&O=D | title=Population and Dwelling Counts, for Census Metropolitan Areas and Census Agglomerations, 2001 and 1996 Censuses – 100% Data | publisher=[[Statistics Canada]] | year=2001| accessdate=December 5, 2010}}</ref> ! 1996&nbsp;<ref name=StatCan1996CMAs>{{cite web | url=http://www12.statcan.ca/english/census96/data/popdwell/Table.cfm?T=205 | title=Population and Dwelling Counts, for Census Metropolitan Areas in Decreasing Order of 1996 Population, 1991 and 1996 Censuses – 100% Data | publisher=[[Statistics Canada]] | year=1996| accessdate=December 5, 2010}}</ref> |- | [[Calgary Region|Calgary CMA]] | 1,214,839 | 1,079,310 | 951,395 | 821,628 |- | [[Edmonton Capital Region|Edmonton CMA]] | 1,159,869 | 1,034,945 | 937,845 | 862,597 |- ! '''[[List of communities in Alberta#Urban municipalities|Urban municipalities]] (10 largest):''' ! 2011&nbsp;<ref name=StatCan2011CSDs>{{cite web | url=http://www12.statcan.gc.ca/census-recensement/2011/dp-pd/hlt-fst/pd-pl/Table-Tableau.cfm?LANG=Eng&T=302&SR=1&S=51&O=A&RPP=9999&PR=48&CMA=0 | title=Population and dwelling counts, for Canada, provinces and territories, and census subdivisions (municipalities), 2011 and 2006 censuses (Alberta) | publisher=Statistics Canada | accessdate=April 3, 2012}}</ref> ! 2006&nbsp;<ref name=StatCan2006CSDs>{{cite web | url=http://www12.statcan.gc.ca/census-recensement/2011/dp-pd/hlt-fst/pd-pl/Table-Tableau.cfm?LANG=Eng&T=302&SR=1&S=3&O=D&RPP=9999&PR=48 | title=Population and dwelling counts, for Canada, provinces and territories, and census subdivisions (municipalities), 2006 and 2001 censuses – 100% data (Alberta) | publisher=[[Statistics Canada]] | year=2006| accessdate=December 5, 2010}}</ref> ! 2001&nbsp;<ref name=StatCan2001CSDs>{{cite web | url=http://www12.statcan.gc.ca/english/census01/products/standard/popdwell/Table-CSD-P.cfm?T=1&SR=1&PR=48&S=3&O=D | title=Population and Dwelling Counts, for Canada, Provinces and Territories, and Census Subdivisions (Municipalities), 2001 and 1996 Censuses – 100% Data (Alberta) | publisher=[[Statistics Canada]] | year=2001| accessdate=December 5, 2010}}</ref> ! 1996&nbsp;<ref name=StatCan1996CPs>{{cite web | url=http://www12.statcan.ca/english/Profil/PlaceSearchForm1.cfm | title=Community Profiles | publisher=[[Statistics Canada]] | year=1996| accessdate=December 5, 2010}}</ref> |- | [[Calgary]] | 1,096,833 | 988,193 | 878,866 | 768,082 |- | [[Edmonton]] | 812,201 | 730,372 | 666,104 | 616,306 |- | [[Red Deer, Alberta|Red Deer]] | 90,564 | 82,772 | 67,707 | 60,080 |- | [[Lethbridge]] | 83,517 | 78,713 | 68,712 | 64,938 |- | [[St. Albert, Alberta|St. Albert]] <small>(included in Edmonton CMA)</small> | 61,466 | 57,719 | 53,081 | 46,888 |- | [[Medicine Hat]] | 60,005 | 56,997 | 51,249 | 46,783 |- | [[Grande Prairie]] | 55,032 | 47,076 | 36,983 | 31,353 |- | [[Airdrie, Alberta|Airdrie]] <small>(included in Calgary CMA)</small> | 42,564 | 28,927 | 20,382 | 15,946 |- | [[Spruce Grove]] <small>(included in Edmonton CMA)</small> | 26,171 | 19,496 | 15,983 | 14,271 |- | [[Okotoks]] | 24,511 | 17,145 | 11,689 | 8,528 |- ! '''[[Specialized municipalities of Alberta|Specialized]]/[[List of communities in Alberta#Rural municipalities|rural]] municipalities (5 largest):''' ! 2011&nbsp;<ref name=StatCan2011CSDs/> ! 2006&nbsp;<ref name=StatCan2006CSDs/> ! 2001&nbsp;<ref name=StatCan2001CSDs/> ! 1996&nbsp;<ref name=StatCan1996CPs/> |- | [[Strathcona County]] <small>(included in Edmonton CMA)</small> | 92,490 | 82,511 | 71,986 | 64,176 |- | [[Regional Municipality of Wood Buffalo]] | 65,565 | 51,496 | 42,581 | 35,213 |- | [[Rocky View County]] <small>(included in Calgary CMA)</small> | 36,461 | 34,171 | 29,925 | 23,326 |- | [[Parkland County]] <small>(included in Edmonton CMA)</small> | 30,568 | 29,265 | 27,252 | 24,769 |- | [[Municipal District of Foothills No. 31]] | 21,258 | 19,736 | 16,764 | 13,714 |} {{wide image|Calgary panorama-2.jpg|1000px|[[Calgary]]}} {{wide image|Downtown-Skyline-Edmonton-Alberta-Canada-01A.jpg|1000px|[[Edmonton]]}} {{Clear}} == Economy == {{Main|Economy of Alberta}} {{See also|List of Canadian provinces and territories by gross domestic product}} Alberta's economy was one of the strongest in the world, supported by the burgeoning petroleum industry and to a lesser extent, agriculture and technology. In 2013 Alberta's per capita GDP exceeded that of the United States, Norway, or Switzerland,<ref>{{cite web| url= http://www.conferenceboard.ca/hcp/provincial/economy/income-per-capita.aspx| publisher= The Conference Board of Canada | work= How Canada Performs | title= Provincial and Territorial Ranking: Income per Capita | date= May 2014 | accessdate=April 19, 2015}}</ref> and was the highest of any province in Canada at [[Canadian dollar|C$]]84,390. This was 56% higher than the national average of [[Canadian dollar|C$]]53,870 and more than twice that of some of the Atlantic provinces.<ref>{{cite web| url= http://www.statcan.gc.ca/tables-tableaux/sum-som/l01/cst01/econ15-eng.htm | title= Gross domestic product, expenditure-based, by province and territory| publisher= Statistics Canada | date= November 5, 2014 | accessdate= November 6, 2014 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web| url=http://www.statcan.gc.ca/tables-tableaux/sum-som/l01/cst01/demo02a-eng.htm | title= Population by year, by province and territory | publisher= Statistics Canada | date=September 27, 2012 | accessdate= November 21, 2012}}</ref> In 2006 the deviation from the national average was the largest for any province in [[History of Canada|Canadian history]].<ref>{{cite web| url= http://www.statcan.ca/english/ads/11-010-XPB/pdf/sep06.pdf| archiveurl= //web.archive.org/web/20090326023337/http://www.statcan.gc.ca/ads-annonces/11-010-x/pdf/6000725-eng.pdf| archivedate=March 29, 2009|format=PDF | publisher= Statistics Canada | title= The Alberta economic Juggernaut:The boom on the rose | date=September 2006| accessdate=February 2, 2007}}</ref> According to the 2006 census,<ref name="Median earnings for economic families with earnings Alberta">{{cite web | url=http://www12.statcan.ca/english/census06/data/highlights/income/pages/Page.cfm?Lang=E&Geo=PR&Code=01&Table=5&Data1=1&Data2=1&StartRec=1&Sort=2&Display=Page | title=Median earnings for economic families with earnings, both senior and non-senior families, for Canada, provinces and territories – 20% sample data | publisher=Statistics Canada | accessdate=August 9, 2009}}</ref> the median annual family income after taxes was $70,986 in Alberta (compared to $60,270 in Canada as a whole). Alberta has no financial debt, with a 1.9% asset surplus over all net debt.<ref name="albertacanada.com">http://albertacanada.com/business/statistics/economic-highlights.aspx</ref> Alberta is also the single richest jurisdiction per capita on the planet.<ref>http://www.c21etv.com</ref>{{Better source|date=February 2016}} The Calgary-Edmonton Corridor is the most urbanized region in the province and one of the densest in Canada. The region covers a distance of roughly 400 kilometres north to south. In 2001, the population of the Calgary-Edmonton Corridor was 2.15 million (72% of Alberta's population).<ref name="CECorridor">{{cite web | url=http://geodepot.statcan.ca/Diss/Highlights/Page9/Page9d_e.cfm | title=Calgary-Edmonton corridor | work=[[Statistics Canada]], 2001 Census of Population | date=January 20, 2003 | accessdate=March 22, 2007| archiveurl= //web.archive.org/web/20070223191204/http://geodepot.statcan.ca/Diss/Highlights/Page9/Page9d_e.cfm| archivedate= February 23, 2007 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}</ref> It is also one of the fastest growing regions in the country. A 2003 study by [[TD Bank Financial Group]] found the corridor to be the only Canadian urban centre to amass a US level of wealth while maintaining a Canadian style [[quality of life]], offering [[universal health care]] benefits. The study found that GDP per capita in the corridor was 10% above average US metropolitan areas and 40% above other [[List of cities in Canada|Canadian cities]] at that time. The [[Fraser Institute]] states that Alberta also has very high levels of [[economic freedom]] and rates Alberta as the freest economy in Canada,<ref>{{cite web| url= http://oldfraser.lexi.net/media/media_releases/2001/20010626.html | title= Alberta Rated as Best Investment Climate | publisher= The Fraser Institute | date=November 2006 | accessdate=March 2, 2007| archiveurl= //web.archive.org/web/20070416011123/http://oldfraser.lexi.net/media/media_releases/2001/20010626.html| archivedate= April 16, 2007 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}</ref> and the second freest economy amongst US states and Canadian provinces.<ref>{{cite book | url= http://www.freetheworld.com/efna.html | title= Economic Freedom of North America 2008 Annual Report| publisher= The Fraser Institute | year= 2008| accessdate=August 1, 2008 | isbn=0-88975-213-3 | archiveurl= //web.archive.org/web/20080621175010/http://www.freetheworld.com/efna.html| archivedate= June 21, 2008 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}</ref> The government of Alberta has invested its earnings wisely; as of September 30, 2013, official statistics reported nearly 500 holdings.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.nasdaq.com/quotes/institutional-portfolio/her-majesty-the-queen-in-right-of-the-province-of-alberta-as-804398 | title=HER MAJESTY THE QUEEN IN RIGHT OF THE PROVINCE OF ALBERTA AS | work=NASDAQ.com}}</ref> In 2014, Merchandise exports totalled US$121.4 Billion. Energy revenues totalled $111.7 Billion and Energy resource exports totalled $90.8 Billion. Farm Cash receipts from agricultural products totalled $12.9 Billion. Shipments of forest products totalled $5.4 Billion while exports were $2.7 Billion. Manufacturing sales totaled $79.4 Billion, and Alberta's ICT industries generated over $13 Billion in revenue. In total, Alberta's 2014 GDP amassed $364.5 Billion in 2007 dollars, or $414.3 Billion in 2015 dollars. In 2015, Alberta's GDP grew despite low oil prices, however it was unstable with growth rates as high 4.4% and as low as 0.2%. Should the GDP remain at an average of 2.2% for the last two quarters of 2015, Alberta's GDP should exceed $430 Billion by the end of 2015.<ref name="albertacanada.com"/><ref>http://www.bankofcanada.ca/rates/related/inflation-calculator/</ref> However, RBC Economics research predicts Alberta's real GDP growth to only average 0.6% for the last 2 quarters of 2015. This estimate predicts a real GDP growth of only 1.4% for 2015. A positive is the predicted 10.8% growth in Nominal GDP, and possibly above 11% in 2016.<ref>http://www.rbc.com/economics/economic-reports/pdf/provincial-forecasts/alta.pdf&ved=0CCQQFjADahUKEwjOiba6to3HAhWBkA0KHZLXBoI&usg=AFQjCNF1w7zfA3gs9qnnHkEp0Z9nKVPBjQ</ref> === Industry === [[File:Syncrude mildred lake plant.jpg|thumb|Mildred Lake mine site and plant at the [[Athabasca oil sands]]]] Alberta is the largest producer of [[petroleum|conventional crude oil]], [[synthetic crude]], natural gas and gas products in Canada. Alberta is the world’s second largest exporter of natural gas and the fourth largest producer.<ref name="Alaska and Alberta - An Overview">{{cite web | url=http://www.gov.state.ak.us/trade/2003/tad/canada/canadaalberta.htm | archiveurl=//web.archive.org/web/20061215031033/http://www.gov.state.ak.us/trade/2003/tad/canada/canadaalberta.htm|archivedate=December 15, 2006 | title=Alaska and Alberta – An Overview | publisher=Government of Alaska | accessdate=August 9, 2009}}{{Dead link|date=March 2015}}</ref> Two of the largest producers of [[petrochemicals]] in North America are located in central and north-central Alberta. In both Red Deer and Edmonton, [[polyethylene]] and [[vinyl]] manufacturers produce products that are shipped all over the world. Edmonton's [[oil refinery|oil refineries]] provide the raw materials for a large [[petrochemical]] industry to the east of Edmonton. The [[Athabasca oil sands]] surrounding [[Fort McMurray]] have estimated [[unconventional oil]] reserves approximately equal to the [[conventional oil]] reserves of the rest of the world, estimated to be 1.6&nbsp;trillion barrels (254&nbsp;km³). Many companies employ both conventional [[surface mining|strip mining]] and non-conventional [[in situ]] methods to extract the [[bitumen]] from the [[oil sands]]. As of late 2006 there were over $100 billion in oil sands projects under construction or in the planning stages in northeastern Alberta.<ref name="Canada's Oil and Gas Industry">{{cite web | url=http://www.buyusa.gov/montana/canadaoilsands.html | title=Canada Oilsands Opportunities | publisher=U.S. Commercial Service | accessdate=August 9, 2009 | deadurl=yes | archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/20081206021755/http://www.buyusa.gov:80/montana/canadaoilsands.html |archivedate=December 6, 2008}}</ref> Another factor determining the viability of oil extraction from the oil sands is the price of oil. The [[oil price increases since 2003]] have made it profitable to extract this oil, which in the past would give little profit or even a loss. By mid-2014 however rising costs and stabilizing oil prices were threatening the economic viability of some projects. An example of this was the shelving of the Joslyn north project in the Athabasca region in May 2014.<ref name="TotalJoslyn">{{cite news | title=Cost escalation leads Total to put Joslyn oil sands project on hold | url=http://www.edmontonjournal.com/business/layoff+talk+swirls+Total+update+Joslyn+oilsands+status/9888984/story.html | accessdate=June 14, 2014 | publisher=[[Edmonton Journal]]}}</ref> With concerted effort and support from the provincial government, several high-tech industries have found their birth in Alberta, notably patents related to interactive [[liquid crystal display]] systems.<ref>[http://www.patentstorm.us/patents/5448263.html Interactive display system]—US Patent U.S. Patent No. 5,448,263; {{Wayback | date=20090215131340 | url=http://www2.smarttech.com/st/en-US/About+Us/News+Room/Media+Releases/2002+Media+Releases.htm?guid=%7BB3BD6857-5D25-4EC7-A741-C0232368F5FE%7D | title=U.S. Patent for Touch Sensitive Technology }}{{Dead link|date=March 2015}}—SMART Technologies</ref> With a growing economy, Alberta has several financial institutions dealing with civil and private funds. === Agriculture and forestry === {{refimprove section|date=October 2014}} [[File:Peace Country grain fields.JPG|thumb|Grain fields in the Peace Country]] [[File:Warner Elevator Row.jpg|thumb|The [[Warner elevator row]], the last surviving elevator row in Alberta, currently unprotected]] Agriculture has a significant position in the province's economy. The province has over three million head of cattle,<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www1.agric.gov.ab.ca/$Department/deptdocs.nsf/all/rsb13754 | title=Alberta Livestock Inspections – October 2011 | date=November 24, 2011 | publisher=Government of Alberta | accessdate=December 13, 2011}}</ref> and Alberta beef has a healthy worldwide market. Nearly one half of all Canadian beef is produced in Alberta. Alberta is one of the top producers of plains [[American bison|buffalo (bison)]] for the consumer market. Sheep for wool and mutton are also raised. Wheat and [[canola]] are primary farm crops, with Alberta leading the provinces in spring wheat production; other [[cereal|grains]] are also prominent. Much of the farming is dryland farming, often with fallow seasons interspersed with cultivation. Continuous cropping (in which there is no fallow season) is gradually becoming a more common mode of production because of increased profits and a reduction of soil erosion. Across the province, the once common [[grain elevator]] is slowly being lost as rail lines are decreasing; farmers typically truck the grain to central points.{{citation needed|date=October 2014}} Alberta is the leading [[beekeeping]] province of Canada, with some beekeepers wintering [[Beehive (beekeeping)|hive]]s indoors in specially designed barns in southern Alberta, then migrating north during the summer into the [[Peace River (Alberta)|Peace River]] valley where the season is short but the working days are long for [[Western honey bee|honeybee]]s to produce honey from [[clover]] and [[fireweed]]. [[Hybrid (biology)|Hybrid]] canola also requires bee pollination, and some beekeepers service this need.{{citation needed|date=October 2014}} The vast northern forest reserves of [[softwood]] allow Alberta to produce large quantities of [[lumber]], [[Oriented strand board|oriented strand board (OSB)]] and [[plywood]], and several plants in northern Alberta supply North America and the [[Pacific Rim]] nations with bleached wood pulp and newsprint.{{citation needed|date=October 2014}} === Tourism === {{Main|Tourism in Alberta}} Alberta has been a tourist destination from the early days of the twentieth century, with attractions including outdoor locales for skiing, hiking and camping, shopping locales such as [[West Edmonton Mall]], [[Calgary Stampede]], outdoor festivals, professional athletic events, international sporting competitions such as the [[Commonwealth Games]] and Olympic Games, as well as more eclectic attractions. There are also natural attractions like [[Elk Island National Park]], [[Wood Buffalo National Park]], and the [[Columbia Icefield]]. According to Alberta Economic Development, Calgary and Edmonton both host over four million visitors annually. [[Banff, Alberta|Banff]], [[Jasper, Alberta|Jasper]] and the [[Canadian Rockies|Rocky Mountains]] are visited by about three million people per year.<ref name="Geography & Climate:Encourage Canadian Immigration">{{cite web | url=http://www.akcanada.com/lic_alberta.cfm | title=Living in Canada : Alberta | publisher=AKCanada | accessdate=November 8, 2009}}</ref> Alberta tourism relies heavily on [[Southern Ontario]] tourists, as well as tourists from other parts of Canada, the United States, and many other countries. [[Alberta's Rockies]] include well-known tourist destinations [[Banff National Park]] and [[Jasper National Park]]. The two mountain parks are connected by the scenic [[Icefields Parkway]]. Banff is located {{convert|128|km|0|abbr=on}} west of Calgary on [[Alberta Highway 1|Highway 1]], and Jasper is located {{convert|366|km|0|abbr=on}} west of Edmonton on [[Yellowhead Highway]]. Five of Canada's fourteen [[UNESCO]] [[World heritage site]]s are located within the province: [[Canadian Rocky Mountain Parks]], [[Waterton-Glacier International Peace Park]], Wood Buffalo National Park, [[Dinosaur Provincial Park]] and [[Head-Smashed-In Buffalo Jump]]. [[File:Lake Louise 17092005.jpg|thumb|[[Lake Louise (Alberta)|Lake Louise]] in the [[Canadian Rockies]]]] About 1.2 million people visit the [[Calgary Stampede]],<ref name="Landmark Stampede Dates">{{cite web | url=http://www.stampede.coolattractions.com/history.html | archiveurl=//web.archive.org/web/20071116223219/http://www.stampede.coolattractions.com/history.html|archivedate=November 16, 2007 | title=History of the Stampede | publisher=Calgary Stampede | accessdate=August 9, 2009}}{{Dead link | date=March 2015}}</ref> a celebration of Canada's own [[Wild West]] and the cattle ranching industry. About 700,000 people enjoy Edmonton's [[K-Days]] (formerly Klondike Days and Capital EX).<ref name=KDays>{{cite news | url=http://www.edmontonjournal.com/entertainment/festivals/Capital+named+Days/7002873/story.html | title=Capital Ex to be named K-Days (Poll) | author=Manisha Krishnan | newspaper=[[Edmonton Journal]] | publisher=[[Postmedia Network]] | date=July 29, 2012 | accessdate=July 29, 2012 | deadurl=yes | archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/20120731233950/http://www.edmontonjournal.com:80/entertainment/festivals/Capital+named+Days/7002873/story.html |archivedate=July 31, 2012 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.capitalex.ca/about | title=About | publisher=Northlands | accessdate=March 29, 2010| archiveurl= //web.archive.org/web/20100328142638/http://www.capitalex.ca/about| archivedate= March 28, 2010 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}{{Dead link | date=November 2011}}</ref> Edmonton was the gateway to the only all-Canadian route to the [[Yukon]] [[Gold mining|gold field]]s, and the only route which did not require gold-seekers to travel the exhausting and dangerous [[Chilkoot Pass]]. Another tourist destination that draws more than 650,000 visitors each year is the Drumheller Valley, located northeast of Calgary. [[Drumheller]], "Dinosaur Capital of The World", offers the [[Royal Tyrrell Museum of Palaeontology]]. Drumheller also had a rich mining history being one of Western Canada's largest coal producers during the war years. Located in east-central Alberta is [[Alberta Prairie Railway Excursions]], a popular tourist attraction operated out of [[Stettler, Alberta|Stettler]], that offers train excursions into the prairie and caters to tens of thousands of visitors every year. Alberta has numerous ski resorts most notably [[Sunshine Village]], [[Lake Louise Mountain Resort|Lake Louise]], [[Marmot Basin]], [[Mount Norquay ski resort|Norquay]] and [[Nakiska]]. ==Government and politics== {{Main|Politics of Alberta|Monarchy in Alberta}}{{See also|List of Alberta Premiers|List of Alberta general elections|Executive Council of Alberta}} [[File:Edmonton leg.jpg|thumb|[[Alberta Legislature Building|Alberta's Legislative Building]] in [[Edmonton]]]] [[File:JasperRoadEdmt.jpg|thumb|alt=Image looking west down Jasper Avenue showing the major financial centre in Edmonton|[[Jasper Avenue]] is Edmonton's hub of offices and the financial centres.]] The Government of Alberta is organized as a [[parliamentary]] democracy with a unicameral legislature. Its [[unicameral]] legislature—the [[Legislative Assembly of Alberta|Legislative Assembly]]—consists of eighty-seven members elected [[First-past-the-post voting|first past the post]] (FPTP) from single-member constituencies.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.assembly.ab.ca/net/index.aspx?p=mla_home | title=Legislative Assembly of Alberta | work=assembly.ab.ca}}</ref> Locally municipal governments and school boards are elected and operate separately. Their boundaries do not necessarily coincide. Municipalities where the same body act as both local government and school board are formally referred to as "counties" in Alberta. As Canada's [[head of state]], [[Elizabeth II|Queen Elizabeth II]] is the head of state for the Government of Alberta. Her duties in Alberta are carried out by Lieutenant Governor [[Lois Mitchell]]. The Queen and lieutenant governor are figureheads whose actions are highly restricted by custom and [[constitutional convention (political custom)|constitutional convention]]. The lieutenant governor handles numerous honorific duties in the name of the Queen. The government is headed by the [[Premier of Alberta|premier]]. The premier is normally a member of the Legislative Assembly, and draws all the members of the Cabinet from among the members of the Legislative Assembly. The City of Edmonton is the seat of the provincial government—the capital of Alberta. The current premier is [[Rachel Notley]], sworn in on May 24, 2015. The previous premier was [[Jim Prentice]], who became the leader of the then governing [[Progressive Conservative Association of Alberta|Progressive Conservatives]] on September 6, 2014 following the resignation of [[Alison Redford]] and the interim leadership of [[Dave Hancock]]. Prentice was sworn in as the 16th [[Premier of Alberta]] on September 15, 2014. He called an early election on May 5, 2015 in which the opposition [[Alberta New Democratic Party|New Democratic Party (NDP)]] won a majority of the seats. Prentice immediately resigned his seat and leadership of the PC party, but remained premier until Notley was sworn in on May 24, 2015. Alberta's elections have tended to yield much more conservative outcomes than those of other Canadian provinces. Since the 1960s, Alberta has had three main political parties, the Progressive Conservatives ("Conservatives" or "Tories"), the [[Alberta Liberal Party|Liberals]], and the social democratic New Democrats. The [[Wildrose Party]], a more conservative party formed in early 2008, gained much support in [[2012 Alberta General Election|2012 election]] and became the [[official opposition]], a role it still holds today. The strongly conservative [[Social Credit Party of Alberta|Social Credit Party]] was a power in Alberta for many decades, but fell from the political map after the Progressive Conservatives came to power in 1971. For 44 years the Progressive Conservatives governed Alberta. They lost the [[Alberta general election, 2015|2015 election]] to the NDP, signalling a possible shift to the left in the province, also indicated by the election of progressive mayors in both of Alberta's major cities.<ref>{{cite news | url=http://www.theglobeandmail.com/news/alberta/alberta-election-ndp-win-gary-mason/article24270855/ | title=An NDP victory changes everything Canadians think about Alberta | author=Gary Mason | date=May 5, 2015 | accessdate=May 6, 2015}}</ref> Since becoming a province in 1905, Alberta has seen only four changes of government - only five parties have governed Alberta: the Liberals, from 1905 to 1921; the [[United Farmers of Alberta]], from 1921 to 1935; the Social Credit Party, from 1935 to 1971, the Progressive Conservative Party, from 1971 to 2015: and the currently governing Alberta New Democratic Party. Alberta has had occasional surges in [[Alberta separatism|separatist sentiment]]. Even during the 1980s, when these feelings were at their strongest, there has not been enough interest in secession to initiate any major movement or referendum. Several groups are currently active promoting independence for Alberta in some form. === Taxation === Government revenue comes mainly from royalties on non-renewable natural resources (30.4%), personal income taxes (22.3%), corporate and other taxes (19.6%), and grants from the [[Government of Canada|federal government]] primarily for infrastructure projects (9.8%).<ref name="Budget 2009, Building On Our Strength">{{cite web | url=http://alberta.ca/budget2008/# | archiveurl=//web.archive.org/web/20080503001735/http://alberta.ca/budget2008/#|archivedate=May 3, 2008 | title=Budget 2009, Building On Our Strength | publisher=Government of Alberta | accessdate=August 9, 2009}}{{Dead link|date=March 2015}}</ref> Albertans are the lowest-taxed people in Canada, and Alberta is the only province in Canada without a provincial [[sales tax]] (but residents are still subject to the federal sales tax, the [[Goods and Services Tax (Canada)|Goods and Services Tax]] of 5%). It is also the only Canadian province to have a [[flat tax]] for personal income taxes, which is 10% of taxable income.<ref name="What are the income tax rates in Canada for 2009?">{{cite web | url=http://www.cra-arc.gc.ca/tx/ndvdls/fq/txrts-eng.html | title=What are the income tax rates in Canada for 2009? | publisher=Canada Revenue Agency | accessdate=August 9, 2009}}</ref> This is likely to change with the election of an NDP government.<ref>{{cite news | url=http://www.theglobeandmail.com/news/politics/alberta-ndps-promise-of-15-minimum-wage-wins-praise-from-labour/article24293620/ | title=Alberta NDP’s promise of $15 minimum wage wins praise from labour | author=Bill Curry | date=May 6, 2015 | accessdate=May 7, 2015}}</ref> The Alberta personal income tax system maintains a [[progressive taxation|progressive character]] by granting residents personal tax exemptions of $17,787,<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.cra-arc.gc.ca/E/pbg/tf/td1ab/README.html | title=TD1AB - 2015 Alberta Personal Tax Credits Return | work=cra-arc.gc.ca}}</ref> in addition to a variety of tax deductions for persons with disabilities, students, and the aged.<ref name="Alberta Tax and Credits">{{cite web | url=http://www.cra-arc.gc.ca/tx/ndvdls/tpcs/ncm-tx/rtrn/cmpltng/prvncl/09-eng.html | title=Alberta Tax and Credits | publisher=Government of Alberta | accessdate=August 9, 2009}}</ref> Alberta's municipalities and school jurisdictions have their own governments who usually work in co-operation with the provincial government. Alberta also privatized alcohol distribution. The privatization increased outlets from 304 stores to 1,726; 1,300 jobs to 4,000 jobs; and 3,325 products to 16,495 products.<ref name="The Right Way to Sell Booze in New Brunswick">{{cite web | title=The Right Way to Sell Booze in New Brunswick | url=http://www.taxpayer.com/atlantic/right-way-sell-booze-new-brunswick | publisher=Taxpayer | accessdate=November 2, 2010 | deadurl=yes | archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110118090232/http://taxpayer.com:80/atlantic/right-way-sell-booze-new-brunswick |archivedate=January 18, 2011}}</ref> Tax revenue also increased from $400 million to $700 million. Albertan municipalities raise a significant portion of their income through levying property taxes.<ref name="qp.alberta">{{cite web| url= http://www.qp.alberta.ca/574.cfm?page=m26.cfm&leg_type=Acts&isbncln=9780779756155 | publisher= Alberta Queen's Printer | title= Municipal Government Act | accessdate=April 22, 2012}}</ref> The value of assessed property in Alberta was approximately $727 billion in 2011.<ref>{{cite web| url= http://www.municipalaffairs.alberta.ca/documents/as/2012_Provincial_Equalized_Assessment.pdf | publisher= Alberta Municipal Affairs | title= Provincial 2012 Equalized Assessment Report (page 19) | accessdate=April 28, 2012}}</ref> Most real property is assessed according to its market value.<ref name="qp.alberta" /> The exceptions to market value assessment are farmland, railways, machinery & equipment and linear property, all of which is assessed by regulated rates.<ref>{{cite web| url= http://www.municipalaffairs.alberta.ca/mc_property_assessment_and_taxation_legislation.cfm | publisher= Alberta Municipal Affairs | title= 2011 Regulated Property Minister's Guidelines | accessdate=2012-04-28}}</ref> Depending on the property type, property owners may appeal a property assessment to their municipal 'Local Assessment Review Board', 'Composite Assessment Review Board,' or the Alberta Municipal Government Board.<ref name="qp.alberta" /><ref>{{cite web| url= http://www.municipalaffairs.alberta.ca/mc_assessment_complaints_and_appeals.cfm | publisher= Alberta Municipal Affairs | title= Assessment Complaints and Appeals | accessdate=April 28, 2012}}</ref> === Military === Military bases in Alberta include [[CFB Cold Lake|Canadian Forces Base (CFB) Cold Lake]], [[CFB Edmonton]], [[CFB Suffield]] and [[CFB Wainwright]]. Air force units stationed at CFB Cold Lake have access to the [[Cold Lake Air Weapons Range]].<ref name=CFBCL>{{cite web | url=http://www.rcaf-arc.forces.gc.ca/4w-4e/index-eng.asp | title=4 Wing Home | publisher=[[Department of National Defence (Canada)|National Defence and the Canadian Forces]] | date=December 9, 2008 | accessdate=November 24, 2012 | deadurl=yes | archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/20120903005335/http://www.rcaf-arc.forces.gc.ca/4w-4e/index-eng.asp |archivedate=September 3, 2012 }}</ref> CFB Edmonton is the headquarters for the 3rd Canadian Division.<ref name=CFBEdm>{{cite web | url=http://www.army.forces.gc.ca/cfb_edmonton/EN/about-apropos.html | title=About CFB Edmonton | publisher=National Defence and the Canadian Forces | date=December 5, 2011 | accessdate=November 23, 2012 | deadurl=yes | archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/20110905210724/http://www.army.forces.gc.ca:80/cfb_edmonton/EN/about-apropos.html |archivedate=September 5, 2011}}</ref> CFB Suffield hosts British troops and is the largest training facility in Canada.<ref name=CFBSuf>{{cite web | url=http://www.army.gc.ca/iaol/143000440000986/index-Eng.html | title=Welcome to Canadian Forces Base Suffield | publisher=National Defence and the Canadian Forces | date=October 22, 2012 | accessdate=November 24, 2012 | deadurl=yes | archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/20120709112530/http://www.army.gc.ca:80/iaol/143000440000986/index-Eng.html |archivedate=July 9, 2012 }}</ref> == Transportation == {{See also|List of Alberta provincial highways|List of airports in Alberta}} [[File:DavidThompsonHighway.JPG|thumb|[[Alberta Highway 11|David Thompson Highway]] beyond [[Banff National Park]]]] [[File:Alberta Hwy 63 2.jpg|thumb|Alberta Highway 63 north of [[Fort McMurray]]]] Alberta has over {{convert|181000|km|abbr=on}} of highways and roads, of which nearly {{convert|41000|km|abbr=on}} are paved.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://albertacanada.com/about-alberta/roads-and-highways.html | title=Roads and highways | publisher=Government of Alberta | accessdate=December 13, 2011}}</ref> The main north-south [[wikt:corridor|corridor]] is [[Alberta Highway 2|Highway 2]], which begins south of [[Cardston, Alberta|Cardston]] at the [[Carway, Alberta|Carway]] border crossing and is part of the [[CANAMEX Corridor]]. [[Alberta Highway 4|Highway 4]], which effectively extends [[Interstate 15]] into Alberta and is the busiest US gateway to the province, begins at the [[Coutts, Alberta|Coutts]] border crossing and ends at Lethbridge. [[Alberta Highway 3|Highway 3]] joins Lethbridge to [[Fort Macleod, Alberta|Fort Macleod]] and links Highway 4 to Highway 2. Highway 2 travels northward through Fort Macleod, Calgary, Red Deer, and Edmonton. North of Edmonton, the highway continues to [[Athabasca, Alberta|Athabasca]], then northwesterly along the south shore of [[Lesser Slave Lake]] into [[High Prairie]], north to [[Peace River, Alberta|Peace River]], west to [[Fairview, Alberta|Fairview]] and finally south to [[Grande Prairie]], where it ends at an interchange with [[Alberta Highway 43|Highway 43]]. The section of Highway 2 between Calgary and Edmonton has been named the [[Queen Elizabeth II Highway]] to commemorate the visit of the monarch in 2005. Highway 2 is supplemented by two more highways that run parallel to it: [[Alberta Highway 22|Highway 22]], west of Highway 2, known as ''Cowboy Trail'', and [[Alberta Highway 21|Highway 21]], east of Highway 2. Highway 43 travels northwest into Grande Prairie and the [[Peace River Country]]; [[Alberta Highway 63|Highway 63]] travels northeast to Fort McMurray, the location of the Athabasca oil sands. Alberta has two main east-west corridors. The southern corridor, part of the [[Trans-Canada Highway]] system, enters the province near Medicine Hat, runs westward through Calgary, and leaves Alberta through Banff National Park. The northern corridor, also part of the Trans-Canada network and known as the [[Yellowhead Highway]] ([[Alberta Highway 16|Highway 16]]), runs west from Lloydminster in eastern Alberta, through Edmonton and [[Jasper National Park]] into British Columbia. One of the most scenic drives is along the [[Icefields Parkway]], which runs for {{convert|228|km|0|abbr=on}} between Jasper and Lake Louise, with mountain ranges and glaciers on either side of its entire length. Another major corridor through central Alberta is [[Alberta Highway 11|Highway 11]] (also known as the [[David Thompson (explorer)|David Thompson]] Highway), which runs east from the [[Saskatchewan River Crossing, Alberta|Saskatchewan River Crossing]] in Banff National Park through [[Rocky Mountain House]] and [[Red Deer, Alberta|Red Deer]], connecting with [[Alberta Highway 12|Highway 12]] {{convert|20|km|0|abbr=on}} west of [[Stettler, Alberta|Stettler]]. The highway connects many of the smaller towns in central Alberta with Calgary and Edmonton, as it crosses Highway 2 just west of Red Deer. Urban stretches of Alberta's major highways and freeways are often called ''trails''. For example, Highway 2, the main north-south highway in the province, is called [[Deerfoot Trail]] as it passes through Calgary but becomes [[Calgary Trail]] (for southbound traffic) and [[Gateway Boulevard]] (for northbound traffic) as it enters Edmonton and then turns into St. Albert Trail as it leaves Edmonton for the City of [[St. Albert, Alberta|St. Albert]]. Calgary, in particular, has a tradition of calling its largest urban [[limited-access road|expressway]]s ''trails'' and naming many of them after prominent [[First Nations]] individuals and tribes, such as [[Crowchild Trail]], Deerfoot Trail, and [[Stoney Trail]]. [[File:Calgary LRT-3.JPG|thumb|[[Calgary Transit]] [[C-Train]] ]] Calgary, Edmonton, Red Deer, Medicine Hat, and Lethbridge have substantial [[public transit]] systems. In addition to buses, Calgary and Edmonton operate [[light rail transit]] (LRT) systems. [[Edmonton LRT]], which is underground in the downtown core and on the surface outside the [[Central business district|CBD]], was the first of the modern generation of light rail systems to be built in North America, while the Calgary [[C-Train]] has one of the highest number of daily riders of any LRT system in North America. Alberta is well-connected by air, with [[international airport]]s in both Calgary and Edmonton. [[Calgary International Airport]] and [[Edmonton International Airport]] are the third and fifth [[List of the busiest airports in Canada|busiest in Canada]] respectively. Calgary's airport is a hub for [[WestJet|WestJet Airlines]] and a regional hub for [[Air Canada]]. Calgary's airport primarily serves the Canadian prairie provinces (Alberta, Saskatchewan and Manitoba) for connecting flights to British Columbia, eastern Canada, 15 major US centres, nine European airports, one Asian airport and four destinations in [[Mexico]] and the [[Caribbean]].<ref name="Calgary Airport Authority">{{cite web | url=http://www.yyc.com/ | title=Calgary Airport Authority | publisher=Calgary Airport Authority | accessdate=August 9, 2009}}</ref> Edmonton's airport acts as a hub for the Canadian north and has connections to all major Canadian airports as well as 10 major US airports, 3 European airports and 6 Mexican and Caribbean airports.<ref name="EIA">{{cite web | url=http://www.flyeia.com/ | title=EIA | publisher=Edmonton International Airport | accessdate=August 9, 2009}}</ref> There are more than {{convert|9000|km|0|abbr=on}} of operating mainline railway; the [[Canadian Pacific Railway]] and [[Canadian National Railway]] companies operate railway [[freight]] across the province. Passenger trains include [[Via Rail]]'s '''Canadian''' (Toronto-Vancouver) or '''Jasper-Prince Rupert''' trains, which use the CN mainline and pass through Jasper National Park and parallel the Yellowhead Highway during at least part of their routes. The [[Rocky Mountaineer]] operates two sections: one from Vancouver to Banff and Calgary over CP tracks, and a section that travels over CN tracks to Jasper. == Health care == {{See also|Health care in Canada}} [[File:Alberta Children's Hospital 3+4.jpg|thumb|[[Alberta Children's Hospital]], Calgary]] Alberta provides a [[publicly funded health care]] system, [[Alberta Health Services]], for all its citizens and residents as set out by the provisions of the [[Canada Health Act]] of 1984. Alberta became Canada's second province (after [[Saskatchewan]]) to adopt a [[Tommy Douglas]]-style program in 1950, a precursor to the modern [[Medicare (Canada)|medicare]] system. Alberta's health care budget is currently $17.1 billion during the 2013–2014 fiscal year (approximately 45% of all government spending), making it the best funded health care system per-capita in Canada.{{citation needed|date=August 2013}} Every hour more than $1.9 million is spent on health care in the province.<ref name="Health Care Funding Allocations 2013–2014">{{cite web | url=http://www.health.alberta.ca/about/health-funding.html | title=Health funding – Allocations for 2013–2014 | publisher=Government of Alberta | accessdate=August 17, 2013}}</ref> [[File:University Hospital Complex University Of Alberta Edmonton Alberta Canada 02A.jpg|thumb|right|[[University of Alberta Hospital]] complex]] Notable health, education, research, and resources facilities in Alberta, all of which are located within Calgary or Edmonton: {{col-begin|width=600px}} {{col-2}} ;Calgary *[[Alberta Children's Hospital]] *[[Foothills Medical Centre]] *Grace Women's Health Centre *[[Libin Cardiovascular Institute of Alberta]] *[[Peter Lougheed Centre]] *[[Rockyview General Hospital]] *[[Tom Baker Cancer Centre]] *University of Calgary Medical Centre (UCMC) {{col-2}} ;Edmonton *Alberta Diabetes Institute *[[Cross Cancer Institute]] *[[Edmonton Clinic]] *Grey Nuns Hospital *Lois Hole Hospital for Women *[[Mazankowski Alberta Heart Institute]] *Misericordia Hospital *Rexall Centre for Pharmacy and Health Research *[[Royal Alexandra Hospital (Edmonton)|Royal Alexandra Hospital]] *[[Stollery Children's Hospital]] *[[University of Alberta Hospital]] {{col-end}} The [[Edmonton Clinic]] complex, completed in 2012, provides a similar research, education, and care environment as the [[Mayo Clinic]] in the United States.<ref name="Edmonton Clinic">{{cite web | url=http://www.edmontonclinic.ca/ | title=Edmonton Clinic | publisher=Alberta Health Services; University of Alberta | accessdate=August 31, 2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.edmontonsun.com/2012/12/03/30-million-donation-from-donald-kay-makes-kaye-edmonton-clinic-possible | title=$30-million donation from Donald Kaye makes Kaye Edmonton Clinic possible | last=Larson | first=Jackie | work=Edmonton Sun | date=December 3, 2012 | publisher=Sun Media | accessdate=August 17, 2013}}</ref> All public health care services funded by the Government of Alberta are delivered operationally by [[Alberta Health Services]]. AHS is the province's single health authority established on July 1, 2008, which replaced nine local health authorities. AHS also funds all ground ambulance services in the province, as well as the province-wide STARS ([[Shock Trauma Air Rescue Society]]) air ambulance service.<ref name="STARS; About Us">{{cite web | url=http://www.stars.ca/bins/content_page.asp?cid=2 | archiveurl=//web.archive.org/web/20110719065737/http://www.stars.ca/bins/content_page.asp?cid=2|archivedate=July 19, 2011 | title=STARS; About Us | publisher=STARS | accessdate=August 31, 2009}}{{Dead link|date=March 2015}}</ref> == Education == {{Main|Education in Alberta}} {{refimprove section|date=October 2014}} [[File:SAIT Heart Building 2.jpg|thumb|Heritage Hall at [[SAIT]]]] As with any Canadian province, the Alberta Legislature has (almost) exclusive authority to make laws respecting education. Since 1905 the Legislature has used this capacity to continue the model of locally elected public and separate school boards which originated prior to 1905, as well as to create and regulate universities, colleges, technical institutions and other educational forms and institutions (public charter schools, private schools, home schooling). === Elementary schools === There are forty-two public school jurisdictions in Alberta, and seventeen operating separate school jurisdictions. Sixteen of the operating separate school jurisdictions have a Catholic electorate, and one ([[St. Albert, Alberta|St. Albert]]) has a [[Protestantism|Protestant]] electorate. In addition, one Protestant separate school district, Glen Avon, survives as a ward of the St. Paul Education Region. The City of Lloydminster straddles the Alberta/Saskatchewan border, and both the public and separate school systems in that city are counted in the above numbers: both of them operate according to Saskatchewan law. For many years the provincial government has funded the greater part of the cost of providing K–12 education. Prior to 1994 public and separate school boards in Alberta had the legislative authority to levy a local tax on property as a supplementary support for local education. In 1994 the government of the province eliminated this right for public school boards, but not for separate school boards. Since 1994 there has continued to be a tax on property in support of K–12 education; the difference is that the mill rate is now set by the provincial government, the money is collected by the local municipal authority and remitted to the provincial government. The relevant legislation requires that all the money raised by this property tax must go to the support of K–12 education provided by school boards. The provincial government pools the property tax funds from across the province and distributes them, according to a formula, to public and separate school jurisdictions and Francophone authorities. [[Public school (government funded)|Public]] and separate school boards, [[charter school]]s, and private schools all follow the Program of Studies and the curriculum approved by the provincial department of education (Alberta Education). Homeschool tutors may choose to follow the Program of Studies or develop their own Program of Studies. Public and separate schools, charter schools, and approved private schools all employ teachers who are certificated by Alberta Education, they administer Provincial Achievement Tests and Diploma Examinations set by Alberta Education, and they may grant high school graduation certificates endorsed by Alberta Education. === Universities === {{Main|Higher education in Alberta}} [[File:Saint Josephs College University Of Alberta Edmonton Alberta Canada 02A.jpg|thumb|St. Joseph’s College at the [[University of Alberta]]]] The [[University of Alberta]], located in Edmonton and established in 1908, is Alberta's oldest and largest university. The [[University of Calgary]], once affiliated with the University of Alberta, gained its autonomy in 1966 and is now the second largest university in Alberta. [[Athabasca University]], which focuses on distance learning, and the [[University of Lethbridge]] are located in Athabasca and Lethbridge respectively. In early September 2009, [[Mount Royal University]] became Calgary's second public university, and in late September 2009, a similar move made [[MacEwan University]] Edmonton's second public university. There are 15 colleges that receive direct public funding, along with two technical institutes, [[Northern Alberta Institute of Technology]] and [[Southern Alberta Institute of Technology]].<ref name="Service Centres">{{cite web | url=http://aet.alberta.ca/technology/actionplan/servicecentres.aspx | archiveurl=//web.archive.org/web/20110706164312/http://aet.alberta.ca/technology/actionplan/servicecentres.aspx|archivedate=July 6, 2011 | title=Service Centres | publisher=Government of Alberta | accessdate=August 9, 2009}}{{Dead link|date=March 2015}}</ref> There is also a large and active private sector of post-secondary institutions, mostly [[List of colleges in Alberta#Private Colleges|Christian Universities]], bringing the total number of universities to twelve, plus a [[DeVry University]] in Calgary, the only location in Canada. Students may also receive government loans and grants while attending selected private institutions. There has been some controversy in recent years over the rising cost of post-secondary education for students (as opposed to taxpayers). In 2005, Premier [[Ralph Klein]] made a promise that he would freeze tuition and look into ways of reducing schooling costs.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.su.ualberta.ca/su/student_government/advocacy/ | title=Advocacy | publisher=University of Alberta Students Unions | accessdate=August 9, 2009 | archiveurl=//web.archive.org/web/20061011224154/http://www.su.ualberta.ca/su/student_government/advocacy/|archivedate=October 11, 2006}}{{Dead link|date=March 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.gazette.uwo.ca/article.cfm?section=FrontPage&articleID=276&month=2&day=16&year=2005 | title=Klein promises tuition freeze | last=Bellamy | first=Marshall | publisher=The Gazette | date=February 16, 2005 | accessdate=December 13, 2011}}</ref> So far, no plan has been released by the Government of Alberta. == Culture == {{Main|Culture of Alberta}} {{See also|Festivals in Alberta}} {{Unreferenced section|date=October 2014}} [[File:StampedeRodeo2002.JPG|thumb|The [[Calgary Stampede]]]] Summer brings many festivals to the province of Alberta, especially in Edmonton. The [[Edmonton Fringe Festival]] is the world's second largest after the [[Edinburgh Festival]]. Both Calgary and Edmonton host a number of annual festivals and events, including folk music festivals. The city's "heritage days" festival sees the participation of over 70 ethnic groups. Edmonton's [[Churchill Square (Edmonton)|Churchill Square]] is home to a large number of the festivals, including the large Taste of Edmonton & [[The Works Art & Design Festival]] throughout the summer months. The City of Calgary is also famous for its [[Calgary Stampede|Stampede]], dubbed "The Greatest Outdoor Show on Earth". The Stampede is Canada's biggest rodeo festival and features various races and competitions, such as [[calf roping]] and [[bull riding]]. In line with the western tradition of rodeo are the cultural artisans that reside and create unique Alberta western heritage crafts. The [[Banff Centre]] hosts a range of festivals and other events including the international [[Banff Mountain Film Festival|Mountain Film Festival]]. These cultural events in Alberta highlight the province's cultural diversity. Most of the major cities have several performing theatre companies who entertain in venues as diverse as Edmonton's Arts Barns and the [[Francis Winspear Centre for Music]]. Both Calgary and Edmonton are home to [[Canadian Football League]] and [[National Hockey League]] teams. Soccer, [[rugby union]] and [[lacrosse]] are also played professionally in Alberta. == Friendship partners == Alberta has relationships with several provinces, states, and other entities worldwide.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.international.alberta.ca/554.cfm | title=Twinning Relationships | publisher=Government of Alberta | accessdate=April 12, 2014}}</ref> * {{flagicon|South Korea}} [[Gangwon-do (South Korea)|Gangwon-do]], South Korea (1974)<ref>{{cite web | url=http://albertacanada.com/korea/images/Gangwon-AB.pdf | title=Gangwon – Alberta Relations | website=AlbertaCanada.com | publisher=Government of Alberta | accessdate=April 12, 2014 | deadurl=yes | archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/20130514090614/http://www.albertacanada.com/korea/images/Gangwon-AB.pdf |archivedate=May 14, 2013 }}</ref> * {{flagicon|Japan}} [[Hokkaido]], Japan (1980) * {{flagicon|PRC}} [[Heilongjiang]], People's Republic of China (1981) * {{flagicon|United States}} {{flagicon|Montana}} [[Montana]], United States (1985) * {{flagicon|Russia}} [[Tyumen]], Russia (1992) * {{flagicon|Russia}} [[Khanty–Mansi Autonomous Okrug|Khanty–Mansi]], Russia (1995) * {{flagicon|Russia}} [[Yamalo-Nenets]], Russia (1997) * {{flagicon|Mexico}} {{flagicon|Jalisco}} [[Jalisco]], Mexico (1999) * {{flagicon|United States}} {{flagicon|Alaska}} [[Alaska]], United States (2002) * {{flagicon|Germany}} {{flagicon|Saxony}} [[Saxony]], Germany (2002) * {{flagicon|Ukraine}} [[Ivano-Frankivsk]], Ukraine (2004) * {{flagicon|Ukraine}} [[Lviv]], Ukraine (2005) * {{flagicon|United States}} {{flagicon|California}} [[California]], United States (1997)<ref>{{cite web | url=http://soir.senate.ca.gov/sisterstates | title=California's Sister State Relationships | work=ca.gov}}</ref> ==See also== * [[Outline of Alberta]] * [[Index of Alberta-related articles]] == References == {{Reflist|30em}} == Further reading == {{refbegin}} * {{Cite book | last =Berry | first =Susan | author2= Jack Brink | year =2004 | title =Aboriginal Cultures in Alberta: Five Hundred Generations | url =https://books.google.com/books?id=jZjtB0gAMBwC&lpg=PP1&dq=Alberta&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=true | publisher= Provincial Museum of Alberta | isbn=0-7785-2852-9 | accessdate=2012-10-21}} * {{Cite book | last=Cavanaugh | first=Catherine Anne | author2=Michael Payne | author3=Donald Wetherell | author4= Catherine Cavanaugh | year =2006 | title =Alberta formed, Alberta transformed, Volume 1 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=V_XNCXJcjlkC&lpg=PP1&dq=Alberta&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=true | publisher=University of Alberta Press | isbn=1-55238-194-3 | accessdate=2012-10-21 }} * {{Cite book | last =Connors | first=Richard | first2=John M. | last2=Law | year =2005 | title =Forging Alberta's constitutional framework | url =https://books.google.com/books?id=fH8e7dOAWPgC&lpg=PP3&dq=Alberta&pg=PP3#v=onepage&q&f=true | publisher=University of Alberta – Centre for Constitutional Studies | isbn=0-88864-457-4 | accessdate=2012-10-21 }} * {{Cite book | last =Holt | first =Faye Reineberg | year =2009 | title =Alberta: A History in Photographs | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Lgy0_OaTZWYC&lpg=PP1&dq=Alberta&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=true | publisher=Heritage House ; Lancaster : Gazelle | isbn= 978-1-894974-87-5 | accessdate= 2012-10-21 }} * {{Cite book | last=Melnyk | first =George | year =1999 | title =The literary history of Alberta | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IzxkKWp99CQC&lpg=PP1&dq=Alberta&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=true | publisher= University of Alberta Press | isbn=0-88864-296-2 | accessdate=2012-10-21 }} * {{Cite book | last=Taylor | first =Alison | year =2001 | title=The politics of educational reform in Alberta | url =https://books.google.com/books?id=HQ5ZQ9YjqEYC&lpg=PP1&dq=Alberta&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=true | publisher= University of Toronto Press | isbn= 0-8020-4813-7 | accessdate= 2012-10-21 }} {{refend}} == External links == {{Sister project links|voy=Alberta}} * [http://www.gov.ab.ca/ Government of Alberta website] * {{dmoz|Regional/North_America/Canada/Alberta}} * [http://www.albertasource.ca/ Alberta Encyclopedia] {{Geographic location | Centre = {{flag|Alberta}} | N = {{flag|Northwest Territories}} | NE = {{flag|Northwest Territories}} | E = {{flag|Saskatchewan}} | SE = {{flag|Montana}}, [[United States]] | S = {{flag|Montana}}, [[United States]] | SW = {{flag|Montana}}, [[United States]] | W = {{flag|British Columbia}} | NW = {{flag|Northwest Territories}} }} {{Navboxes|list ={{Subdivisions of Alberta}} {{Topics on Alberta}} {{Provinces and territories of Canada}} {{Canada topics}}}} {{Portal bar|Alberta|Canada}} {{Coord|55|N|115|W|type:adm1st_scale:10000000_region:CA-AB|display=title}} {{pp-move-indef}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Alberta| ]] [[Category:1905 establishments in Canada]] [[Category:Provinces and territories of Canada]] [[Category:States and territories established in 1905]] [[Category:Canadian Prairies]] h33rb0u2rp1ak0nos0jotwk22ur2t9k 4 724 15899247 754272 2003-03-17T11:02:55Z MartinHarper 5862 #REDIRECT [[Wikipedia:Nupedia and Wikipedia]] (moved to meta) wikitext text/x-wiki #REDIRECT [[Wikipedia:Nupedia and Wikipedia]] trwktkmxm178irb5dwf84c3ftzk9ysr 0 727 629644609 179567609 2014-10-14T23:59:48Z Jdaloner 4460044 Changed "R from CamelCase" tag to "R from subpage". wikitext text/x-wiki #REDIRECT [[History of astronomy]] {{R from subpage}} 9ckodf6s6ee6181mjw4og3vykxjj7fy 0 728 715261150 715120538 2016-04-14T17:56:31Z JonBialecki 27261706 Add name of Joel Robbins to list wikitext text/x-wiki {{Compact ToC}} ==A== *[[John Adair (anthropologist)|John Adair]] *[[Giulio Angioni]] *[[Talal Asad]] *[[Timothy Asch]] ==B== {{Div col|4}} *Florence Babb * [[Nigel Barley (anthropologist)|Nigel Barley]] *[[Fredrik Barth]] *[[Vasily Bartold]] *[[Keith H. Basso]] *[[Daisy Bates (Australia)|Daisy Bates]] *[[Gregory Bateson]] *[[Ruth Behar]] *[[Ruth Benedict]] *[[Lee R. Berger|Lee Berger]] *Riva Berleant *[[Theodore C. Bestor]] *[[Lewis Binford]] *[[Wilhelm Bleek]] *[[Anton Blok]] *Tom Boellstorff * [[Franz Boas]] *[[Dmitri Bondarenko]] *[[Pere Bosch-Gimpera]] *[[Pierre Bourdieu]] *[[Brent Berlin]] *[[Paul Broca]] *[[Te Rangi Hīroa|Sir Peter Buck]] {{Div col end}} ==C== {{Div col|4}} *[[Julio Caro Baroja]] *[[Edmund Snow Carpenter|Edmund Carpenter]] *[[Napoleon Chagnon]] *[[Pierre Clastres]] *[[Phil Collins]] *[[Carleton S. Coon]] *[[Frank Hamilton Cushing]] *[[Christoph von Fürer-Haimendorf]] {{Div col end}} ==D== {{Div col|4}} *[[Regna Darnell]] *[[Raymond Dart]] *[[Ella Cara Deloria]] *[[Raymond J. DeMallie]] *[[Ernesto de Martino]] *[[Massimiliano Del Vecchio]] *[[Stanley Diamond]] *[[Mary Douglas]] *[[Eugene Dubois]] *[[Katherine Dunham]] *[[Ann Dunham]] *[[Sam Dunn (anthropologist)|Sam Dunn]] *[[Émile Durkheim]] {{Div col end}} ==E== *[[Arturo Escobar (anthropologist)|Arturo Escobar]] *[[E. E. Evans-Pritchard]] ==F== {{Div col|4}} *[[Raymond Firth]] *[[Raymond D. Fogelson]] *[[Meyer Fortes]] *[[Dian Fossey]] *[[Michel Foucault]] *[[James Frazer]] *[[James Ferguson (anthropologist)|James Ferguson]] {{Div col end}} ==G== {{Div col|4}} *[[Clifford Geertz]] *[[Alfred Gell]] *[[Ernest Gellner]] *[[Max Gluckman]] *[[Maurice Godelier]] *[[Jane Goodall]] *[[David Graeber]] *[[Hilma Granqvist]] *[[J. Patrick Gray]] *[[Marcel Griaule]] *[[Jacob Grimm]] *[[Wilhelm Grimm]] {{Div col end}} ==H== {{Div col|4}} *[[Michael Harkin]] *[[Michael Harner]] *[[John P. Harrington]] *[[Marvin Harris]] *[[Jacquetta Hawkes]] *[[Ryan De Guzman]] *[[Arthur Maurice Hocart]] *[[Earnest Hooton]] *[[Robin W.G. Horton]] *[[Ian Hodder]] *[[Hoebel|E. Adamson Hoebel]] *[[Ales Hrdlicka|Aleš Hrdlička]] *[[Patrick Hunout]] *[[Karl Edman Floresca]] *[[Dell Hymes]] {{Div col end}} ==I== *[[Miyako Inoue (linguistic anthropologist)]] ==J== *[[John M. Janzen]] *[[William Jones (philologist)]] ==K== {{Div col|4}} *[[Sergei Kan]] *[[Jomo Kenyatta]] *[[David Kertzer]] *[[Anatoly Khazanov]] *[[Richard G. Klein]] *[[Dorinne K. Kondo]] *[[Andrey Korotayev]] *[[Conrad Kottak]] *[[Grover Krantz]] *[[Charles H. Kraft]] *[[Alfred L. Kroeber]] *[[Theodora Kroeber]] *[[Lars Krutak]] *[[Adam Kuper]] {{Div col end}} ==L== {{Div col|4}} *[[William Labov]] *[[George Lakoff]] *[[Harold E. Lambert]] *Louise Lamphere * [[Edmund Leach]] *[[Murray Leaf]] *[[Louis Leakey]] *[[Mary Leakey]] *[[Richard Leakey]] *[[Richard Borshay Lee]] *[[Charles Miller Leslie]] *[[Claude Lévi-Strauss]] *[[C. Scott Littleton]] *[[Robert Lowie]] *[[Nancy Lurie]] {{Div col end}} == M == {{Div col|4}} * [[Alan Macfarlane]] * [[Antonio Machado y Núñez]] * [[Saba Mahmood]] * [[Bronisław Malinowski]] * [[George Marcus]] * Fran Mascia-Lees{{citation needed|date=October 2014}} * [[John Alden Mason]] * [[Marcel Mauss]] * [[Phillip McArthur]] * [[Margaret Mead]] * [[Mervyn Meggitt]] * [[Josef Mengele]] * [[Nicholas Miklouho-Maclay]] — [[Asia-Pacific]] (Maclay Coast), [[Papua New-Guinea]]; [[Australia]] * [[Emily Martin (anthropologist)|Emily Martin]] * [[Sidney Mintz]] * [[Ashley Montagu]] * [[James Mooney]] * [[Henrietta L. Moore]] * [[John H. Moore]] * [[Lewis H. Morgan]] * [[Desmond Morris]] * [[George Murdock]] {{Div col end}} == N == {{Div col|4}} * [[Laura Nader]] * [[Jeremy Narby]] * [[Raoul Naroll]] * [[Erland Nordenskiöld]] * [[Nigel Dunn]]<ref>https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/User:NIGERD</ref> {{Div col end}} == O == {{Div col|4}} * [[Gananath Obeyesekere]] * [[Marvin Opler]] * [[Morris Opler]] * [[Sherry Ortner]] * [[Keith F. Otterbein]] {{Div col end}} == P == {{Div col|4}} * [[Bruce Parry]] (television show host) * [[Elsie Clews Parsons]] * [[Bronislav Pilsudski]] * [[Hortense Powdermaker]] * [[A.H.J. Prins]] * [[Harald E.L. Prins]] {{Div col end}} == Q == * [[James Quesada]] ==R== {{Div col|4}} *[[Paul Rabinow]] *[[Wilhelm Radloff]] *[[Roy Rappaport]] *[[Hans Ras]] *[[Alfred Reginald Radcliffe-Brown]] *[[Gerardo Reichel-Dolmatoff]] *[[Kathy Reichs]] *[[Audrey Richards]] *[[W. H. R. Rivers]] *[[Paul Rivet]] *[[Joel Robbins]] *[[Eric Ross]] *[[Gayle Rubin]] *[[Robert A. Rubinstein]]{{Div col end}} ==S== {{Div col|4}} *[[Marshall Sahlins]] *[[Noel B. Salazar]] *[[Roger Sandall]] *[[Edward Sapir]] *[[Nancy Scheper-Hughes]] *[[Wilhelm Schmidt (linguist)|Wilhelm Schmidt]] *[[Tobias Schneebaum]] *[[Thayer Scudder]] *[[Elman Service]] *[[Afanasy Shchapov]] *[[Cathy Small]] *[[Jacques Soustelle]] *[[Melford Spiro]] *[[James Spradley]] *[[Julian Steward]] *[[Herbert Spencer]] *[[Marilyn Strathern]] *[[William Sturtevant]] *[[Niara Sudarkasa]] {{Div col end}} ==T== {{Div col|4}} *[[Michael Taussig]] *[[Edward Burnett Tylor]] *[[Colin Turnbull]] *[[Terence S. Turner]] *[[Victor Turner]] *[[Bruce Trigger]] {{Div col end}} ==U== ==V== *[[Verrier Elwin]] *[[Karl Verner]] *[[L. P. Vidyarthi]] ==W== {{Div col|4}} *Alyise Waterston * [[Camilla Wedgwood]] *[[Hank Wesselman]] *[[Douglas R. White]] *[[Leslie White]] *[[Tim White (anthropologist)|Tim White]] *[[Benjamin Whorf]] *[[Unni Wikan]] *[[Clark Wissler]] *[[Eric Wolf]] *[[Sol Worth]] {{Div col end}} ==Y== *[[Nur Yalman]] ==Z== *[[R. Tom Zuidema]] *[[Zara Layman]] ==Fictional anthropologists== [[File:Doctor Daniel Jackson (Michael Shanks)2.jpg|thumb|left|Michael Shanks as Daniel Jackson]] *[[Mary Albright]] ([[Jane Curtin]]) in the Sitcom [[3rd Rock from the Sun]] *[[Temperance "Bones" Brennan]] ([[Emily Deschanel]]) in the television series [[Bones (TV series)|Bones]] *[[Temperance Brennan]] in the novel series Temperance Brennan by [[Kathy Reichs]] *[[Chakotay]] ([[Robert Beltran]]) in the television series [[Star Trek: Voyager]] *[[Daniel Jackson (Stargate)|Daniel Jackson]] ([[Michael Shanks]], [[James Spader]]) in the television series and film [[Stargate SG-1]] *[[Charlotte Lewis (Lost)|Charlotte Lewis]] ([[Rebecca Mader]]) in the television series [[Lost (2004 TV series)|Lost]] ==See also== * [[List of female anthropologists]] ==References== {{Reflist}} {{DEFAULTSORT:List Of Anthropologists}} [[Category:Lists of social scientists|Anthropologists]] [[Category:Anthropologists| ]] {{Anthropology-stub}} db1dfdq27hitnc3fojid0iajsea5tbm 0 731 629644716 179567616 2014-10-15T00:00:38Z Jdaloner 4460044 Changed "R from CamelCase" tag to "R from subpage". wikitext text/x-wiki #REDIRECT [[History of astronomy]] {{R from subpage}} 9ckodf6s6ee6181mjw4og3vykxjj7fy 0 734 717190553 709896941 2016-04-26T07:39:24Z Caftaric 25152539 Category:Fish classes wikitext text/x-wiki {{Use dmy dates|date=July 2012}}<!-- Fixing blank line -->{{automatic taxobox | taxon = Actinopterygii | name = Ray-finned fish | fossil_range = {{Fossil range |Late Silurian|Recent}} | image = Rose fish.jpg | image_caption = [[Rose fish]] | subdivision_ranks = Subclasses | subdivision = {{taxon list |[[Chondrostei]]|<!--Missing authority information--> |[[Neopterygii]]|<!--Missing authority information-->}} | authority = Klein, 1885 }} '''Actinopterygii''' {{IPAc-en|ˌ|æ|k|t|ɨ|n|ˌ|ɒ|p|t|ə|ˈ|r|ɪ|dʒ|i|.|aɪ}}, or the '''ray-finned fishes''', constitute a [[Class (biology)|class]] or subclass of the [[Osteichthyes|bony fishes]]. The ray-finned [[fish]]es are so called because they possess [[lepidotrichia]] or "fin rays", their fins being webs of skin supported by bony or horny spines ("rays"), as opposed to the fleshy, lobed fins that characterize the class [[Sarcopterygii]] which also, however, possess lepidotrichia. These actinopterygian fin rays attach directly to the proximal or basal skeletal elements, the radials, which represent the link or connection between these fins and the internal skeleton (e.g., pelvic and pectoral girdles). Numerically, actinopterygians are the dominant class of [[vertebrate]]s, comprising nearly 99% of the over 30,000 species of fish.<ref>(Davis, Brian 2010).</ref> They are ubiquitous throughout [[freshwater]] and [[ocean|marine]] environments from the deep sea to the highest mountain streams. Extant species can range in size from ''[[Paedocypris]]'', at {{convert|8|mm|in|1|abbr=on}}, to the massive [[ocean sunfish]], at {{convert|2300|kg|lb|-1|abbr=on}}, and the long-bodied [[oarfish]], at {{convert|11|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}. == Characteristics == [[File:Anatomia dei pesci.jpg|thumb|300px|left|{{center|Anatomy of a typical ray-finned fish}} A – [[dorsal fin]]: B – [[fin ray]]s: C – [[lateral line]]: D – kidney: E – [[swim bladder]]: F – [[Weberian apparatus]]: G – [[inner ear]]: H – brain: I – nostrils: L – eye: M – [[gill]]s: N – heart O – stomach: P – gall bladder: Q – spleen: R – internal sex organs (ovaries or testes): S – [[ventral fin]]s: T – spine: U – [[anal fin]]: V – tail ([[caudal fin]]). Possible other parts not shown: [[barbel (anatomy)|barbels]], [[adipose fin]], external genitalia ([[gonopodium]])]] Ray-finned fishes occur in many variant forms. The main features of a typical ray-finned fish are shown in the diagram at the left. {{clear}} {| class="wikitable collapsible collapsed" style="text-align: left;" |- ! width=300px | Fin arrangements |- | width=800px | Ray-finned fish are varied in size, shape and the arrangement and number of their ray-fins. ''See [[fish fin]]''. <gallery widths=160> File:Bluefin-big.jpg|[[Tuna]] are streamlined for straight line speed with a [[Caudal fin|deeply forked tail]] File:Xiphias gladius1.jpg|The [[swordfish]] is even faster and more streamlined than the tuna File:Salmo salar GLERL 1.jpg|[[Salmon]] generate enough thrust with their powerful [[Caudal fin|tail fin]] to jump obstacles during river migrations File:Atlantic cod.jpg|[[Cod]] have three [[Dorsal fin|dorsal]] and two [[anal fin]]s, which give them great maneuverability File:Bluecat5A.jpg|[[Catfish]] File:Ancylopsetta dilecta 2.jpg|[[Flatfish]] have developed partially symmetric [[Dorsal fin|dorsal]] and [[pelvic fin]]s File:Sturgeon2.jpg|[[Sturgeon]] File:Diaphus metopoclampus.jpg|[[Lanternfish]] File:Gonostoma elongatum.jpg|[[Gonostoma|Elongated bristlemouth]] File:Anoplogaster cornuta 2.jpg|[[Fangtooth]] are indifferent swimmer who try to ambush their prey File:Melanocetus johnsonii.jpg|The first spine of the dorsal fin of [[anglerfish]] is modified like a fishing rod with a lure File:Beryx decadactylus.jpg|[[Alfonsino]] File:King of herrings.png|[[King of herrings]] File:Drawing of Lepidopus caudatus from The Royal Natural History (1896).jpg|[[Cutlassfish]] File:Conger conger Gervais.jpg|[[European conger]] are ray-finned fish File:Sea Horse 1 PSF S-820006.png| So are [[sea horse]]s File:Betta fish white.jpg|White [[Siamese fighting fish]] File:Mirror dory.png|[[Mirror dory]] File:Lion Fish.JPG|The venomous [[lion fish]] File:Tiger fish in tank.JPG|[[Tiger fish]] </gallery> |} ==Reproduction== [[File:Gasterosteus aculeatus 1879.jpg|thumb|left|[[Gasterosteus aculeatus|Three-spined stickleback]] males (red belly) build nests and compete to attract females to lay eggs in them. Males then defend and fan the eggs. Painting by [[Alexander Francis Lydon]], 1879]] In nearly all ray-finned fish, the sexes are separate, and in most species the females spawn eggs that are fertilized externally, typically with the male inseminating the eggs after they are laid. Development then proceeds with a free-swimming larval stage.<ref>{{cite book |title=Zoology |last1=Dorit |first1=R.L. |last2=Walker |first2=W.F. |last3=Barnes |first3=R.D. |year=1991 |publisher=Saunders College Publishing |isbn=978-0-03-030504-7 |page=819 }}</ref> However other patterns of [[ontogeny]] exist, with one of the commonest being [[sequential hermaphroditism]]. In most cases this involves [[protogyny]], fish starting life as females and transitioning to males at some stage, triggered by some internal or external factor. This may be advantageous as females become less prolific as they age while male fecundity increases with age. [[Protandry]], where a fish transitions from male to female, is much less common than protogyny.<ref>{{cite journal | title = Evolutionary perspectives on hermaphroditism in fishes | journal = Sexual Development | year = 2009 | first = J.C. | last = Avise |author2= Mank, J.E. | volume = 3 | pages = 152–163| doi=10.1159/000223079}}</ref> Most families use [[external fertilization|external]] rather than [[internal fertilization]].<ref name=Pitcher>{{cite book|last=Pitcher|first=T|title=The Behavior of Teleost Fishes|year=1993|publisher=Chapman & Hall|location=London}}</ref> Of the [[oviparity|oviparous]] teleosts, most (79%) do not provide parental care.<ref name=Reynolds>{{cite journal |last=Reynolds |first=John|author2=Nicholas B. Goodwin |author3=Robert P. Freckleton |title=Evolutionary Transitions in Parental Care and Live Bearing in Vertebrates |journal=Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences |date=19 March 2002 |volume=357 |issue=1419 |pmc=1692951 |pmid=11958696 |doi=10.1098/rstb.2001.0930}}</ref> [[vivipary|Viviparity]], [[ovoviviparity]], or some form of parental care for eggs, whether by the male, the female, or both parents is seen in a significant fraction (21%) of the 422 teleost families; no care is likely the ancestral condition.<ref name=Reynolds/> Viviparity is relatively rare and is found in about 6% of teleost species; male care is far more common than female care.<ref name=Reynolds/><ref name=Clutton-Brock>{{cite book|last=Clutton-Brock|first=T. H.|title=The Evolution of Parental Care|year=1991|publisher=Princeton UP|location=Princeton, NJ}}</ref> Male territoriality [[exaptation|"preadapts"]] a species for evolving male parental care.<ref name=Werren>{{cite journal |last=Werren |first=John|author2=Mart R. Gross |author3=Richard Shine |title=Paternity and the evolution of male parentage |journal=Journal of Theoretical Biology |year=1980 |volume=82|issue=4 |doi=10.1016/0022-5193(80)90182-4 |url=http://www.researchgate.net/publication/222458526_Paternity_and_the_evolution_of_male_parental_care?ev=pub_cit|accessdate=15 September 2013}}</ref><ref name=Baylis>{{cite journal |last=Baylis |first=Jeffrey |title=The Evolution of Parental Care in Fishes, with reference to Darwin's rule of male sexual selection |journal=Environmental Biology of Fishes |year=1981 |volume=6 |issue=2 |accessdate=16 September 2013|url=http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007%2FBF00002788 |doi=10.1007/BF00002788}}</ref> There are a few examples of fish that self-fertilise. The [[mangrove rivulus]] is an amphibious, simultaneous hermaphrodite, producing both eggs and spawn and having internal fertilisation. This mode of reproduction may be related to the fish's habit of spending long periods out of water in the mangrove forests it inhabits. Males are occasionally produced at temperatures below {{convert|19|°C}} and can fertilise eggs that are then spawned by the female. This maintains genetic variability in a species that is otherwise highly inbred.<ref name=Wootton>{{cite book|author1=Wootton, Robert J.|author2=Smith, Carl|title=Reproductive Biology of Teleost Fishes|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_YnjBAAAQBAJ |year=2014 |publisher=Wiley |isbn=978-1-118-89139-1}}</ref> == Fossil record == [[File:Evolution of ray-finned fish.png|thumb|500px|right]] {{See also|Evolution of fish}} The earliest known fossil actinopterygiian is ''[[Andreolepis hedei]]'', dating back 420 million years ([[Late Silurian]]). Remains have been found in [[Russia]], [[Sweden]], and [[Estonia]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://paleodb.org/cgi-bin/bridge.pl?action=checkTaxonInfo&taxon_no=34968&is_real_user=1|title=Fossilworks: Andreolepis|publisher=}}</ref> {{clear}} == Classification == Actinopterygians are divided into the subclasses [[Chondrostei]] and [[Neopterygii]]. The [[Neopterygii]], in turn, are divided into the infraclasses [[Holostei]] and [[Teleostei]]. During the [[Mesozoic]] and [[Cenozoic]] the teleosts in particular diversified widely, and as a result, 96% of all known fish species are teleosts. The [[cladogram]] shows the major groups of actinopterygians and their relationship to the terrestrial vertebrates (tetrapods) that evolved from a related group of fish.<ref name=PNAS>{{cite web |url=http://www.pnas.org/content/109/34/13698.full |title=Resolution of ray-finned fish phylogeny and timing of diversification |author=Thomas J. Near |journal=PNAS |doi=10.1073/pnas.1206625109 |date=2012 |volume=109 |issue=34 |pages=13698–13703|display-authors=etal}}</ref><ref name=TOL>{{cite journal |author=Betancur-R, Ricardo |display-authors=etal | year=2013 | title=The Tree of Life and a New Classification of Bony Fishes |journal=PLOS Currents Tree of Life |issue=Edition 1 | url=http://currents.plos.org/treeoflife/article/the-tree-of-life-and-a-new-classification-of-bony-fishes/pdf |doi=10.1371/currents.tol.53ba26640df0ccaee75bb165c8c26288}}</ref><ref name=laurin&reisz1995>{{cite journal| author=Laurin, M.; Reisz, R.R. |year=1995 |title=A reevaluation of early amniote phylogeny |journal=Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society |volume=113 |pages=165–223}}</ref> Approximate dates are from Near et al., 2012.<ref name=PNAS/> {{clade |label1=[[Osteichthyes]] |1={{clade |label1='''Actinopterygii''' 400 mya |1={{clade |1=[[Chondrostei]] ([[sturgeon]]s, [[paddlefish]]es, [[reedfish]]es, [[bichir]]s) [[File:Sturgeon2.jpg|70px]] |label2=[[Neopterygii]] 360 mya |2={{clade |1=[[Holostei]] ([[bowfin]]s, [[gar]]s) 275 mya [[File:Amia calva1.jpg|70px]] |2=[[Teleostei]] 310 mya [[File:Yellow perch fish perca flavescens.jpg|70px]] }} }} |label2=[[Sarcopterygii]] |2={{clade |1=[[Actinistia|Coelacanths]], [[Dipnoi|Lungfish]] [[File:Latimeria Chalumnae - Coelacanth - NHMW.jpg|70px]] |2={{clade |label1=[[Tetrapod]]s |1={{clade |1=[[Amphibian]]s [[File:Triturus dobrogicus dunai tarajosgőte.jpg|70px]] |label2=[[Amniote|Amniota]] |2={{clade |1=[[Mammal]]s [[File:Lemur catta 001.jpg|70px]] |2=[[Sauropsida|Sauropsids]] ([[reptile]]s, [[bird]]s) [[File:2014-04-02-Cikonio fluganta 030.jpg|70px]] }} }} }} }} }} }} The polypterids (bichirs and ropefish) are the sister lineage of all other actinopterygians, The Acipenseriformes (sturgeons and paddlefishes) are the sister lineage of Neopterygii, and Holostei (bowfin and gars) are the sister lineage of teleosts. The [[Elopomorpha]] (eels and tarpons) appears to be the most basic teleosts.<ref name=PNAS/> {| class="wikitable" |- ! [[Chondrostei]] | [[File:Sturgeon2.jpg|140px]]<center>[[Atlantic sturgeon]]</center> | valign=top | [[Chondrostei]] ''(cartilage bone)'' are primarily [[cartilage|cartilaginous]] fish showing some [[ossification]]. There are 52 species divided among two orders, the [[Acipenseriformes]] ([[sturgeon]]s and [[paddlefish]]es) and the [[Polypteriformes]] ([[reedfish]]es and [[bichir]]s). It is thought that the chondrosteans evolved from bony fish but lost the bony hardening of their cartilaginous skeletons, resulting in a lightening of the frame. Elderly chondrosteans show beginnings of ossification of the skeleton, suggesting that this process is delayed rather than lost in these fish.<ref name="chondro">{{cite web | url=http://www.palaeos.com/Vertebrates/Units/090Teleostomi/090.300.html |title =Chondrosteans: Sturgeon Relatives |publisher=paleos.com }}</ref> This group has at times been classified with the [[shark]]s: the similarities are obvious, as not only do the chondrosteans mostly lack bone, but the structure of the jaw is more akin to that of sharks than other bony fish, and both lack [[Scale (zoology)|scales]] (excluding the Polypteriforms). Additional shared features include [[spiracle]]s and, in sturgeons, a heterocercal tail (the [[vertebra]]e extend into the larger lobe of the [[caudal fin]]). However the fossil record suggests that these fish have more in common with the [[Teleostei]] than their external appearance might suggest.<ref name="chondro" /> Chondrostei is [[paraphyly|paraphyletic]] meaning that this subclass does not contain all the descendants of their common ancestor; reclassification of the Chondrostei is therefore not out of the question. |- ! [[Neopterygii]] | [[File:Salmo salar GLERL 1.jpg|140px]]<center>[[Atlantic salmon]]</center> | [[Neopterygii]] ''(new fins)'' appeared somewhere in the Late [[Permian]], before the time of the dinosaurs. There are only few changes during their evolution from the earlier actinopterygians. They are a very successful group of fishes, because they can move more rapidly than their ancestors. Their scales and skeletons began to lighten during their evolution, and their jaws became more powerful and efficient. While [[electroreception]] and the [[ampullae of Lorenzini]] is present in all other groups of fish, with the exception of [[hagfish]], Neopterygii has lost this sense, though it later re-evolved within [[Gymnotiformes]] and [[catfish]]es, who possess nonhomologous teleost ampullae.<ref>{{cite book| author = Theodore Holmes Bullock|author2=Carl D. Hopkins|author3=Arthur N. Popper| title = Electroreception| url = https://books.google.com/?id=d1-rak1asv0C&pg=PA229| year = 2005| publisher = Springer Science+Business Media, Incorporated| isbn = 978-0-387-28275-6| page = 229 }}</ref> |} [[File:Lophius piscatorius MHNT.jpg|thumb|Skeleton of the angler fish, ''[[Lophius piscatorius]]''. The first spine of the dorsal fin of the anglerfish is modified so it functions like a fishing rod with a lure]] [[File:Lingcodskeleton1600ppx.JPG|thumb|right|Skeleton of another ray-finned fish, the [[lingcod]]]] [[File:Hypsospondylus.JPG|thumb|right|''Hypsospondylus'' fossil]] The listing below follows [[Phylogenetic Classification of Bony Fishes]] <ref>{{cite web | author = Betancur-R | title = Phylogenetic Classification of Bony Fishes --Version 3 | url = http://www.deepfin.org/Classification_v3.htm |date=2014}}</ref> with notes when this differs from Nelson,<ref>{{cite book| last = Nelson| first = Joseph, S.| title = Fishes of the World| year = 2006| publisher = John Wiley & Sons, Inc| isbn = 0-471-25031-7 }}</ref> [[ITIS]] <ref>{{ITIS |id=161061 |taxon=Actinopterygii |accessdate=3 April 2006}}</ref> and [[FishBase]].<ref>{{cite web | author = R. Froese and D. Pauly, editors | title = FishBase | url = http://www.fishbase.org |date=February 2006}}</ref> * '''Subclass [[Cladistii]]''' Pander 1860 ** Order †[[Guildayichthyiformes]] Lund 2000 ** Order [[Polypteriformes]] ([[bichir]]s and [[reedfish]]es) <ref>In Nelson, [[Polypteriformes]] is placed in its own subclass [[Cladistia]].</ref> * '''Subclass [[Actinopteri]]''' Cope 1972 ** Order †[[Tarrasiiformes]] ** Order †[[Cheirolepidiformes]] ** Order †[[Paramblypteriformes]] Heyler 1969 ** Order †[[Rhadinichthyiformes]] ** Order †[[Phanerorhynchiformes]] ** Order †[[Luganoiiformes]] Lehman 1958 ** Order †[[Haplolepidiformes]] ** Order †[[Ptycholepiformes]] ** Order †[[Platysomiformes]] ** Order †[[Palaeonisciformes]] ** Order †[[Pholidopleuriformes]] ** Order †[[Peltopleuriformes]] ** Order †[[Perleidiformes]] ** '''Infra class [[Chondrostei]]''' *** Order [[Acipenseriformes]] ([[sturgeon]]s and [[paddlefish]]es) *** Order †[[Saurichthyiformes]] ** '''Infra class [[Neopterygii]]''' Regan 1923 *** Order †[[Pachycormiformes]] *** '''[[Holostei]]''' **** Order †[[Parasemionotiformes]] Lehman 1966 **** Order †[[Ionoscopiformes]] Grande & Bemis 1998 **** Order †[[Pycnodontiformes]] Berg 1937 **** Order †[[Semionotiformes]] Arambourg & Bertin 1958 **** Order [[Lepisosteiformes]] ([[gar]]s) **** Order [[Amiiformes]] ([[bowfin]]s) *** '''[[Teleostei]]''' Müller 1844 **** [[Aspidorhynchiformes]] **** [[Pholidophoriformes]] **** [[Leptolepidiformes]] **** '''[[Teleocephala]]''' ***** '''Megacohort [[Elopocephalai]]''' Patterson 1977 sensu Arratia 1999 ([[Elopomorpha]] Greenwood et al. 1966) ****** Order [[Elopiformes]] ([[ladyfish]]es and [[tarpon]]) ****** Order [[Albuliformes]] (bonefishes) ****** Order [[Notacanthiformes]] ([[halosaurs]] and [[spiny eel]]s) ****** Order [[Anguilliformes]] Regan 190 (true [[eel]]s) ***** '''Megacohort [[Osteoglossocephalai]]''' sensu Arratia 1999 ****** '''Supercohort [[Osteoglossocephala]]''' sensu Arratia 1999 ([[Osteoglossomorpha]] Greenwood et al. 1966) ******* Order †[[Ichthyodectiformes]] Bardeck & Sprinkle 1969 ******* Order †[[Lycopteriformes]] ******* Order [[Osteoglossiformes]] (bony-tongued fishes) ******* Order [[Hiodontiformes]] ([[mooneye]] and [[goldeye]]) ****** '''Supercohort [[Clupeocephala]]''' Patterson & Rosen 1977 sensu Arratia 2010 ******* Order †[[Crossognathiformes]] Taverne 1989 ******* Order †[[Tselfatiiformes]] Nelson 1994 ******* '''Cohort [[Otomorpha]]''' ([[Otocephala]]; [[Ostarioclupeomorpha]]) ******** '''Subcohort [[Clupei]]''' ([[Clupeomorpha]]) ********* Order †[[Ellimmyichthyiformes]] Grande 1982 ********* Order [[Clupeiformes]] ([[herring]]s and [[anchovy|anchovies]]) ******** '''Subcohort [[Alepocephali]]''' ********* Order [[Alepocephaliformes]] ******** '''Subcohort [[Ostariophysi]]''' Sagemehl 1885 ********* '''Section [[Anotophysa]]''' Rosen 1970 ********** Order [[Gonorynchiformes]] ([[milkfish]]es) ********* '''Section [[Otophysa]]''' Garstang 1931 ********** Order [[Cypriniformes]] ([[Barb (fish)|barbs]], [[carp]], [[danios]], [[goldfish]]es, [[Loach (fish)|loaches]], [[minnow]]s, [[rasbora]]s) ********** Order [[Characiformes]] ([[characin]]s, [[pencilfish]]es, [[Freshwater hatchetfish|hatchetfishes]], [[piranha]]s, [[tetra]]s, [[Golden dorado|dourado / golden (genus ''Salminus'')]] and [[Piaractus mesopotamicus|pacu]]) ********** Order [[Gymnotiformes]] ([[electric eel]]s and [[knifefish (disambiguation)|knifefishes]]) ********** Order [[Siluriformes]] ([[catfish]]es) ******* '''Cohort [[Euteleosteomorpha]]''' ([[Euteleostei]] Greenwood 1967 sensu Johnson & Patterson 1996) ******** '''Subcohort [[Lepidogalaxii]]''' ********* [[Lepidogalaxiiformes]] ******** '''Subcohort [[Protacanthopterygii]]''' sensu Johnson & Patterson 1996 ********* Order [[Argentiniformes]] ([[barreleye]]s and [[slickhead]]s) (formerly in Osmeriformes) ********* Order [[Galaxiiformes]] ********* Order [[Salmoniformes]] ([[salmon]] and [[trout]]) ********* Order [[Esociformes]] ([[esox|pike]]) ******** '''Subcohort [[Stomiati]]''' ********* Order [[Osmeriformes]] ([[Smelt (fish)|smelts]]) ********* Order [[Stomiatiformes]] ([[bristlemouth]]s and [[marine hatchetfish]]es) ******** '''Subcohort [[Neoteleostei]]''' Nelson 1969 ********* '''Infracohort [[Ateleopodia]]''' ********** Order [[Ateleopodiformes]] ([[jellynose fish]]) ********* '''Infracohort [[Eurypterygia]]''' Rosen 1973 ********** '''Section [[Aulopa]]''' [Cyclosquamata] *********** Order [[Aulopiformes]] ([[Bombay duck]] and [[lancetfish]]es) ********** '''Section [[Ctenosquamata]]''' Rosen 1973 *********** '''Subsection [[Myctophata]]''' [Scopelomorpha] ************ Order [[Myctophiformes]] ([[lanternfish]]es) *********** '''Subsection [[Acanthomorphata]]''' ************ '''Division [[Lampridacea]]''' [Lampridiomorpha] ************* Order [[Lampriformes]] ([[oarfish]], [[opah]] and [[ribbonfishes]]) ************ '''Division [[Paracanthomorphacea]]''' sensu Grande et al. 2013 ([[Paracanthopterygii]] Greenwood 1937) ************* Order [[Percopsiformes]] ([[Amblyopsidae|cavefishes]] and [[trout-perch]]es) ************* Order †[[Sphenocephaliformes]] ************* Order [[Zeiiformes]] ([[dory (fish)|dories]]) ************* Order [[Stylephoriformes]] ************* Order [[Gadiformes]] ([[cod]]s) ************ '''Division [[Polymixiacea]]''' ([[Polymyxiomorpha]]) ************* Order †[[Pattersonichtyiformes]] ************* Order †[[Ctenothrissiformes]] ************* Order [[Polymixiiformes]] ([[beardfish]]es) ************ '''Division [[Euacanthomorphacea]]''' sensu Johnson & Patterson 1993 ([[Acanthopterygii]] Gouan 1770 sensu Nelson 1994) ************* '''Subdivision [[Berycimorphaceae]]''' ************** Order [[Beryciformes]] ([[fangtooth]]s and [[pineconefish]]es) ************* '''Subdivision [[Holocentrimorphaceae ]]''' ([[Stephanoberyciformes]]; [[Cetomimiformes]]) ************** Order [[Holocentriformes]] ************* '''Subdivision [[Percomorphaceae]]''' ([[Percomorpha]] sensu Miya et al. 2003; [[Acanthopteri]]) ************** '''Series [[Ophidiimopharia]]''' *************** Order [[Ophidiiformes]] ([[pearlfish]]es) ************** '''Series [[Batrachoidimopharia]]''' *************** Order [[Batrachoidiformes]] ([[Batrachoididae|toadfishes]]) ************** '''Series [[Gobiomopharia]]''' *************** Order [[Kurtiformes]] *************** Order [[Gobiiformes]] ************** '''Series [[Scombrimopharia]]''' *************** Order [[Syngnathiformes]] ([[Seahorse (fish)|seahorses]] and [[pipefish]]es<ref>In Nelson and ITIS, [[Syngnathiformes]] is placed as the suborder Syngnathoidei of the order [[Gasterosteiformes]].</ref>) *************** Order [[Scombriformes]] ************** '''Series [[Carangimopharia]]''' *************** '''Sub Series [[Anabantaria]]''' **************** Order [[Synbranchiformes]] ([[swamp eel]]s) **************** Order [[Anabantiformes]] ([[Labyrinthici]]) *************** '''Sub Series [[Carangaria]]''' **************** Carangaria incertae sedis **************** Order [[Istiophoriformes]] **************** Order [[Carangiformes]] **************** Order [[Pleuronectiformes]] ([[flatfish]]es) *************** '''Sub Series [[Ovalentaria]]''' sensu Smith & Near 2012 ([[Stiassnyiformes]] sensu Li et al. 2009) **************** Ovalentaria incertae sedis **************** Order [[Pholidichthyiformes]] **************** Order [[Cichliformes]] **************** Order [[Atheriniformes]] ([[Silverside (fish)|silversides]] and [[rainbowfish]]es) **************** Order [[Cyprinodontiformes]] ([[live-bearing aquarium fish|livebearers]], [[killifish]]es) **************** Order [[Beloniformes]] ([[flyingfish]]es) [incl. Gobiesociformes <ref>In ITIS, [[Gobiesociformes]] is placed as the suborder Gobiesocoidei of the order [[Perciformes]].</ref>] **************** Order [[Mugiliformes]] ([[mullet (fish)|mullets]]) **************** Order [[Blenniiformes]] ************** '''Series [[Eupercaria]]''' ([[Percomorpharia]]) *************** Eupercaria incertae sedis *************** Order [[Labriformes]] *************** Order [[Ephippiformes]] *************** Order [[Lobotiformes]] *************** Order [[Acanthuriformes]] *************** Order [[Chaetodontiformes]] *************** Order [[Spariformes]] *************** Order [[Lophiiformes]] ([[anglerfish]]es) *************** Order [[Tetraodontiformes]] ([[filefish]]es and [[pufferfish]]) *************** Order [[Uranoscopiformes]] ([[Paratrachinoidei]] sensu Li et al. 2009) *************** Order [[Pempheriformes]] *************** Order [[Centrarchiformes]] *************** Order [[Perciformes]] (40% of all fish, including [[anabantid]]s, [[Centrarchidae|centrarchids]] (including [[bass (fish)|bass]] and sunfish), [[cichlid]]s, [[gobies]], [[gourami]]s, [[mackerel]], [[tuna]], [[perch]]es, [[Scatophagidae|scats]], [[whiting (fish)|whiting]], [[wrasses]], [[betta]]s) (incl. [[Gasterosteiformes]]; [[Scorpaeniformes]]) ==Notes==<!-- AnimalBiology58:23. MolecularPhylogeneticsAndEvolution46:224. --> {{reflist|20em}} == External links == {{wikispecies|Actinopterygii}} {{Commons category|Actinopterygii}} * {{eol|1905}} * [http://www.untamedscience.com/biodiversity/animals/chordates/ray-finned-fishes ''Actinopterygii'' at UntamedScience.com] * Jonna, R. (2004) [http://www.arlis.org/docs/vol1/52386062/actinopterygii.html Actinopterygii] ''Animal Diversity Web''. Updated 29 August 2006. Accessed 2 February 2013. {{Chordata}} {{Actinopterygii| }} {{evolution of fish}} {{fins, limbs and wings}} [[Category:Extant Silurian first appearances]] [[Category:Ray-finned fish| ]] [[Category:Fish classes]] b2wiehd519bonz5o1qresr68fiwuupc 0 735 629644811 179567630 2014-10-15T00:01:18Z Jdaloner 4460044 Changed "R from CamelCase" tag to "R from subpage". wikitext text/x-wiki #REDIRECT [[Al Gore]] {{R from subpage}} nc582in19fdywefuy0ljcy7twy125s1 0 736 716825343 716825172 2016-04-24T03:25:59Z Dr.K. 894320 Reverted edits by [[Special:Contribs/Jatl8|Jatl8]] ([[User talk:Jatl8|talk]]) to last version by XXzoonamiXX wikitext text/x-wiki {{redirect|Einstein|other uses|Albert Einstein (disambiguation)|and|Einstein (disambiguation)}} {{pp-semi-indef}} {{pp-move-indef}} {{Good article}} {{Infobox scientist | name = Albert Einstein | image = Einstein 1921 by F Schmutzer - restoration.jpg | caption = Albert Einstein in 1921 | birth_date = {{Birth date|df=yes|1879|3|14}} | birth_place = [[Ulm]], [[Kingdom of Württemberg]], [[German Empire]] | death_date = {{Death date and age|df=yes|1955|4|18|1879|3|14}} | death_place = {{nowrap|[[Princeton, New Jersey]], U.S.}} | children = [[Lieserl Einstein|"Lieserl"]] (1902–1903?)<br />[[Hans Albert Einstein|Hans Albert]] (1904–1973)<br />[[Eduard Einstein|Eduard "Tete"]] (1910–1965) | spouse = [[Mileva Marić]]&nbsp;(1903–1919)<br />{{nowrap|[[Elsa Löwenthal]]&nbsp;(1919–1936)}} | residence = Germany, Italy, Switzerland, Austria (today: [[Czech Republic]]), Belgium, United States | citizenship = {{Plainlist| * [[Kingdom of Württemberg]] (1879–1896) * [[Statelessness|Stateless]] (1896–1901) * [[Switzerland]] (1901–1955) * Austria of the [[Austro-Hungarian Empire]] (1911–1912) * Germany (1914–1933) * United States (1940–1955) }} | ethnicity = Jewish | fields = [[Physics]], [[philosophy]] | workplaces = {{Plainlist| * [[Swiss Patent Office]] ([[Bern]]) (1902–1909) * [[University of Bern]] (1908–1909) * [[University of Zurich]] (1909–1911) * [[Karl-Ferdinands-Universität|Charles University in Prague]] (1911–1912) * [[ETH Zurich]] (1912–1914) * [[Prussian Academy of Sciences]] (1914–1933) * [[Humboldt University of Berlin]] (1914–1917) * [[Kaiser Wilhelm Institute]] (director, 1917–1933) * [[German Physical Society]] (president, 1916–1918) * [[Leiden University]] (visits, 1920–) * [[Institute for Advanced Study]] (1933–1955) * [[Caltech]] (visits, 1931–1933) }} | alma_mater = {{Plainlist| * [[ETH Zurich|Swiss Federal Polytechnic]] (1896–1900; B.A., 1900) * [[University of Zurich]] (Ph.D., 1905) }} | doctoral_advisor = [[Alfred Kleiner]] | thesis_title = Eine neue Bestimmung der Moleküldimensionen (A New Determination of Molecular Dimensions) | thesis_url = http://e-collection.library.ethz.ch/eserv/eth:30378/eth-30378-01.pdf | thesis_year = 1905 | academic_advisors = [[Heinrich Friedrich Weber]] | influenced = {{Plainlist| * [[Ernst G. Straus]] * [[Nathan Rosen]] * [[Leó Szilárd]] }} | known_for = {{Plainlist| * [[General relativity]] and [[special relativity]] * [[Photoelectric effect]] * ''[[Mass–energy equivalence|E=mc²]]'' * Theory of [[Brownian motion]] * [[Einstein field equations]] * [[Bose–Einstein statistics]] * [[Bose–Einstein condensate]] * [[Gravitational wave]] * [[Cosmological constant]] * [[Classical unified field theories|Unified field theory]] * [[EPR paradox]] }} | awards = {{Plainlist| * [[Barnard Medal for Meritorious Service to Science|Barnard Medal]] (1920) * [[Nobel Prize in Physics]] (1921) * [[Matteucci Medal]] (1921) * [[ForMemRS]] (1921)<ref name="frs" /> * [[Copley Medal]] (1925)<ref name="frs" /> * [[Max Planck Medal]] (1929) * [[Time 100: The Most Important People of the Century|''Time'' Person of the Century]] (1999) }} | signature = Albert Einstein signature 1934.svg }} '''Albert Einstein''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|aɪ|n|s|t|aɪ|n}};<ref>{{cite book|last=Wells|first=John|authorlink=John C. Wells|title=Longman Pronunciation Dictionary|publisher=Pearson Longman|edition=3rd|date=April 3, 2008|isbn=1-4058-8118-6}}</ref> {{IPA-de|ˈalbɛɐ̯t ˈaɪnʃtaɪn|lang|Albert Einstein german.ogg}}; 14 March 1879&nbsp;– 18 April 1955) was a German-born<!-- Please do not change this—see talk page and its many archives.--> [[theoretical physicist]]. He developed the [[general theory of relativity]], one of the two pillars of [[modern physics]] (alongside [[quantum mechanics]]).<ref name=frs>{{cite journal | last1 = Whittaker | first1 = E. | authorlink = E. T. Whittaker| doi = 10.1098/rsbm.1955.0005 | title = Albert Einstein. 1879–1955 | journal = [[Biographical Memoirs of Fellows of the Royal Society]] | volume = 1 | pages = 37–67 | date = 1 November 1955| jstor = 769242}}</ref><ref name="YangHamilton2010">{{cite book|author1=Fujia Yang|author2=Joseph H. Hamilton|title=Modern Atomic and Nuclear Physics|date=2010|publisher=World Scientific|isbn=978-981-4277-16-7}}</ref>{{rp|274}} Einstein's work is also known for its influence on the [[philosophy of science]].<ref>{{Citation |title=Einstein's Philosophy of Science |url=http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/einstein-philscience/#IntWasEinEpiOpp |website=Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=The Metaphysics Research Lab, Center for the Study of Language and Information (CSLI), Stanford University |editor=Don A. Howard |date=2014 |orig-year=First published 11 February 2004 |type=website |accessdate=2015-02-04}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |author=Don A. Howard |title=Albert Einstein as a Philosopher of Science |url=http://www3.nd.edu/~dhoward1/vol58no12p34_40.pdf |format=PDF |date=December 2005 |journal=Physics Today |volume=58 |issue=12 |publisher=American Institute of Physics |pages=34–40 |via=University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, IN, author's personal webpage |accessdate=2015-03-08|bibcode=2005PhT....58l..34H |doi=10.1063/1.2169442 }}</ref> Einstein is best known in popular culture for his [[mass–energy equivalence]] formula {{nowrap|1=''E'' = ''mc''²}} (which has been dubbed "the world's most famous equation").<ref>{{cite book |author=David Bodanis |title=E&nbsp;=&nbsp;mc²: A Biography of the World's Most Famous Equation |location=New York |publisher=Walker |date=2000 }}</ref> He received the 1921 [[Nobel Prize in Physics]] for his "services to theoretical physics", in particular his discovery of the law of the [[photoelectric effect]], a pivotal step in the evolution of [[Introduction to quantum mechanics|quantum theory]].<ref>{{Citation |url=http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/1921/ |title=The Nobel Prize in Physics 1921 : Albert Einstein |publisher=Nobel Media AB |via=Nobelprice.org |accessdate=2015-02-04 |archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/5bLXMl1V0 |archivedate=5 October 2008}}</ref> Near the beginning of his career, Einstein thought that [[Newtonian mechanics]] was no longer enough to reconcile the laws of [[classical mechanics]] with the laws of the [[electromagnetic field]]. This led to the development of his [[special theory of relativity]]. He realized, however, that the principle of relativity could also be extended to [[gravitational fields]], and with his subsequent theory of gravitation in 1916, he published a paper on general relativity. He continued to deal with problems of [[statistical mechanics]] and quantum theory, which led to his explanations of [[particle]] theory and the [[Brownian motion|motion of molecules]]. He also investigated the thermal properties of light which laid the foundation of the [[photon]] theory of light. In 1917, Einstein applied the general theory of relativity to model the large-scale structure of the [[universe]].<ref name=Nobel>{{Citation |url=http://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/2011/advanced-physicsprize2011.pdf |title=Scientific Background on the Nobel Prize in Physics 2011. The accelerating universe |publisher=Nobel Media AB |via=Nobelprize.org |page=2 |format=PDF |accessdate=2015-01-04}}</ref><ref name="NYT-20151124">{{cite news |last=Overbye |first=Dennis |authorlink=Dennis Overbye |title=A Century Ago, Einstein’s Theory of Relativity Changed Everything |url=http://www.nytimes.com/2015/11/24/science/a-century-ago-einsteins-theory-of-relativity-changed-everything.html |date=24 November 2015 |work=[[New York Times]] |accessdate=24 November 2015 }}</ref> He was visiting the United States when [[Adolf Hitler]] came to power in 1933 and, being [[Jewish people|Jewish]], did not go back to Germany, where he had been a professor at the [[Prussian Academy of Sciences|Berlin Academy of Sciences]]. He settled in the U.S., becoming an [[American citizen]] in 1940.<ref name="BoyerDubofsky2001">{{cite book|author1=Paul S. Boyer|author2=Melvyn Dubofsky|title=The Oxford Companion to United States History|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SgtyKzBes6QC&pg=PA218|date=2001|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-508209-8|page=218}}</ref> On the eve of World War II, he endorsed a [[Einstein–Szilárd letter|letter to President Franklin D. Roosevelt]] alerting him to the potential development of "extremely powerful bombs of a new type" and recommending that the U.S. begin similar research. This eventually led to what would become the [[Manhattan Project]]. Einstein supported defending the Allied forces, but largely denounced the idea of using the newly discovered [[nuclear fission]] as a weapon. Later, with the British philosopher [[Bertrand Russell]], Einstein signed the [[Russell–Einstein Manifesto]], which highlighted the danger of nuclear weapons. Einstein was affiliated with the [[Institute for Advanced Study]] in [[Princeton, New Jersey]], until his death in 1955. Einstein published [[List of scientific publications by Albert Einstein|more than 300 scientific papers]] along with over 150 non-scientific works.<ref name=Nobel /><ref name="Paul Arthur Schilpp, editor 1951 730–746">{{Citation |editor=Paul Arthur Schilpp |date=1951 |title=Albert Einstein: Philosopher-Scientist |volume=II |publisher=Harper and Brothers Publishers (Harper Torchbook edition) |location=New York |pages=730–746}}. His non-scientific works include: ''About Zionism: Speeches and Lectures by Professor Albert Einstein'' (1930), "Why War?" (1933, co-authored by [[Sigmund Freud]]), ''The World As I See It'' (1934), ''Out of My Later Years'' (1950), and a book on science for the general reader, ''[[The Evolution of Physics]]'' (1938, co-authored by [[Leopold Infeld]]).</ref> On 5 December 2014, universities and archives announced the release of Einstein's papers, comprising more than 30,000 unique documents.{{Sfnp|Stachel|2008}}<ref name="NYT-20141204-DB">{{cite news |last=Overbye |first=Dennis |authorlink=Dennis Overbye |title=Thousands of Einstein Documents Are Now a Click Away |url=http://www.nytimes.com/2014/12/05/science/huge-trove-of-albert-einstein-documents-becomes-available-online.html |date=4 December 2014 |work=New York Times |accessdate=2015-01-04}}</ref> Einstein's intellectual achievements and originality have made the word "Einstein" synonymous with "[[genius]]".<ref name="wordnetweb.princeton.edu">{{Citation |url=http://wordnetweb.princeton.edu/perl/webwn?s=Einstein |title=Result of WordNet Search for Einstein |version=3.1 |publisher=The Trustees of Princeton University |accessdate=2015-01-04}}</ref> == Biography == === Early life and education === {{See also|Einstein family}} [[File:Albert Einstein at the age of three (1882).jpg|alt=A young boy with short hair and a round face, wearing a white collar and large bow, with vest, coat, skirt and high boots. He is leaning against an ornate chair.|thumb||upright|Einstein at the age of 3 in 1882]] [[File:Albert Einstein as a child.jpg|alt=Studio photo of a boy seated in a relaxed posture and wearing a suit, posed in front of a backdrop of scenery.|thumb||upright|Albert Einstein in 1893 (age 14)]] [[File:Albert Einstein's exam of maturity grades (color2).jpg|alt=Einstein's matriculation certificate at the age of 17. The heading reads "The Education Committee of the Canton of Aargau." His scores were German 5, French 3, Italian 5, History 6, Geography 4, Algebra 6, Geometry 6, Descriptive Geometry 6, Physics 6, Chemistry 5, Natural History 5, Art Drawing 4, Technical Drawing 4. The scores are 6 = excellent, 5 = good, 4 = sufficient, 3 = poor, 2 = very poor, 1 = unusable.|thumb|upright|Einstein's matriculation certificate at the age of 17, showing his final grades from the Argovian cantonal school (Aargauische Kantonsschule, on a scale of 1–6, with 6 being the highest possible mark)]] Albert Einstein was born in [[Ulm]], in the [[Kingdom of Württemberg]] in the [[German Empire]] on 14&nbsp;March 1879.<ref name=Bio>{{cite web |url=http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/1921/einstein-bio.html |title=Albert Einstein&nbsp;– Biography |accessdate=7 March 2007 |publisher=[[Nobel Foundation]]| archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20070306133522/http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/1921/einstein-bio.html| archivedate= 6 March 2007 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}</ref> His parents were [[Hermann Einstein]], a salesman and engineer, and [[Pauline Koch]]. In 1880, the family moved to [[Munich]], where Einstein's father and his uncle Jakob founded ''Elektrotechnische Fabrik J. Einstein & Cie'', a company that manufactured electrical equipment based on [[direct current]].<ref name=Bio /> The Einsteins were non-observant [[Ashkenazi Jews]], and Albert attended a [[Catholic school|Catholic elementary school]] from the age of 5 for three years. At the age of 8, he was transferred to the Luitpold Gymnasium (now known as the Albert Einstein Gymnasium), where he received advanced primary and secondary school education until he left Germany seven years later.{{Sfnp|Stachel|2002|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=OAsQ_hFjhrAC&pg=PA59 59–61]}} In 1894, Hermann and Jakob's company lost a bid to supply the city of Munich with electrical lighting because they lacked the capital to convert their equipment from the direct current (DC) standard to the more efficient [[alternating current]] (AC) standard.<ref>Barry R. Parker, Einstein: The Passions of a Scientist, Prometheus Books - 2003, page 31</ref> The loss forced the sale of the Munich factory. In search of business, the Einstein family moved to Italy, first to [[Milan]] and a few months later to [[Pavia]]. When the family moved to Pavia, Einstein stayed in Munich to finish his studies at the Luitpold Gymnasium. His father intended for him to pursue [[electrical engineering]], but Einstein clashed with authorities and resented the school's regimen and teaching method. He later wrote that the spirit of learning and creative thought was lost in strict [[rote learning]]. At the end of December 1894, he travelled to Italy to join his family in Pavia, convincing the school to let him go by using a doctor's note.{{Sfnp|Fölsing|1997|pp=30–31}} During his time in Italy he wrote a short essay with the title "On the Investigation of the State of the [[Aether theories|Ether]] in a Magnetic Field".{{Sfnp|Stachel|2008|loc=vol. 1 (1987), doc. 5}}<ref>{{Citation |last=Mehra |first=Jagdish |contribution=Albert Einstein's first paper |title=The Golden Age of Physics |publisher=World Scientific |date=2001 |isbn=981-02-4985-3}}</ref> In 1895, at the age of 16, Einstein sat the entrance examinations for the [[ETH Zurich|Swiss Federal Polytechnic]] in [[Zürich]] (later the Eidgenössische Technische Hochschule, ETH). He failed to reach the required standard in the general part of the examination,{{Sfnp|Stachel|2008|loc=vol. 1 (1987), p. 11}} but obtained exceptional grades in physics and mathematics.{{Sfnp|Fölsing|1997|pp=36–37}} On the advice of the principal of the Polytechnic, he attended the [[Aargau|Argovian]] cantonal school ([[Gymnasium (school)|gymnasium]]) in [[Aarau]], Switzerland, in 1895–96 to complete his secondary schooling. While lodging with the family of professor Jost Winteler, he fell in love with Winteler's daughter, Marie. (Albert's sister [[Maja Einstein|Maja]] later married Winteler's son Paul.){{Sfnp|Highfield|Carter|1993|pp=21, 31, 56–57}} In January 1896, with his father's approval, Einstein renounced his [[German citizenship|citizenship in the German Kingdom of Württemberg]] to avoid [[Conscription in Germany|military service]].{{Sfnp|Fölsing|1997|p=40}} In September 1896, he passed the Swiss [[Matura]] with mostly good grades, including a top grade of 6 in physics and mathematical subjects, on a scale of 1–6.{{Sfnp|Stachel|2008|loc=vol. 1 (1987), docs. 21–27}} Though only 17, he enrolled in the four-year mathematics and physics teaching diploma program at the Zürich Polytechnic. Marie Winteler moved to [[Olsberg, Aargau|Olsberg]], Switzerland, for a teaching post. Einstein's future wife, [[Mileva Marić]], also enrolled at the Polytechnic that year. She was the only woman among the six students in the mathematics and physics section of the teaching diploma course. Over the next few years, Einstein and Marić's friendship developed into romance, and they read books together on extra-curricular physics in which Einstein was taking an increasing interest. In 1900, Einstein was awarded the Zürich Polytechnic teaching diploma, but Marić failed the examination with a poor grade in the mathematics component, theory of functions.{{Sfnp|Stachel|2008|loc=vol. 1 (1987), doc. 67}} There have been claims that Marić collaborated with Einstein on his celebrated 1905 papers,<ref>{{Citation |author=Troemel-Ploetz, D. |title=Mileva Einstein-Marić: The Woman Who Did Einstein's Mathematics |work=Women's Studies Int. Forum |date=1990 |volume=13 |issue=5 |pages=415–432 |doi=10.1016/0277-5395(90)90094-e}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120119093653/http://philosci40.unibe.ch/lehre/winter99/einstein/Walker_Stachel.pdf |url=http://philosci40.unibe.ch/lehre/winter99/einstein/Walker_Stachel.pdf |archivedate=January 19, 2012 |title=Did Einstein Espouse his Spouse's Ideas? |author=Walker, Evan Harris |format=PDF |date=February 1989 |publisher=Physics Today |postscript=. |accessdate=October 19, 2014}}</ref> but historians of physics who have studied the issue find no evidence that she made any substantive contributions.{{Sfnp|Pais|1994|pp=1–29}}<ref>Holton, G., ''Einstein, History, and Other Passions'', Harvard University Press, 1996, pp. 177–193.</ref>{{Sfnp|Stachel|2002|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=OAsQ_hFjhrAC&pg=PA49 49–56]}}<ref>Martinez, A. A., "Handling evidence in history: the case of Einstein's Wife." ''School Science Review'', 86 (316), March 2005, pp. 49–56. [https://webspace.utexas.edu/aam829/1/m/Maric_files/EvidenceMaric.pdf PDF]</ref> === Marriages and children === [[File:Einstein patentoffice.jpg|alt=Head and shoulders shot of a young, moustached man with dark, curly hair wearing a plaid suit and vest, striped shirt, and a dark tie.|thumb|upright|Albert Einstein in 1904 (age 25)]] The discovery and publication in 1987 of an early correspondence between Einstein and Marić revealed that they had had a daughter, called [[Lieserl Einstein|"Lieserl"]] in their letters, born in early 1902 in [[Novi Sad]] where Marić was staying with her parents. Marić returned to Switzerland without the child, whose real name and fate are unknown. Einstein probably never saw his daughter. The contents of his letter to Marić in September 1903 suggest that the girl was either adopted or died of [[scarlet fever]] in infancy.<ref>J. Renn & R. Schulmann, ''Albert Einstein/Mileva Marić: The Love Letters'', 1992, pp.&nbsp;73–74, 78.</ref><ref>A. Calaprice & T. Lipscombe, ''Albert Einstein: A Biography'', 2005, pp.&nbsp;22–23.</ref> [[File:Einstein Albert Elsa LOC 32096u.jpg|alt=Einstein, looking relaxed and holding a pipe, stands next to a smiling, well-dressed Elsa who is wearing a fancy hat and fur wrap. She is looking at him.|thumb|Einstein with his wife Elsa]] Einstein and Marić married in January 1903. In May 1904, their first son, [[Hans Albert Einstein]], was born in [[Bern]], [[Switzerland]]. Their second son, [[Eduard Einstein|Eduard]], was born in Zürich in July 1910. In 1914, the couple separated; Einstein moved to [[Berlin]] and his wife remained in Zürich with their sons. They divorced on 14 February 1919, having lived apart for five years. Eduard, whom his father called "Tete" (for ''petit''), had a breakdown at about age 20 and was diagnosed with [[schizophrenia]]. His mother cared for him and he was also committed to asylums for several periods, including full-time after her death. In letters revealed in 2015, Einstein wrote to his early love, Marie Winteler, about his marriage and his still-strong feelings for Marie. In 1910 he wrote to her that "I think of you in heartfelt love every spare minute and am so unhappy as only a man can be" while his wife was pregnant with their second child. Einstein spoke about a "misguided love" and a "missed life" regarding his love for Marie.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.bernerzeitung.ch/region/bern/Die-Liebesbriefe-des-untreuen-Einstein/story/11875058 |author=Urs Wüthrich |title=Die Liebesbriefe des untreuen Einstein |trans-title=The love letters of the unfaithful Einstein |newspaper=BZ Berner Zeitung |location=Bern, Switzerland |date=11 April 2015 |language=German |quote=Ich denke in innigster Liebe an Dich in jeder freien Minute und bin so unglücklich, wie nur ein Mensch es sein kann. |accessdate=2015-04-11}}</ref> Einstein married [[Elsa Einstein|Elsa Löwenthal]] on 2 June 1919, after having had a relationship with her since 1912. She was a first cousin maternally and a second cousin paternally. In 1933, they emigrated to the United States. In 1935, Elsa Einstein was diagnosed with heart and kidney problems; she died in December 1936.{{Sfnp|Highfield|Carter|1993|p=216}} === Patent office === [[File:Einstein-with-habicht-and-solovine.jpg|thumb|left|alt=Three young men in suits with high white collars and bow ties, sitting.|[[Olympia Academy]] founders: Conrad Habicht, [[Maurice Solovine]] and Einstein.]] After graduating in 1900, Einstein spent almost two frustrating years searching for a teaching post. He acquired Swiss citizenship in February 1901,{{Sfnp|Fölsing|1997|p=82}} but was not [[conscription in Switzerland|conscripted]] for medical reasons. With the help of [[Marcel Grossmann]]'s father, Einstein secured a job in Bern at the [[Swiss Federal Institute of Intellectual Property|Federal Office for Intellectual Property]], the patent office,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www-history.mcs.st-and.ac.uk/Biographies/Grossmann.html |title=Grossmann biography |publisher=School of Mathematics and Statistics, University of St Andrews, Scotland |editor=J J O'Connor |editor2=E F Robertson |date=May 2010 |type=scientific website? |accessdate=2015-03-27}}</ref>{{Sfnp|Isaacson|2007|p=63}} as an assistant [[patent examiner|examiner]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Swiss Federal Institute of Intellectual Property |url=http://www.ipi.ch/E/institut/i1.shtm |publisher=Swiss Federal Institute of Intellectual Property, IGE/IPI |location=Berne, Switzerland |date=6 February 2014 |type=official website |accessdate=2015-03-27}}</ref><ref name=IGEFAQ>{{cite web |title=FAQ about Einstein and the Institute |url=https://www.ipi.ch/en/about-us/einstein/frequently-asked-questions.html |publisher=Swiss Federal Institute of Intellectual Property, IGE/IPI |location=Berne, Switzerland |date=27 May 2014 |type=official website |accessdate=2015-03-27}}</ref> He evaluated [[patent application]]s for a variety of devices including a gravel sorter and an electromechanical typewriter.<ref name=IGEFAQ /> In 1903, Einstein's position at the Swiss Patent Office became permanent, although he was passed over for promotion until he "fully mastered machine technology".<ref name=GalisonClock>{{cite journal |url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/1344127 |author=Peter Galison |title=Einstein's Clocks: The Question of Time |work=Critical Inquiry |volume=26 |issue=2 Winter |publisher=The University of Chicago Press |location=Chicago |date=2000 |format=online reader |via=JSTOR (ITHAKA, Michigan, New York) |pp=355–389 |accessdate=2015-03-15}}</ref>{{rp|370}} Much of his work at the patent office related to questions about transmission of electric signals and electrical-mechanical synchronization of time, two technical problems that show up conspicuously in the [[thought experiment]]s that eventually led Einstein to his radical conclusions about the nature of light and the fundamental connection between space and time.<ref name=GalisonClock />{{rp|377}} With a few friends he had met in Bern, Einstein started a small discussion group, self-mockingly named "[[Olympia Academy|The Olympia Academy]]", which met regularly to discuss science and philosophy. Their readings included the works of [[Henri Poincaré]], [[Ernst Mach]], and [[David Hume]], which influenced his scientific and philosophical outlook.{{Sfnp|Isaacson|2007|p=79-84}} === Academic career === [[File:Albert Einstein (Nobel).png|thumb|upright|Einstein's official 1921 portrait after receiving the Nobel Prize in Physics]] In 1900, Einstein's paper [[List of scientific publications by Albert Einstein#Journal articles|"Folgerungen aus den Capillaritätserscheinungen"]] ("Conclusions from the Capillarity Phenomena") was published in the prestigious ''[[Annalen der Physik]]''.{{Sfnp|Einstein|1901}}<ref>{{cite book |last=Galison |first=Peter | authorlink=Peter Galison |title=Einstein's Clocks, Poincaré's Maps: Empires of Time |publisher=W.W. Norton |location=New York |date=2003 |isbn=978-0-393-02001-4}}</ref> On 30 April 1905, Einstein completed his thesis,{{Sfnp|Einstein|1905b|loc="Meinem Freunde Herr Dr. Marcel Grossmann gewidmet (Dedicated to my friend, Dr. Marcel Grossmann)"}} with [[Alfred Kleiner]], Professor of Experimental Physics, serving as ''[[Wikt:pro forma|pro-forma]]'' advisor. As a result, Einstein was awarded a PhD by the [[University of Zürich]], with his dissertation entitled, "A New Determination of Molecular Dimensions."{{Sfnp|Einstein|1905b|loc="Meinem Freunde Herr Dr. Marcel Grossmann gewidmet (Dedicated to my friend, Dr. Marcel Grossmann)"}}{{Sfnp|Einstein|1926b|loc=chap. "A New Determination of Molecular Dimensions"}} That same year, which has been called Einstein's ''[[annus mirabilis]]'' (miracle year), he published [[Annus Mirabilis papers|four groundbreaking papers]], on the photoelectric effect, Brownian motion, special relativity, and the equivalence of mass and energy, which were to bring him to the notice of the academic world, at the age of 26. By 1908, he was recognized as a leading scientist and was appointed lecturer at the [[University of Bern]]. The following year, after giving a lecture on [[electrodynamics]] and the relativity principle at the University of Zurich, [[Alfred Kleiner]] recommended him to the faculty for a newly created professorship in theoretical physics. Einstein was appointed associate professor in 1909.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.library.ethz.ch/en/Resources/Digital-library/Einstein-Online/Associate-Professor-at-the-Universiy-of-Zurich-und-professor-in-Prague-1909-1912 |title=Associate Professor at the University of Zurich und professor in Prague (1909–1912) |publisher=ETH-Bibliothek Zurich, ETH Zürich, www.ethz.ch |location=Bern, Switzerland |series=Einstein Online |website=www.library.ethz.ch/en/ |date=2014 |type=digital library |language=German, English |accessdate=17 August 2014}}</ref> Einstein became a full professor at the German [[Charles-Ferdinand University]] in [[Prague]] in April 1911, accepting [[Austria]]n citizenship in the [[Austro-Hungarian empire]] to do so.{{Sfnp|Isaacson|2007|p=164}}<ref>{{cite web |url=http://econstor.eu/bitstream/10419/49610/1/569197996.pdf |author=von Hirschhausen, Ulrike |title=Von imperialer Inklusion zur nationalen Exklusion:Staatsbürgerschaft in Österreich- Ungarn 1867–1923 |publisher=WZB Social Science Research Center Berlin |date=2007 |location=Berlin, Germany |series=ZKD – Veröffentlichungsreihe der Forschungsgruppe, „Zivilgesellschaft, Citizenship und politische Mobilisierung in Europa“ Schwerpunkt Zivilgesellschaft, Konflikte und Demokratie, Wissenschaftszentrum Berlin für Sozialforschung |type=WZB Discussion Paper |issue=No. SP IV 2007-403 |ISSN=1860-4315 |page=8 |quote= Eine weitere Diskontinuität bestand viertens darin, dass die Bestimmungen der österreichischen Staatsbürgerschaft, die in den ersten Dritteln des Jahrhunderts auch auf Ungarn angewandt worden waren, seit 1867 nur noch für die cisleithanische Reichshälfte galten. Ungarn entwickelte hingegen jetzt eine eige-ne Staatsbürgerschaft. |accessdate=2015-08-04}}</ref> During his Prague stay Einstein wrote 11 scientific works, 5 of them on radiation mathematics and on quantum theory of the solids. In July 1912 he returned to his alma mater in Zürich. From 1912 until 1914 he was professor of theoretical physics at the [[ETH Zurich]], where he taught analytical mechanics and [[thermodynamics]]. He also studied [[continuum mechanics]], the molecular theory of heat, and the problem of gravitation, on which he worked with mathematician and his friend [[Marcel Grossmann]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.library.ethz.ch/en/Resources/Digital-library/Einstein-Online/Professor-at-the-ETH-Zurich-1912-1914 |title=Professor at the ETH Zurich (1912–1914) |publisher=ETH-Bibliothek Zurich, ETH Zürich, www.ethz.ch |location=Zurich, Switzerland |series=Einstein Online |website=www.library.ethz.ch/en/ |date=2014 |type=digital library |language=German, English |accessdate=17 August 2014}}</ref> In 1914, he returned to the German Empire after being appointed director of the [[Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Physics]] (1914–1932)<ref name="Kant">Kant, Horst. "Albert Einstein and the [[Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Physics]] in Berlin". in Renn, Jürgen. "Albert Einstein&nbsp;– Chief Engineer of the Universe: One Hundred Authors for Einstein." Ed. Renn, Jürgen. ''Wiley-VCH''. 2005. pp. 166–169. ISBN 3-527-40574-7</ref> and a professor at the [[Humboldt University of Berlin]], but freed from most teaching obligations. He soon became a member of the [[Prussian Academy of Sciences]], and in 1916 was appointed president of the [[German Physical Society]] (1916–1918).<ref>{{cite book |title=Albert Einstein: a biography| first1=Alice |last1=Calaprice |first2=Trevor |last2=Lipscombe |publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group |date=2005 |isbn=0-313-33080-8 |page=xix |url=https://books.google.com/?id=5eWh2O_3OAQC}}, [https://books.google.com/books?id=5eWh2O_3OAQC&pg=PR19 Timeline, p. xix]</ref> Based on calculations Einstein made in 1911, about his new theory of general relativity, [[Gravitational lens|light from another star would be bent]] by the Sun's gravity. In 1919 that prediction was confirmed by Sir [[Arthur Eddington]] during the [[solar eclipse of 29 May 1919]]. Those observations were published in the international media, making Einstein world famous. On 7 November 1919, the leading British newspaper ''[[The Times]]'' printed a banner headline that read: "Revolution in Science&nbsp;– New Theory of the Universe&nbsp;– Newtonian Ideas Overthrown".<ref name="Eddington">{{cite journal |last=Andrzej |first=Stasiak |date=2003 |title=Myths in science |journal=EMBO Reports |volume=4 |issue=3 |page=236 |doi=10.1038/sj.embor.embor779 |url=http://www.nature.com/embor/journal/v4/n3/full/embor779.html |accessdate =31 March 2007}}</ref> In 1920, he became Foreign Member of the [[Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.dwc.knaw.nl/biografie/pmknaw/?pagetype=authorDetail&aId=PE00000116 |title=Albert Einstein (1879–1955) |publisher=Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences |accessdate=21 July 2015}}</ref> In 1921, Einstein was awarded the [[Nobel Prize in Physics]] "for his services to Theoretical Physics, and especially for his discovery of the law of the photoelectric effect". While [[General Theory of Relativity]] was still considered somewhat controversial, the citation also does not treat the cited work as an ''explanation'' but merely as a ''discovery of the law'', as the idea of photons was considered outlandish and did not receive universal acceptance until the 1924 derivation of the [[Planck spectrum]] by [[S. N. Bose]]. Einstein was elected a [[List of Fellows of the Royal Society elected in 1921|Foreign Member of the Royal Society (ForMemRS) in 1921]].<ref name="frs" /> He also received the [[Copley Medal]] from the [[Royal Society]] in 1925.<ref name="frs" /> === 1921–1922: Travels abroad === [[File:Einstein in NY 1921.jpg|thumb|240px|Einstein in New York, 1921, his first visit to the United States]] Einstein visited New York City for the first time on 2 April 1921, where he received an official welcome by Mayor [[John Francis Hylan]], followed by three weeks of lectures and receptions. He went on to deliver several lectures at [[Columbia University]] and [[Princeton University]], and in Washington he accompanied representatives of the [[National Academy of Science]] on a visit to the [[White House]]. On his return to Europe he was the guest of the British statesman and philosopher [[Viscount Haldane]] in London, where he met several renowned scientific, intellectual and political figures, and delivered a lecture at [[King's College London]].{{Sfnp|Hoffmann|1972|pp=145–148}} {{Sfnp|Fölsing|1997|pp=499–508}} He also published an essay, "My First Impression of the U.S.A.," in July 1921, in which he tried briefly to describe some characteristics of Americans, much as had [[Alexis de Tocqueville]], who published his own impressions in ''[[Democracy in America]]'' (1835).<ref>[http://www.einsteinsworld.com/News-New-York-Herald-Tribune-1931-As-Einstein-Sees-America.htm "As Einstein Sees American"], ''Einstein's World'', a 1931 reprint with minor changes, of his 1921 essay.</ref> For some of his observations, Einstein was clearly surprised: "What strikes a visitor is the joyous, positive attitude to life . . . The American is friendly, self-confident, optimistic, and without envy."<ref name=Holton />{{rp|20}} In 1922, his travels took him to Asia and later to Palestine, as part of a six-month excursion and speaking tour, as he visited [[Singapore]], [[Ceylon]] and [[Japan]], where he gave a series of lectures to thousands of Japanese. After his first public lecture, he met the emperor and empress at the [[Tokyo Imperial Palace|Imperial Palace]], where thousands came to watch. In a letter to his sons, Einstein described his impression of the Japanese as being modest, intelligent, considerate, and having a true feel for art.{{Sfnp|Isaacson|2007|pp=307-308}} Because of Einstein's travels to the Far East, he was unable to personally accept the Nobel Prize for Physics at the Stockholm award ceremony in December 1922. In his place, the banquet speech was held by a German diplomat, who praised Einstein not only as a scientist but also as an international peacemaker and activist.<ref>[http://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/1921/einstein-speech.html The Nobel Prize in Physics 1921: Albert Einstein. Banquet Speech by R. Nadolny (in German).] Retrieved 9 December 2015 via Nobelprize.org</ref> On his return voyage, he visited [[British Mandate for Palestine|Palestine]] for 12 days in what would become his only visit to that region. Einstein was greeted as if he were a head of state, rather than a physicist, which included a cannon salute upon arriving at the home of the British high commissioner, [[Sir Herbert Samuel]]. During one reception, the building was stormed by people who wanted to see and hear him. In Einstein's talk to the audience, he expressed happiness that the Jewish people were beginning to be recognized as a force in the world.{{Sfnp|Isaacson|2007|p=308}} === 1930–1931: Travel to U.S. === In December 1930, Einstein visited America for the second time, originally intended as a two-month working visit as a research fellow at the [[California Institute of Technology]]. After the national attention he received during his first trip to the U.S., he and his arrangers aimed to protect his privacy. Although swamped with telegrams and invitations to receive awards or speak publicly, he declined them all.{{Sfnp|Isaacson|2007|p=368}} [[File:Albert Einstein and Charlie Chaplin - 1931.jpg|thumb|left|[[Charlie Chaplin]] and Einstein at the [[Hollywood]] premier of ''[[City Lights]]'', January 1931]] After arriving in New York City, Einstein was taken to various places and events, including [[Chinatown, Manhattan|Chinatown]], a lunch with the editors of the ''New York Times'', and a performance of ''Carmen'' at the [[Metropolitan Opera]], where he was cheered by the audience on his arrival. During the days following, he was given the keys to the city by Mayor [[Jimmy Walker]] and met the president of [[Columbia University]], who described Einstein as "the ruling monarch of the mind."{{Sfnp|Isaacson|2007|p=370}} [[Harry Emerson Fosdick]], pastor at New York's [[Riverside Church]], gave Einstein a tour of the church and showed him a full-size statue that the church made of Einstein, standing at the entrance.{{Sfnp|Isaacson|2007|p=370}} Also during his stay in New York, he joined a crowd of 15,000 people at [[Madison Square Garden]] during a [[Hanukkah]] celebration.{{Sfnp|Isaacson|2007|p=370}} Einstein next traveled to California where he met [[Caltech]] president and Nobel laureate, [[Robert A. Millikan]]. His friendship with Millikan was "awkward", as Millikan "had a penchant for patriotic militarism," where Einstein was a pronounced pacifist.{{Sfnp|Isaacson|2007|p=373}} During an address to Caltech's students, Einstein noted that science was often inclined to do more harm than good.{{Sfnp|Isaacson|2007|p=374}} This aversion to war also led Einstein to befriend author [[Upton Sinclair]] and film star [[Charlie Chaplin]], both noted for their pacifism. [[Carl Laemmle]], head of [[Universal Studios]], gave Einstein a tour of his studio and introduced him to Chaplin. They had an instant rapport, with Chaplin inviting Einstein and his wife, Elsa, to his home for dinner. Chaplin said Einstein's outward persona, calm and gentle, seemed to conceal a "highly emotional temperament," from which came his "extraordinary intellectual energy."<ref name=Chaplin>Chaplin, Charles. ''Charles Chaplin: My Autobiography'', Simon and Schuster, N.Y. (1964)</ref>{{rp|320}} Chaplin also remembers Elsa telling him about the time Einstein conceived his [[theory of relativity]]. During breakfast one morning, he seemed lost in thought and ignored his food. She asked him if something was bothering him. He sat down at his piano and started playing. He continued playing and writing notes for half an hour, then went upstairs to his study, where he remained for two weeks, with Elsa bringing up his food. At the end of the two weeks he came downstairs with two sheets of paper bearing his theory.<ref name=Chaplin />{{rp|320}} Chaplin's film, ''[[City Lights]]'', was to premier a few days later in Hollywood, and Chaplin invited Einstein and Elsa to join him as his special guests. [[Walter Isaacson]], Einstein's biographer, described this as "one of the most memorable scenes in the new era of celebrity." Einstein and Chaplin arrived together, in black tie, with Elsa joining them, "beaming." The audience applauded as they entered the theater.{{Sfnp|Isaacson|2007|p=374}} Chaplin visited Einstein at his home on a later trip to Berlin, and recalled his "modest little flat" and the piano at which he had begun writing his theory. Chaplin speculated that it was "possibly used as kindling wood by the Nazis."<ref name=Chaplin />{{rp|322}} === 1933: Emigration to the U.S. === [[File:Einstein-cartoon1.jpg|thumb|Cartoon of Einstein, who has shed his "Pacifism" wings, standing next to a pillar labeled "World Peace." He is rolling up his sleeves and holding a sword labeled "Preparedness" (by Charles R. Macauley, c. 1933).]] In February 1933 while on a visit to the United States, Einstein knew he could not return to Germany with the rise to power of the [[Nazi Germany|Nazis]] under Germany's new chancellor, Adolf Hitler.{{Sfnp|Fölsing|1997|p=659}}{{Sfnp|Isaacson|2007|p=404}} While at American universities in early 1933, he undertook his third two-month visiting professorship at the [[California Institute of Technology]] in Pasadena. He and his wife Elsa returned to Belgium by ship in March, and during the trip they learned that their cottage was raided by the Nazis and his personal sailboat confiscated. Upon landing in [[Antwerp]] on 28 March, he immediately went to the German consulate and turned in his passport, formally renouncing his German citizenship.{{Sfnp|Isaacson|2007|pp=407–410}} A few years later, the Nazis sold his boat and turned his cottage into a [[Hitler Youth]] camp.<ref>{{YouTube|id=HZ_W3EAfp6I#t=20m50s|title="Albert Einstein: How I See the World"}}, ''PBS''</ref> ==== Refugee status ==== In April 1933, Einstein discovered that the new German government had passed laws barring Jews from holding any official positions, including teaching at universities.{{Sfnp|Isaacson|2007|pp=407–410}} Historian [[Gerald Holton]] describes how, with "virtually no audible protest being raised by their colleagues," thousands of Jewish scientists were suddenly forced to give up their university positions and their names were removed from the rolls of institutions where they were employed.<ref name=Holton>Holton, Gerald. [https://books.google.com/books?id=prgDAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA18&dq=Gerald+Holton+migration+physicists+United+States+Einstein+jews&hl=en&sa=X&ei=cFWCU9qcLsr6oASvhYLgBA&ved=0CC8Q6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=Gerald%20Holton%20migration%20physicists%20United%20States%20Einstein%20jews&f=false "The migration of physicists to the United States"], ''Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists'', April 1984 pp. 18–24</ref> A month later, Einstein's works were among those targeted by [[Nazi book burnings]], with Nazi propaganda minister [[Joseph Goebbels]] proclaiming, "Jewish intellectualism is dead."{{Sfnp|Isaacson|2007|pp=407–410}} One German magazine included him in a list of enemies of the German regime with the phrase, "not yet hanged", offering a $5,000 bounty on his head.{{Sfnp|Isaacson|2007|pp=407–410}}<ref name=Jerome>Jerome, Fred, and Taylor, Rodger. ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=4d79VQdOfFUC&pg=PR10&dq=Einstein+on+Race+and+Racism+america's+worst+disease#v=onepage&q&f=false Einstein on Race and Racism]'' Rutgers University Press, (2006)</ref> In a subsequent letter to physicist and friend [[Max Born]], who had already emigrated from Germany to England, Einstein wrote, "...&nbsp;I must confess that the degree of their brutality and cowardice came as something of a surprise."{{Sfnp|Isaacson|2007|pp=407–410}} After moving to the U.S., he described the book burnings as a "spontaneous emotional outburst" by those who "shun popular enlightenment," and "more than anything else in the world, fear the influence of men of intellectual independence."{{Sfnp|Einstein|1954|p=197}} [[File:Einstein and Locker-Lampson.jpeg|thumb|Einstein surrounded by Oliver Locker-Lampson (seated) and assistants assigned to protect him]] Einstein was now without a permanent home, unsure where he would live and work, and equally worried about the fate of countless other scientists still in Germany. He rented a house in De Haan, Belgium, where he lived for a few months. In late July 1933, he went to England for about six weeks at the personal invitation of British naval officer Commander [[Oliver Locker-Lampson]], who had become friends with Einstein in the preceding years. To protect Einstein, Locker-Lampson had two assistants watch over him at his secluded cottage outside London, with the press publishing a photo of them guarding Einstein.{{Sfnp|Isaacson|2007|p=422}} Locker-Lampson took Einstein to meet [[Winston Churchill]] at his home, and later, [[Austen Chamberlain]] and former Prime Minister [[David Lloyd George|Lloyd George]].{{Sfnp|Isaacson|2007|pp=419–420}} Einstein asked them to help bring Jewish scientists out of Germany. British historian [[Martin Gilbert]] notes that Churchill responded immediately, and sent his friend, physicist [[Frederick Lindemann, 1st Viscount Cherwell|Frederick Lindemann]] to Germany to seek out Jewish scientists and place them in British universities.<ref name=Gilbert>Gilbert, Martin. ''Churchill and the Jews'', Henry Holt and Company, N.Y. (2007) pp. 101, 176</ref> Churchill later observed that as a result of Germany having driven the Jews out, they had lowered their "technical standards" and put [[Allies of World War II|the Allies']] technology ahead of theirs.<ref name=Gilbert /> Einstein later contacted leaders of other nations, including [[Turkey]]'s Prime Minister, [[İsmet İnönü]], to whom he wrote in September 1933 requesting placement of unemployed German-Jewish scientists. As a result of Einstein's letter, Jewish invitees to Turkey eventually totaled over "1,000 saved individuals."<ref>Reisman, Arnold. [http://hnn.us/article/31946 "What a Freshly Discovered Einstein Letter Says About Turkey Today"], ''History News Network,'', George Masons University, Nov. 20, 2006</ref> Locker-Lampson also submitted a bill to parliament to extend British citizenship to Einstein, during which period Einstein made a number of public appearances describing the crisis brewing in Europe. The bill failed to become law, however, and Einstein then accepted an earlier offer from the Princeton [[Institute for Advanced Study]], in the U.S., to become a resident scholar.{{Sfnp|Clark|1971}} ==== Resident scholar at the Institute for Advanced Study ==== [[File:Einstein-formal portrait-35.jpg|thumb|Portrait taken in 1935 in Princeton]] In October 1933 Einstein returned to the U.S. and took up a position at the [[Institute for Advanced Study]] (in [[Princeton, New Jersey]]),{{Sfnp|Clark|1971}}{{Sfnp|Fölsing|1997|pp=649, 678}} noted for having become a refuge for scientists fleeing Nazi Germany.<ref name="Arntzenius2011" /> At the time, most American universities, including Harvard, Princeton and Yale, had minimal or no Jewish faculty or students, as a result of their [[Jewish quota]] which lasted until the late 1940s.<ref name="Arntzenius2011">{{cite book|author=Linda G. Arntzenius|title=Institute for Advanced Study|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zHHguITir80C&pg=PA19|date=2011|publisher=Arcadia Publishing|isbn=978-0-7385-7409-7|page=19}}</ref> Einstein was still undecided on his future. He had offers from several European universities, including [[Christ Church, Oxford]] where he stayed for three short periods between May 1931 and June 1933 and was offered a 5 year Studentship,<ref>{{cite web |publisher=Oxford Chabad Society |url=http://www.oxfordchabad.org/templates/articlecco_cdo/aid/457396/jewish/Albert-Einstein.htm |title=Oxford Jewish Personalities: |accessdate=7 March 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |publisher=The Oxford Times |date=2012 |url=http://www.oxfordtimes.co.uk/leisure/history_heritage/9617968.How_Einstein_fled_from_the_Nazis_to_an_Oxford_college/ |title=How Einstein fled from the Nazis to an Oxford college |accessdate=7 March 2015}}</ref> but in 1935 he arrived at the decision to remain permanently in the United States and apply for citizenship.{{Sfnp|Clark|1971}}{{Sfnp|Fölsing|1997|pp=686–687}} Einstein's affiliation with the Institute for Advanced Study would last until his death in 1955.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ias.edu/people/einstein/in-brief |title=In Brief |publisher=Institute for Advanced Study |accessdate=4 March 2010| archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20100329064405/http://www.ias.edu/people/einstein/in-brief| archivedate= 29 March 2010 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}</ref> He was one of the four first selected (two of the others being [[John von Neumann]] and [[Kurt Gödel]]) at the new Institute, where he soon developed a close friendship with Gödel. The two would take long walks together discussing their work. [[Bruria Kaufman]], his assistant, later became a physicist. During this period, Einstein tried to develop a [[unified field theory]] and to refute the [[Copenhagen interpretation|accepted interpretation]] of [[quantum physics]], both unsuccessfully. ==== World War II and the Manhattan Project ==== In 1939, a group of Hungarian scientists that included émigré physicist [[Leó Szilárd]] attempted to alert Washington to ongoing Nazi atomic bomb research. The group's warnings were discounted.<ref name=Pritchard>{{cite news |url=http://www.telegraph.co.uk/finance/comment/7970619/Obama-could-kill-fossil-fuels-overnight-with-a-nuclear-dash-for-thorium.html |newspaper=The Daily Telegraph |location=London, GB |title=Obama could kill fossil fuels overnight with a nuclear dash for thorium |first=Ambrose |last=Evans-Pritchard |date=29 August 2010 |accessdate=2015-06-07}}</ref> Einstein and Szilárd, along with other refugees such as [[Edward Teller]] and [[Eugene Wigner]], "regarded it as their responsibility to alert Americans to the possibility that German scientists might win the [[German nuclear energy project|race to build an atomic bomb]], and to warn that Hitler would be more than willing to resort to such a weapon."{{Sfnp|Isaacson|2007|p=630}}<ref>{{cite web |last=Gosling |first=F. G. |title=The Manhattan Project: Making the Atomic Bomb |publisher=U.S. Department of Energy, History Division |date=2010 |url=http://energy.gov/management/downloads/gosling-manhattan-project-making-atomic-bomb |page=vii |accessdate=2015-06-07}}</ref> To make certain the U.S. was aware of the danger, in July 1939, a few months before the beginning of World War II in Europe, Szilárd and Wigner visited Einstein to explain the possibility of atomic bombs, which Einstein, a [[Albert Einstein's political views|pacifist]], said he had never considered.<ref>{{cite book |last=Lanouette |first=William |last2=Silard |first2=Bela |title=Genius in the Shadows: A Biography of Leo Szilárd: The Man Behind The Bomb |location=New York |publisher=Charles Scribner's Sons |date=1992 |isbn=0-684-19011-7 |pages=198–200}}</ref> He was asked to lend his support by writing [[Einstein–Szilárd letter|a letter]], with Szilárd, to President [[Franklin D. Roosevelt|Roosevelt]], recommending the U.S. pay attention and engage in its own nuclear weapons research. A [[Mauthausen-Gusen concentration camp#Weapons research|secret German facility]], apparently the largest of the Third Reich, covering 75 acres in an underground complex, was being re-excavated in Austria in December 2014 and may have been planned for use in nuclear research and development.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.washingtonpost.com/news/morning-mix/wp/2014/12/30/filmmaker-says-hes-uncovered-the-nazis-biggest-secret-weapons-facility-buried-underground-near-a-concentration-camp/ |title=Filmmaker says he uncovered Nazis’ ‘biggest secret weapons facility’ underground near concentration camp |last=McCoy |first=Terrence |newspaper=Washington Post |location=Washington DC, USA |date=30 December 2014 |accessdate=2015-06-07}}</ref> The letter is believed to be "arguably the key stimulus for the U.S. adoption of serious investigations into nuclear weapons on the eve of the U.S. entry into World War II".<ref>{{cite book |last1=J. Diehl |first1=Sarah |last2=Moltz |first2=James Clay |title=Nuclear Weapons and Nonproliferation: A Reference Handbook |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3PN-NEfl_U0C |date=2008 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |page=218 |isbn=978-1-59884-071-1 |accessdate=2015-06-07}}</ref> In addition to the letter, Einstein used his connections with the [[Belgian Royal Family]]<ref>{{cite book |last=Hewlett |first=Richard G. |last2=Anderson |first2=Oscar E. |title=The New World, 1939–1946 |location=University Park |publisher=Pennsylvania State University Press |date=1962 |url=http://www.governmentattic.org/5docs/TheNewWorld1939-1946.pdf |format=PDF |pages=15–16 |isbn=0-520-07186-7 |oclc=637004643 |accessdate=2015-06-07}}</ref> and the Belgian queen mother<ref name=Pritchard /> to get access with a personal envoy to the White House's Oval Office.<ref name=Pritchard /> President Roosevelt could not take the risk of allowing Hitler to possess atomic bombs first. As a result of Einstein's letter and his meetings with Roosevelt, the U.S. entered the "race" to develop the bomb, drawing on its "immense material, financial, and scientific resources" to initiate the [[Manhattan Project]]. It became the only country to successfully develop a nuclear weapon during World War II and also remains the only country to use it in [[combat]] by [[Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki|detonating each nuclear weapon on the Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki]] on August 6 and 9, 1945, respectively, towards the end of the war. For Einstein, "war was a disease&nbsp;... [and] he called for resistance to war." By signing the letter to Roosevelt, he went against his pacifist principles.<ref>{{cite web |author=Einstein, Albert |date=1952 |title=On My Participation in the Atom Bomb Project |url=http://www.atomicarchive.com/Docs/Hiroshima/EinsteinResponse.shtml |publisher=AJ Software & Multimedia |via=atomicarchive.org |page=??? |accessdate=2015-06-07}}</ref> In 1954, a year before his death, Einstein said to his old friend, [[Linus Pauling]], "I made one great mistake in my life—when I signed the letter to President Roosevelt recommending that atom bombs be made; but there was some justification—the danger that the Germans would make them&nbsp;..."{{Sfnp|Clark|1971|p=???}} ==== U.S. citizenship ==== [[File:Citizen-Einstein.jpg|thumb|Einstein accepting [[Citizenship in the United States|U.S. citizenship]] certificate from judge [[Phillip Forman]]]] Einstein became an American citizen in 1940. Not long after settling into his career at the Institute for Advanced Study (in Princeton, New Jersey), he expressed his appreciation of the [[meritocracy]] in American culture when compared to Europe. He recognized the "right of individuals to say and think what they pleased", without social barriers, and as a result, individuals were encouraged, he said, to be more creative, a trait he valued from his own early education.{{Sfnp|Isaacson|2007|p=432}} === Personal life === ==== Supporter of civil rights ==== Einstein was a passionate, committed antiracist and joined [[National Association for the Advancement of Colored People]] (NAACP) in Princeton, where he campaigned for the [[African-American Civil Rights Movement (1896–1954)|civil rights]] of African Americans. He considered racism America's "worst disease,"<ref name="Jerome" /> seeing it as "handed down from one generation to the next."<ref>Calaprice, Alice (2005) ''[http://press.princeton.edu/titles/7921.html The new quotable Einstein]''. pp.148–149 Princeton University Press, 2005. See also ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=dLhVn-McDDgC&pg=PA226&dq=racism+americas+worst+disease+1946#v=onepage&q&f=false Odyssey in Climate Modeling, Global Warming, and Advising Five Presidents]''</ref> As part of his involvement, he corresponded with civil rights activist [[W. E. B. Du Bois]] and was prepared to testify on his behalf during his trial in 1951.<ref name=Robeson>Robeson, Paul. ''Paul Robeson Speaks'', Citadel (2002) p. 333</ref>{{rp|565}} When Einstein offered to be a character witness for Du Bois, the judge decided to drop the case.<ref name=civil /> [[File:Albert Einstein Head.jpg|thumb|Einstein in 1947]] In 1946 Einstein visited [[Lincoln University (Pennsylvania)|Lincoln University]] in Pennsylvania where he was awarded an honorary degree. Lincoln was the first university in the United States to grant college degrees to blacks, including [[Langston Hughes]] and [[Thurgood Marshall]]. To its students, Einstein gave a speech about racism in America, adding, "I do not intend to be quiet about it."<ref name=Jerome_Isis>{{cite journal|last1=Jerome|first1=Fred|title=Einstein, Race, and the Myth of the Cultural Icon|journal=Isis|date=December 2004|volume=95|issue=4|pages=627–639 |doi=10.1086/430653|url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/10.1086/430653}} {{open access}}</ref> A resident of Princeton recalls that Einstein had once paid the college tuition for a black student,<ref name=civil>[http://news.harvard.edu/gazette/story/2007/04/albert-einstein-civil-rights-activist/ "Albert Einstein, Civil Rights activist"], ''Harvard Gazette'', April 12, 2007</ref> and black physicist [[Sylvester James Gates]] states that Einstein had been one of his early science heroes, later finding out about Einstein's support for civil rights.<ref name=civil /> ==== Assisting Zionist causes ==== Einstein was a figurehead leader in helping establish the [[Hebrew University of Jerusalem]], which opened in 1925, and was among its first Board of Governors. Earlier, in 1921, he was asked by the biochemist and president of the [[World Zionist Organization]], [[Chaim Weizmann]], to help raise funds for the planned university.{{Sfnp|Isaacson|2007|p=290}} He also submitted various suggestions as to its initial programs. Among those, he advised first creating an Institute of Agriculture in order to settle the undeveloped land. That should be followed, he suggested, by a Chemical Institute and an Institute of Microbiology, to fight the various ongoing epidemics such as [[malaria]], which he called an "evil" that was undermining a third of the country's development.<ref name=Rowe />{{rp|161}} Establishing an Oriental Studies Institute, to include language courses given in both Hebrew and Arabic, for scientific exploration of the country and its historical monuments, was also important.<ref name=Rowe>Rowe, David E. and Schulmann, Robert, editors. ''Einstein on Politics'', Princeton University Press (2007)</ref>{{rp|158}} Chaim Weizmann later became Israel's first president. Upon his death while in office in November 1952 and at the urging of [[Ezriel Carlebach]], Prime Minister [[David Ben-Gurion]] offered Einstein the position of [[President of Israel]], a mostly ceremonial post.<ref name=Time>{{cite news |url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,817454,00.html |title=ISRAEL: Einstein Declines |work=Time magazine |date=1 December 1952 |accessdate=31 March 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Rosenkranz|first1=Ze'ev|title=The Einstein Scrapbook|date=6 November 2002|publisher=[[Johns Hopkins University Press]]|location=Baltimore, Maryland, USA|isbn=978-0-8018-7203-7|page=103}}</ref> The offer was presented by Israel's ambassador in Washington, [[Abba Eban]], who explained that the offer "embodies the deepest respect which the Jewish people can repose in any of its sons".{{Sfnp|Isaacson|2007|p=522}} Einstein declined, and wrote in his response that he was "deeply moved", and "at once saddened and ashamed" that he could not accept it.{{Sfnp|Isaacson|2007|p=522}} ==== Love of music ==== {{quote box|width = 300px|quote=If I were not a physicist, I would probably be a musician. I often think in music. I live my daydreams in music. I see my life in terms of music... I get most joy in life out of music.|source=Albert Einstein<ref>{{cite news|title = The relative beauty of the violin|date = 28 January 2011|url = http://www.independent.co.uk/arts-entertainment/classical/features/the-relative-beauty-of-the-violin-2196313.html|work=[[The Independent]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title = Einstein and his love of music|date = January 2005|url = http://www.pha.jhu.edu/einstein/stuff/einstein&music.pdf|format = PDF|publisher = [[Physics World]]}}</ref>}} Einstein developed an appreciation of music at an early age. His mother played the piano reasonably well and wanted her son to learn the [[violin]], not only to instill in him a love of music but also to help him assimilate into [[German culture]]. According to conductor [[Leon Botstein]], Einstein is said to have begun playing when he was 5, although he did not enjoy it at that age.<ref name=Botstein /> {{Multiple image|direction = vertical|image1 = Albert Einstein violin.jpg|image2 = Rabindranath with Einstein.jpg|caption1 = Albert Einstein playing [[violin]]|caption2 = Einstein with writer, musician and Nobel laureate [[Rabindranath Tagore]], 1930|align = right}} When he turned 13 he discovered the violin sonatas of [[Mozart]], whereupon "Einstein fell in love" with Mozart's music and studied music more willingly. He taught himself to play without "ever practicing systematically", he said, deciding that "love is a better teacher than a sense of duty."<ref name=Botstein>{{cite book|author1=Peter Galison|author2=Gerald James Holton|author3=Silvan S. Schweber|title=Einstein for the 21st Century: His Legacy in Science, Art, and Modern Culture|date=2008|publisher=Princeton University Press|isbn=0-691-13520-7|pages=161–164}}</ref> At age 17, he was heard by a school examiner in Aarau as he played [[Beethoven]]'s [[violin sonata]]s, the examiner stating afterward that his playing was "remarkable and revealing of 'great insight'." What struck the examiner, writes Botstein, was that Einstein "displayed a deep love of the music, a quality that was and remains in short supply. Music possessed an unusual meaning for this student."<ref name=Botstein /> Music took on a pivotal and permanent role in Einstein's life from that period on. Although the idea of becoming a professional himself was not on his mind at any time, among those with whom Einstein played [[chamber music]] were a few professionals, and he performed for private audiences and friends. Chamber music had also become a regular part of his social life while living in Bern, Zürich, and Berlin, where he played with Max Planck and his son, among others. He is sometimes erroneously credited as the editor of the 1937 edition of the [[Köchel catalogue]] of Mozart's work; that edition was actually prepared by [[Alfred Einstein]],{{Citation needed|date = February 2016}} who may have been a distant relation.<ref>Article "Alfred Einstein", in ''The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians'', ed. Stanley Sadie. 20 vol. London, Macmillan Publishers Ltd., 1980. ISBN 1-56159-174-2</ref><ref>''The Concise Edition of Baker's Biographical Dictionary of Musicians'', 8th ed. Revised by Nicolas Slonimsky. New York, Schirmer Books, 1993. ISBN 0-02-872416-X</ref> In 1931, while engaged in research at the California Institute of Technology, he visited the Zoellner family conservatory in Los Angeles, where he played some of Beethoven and Mozart's works with members of the [[Zoellner Quartet]].<ref name=Times>[http://articles.latimes.com/1985-12-22/entertainment/ca-20526_1_life-estate Cariaga, Daniel, "Not Taking It with You: A Tale of Two Estates," ''Los Angeles Times''], 22 December 1985. Retrieved April 2012.</ref><ref name=RR>[http://www.rrauction.com/albert_einstein_signed_photo_to_joseph_zoellner.cfm Auction listing] by RR Auction, auction closed 13 October 2010.</ref> Near the end of his life, when the young [[Juilliard Quartet]] visited him in Princeton, he played his violin with them, and the quartet was "impressed by Einstein's level of coordination and intonation."<ref name=Botstein /> ==== Political and religious views ==== {{Main|Albert Einstein's political views|Albert Einstein's religious views}} [[File:Einsteinwiezmann.PNG|alt=Casual group shot of four men and two women standing on a brick pavement.|thumb|Albert Einstein with his wife [[Elsa Einstein]] and Zionist leaders, including future [[President of Israel]] [[Chaim Weizmann]], his wife [[Vera Weizmann]], [[Menahem Ussishkin]], and Ben-Zion Mossinson on arrival in New York City in 1921]] Einstein's political view was in favor of [[socialism]] and critical of capitalism, which he detailed in his essays such as "[[Why Socialism?]]".<ref>{{cite journal|last=Einstein|first=Albert|title=Why Socialism?|journal=Monthly Review|date=May 1949|volume=1|issue=1|url=http://monthlyreview.org/2009/05/01/why-socialism/|editor1-first=Paul |editor1-last=Sweezy |editor2-first=Leo |editor2-last=Huberman |location=New York}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|author=David E. Rowe|author2=Robert Schulmann|last-author-amp=yes|title=What Were Einstein's Politics?|journal=[[History News Network]]|date=8 June 2007|url=http://hnn.us/articles/39445.html|accessdate=29 July 2012|editor1-first=Walsh|editor1-last=David A.|publisher=[[George Mason University]]}}</ref> Einstein offered and was called on to give judgments and opinions on matters often unrelated to theoretical physics or mathematics.{{Sfnp|Clark|1971}} He strongly advocated the idea of a democratic [[World government|global government]] that would check the power of nation-states in the framework of a world federation.{{Sfnp|Isaacson|2007|p=487, 494, 550}} Einstein's views about religious belief have been collected from interviews and original writings. He called himself an [[Agnosticism|agnostic]], while disassociating himself from the label [[atheist]].{{Sfnp|Isaacson|2007|p=390}} He said he believed in the [[Pantheism|"pantheistic"]] God of [[Spinozism|Baruch Spinoza]], but not in a [[personal god]], a belief he criticized.<ref>Einstein, Albert "Gelegentliches", Soncino Gesellschaft, Berlin, 1929, p. 9 "This firm belief, a belief bound up with a deep feeling, in a superior mind that reveals itself in the world of experience, represents my conception of God. In common parlance this may be described as "pantheistic" (Spinoza)."</ref>{{Sfnp|Hoffmann|1972|p=95|loc="It seems to me that the idea of a personal God is an anthropological concept which I cannot take seriously. I feel also not able to imagine some will or goal outside the human sphere. My views are near those of Spinoza: admiration for the beauty of and belief in the logical simplicity of the order which we can grasp humbly and only imperfectly."}} Einstein once wrote: "I do not believe in a personal God and I have never denied this but expressed it clearly".<ref>{{cite book | author=Banesh Hoffman| author2=Helen Dukas | date=1981 | title=Albert Einstein: The Human Side | publisher=Princeton University Press | isbn=0-691-02368-9 }}, p. 178</ref> === Death === On 17 April 1955, Albert Einstein experienced [[internal bleeding]] caused by the rupture of an [[abdominal aortic aneurysm]], which had previously been reinforced surgically by [[Rudolph Nissen]] in 1948.<ref>{{Citation |url=http://www.medscape.com/viewarticle/436253 |title=The Case of the Scientist with a Pulsating Mass |date=14 June 2002 |accessdate=11 June 2007}}</ref> He took the draft of a speech he was preparing for a television appearance commemorating the State of Israel's seventh anniversary with him to the hospital, but he did not live long enough to complete it.<ref>{{Citation |author=Albert Einstein Archives |contribution=Draft of projected Telecast Israel Independence Day, April 1955 (last statement ever written) |title=Einstein Archives Online |date=April 1955 |contribution-url=http://alberteinstein.info/vufind1/Digital/EAR000020078#page/1/mode/1up |url=http://www.alberteinstein.info/ |accessdate=14 March 2007 | archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20070313231657/http://www.alberteinstein.info/| archivedate= 13 March 2007 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}</ref> Einstein refused surgery, saying: "I want to go when I want. It is tasteless to prolong life artificially. I have done my share, it is time to go. I will do it elegantly."<ref>{{Citation |date=November 1995 |author=Cohen, J.R. |author2=Graver, L.M. |title=The ruptured abdominal aortic aneurysm of Albert Einstein |volume =170 |issue=5 |pages =455–8 |journal=Surgery, Gynecology & Obstetrics |pmid=2183375 |ref=harv |postscript=. }}</ref> He died in [[Princeton Hospital]] early the next morning at the age of 76, having continued to work until near the end. During the autopsy, the pathologist of Princeton Hospital, [[Thomas Stoltz Harvey]], removed [[Albert Einstein's brain|Einstein's brain]] for preservation without the permission of his family, in the hope that the [[neuroscience]] of the future would be able to discover what made Einstein so [[human intelligence|intelligent]].<ref>{{Citation |url=http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=4602913 |title=The Long, Strange Journey of Einstein's Brain |accessdate=3 October 2007 |publisher=[[National Public Radio]]}}</ref> Einstein's remains were [[Cremation|cremated]] and his ashes were scattered at an undisclosed location.<ref>{{Citation |last =O'Connor |first =J.J. |last2 =Robertson |first2 =E.F. |chapter=Albert Einstein |title=The MacTutor History of Mathematics archive |publisher=School of Mathematics and Statistics, University of St. Andrews |date=1997 |chapter-url=http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/Biographies/Einstein.html }}</ref><ref name=Obit>{{cite news | title=Dr. Albert Einstein Dies in Sleep at 76; World Mourns Loss of Great Scientist, Rupture of Aorta Causes Death, Body Cremated, Memorial Here Set | work=The New York Times | publication-date=19 April 1955 | publication-place = New York, NY | date = 18 April 1955 | place = Princeton, NJ | volume = CIV | number = 35,514 | issn = 0362-4331 | editor = Late City | page = 1 | url = http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F60C1EFC3D55107A93CBA8178FD85F418585F9 }}</ref> In his lecture at Einstein's memorial, nuclear physicist [[Robert Oppenheimer]] summarized his impression of him as a person: "He was almost wholly without sophistication and wholly without worldliness&nbsp;... There was always with him a wonderful purity at once childlike and profoundly stubborn."<ref name=Stern>{{cite book|author1=Donald Goldsmith|author2=Marcia Bartusiak|title=E = Einstein: His Life, His Thought, and His Influence on Our Culture|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zGzcV40b3IkC&pg=PA97|date=2008|publisher=Sterling Publishing Company, Inc.|isbn=978-1-4027-6319-9|pages=97–118}}</ref> == Scientific career == Throughout his life, Einstein published hundreds of books and articles.<ref name="Paul Arthur Schilpp, editor 1951 730–746" /><ref name="Bio" /> He published more than 300 scientific papers and 150 non-scientific ones.<ref name=Nobel /><ref name="Paul Arthur Schilpp, editor 1951 730–746" /> On 5 December 2014, universities and archives announced the release of Einstein's papers, comprising more than 30,000 unique documents.{{Sfnp|Stachel|2008}}<ref name="NYT-20141204-DB" /> Einstein's intellectual achievements and originality have made the word "Einstein" synonymous with "[[genius]]".<ref name="wordnetweb.princeton.edu" /> In addition to the work he did by himself he also collaborated with other scientists on additional projects including the [[Bose–Einstein statistics]], the [[Einstein refrigerator]] and others.<ref name="Instituut-Lorentz">"[http://www.lorentz.leidenuniv.nl/history/Einstein_archive/ Einstein archive at the Instituut-Lorentz]". ''Instituut-Lorentz.'' 2005. Retrieved on 21 November 2005.</ref> === 1905 – Annus Mirabilis papers === {{Main|Annus Mirabilis papers|Photoelectric effect|Special theory of relativity|Mass–energy equivalence|Brownian motion}} The ''Annus Mirabilis'' papers are four articles pertaining to the [[photoelectric effect]] (which gave rise to [[quantum mechanics|quantum theory]]), [[Brownian motion]], the [[special theory of relativity]], and [[Mass–energy equivalence|E = mc²]] that Albert Einstein published in the ''Annalen der Physik'' scientific journal in 1905. These four works contributed substantially to the foundation of [[History of physics#Modern physics|modern physics]] and changed views on [[space]], time, and [[matter]]. The four papers are: {| class=wikitable |- ! Title <small>(translated)</small> !!<small>Area of focus</small> !! Received !! Published !! Significance |- | ''On a Heuristic Viewpoint Concerning the Production and Transformation of Light'' || [[Photoelectric effect]] || 18 March || 9 June || Resolved an unsolved puzzle by suggesting that energy is exchanged only in discrete amounts ([[quantum|quanta]]).<ref>{{cite book |title=Lectures on quantum mechanics |first1=Ashok |last1=Das |publisher=Hindustan Book Agency |date=2003 |isbn=81-85931-41-0 |page=59 }}</ref> This idea was pivotal to the early development of quantum theory.<ref>{{cite book |title=Seven ideas that shook the universe |edition=2nd |first1=Nathan |last1=Spielberg |first2=Bryon D. |last2=Anderson |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |date=1995 |isbn=0-471-30606-1 |page=263 }}</ref> |- | ''On the Motion of Small Particles Suspended in a Stationary Liquid, as Required by the Molecular Kinetic Theory of Heat'' || [[Brownian motion]] || 11 May || 18 July || Explained empirical evidence for the [[atomic theory]], supporting the application of [[statistical physics]]. |- | ''On the Electrodynamics of Moving Bodies'' || [[Special relativity]] || 30 June || 26 September || Reconciled Maxwell's equations for electricity and magnetism with the laws of mechanics by introducing major changes to mechanics close to the speed of light, resulting from analysis based on empirical evidence that the speed of light is independent of the motion of the observer.<ref>{{cite book |title=The quantum beat: principles and applications of atomic clocks |edition=2nd |first1=Fouad G. |last1=Major |publisher=Springer |date=2007 |isbn=0-387-69533-8 |page=142 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tmdr6Wx_2PYC}}</ref> Discredited the concept of a "[[luminiferous ether]]."<ref>{{cite book |title=Foundations of physics |first1=Robert Bruce |last1=Lindsay |first2=Henry |last2=Margenau |publisher=Ox Bow Press |date=1981 |isbn=0-918024-17-X |page=330 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dwZltQAACAAJ}}</ref> |- | ''Does the Inertia of a Body Depend Upon Its Energy Content?'' || [[Mass–energy equivalence|Matter–energy equivalence]] || 27 September || 21 November || Equivalence of matter and energy, {{nowrap|1=''E'' = ''mc''²}} (and by implication, the ability of gravity to "bend" light), the existence of "[[rest energy]]", and the basis of nuclear energy. |} === Thermodynamic fluctuations and statistical physics === {{Main|Statistical mechanics|thermal fluctuations|statistical physics}} Albert Einstein's first paper<ref name=PubList>{{cite web|author=Hans-Josef Kuepper |url=http://www.einstein-website.de/z_physics/wisspub-e.html |title=List of Scientific Publications of Albert Einstein |publisher=Einstein-website.de |accessdate=3 April 2011}}</ref> submitted in 1900 to ''Annalen der Physik'' was on [[capillary attraction]]. It was published in 1901 with the title "Folgerungen aus den Capillaritätserscheinungen", which translates as "Conclusions from the capillarity phenomena". Two papers he published in 1902–1903 (thermodynamics) attempted to interpret [[atom]]ic phenomena from a statistical point of view. These papers were the foundation for the 1905 paper on Brownian motion, which showed that Brownian movement can be construed as firm evidence that molecules exist. His research in 1903 and 1904 was mainly concerned with the effect of finite atomic size on diffusion phenomena.<ref name=PubList /> === General principles === He articulated the [[principle of relativity]]. This was understood by [[Hermann Minkowski]] to be a generalization of rotational invariance from space to space-time. Other principles postulated by Einstein and later vindicated are the [[principle of equivalence]] and the principle of [[adiabatic invariant|adiabatic invariance]] of the quantum number. === Theory of relativity and ''E'' = ''mc''² === {{Main|History of special relativity}} Einstein's "''Zur Elektrodynamik bewegter Körper''" ("On the Electrodynamics of Moving Bodies") was received on 30 June 1905 and published 26 September of that same year. It reconciles [[Maxwell's equations]] for electricity and magnetism with the laws of mechanics, by introducing major changes to mechanics close to the [[speed of light]]. This later became known as Einstein's [[special theory of relativity]]. Consequences of this include the [[Spacetime|time-space frame]] of a moving body appearing to [[Time dilation|slow down]] and [[Length contraction|contract]] (in the direction of motion) when measured in the frame of the observer. This paper also argued that the idea of a [[luminiferous aether]]—one of the leading theoretical entities in physics at the time—was superfluous.{{Sfnp|Einstein|1905d}} In his paper on [[mass–energy equivalence]], Einstein produced ''E''&nbsp;=&nbsp;''mc''² from his special relativity equations.{{Sfnp|Stachel|2002|pp=vi, 15, 90, 131, [https://books.google.com/?id=OAsQ_hFjhrAC&pg=PA215 215]}} Einstein's 1905 work on relativity remained controversial for many years, but was accepted by leading physicists, starting with [[Max Planck]].<ref>For a discussion of the reception of relativity theory around the world, and the different controversies it encountered, see the articles in Thomas F. Glick, ed., ''The Comparative Reception of Relativity'' (Kluwer Academic Publishers, 1987), ISBN 90-277-2498-9.</ref>{{Sfnp|Pais|1982|pp=382-386}} === Photons and energy quanta === [[File:Photoelectric effect.svg|thumb|upright|The photoelectric effect. Incoming photons on the left strike a metal plate (bottom), and eject electrons, depicted as flying off to the right.]] {{Main|Photon|Quantum}} In a 1905 paper,{{Sfnp|Einstein|1905a}} Einstein postulated that light itself consists of localized particles (''[[quantum|quanta]]''). Einstein's light quanta were nearly universally rejected by all physicists, including Max Planck and Niels Bohr. This idea only became universally accepted in 1919, with [[Robert Millikan]]'s detailed experiments on the photoelectric effect, and with the measurement of [[Compton scattering]]. Einstein concluded that each wave of frequency ''f'' is associated with a collection of [[photon]]s with energy ''hf'' each, where ''h'' is [[Planck's constant]]. He does not say much more, because he is not sure how the particles are related to the wave. But he does suggest that this idea would explain certain experimental results, notably the photoelectric effect.{{sfnp|Einstein|1905a}} === Quantized atomic vibrations === {{Main|Einstein solid}} In 1907, Einstein proposed a model of matter where each atom in a lattice structure is an independent harmonic oscillator. In the Einstein model, each atom oscillates independently—a series of equally spaced quantized states for each oscillator. Einstein was aware that getting the frequency of the actual oscillations would be different, but he nevertheless proposed this theory because it was a particularly clear demonstration that quantum mechanics could solve the specific heat problem in classical mechanics. [[Peter Debye]] refined this model.<ref>[http://www.osti.gov/accomplishments/nuggets/einstein/solidcolda.html Celebrating Einstein "Solid Cold". U.S. DOE.], [[Office of Scientific and Technical Information]], 2011.</ref> === Adiabatic principle and action-angle variables === {{Main|Old quantum theory}} Throughout the 1910s, quantum mechanics expanded in scope to cover many different systems. After [[Ernest Rutherford]] discovered the nucleus and proposed that electrons orbit like planets, Niels Bohr was able to show that the same quantum mechanical postulates introduced by Planck and developed by Einstein would explain the discrete motion of electrons in atoms, and the [[periodic table of the elements]]. Einstein contributed to these developments by linking them with the 1898 arguments [[Wilhelm Wien]] had made. Wien had shown that the hypothesis of [[adiabatic invariant|adiabatic invariance]] of a thermal equilibrium state allows all the [[blackbody radiation|blackbody curves]] at different temperature to be derived from one another by a [[Wien's displacement law|simple shifting process]]. Einstein noted in 1911 that the same adiabatic principle shows that the quantity which is quantized in any mechanical motion must be an adiabatic invariant. [[Arnold Sommerfeld]] identified this adiabatic invariant as the [[action-angle variables|action variable]] of classical mechanics. === Wave–particle duality === [[File:Albert Einstein photo 1921.jpg|thumb|upright|Einstein during his visit to the United States]] {{Main|Wave–particle duality}} Although the patent office promoted Einstein to Technical Examiner Second Class in 1906, he had not given up on academia. In 1908, he became a ''[[Privatdozent]]'' at the University of Bern.{{Sfnp|Pais|1982|p=522}} In "''über die Entwicklung unserer Anschauungen über das Wesen und die Konstitution der Strahlung''" ("[[s:The Development of Our Views on the Composition and Essence of Radiation|The Development of our Views on the Composition and Essence of Radiation]]"), on the [[quantization (physics)|quantization]] of light, and in an earlier 1909 paper, Einstein showed that Max Planck's energy quanta must have well-defined [[momentum|momenta]] and act in some respects as independent, [[point particle|point-like particles]]. This paper introduced the ''photon'' concept (although the name ''photon'' was introduced later by [[Gilbert N. Lewis]] in 1926) and inspired the notion of [[wave–particle duality]] in [[quantum mechanics]]. Einstein saw this wave-particle duality in radiation as concrete evidence for his conviction that physics needed a new, unified foundation. === Theory of critical opalescence === {{Main|Critical opalescence}} Einstein returned to the problem of thermodynamic fluctuations, giving a treatment of the density variations in a fluid at its critical point. Ordinarily the density fluctuations are controlled by the second derivative of the free energy with respect to the density. At the critical point, this derivative is zero, leading to large fluctuations. The effect of density fluctuations is that light of all wavelengths is scattered, making the fluid look milky white. Einstein relates this to [[Rayleigh scattering]], which is what happens when the fluctuation size is much smaller than the wavelength, and which explains why the sky is blue.<ref>{{cite web |last=Levenson |first=Thomas |url=http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/einstein/genius/ |title=Einstein's Big Idea |publisher=WBGH |type=public broadcaster website |via=NOVA by [[Public Broadcasting Service]] (PBS), Arlington, VA, USA |location=Boston, MA, USA |date=9 September 1997 |accessdate=2015-06-20}}</ref> Einstein quantitatively derived critical opalescence from a treatment of density fluctuations, and demonstrated how both the effect and Rayleigh scattering originate from the atomistic constitution of matter. === Zero-point energy === {{Main|Zero-point energy}} In a series of works completed from 1911 to 1913, Planck reformulated his 1900 quantum theory and introduced the idea of zero-point energy in his "second quantum theory." Soon, this idea attracted the attention of Albert Einstein and his assistant [[Otto Stern]]. Assuming the energy of rotating diatomic molecules contains zero-point energy, they then compared the theoretical specific heat of hydrogen gas with the experimental data. The numbers matched nicely. However, after publishing the findings, they promptly withdrew their support, because they no longer had confidence in the correctness of the idea of zero-point energy.{{Sfnp|Stachel|2008|loc=vol. 4: The Swiss Years: Writings, 1912–1914|pp=270ff}} === General relativity and the equivalence principle === {{Main|History of general relativity}} {{See also|Principle of equivalence|Theory of relativity|Einstein field equations}} [[File:1919 eclipse positive.jpg|alt=Black circle covering the sun, rays visible around it, in a dark sky.|thumb|upright|[[Arthur Stanley Eddington|Eddington]]'s photograph of a [[solar eclipse]]]] General relativity (GR) is a [[theory of gravitation]] that was developed by Albert Einstein between 1907 and 1915. According to [[general relativity]], the observed gravitational attraction between masses results from the warping of [[spacetime|space and time]] by those masses. General relativity has developed into an essential tool in modern [[astrophysics]]. It provides the foundation for the current understanding of [[black holes]], regions of space where gravitational attraction is so strong that not even light can escape. As Albert Einstein later said, the reason for the development of general relativity was that the preference of inertial motions within [[special relativity]] was unsatisfactory, while a theory which from the outset prefers no state of motion (even accelerated ones) should appear more satisfactory.{{Sfnp|Einstein|1923}} Consequently, in 1907 he published an article on acceleration under special relativity. In that article titled "On the Relativity Principle and the Conclusions Drawn from It", he argued that [[free fall]] is really inertial motion, and that for a free-falling observer the rules of special relativity must apply. This argument is called the [[equivalence principle]]. In the same article, Einstein also predicted the phenomena of [[gravitational time dilation]], [[gravitational red shift]] and [[Gravitational lensing|deflection of light]].{{Sfnp|Pais|1982|pp=179-183}}{{Sfnp|Stachel|2008|loc=vol. 2: The Swiss Years: Writings, 1900–1909|pp=273-274}} In 1911, Einstein published another article "On the Influence of Gravitation on the Propagation of Light" expanding on the 1907 article, in which he estimated the amount of [[Gravitational lensing|deflection of light]] by massive bodies. Thus, the theoretical prediction of general relativity can for the first time be tested experimentally.{{Sfnp|Pais|1982|pp=194-195}} ====Gravitational waves==== In 1916, Einstein predicted [[gravitational wave]]s,<ref>{{cite journal|author=Einstein, A |title=Näherungsweise Integration der Feldgleichungen der Gravitation |date= June 1916 |url=http://einstein-annalen.mpiwg-berlin.mpg.de/related_texts/sitzungsberichte |journal=[[Prussian Academy of Sciences|Sitzungsberichte der Königlich Preussischen Akademie der Wissenschaften Berlin]] |volume=part 1|pages=688–696}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|author=Einstein, A |title=Über Gravitationswellen |date=1918 |url=http://einstein-annalen.mpiwg-berlin.mpg.de/related_texts/sitzungsberichte |journal=Sitzungsberichte der Königlich Preussischen Akademie der Wissenschaften Berlin|volume=part 1|pages=154–167}}</ref> ripples in the [[curvature]] of [[spacetime]] which propagate as [[wave]]s, traveling outward from the source, transporting energy as gravitational radiation. The existence of gravitational waves is possible under [[general relativity]] due to its [[Lorentz invariance]] which brings the concept of a finite speed of propagation of the physical interactions of gravity with it. By contrast, gravitational waves cannot exist in the [[Newton's law of universal gravitation|Newtonian theory of gravitation]], which postulates that the physical interactions of gravity propagate at infinite speed. The first, indirect, detection of gravitational waves came in the 1970s through observation of a pair of closely orbiting [[neutron stars]], [[PSR B1913+16]].<ref name="natgeo">http://news.nationalgeographic.com/2016/02/160211-gravitational-waves-found-spacetime-science/</ref> The explanation of the decay in their orbital period was that they were emitting gravitational waves.<ref name="natgeo"/><ref>http://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/1993/press.html</ref> Einstein's prediction was confirmed on 11 February 2016, when researchers at [[LIGO]] published direct observation, on Earth, of gravitational waves, exactly one hundred years after the prediction.<ref name="natgeo"/><ref>{{Cite web|title = LIGO {{!}} MIT|url = http://space.mit.edu/LIGO/more.html|website = space.mit.edu|access-date = 2016-02-12}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title = Scientists make first direct</ref name"natgeo"> detection of gravitational waves|url = http://news.mit.edu/2016/ligo-first-detection-gravitational-waves-0211|website = MIT News|access-date = 2016-02-12}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title = Einstein's gravitational waves 'seen' from black holes - BBC News|url = http://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-35524440|website = BBC News|access-date = 2016-02-12|language = en-GB}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title = Gravitational Waves Detected, Confirming Einstein’s Theory|url = http://www.nytimes.com/2016/02/12/science/ligo-gravitational-waves-black-holes-einstein.html|newspaper = The New York Times|date = 2016-02-11|access-date = 2016-02-12|issn = 0362-4331|first = Dennis|last = Overbye}}</ref> === Hole argument and Entwurf theory === {{Main|Hole argument}} While developing general relativity, Einstein became confused about the [[gauge invariance]] in the theory. He formulated an argument that led him to conclude that a general relativistic field theory is impossible. He gave up looking for fully generally covariant tensor equations, and searched for equations that would be invariant under general linear transformations only. In June 1913, the Entwurf ("draft") theory was the result of these investigations. As its name suggests, it was a sketch of a theory, less elegant and more difficult than general relativity, with the equations of motion supplemented by additional gauge fixing conditions. After more than two years of intensive work, Einstein realized that the [[hole argument]] was mistaken<ref>van Dongen, Jeroen (2010) ''Einstein's Unification'' Cambridge University Press, p.23.</ref> and abandoned the theory in November 1915. === Cosmology === {{Main|Cosmology}} {{cosmology|scientists}} In 1917, Einstein applied the general theory of relativity to the structure of the universe as a whole.{{Sfnp|Einstein|1917a}} He discovered that the general field equations predicted a universe that was dynamic, either contracting or expanding. As observational evidence for a dynamic universe was not known at the time, Einstein introduced a new term, the [[cosmological constant]], to the field equations, in order to allow the theory to predict a static universe. The modified field equations predicted a static universe of closed curvature, in accordance with Einstein's understanding of [[Mach's principle]] in these years.{{Sfnp|Einstein|1917a}}<ref>{{cite web|url=http://blogs.discovermagazine.com/outthere/2014/03/14/135th-birthday-einstein-still-full-surprises/#.UybABMHiG9V|title=On His 135th Birthday, Einstein is Still Full of Surprises|work=Out There}}</ref> Following the discovery of the recession of the nebulae by [[Edwin Hubble]] in 1929, Einstein abandoned his static model of the universe, and proposed two dynamic models of the cosmos, the Friedman-Einstein model of 1931<ref name="einstein-1931">Einstein, A. 1931. Zum kosmologischen Problem der allgemeinen Relativitätstheorie Sitzungsb.König. Preuss. Akad. 235-237</ref><ref name="cor-2013">O’Raifeartaigh, C. and McCann, B. (2014) ‘Einstein’s cosmic model of 1931 revisited: an analysis and translation of a forgotten model of the universe’.Eur. Phys. J. (H) 39 (1), pp. 63-85. Physics ArXiv preprint at http://arxiv.org/abs/1312.2192</ref> and the Einstein-deSitter model of 1932.<ref name="einstein-1932">Einstein, A and deSitter,W. 1932.On the relation between the expansion and the mean density of the universe. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 18: 213-214</ref> In each of these models, Einstein discarded the cosmological constant, claiming that it was "in any case theoretically unsatisfactory".<ref name="einstein-1931"/><ref name="cor-2013"/>{{Sfnp|Pais|1982|p=288}} In many Einstein biographies, it is claimed that Einstein referred to the cosmological constant in later years as his "biggest blunder". The astrophysicist [[Mario Livio]] has recently cast doubt on this claim, suggesting that it may be exaggerated.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nytimes.com/2013/06/09/books/review/brilliant-blunders-by-mario-livio.html|title=The Genius of Getting It Wrong|date=9 June 2013|work=The New York Times}}</ref> In late 2013, a team led by the Irish physicist [[Cormac O'Raifeartaigh]] discovered evidence that, shortly after learning of Hubble's observations of the recession of the nebulae, Einstein considered a [[Steady State theory|steady-state model]] of the universe.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nature.com/news/einstein-s-lost-theory-uncovered-1.14767|title=Einstein’s lost theory uncovered|work=Nature News & Comment}}</ref> In a hitherto overlooked manuscript, apparently written in early 1931, Einstein explored a model of the expanding universe in which the density of matter remains constant due to a continuous creation of matter, a process he associated with the cosmological constant.<ref name="cor-steady-state">O’Raifeartaigh, C., B. McCann, W. Nahm and S. Mitton. (2014)' Einstein’s steady-state theory: an abandoned model of the cosmos'. Eur. Phys. J (H) 39(3):353-369. Physics ArXiv preprint at http://arxiv.org/abs/1402.0132</ref><ref name="Einstein’s aborted model">Nussbaumer, H. (2014). ‘Einstein’s aborted attempt at a dynamic steady state universe’. Physics ArXiv preprint at http://arxiv.org/abs/1402.4099</ref> As he stated in the paper, "In what follows, I would like to draw attention to a solution to equation (1) that can account for Hubbel's [sic] facts, and in which the density is constant over time"..."If one considers a physically bounded volume, particles of matter will be continually leaving it. For the density to remain constant, new particles of matter must be continually formed in the volume from space." It thus appears that Einstein considered a [[Steady State theory|Steady State model]] of the expanding universe many years before Hoyle, Bondi and Gold.<ref>Hoyle, "A New Model for the Expanding Universe," MNRAS 108 (1948) 372. {{Bibcode|1948MNRAS.108..372H}}</ref><ref>Bondi and Gold, "The Steady-State Theory of the Expanding Universe," MNRAS 108 (1948) 252. {{Bibcode|1948MNRAS.108..252B}}</ref> However, Einstein's steady-state model contained a fundamental flaw and he quickly abandoned the idea.<ref name="cor-steady-state"/><ref name="Einstein’s aborted model"/><ref>{{cite web|url=http://blogs.discovermagazine.com/crux/2014/03/07/einsteins-lost-theory-describes-a-universe-without-a-big-bang/#.Uya3EcHiG9U|title=Einstein's Lost Theory Describes a Universe Without a Big Bang – The Crux|work=The Crux}}</ref> === Modern quantum theory === {{Main|Schrödinger equation}} [[File:NYT May 4, 1935.jpg|thumb|Newspaper headline on May 4, 1935]] Einstein was displeased with quantum theory and quantum mechanics (the very theory he helped create), despite its acceptance by other physicists, stating that God "is not playing at dice."<ref>{{cite book |title=The New Penguin Dictionary of Modern Quotations |first1=Robert |last1=Andrews |publisher=Penguin UK |date=2003 |isbn=0-14-196531-2 |page=499 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VK0vR4fsaigC}} [https://books.google.com/books?id=VK0vR4fsaigC&pg=PT499 Extract of page 499]</ref> Einstein continued to maintain his disbelief in the theory, and attempted unsuccessfully to disprove it until he died at the age of 76.<ref>[http://video.pbs.org/video/1512280538 Video: The Elegant Universe: Part 1 | Watch NOVA Online | PBS Video]. Video.pbs.org. Retrieved on 11 May 2012.</ref> In 1917, at the height of his work on relativity, Einstein published an article in ''Physikalische Zeitschrift'' that proposed the possibility of [[stimulated emission]], the physical process that makes possible the [[maser]] and the [[laser]].{{Sfnp|Einstein|1917b}} This article showed that the statistics of absorption and emission of light would only be consistent with Planck's distribution law if the emission of light into a mode with n photons would be enhanced statistically compared to the emission of light into an empty mode. This paper was enormously influential in the later development of quantum mechanics, because it was the first paper to show that the statistics of atomic transitions had simple laws. Einstein discovered [[Louis de Broglie]]'s work, and supported his ideas, which were received skeptically at first. In another major paper from this era, Einstein gave a wave equation for [[Matter wave|de Broglie waves]], which Einstein suggested was the [[Hamilton–Jacobi equation]] of mechanics. This paper would inspire Schrödinger's work of 1926. === Bose–Einstein statistics === {{Main|Bose–Einstein statistics}} In 1924, Einstein received a description of a [[statistical mechanics|statistical]] model from Indian physicist [[Satyendra Nath Bose]], based on a counting method that assumed that light could be understood as a gas of indistinguishable particles. Einstein noted that Bose's statistics applied to some atoms as well as to the proposed light particles, and submitted his translation of Bose's paper to the ''[[Zeitschrift für Physik]]''. Einstein also published his own articles describing the model and its implications, among them the [[Bose–Einstein condensate]] phenomenon that some particulates should appear at very low temperatures.{{Sfnp|Einstein|1924}} It was not until 1995 that the first such condensate was produced experimentally by [[Eric Allin Cornell]] and [[Carl Wieman]] using [[ultracold atom|ultra-cooling]] equipment built at the [[National Institute of Standards and Technology|NIST]]–[[JILA]] laboratory at the [[University of Colorado at Boulder]].<ref>{{Citation|url=http://www.nist.gov/public_affairs/releases/n01-04.htm|title=Cornell and Wieman Share 2001 Nobel Prize in Physics|date=9 October 2001|accessdate=11 June 2007| archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20070610080506/http://www.nist.gov/public_affairs/releases/n01-04.htm| archivedate= 10 June 2007 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}</ref> Bose–Einstein statistics are now used to describe the behaviors of any assembly of [[boson]]s. Einstein's sketches for this project may be seen in the Einstein Archive in the library of the Leiden University.<ref name=Instituut-Lorentz /> === Energy momentum pseudotensor === {{Main|Stress-energy-momentum pseudotensor}} General relativity includes a dynamical spacetime, so it is difficult to see how to identify the conserved energy and momentum. [[Noether's theorem]] allows these quantities to be determined from a [[Lagrangian (field theory)|Lagrangian]] with [[Translational symmetry|translation invariance]], but [[general covariance]] makes translation invariance into something of a [[gauge symmetry]]. The energy and momentum derived within general relativity by Noether's presecriptions do not make a real tensor for this reason. Einstein argued that this is true for fundamental reasons, because the gravitational field could be made to vanish by a choice of coordinates. He maintained that the non-covariant energy momentum pseudotensor was in fact the best description of the energy momentum distribution in a gravitational field. This approach has been echoed by [[Lev Landau]] and [[Evgeny Lifshitz]], and others, and has become standard. The use of non-covariant objects like pseudotensors was heavily criticized in 1917 by [[Erwin Schrödinger]] and others. === Unified field theory === {{Main|Classical unified field theories}} Following his research on general relativity, Einstein entered into a series of attempts to generalize his geometric theory of gravitation to include electromagnetism as another aspect of a single entity. In 1950, he described his "[[unified field theory]]" in a ''[[Scientific American]]'' article entitled "On the Generalized Theory of Gravitation".{{Sfnp|Einstein|1950}} Although he continued to be lauded for his work, Einstein became increasingly isolated in his research, and his efforts were ultimately unsuccessful. In his pursuit of a unification of the fundamental forces, Einstein ignored some mainstream developments in physics, most notably the [[strong nuclear force|strong]] and [[weak nuclear force]]s, which were not well understood until many years after his death. Mainstream physics, in turn, largely ignored Einstein's approaches to unification. Einstein's dream of unifying other laws of physics with gravity motivates modern quests for a [[theory of everything]] and in particular [[string theory]], where geometrical fields emerge in a unified quantum-mechanical setting. === Wormholes === {{Main|Wormhole}} Einstein collaborated with others to produce a model of a [[wormhole]]. His motivation was to model elementary particles with charge as a solution of gravitational field equations, in line with the program outlined in the paper "Do Gravitational Fields play an Important Role in the Constitution of the Elementary Particles?". These solutions cut and pasted [[Schwarzschild black hole]]s to make a bridge between two patches. If one end of a wormhole was positively charged, the other end would be negatively charged. These properties led Einstein to believe that pairs of particles and antiparticles could be described in this way. === Einstein–Cartan theory === {{Main|Einstein–Cartan theory}} [[File:Albert Einstein photo 1920.jpg|alt=Einstein, sitting at a table, looks up from the papers he is reading and into the camera.|thumb|upright|Einstein at his office, [[University of Berlin]], 1920]]In order to incorporate spinning point particles into general relativity, the affine connection needed to be generalized to include an antisymmetric part, called the [[Torsion tensor|torsion]]. This modification was made by Einstein and Cartan in the 1920s. === Equations of motion === {{Main|Einstein–Infeld–Hoffmann equations}} The theory of general relativity has a fundamental law—the [[Einstein equations]] which describe how space curves, the [[geodesic equation]] which describes how particles move may be derived from the Einstein equations. Since the equations of general relativity are non-linear, a lump of energy made out of pure gravitational fields, like a black hole, would move on a trajectory which is determined by the Einstein equations themselves, not by a new law. So Einstein proposed that the path of a singular solution, like a black hole, would be determined to be a geodesic from general relativity itself. This was established by Einstein, Infeld, and Hoffmann for pointlike objects without angular momentum, and by [[Roy Kerr]] for spinning objects. === Other investigations === {{Main|Einstein's unsuccessful investigations}} Einstein conducted other investigations that were unsuccessful and abandoned. These pertain to [[force]], [[superconductivity]], [[gravitational waves]], and other research. === Collaboration with other scientists === [[File:Solvay conference 1927.jpg|thumb|The 1927 [[Solvay Conference]] in Brussels, a gathering of the world's top physicists. Einstein in the center.]] In addition to longtime collaborators [[Leopold Infeld]], [[Nathan Rosen]], [[Peter Bergmann]] and others, Einstein also had some one-shot collaborations with various scientists. ==== Einstein–de Haas experiment ==== {{Main|Einstein–de Haas effect}} Einstein and De Haas demonstrated that magnetization is due to the motion of electrons, nowadays known to be the spin. In order to show this, they reversed the magnetization in an iron bar suspended on a [[torsion pendulum]]. They confirmed that this leads the bar to rotate, because the electron's angular momentum changes as the magnetization changes. This experiment needed to be sensitive, because the angular momentum associated with electrons is small, but it definitively established that electron motion of some kind is responsible for magnetization. ==== Schrödinger gas model ==== Einstein suggested to Erwin Schrödinger that he might be able to reproduce the statistics of a [[Bose–Einstein condensate|Bose–Einstein gas]] by considering a box. Then to each possible quantum motion of a particle in a box associate an independent harmonic oscillator. Quantizing these oscillators, each level will have an integer occupation number, which will be the number of particles in it. This formulation is a form of [[second quantization]], but it predates modern quantum mechanics. Erwin Schrödinger applied this to derive the [[thermodynamic]] properties of a [[Quantum chaos|semiclassical]] [[ideal gas]]. Schrödinger urged Einstein to add his name as co-author, although Einstein declined the invitation.<ref>{{Citation |last=Moore |first=Walter |date=1989 |title=Schrödinger: Life and Thought |location=Cambridge |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=0-521-43767-9}}</ref> ==== Einstein refrigerator ==== {{Main|Einstein refrigerator}} In 1926, Einstein and his former student Leó Szilárd co-invented (and in 1930, patented) the [[Einstein refrigerator]]. This [[absorption refrigerator]] was then revolutionary for having no moving parts and using only heat as an input.<ref name="Goettling">Goettling, Gary. [http://web.archive.org/web/20050525082445/http://gtalumni.org/Publications/magazine/sum98/einsrefr.html Einstein's refrigerator] ''Georgia Tech Alumni Magazine.'' 1998. Retrieved on 12 November 2014. [[Leó Szilárd]], a Hungarian physicist who later worked on the Manhattan Project, is credited with the discovery of the [[chain reaction]]</ref> On 11 November 1930, {{US patent|1781541}} was awarded to Albert Einstein and Leó Szilárd for the refrigerator. Their invention was not immediately put into commercial production, and the most promising of their patents were acquired by the Swedish company [[Electrolux]].<ref>In September 2008 it was reported that Malcolm McCulloch of Oxford University was heading a three-year project to develop more robust appliances that could be used in locales lacking electricity, and that his team had completed a prototype Einstein refrigerator. He was quoted as saying that improving the design and changing the types of gases used might allow the design's efficiency to be quadrupled.{{Citation | last = Alok | first = Jha | title = Einstein fridge design can help global cooling |work=The Guardian |location=UK | date = 21 September 2008 | url = http://www.guardian.co.uk/science/2008/sep/21/scienceofclimatechange.climatechange | accessdate =22 February 2011| archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20110124172925/http://www.guardian.co.uk/science/2008/sep/21/scienceofclimatechange.climatechange| archivedate= 24 January 2011 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}</ref> === Bohr versus Einstein === {{Main|Bohr–Einstein debates}} [[File:Niels Bohr Albert Einstein by Ehrenfest.jpg|upright|alt=Two men sitting, looking relaxed. A dark-haired Bohr is talking while Einstein looks sceptical.|thumb|Einstein and [[Niels Bohr]], 1925]] The Bohr–Einstein debates were a series of public disputes about [[quantum mechanics]] between Albert Einstein and [[Niels Bohr]] who were two of its founders. Their debates are remembered because of their importance to the [[philosophy of science]].<ref name='Bohr1949'>{{cite web | url = http://www.marxists.org/reference/subject/philosophy/works/dk/bohr.htm | title = Discussions with Einstein on Epistemological Problems in Atomic Physics | accessdate =30 August 2010 | author = Bohr N | work=The Value of Knowledge: A Miniature Library of Philosophy | publisher=[[Marxists Internet Archive]]| archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20100913033345/http://www.marxists.org/reference/subject/philosophy/works/dk/bohr.htm| archivedate= 13 September 2010 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}} From Albert Einstein: Philosopher-Scientist (1949), publ. Cambridge University Press, 1949. Niels Bohr's report of conversations with Einstein.</ref>{{Sfnp|Einstein|1969|loc=A reprint of this book was published by Edition Erbrich in 1982, ISBN 3-88682-005-X}}{{Sfnp|Einstein|1935}} Their debates would influence later [[interpretations of quantum mechanics]]. === Einstein–Podolsky–Rosen paradox === {{Main|EPR paradox}} In 1935, Einstein returned to the question of quantum mechanics. He considered how a measurement on one of two entangled particles would affect the other. He noted, along with his collaborators, that by performing different measurements on the distant particle, either of position or momentum, different properties of the entangled partner could be discovered without disturbing it in any way. He then used a hypothesis of [[local realism]] to conclude that the other particle had these properties already determined. The principle he proposed is that if it is possible to determine what the answer to a position or momentum measurement would be, without in any way disturbing the particle, then the particle actually has values of position or momentum. This principle distilled the essence of Einstein's objection to quantum mechanics. As a physical principle, it was shown to be incorrect when the [[Aspect experiment]] of 1982 confirmed [[Bell's theorem]], which had been promulgated in 1964. == Non-scientific legacy == While traveling, Einstein wrote daily to his wife Elsa and adopted stepdaughters Margot and Ilse. The letters were included in the papers bequeathed to [[The Hebrew University]]. Margot Einstein permitted the personal letters to be made available to the public, but requested that it not be done until twenty years after her death (she died in 1986<ref>{{cite web|url=http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9A0DEFD9153FF931A25754C0A960948260 |title=Obituary |work=New York Times |date=12 July 1986 |accessdate=3 April 2011}}</ref>). Albert Einstein had expressed his interest in the profession of [[plumber]] and was made an honorary member of the Plumbers and Steamfitters Union.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.chicagotribune.com/suburbs/orland-park-homer-glen/community/chi-ugc-article-13-plumbing-facts-you-probably-didnt-know-2016-02-15-story.html|title=13 Plumbing Facts You Probably Didn’t Know|last=UGC|first=Chicago Tribune|website=chicagotribune.com|access-date=2016-04-10}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://newrepublic.com/article/117028/world-beckons|title=Carl Sagan Explains Albert Einstein|last=Sagan|first=Carl|date=2014-03-14|website=New Republic|access-date=2016-04-10}}</ref> Barbara Wolff, of The Hebrew University's Albert Einstein Archives, told the [[BBC]] that there are about 3,500 pages of private correspondence written between 1912 and 1955.<ref>{{Citation |title =Letters Reveal Einstein Love Life |journal=[[BBC News]] |publisher=BBC |url =http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/5168002.stm |accessdate =14 March 2007 | date=11 July 2006}}</ref> [[Corbis]], successor to The Roger Richman Agency, licenses the use of his name and associated imagery, as agent for the university.<ref>{{Citation|url=http://einstein.biz/|title=Einstein|publisher=Corbis Rights Representation|accessdate=8 August 2008| archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20080819220424/http://einstein.biz/| archivedate= 19 August 2008 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}</ref> == In popular culture == {{Main|Albert Einstein in popular culture}} In the period before World War II, ''[[The New Yorker]]'' published a vignette in their "The Talk of the Town" feature saying that Einstein was so well known in America that he would be stopped on the street by people wanting him to explain "that theory". He finally figured out a way to handle the incessant inquiries. He told his inquirers "Pardon me, sorry! Always I am mistaken for Professor Einstein."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.newyorker.com/archive/1939/01/14/1939_01_14_011_TNY_CARDS_000176356|title=Disguise|author=E. Libman|date=14 January 1939|work=The New Yorker}}</ref> Einstein has been the subject of or inspiration for many novels, films, plays, and works of music.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.cindymctee.com/einsteins_dream.html |title=Einstein's Dream for orchestra |first=Cindy |last=McTee |publisher=Cindymctee.com }}</ref> He is a favorite model for depictions of [[mad scientist]]s and [[absent-minded professor]]s; his expressive face and distinctive hairstyle have been widely copied and exaggerated. ''[[Time (magazine)|Time]]'' magazine's Frederic Golden wrote that Einstein was "a cartoonist's dream come true".<ref name="slqbwn">{{Citation|last =Golden |first =Frederic |title =Person of the Century: Albert Einstein|magazine =Time |date =3 January 2000 |url =http://www.time.com/time/time100/poc/magazine/albert_einstein5a.html |accessdate =25 February 2006 | archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20060221080452/http://www.time.com/time/time100/poc/magazine/albert_einstein5a.html| archivedate= 21 February 2006 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}</ref> == Awards and honors == {{Main|Einstein's awards and honors}} Einstein received numerous awards and honors, including the [[Nobel Prize in Physics]]. == Publications == : ''The following publications by Albert Einstein are referenced in this article. A more complete list of his publications may be found at [[List of scientific publications by Albert Einstein]].'' {{refbegin|colwidth=30em}} * {{Citation |last = Einstein |first = Albert |date = 1901 |orig-year = Manuscript received: 16 December 1900 |publication-date = 14 March 2006 |via = Wiley Online Library |publication-place = Hoboken, NJ |title = Folgerungen aus den Capillaritätserscheinungen |trans-title = Conclusions Drawn from the Phenomena of Capillarity |language = German |place = Zurich, Switzerland |work = [[Annalen der Physik]] (Berlin) |volume = 309 |pages = 513–523 |issue = 3 |doi = 10.1002/andp.19013090306 |url=http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/andp.19013090306/pdf |format = PDF |bibcode = 1901AnP...309..513E }} * {{Citation |last = Einstein |first = Albert |date = 1905a |orig-year = Manuscript received: 18 March 1905 |publication-date = 10 March 2006 |via = Wiley Online Library |publication-place = Hoboken, NJ |title = Über einen die Erzeugung und Verwandlung des Lichtes betreffenden heuristischen Gesichtspunkt |trans-title = On a Heuristic Viewpoint Concerning the Production and Transformation of Light |language = German |place = Berne, Switzerland |work= Annalen der Physik (Berlin) |volume = 322 |pages = 132–148 |issue = 6 |doi = 10.1002/andp.19053220607 |url = http://www.physik.uni-augsburg.de/annalen/history/einstein-papers/1905_17_132-148.pdf |format = PDF |bibcode = 1905AnP...322..132E }} * {{cite thesis |last = Einstein |first = Albert |date = 1905b |orig-year = Completed 30 April and submitted 20 July 1905 |publication-date = 2008 |publisher = [[ETH]] Zürich |via = ETH Bibliothek |publication-place = Zurich, Switzerland |title = Eine neue Bestimmung der Moleküldimensionen |trans-title = A new determination of molecular dimensions |language = German |work = Dissertationen [[Universität Zürich]] |place = Berne, Switzerland, published by Wyss Buchdruckerei |type = PhD Thesis |doi = 10.3929/ethz-a-000565688 |url = http://e-collection.library.ethz.ch/eserv/eth:30378/eth-30378-01.pdf |format = PDF |ref = harv }} * {{Citation |last = Einstein |first = Albert |date = 1905c |orig-year = Manuscript received: 11 May 1905 |publication-date = 10 March 2006 |via = Wiley Online Library |publication-place = Hoboken, NJ |title = Über die von der molekularkinetischen Theorie der Wärme geforderte Bewegung von in ruhenden Flüssigkeiten suspendierten Teilchen |trans-title = On the Motion&nbsp;– Required by the Molecular Kinetic Theory of Heat&nbsp;– of Small Particles Suspended in a Stationary Liquid |language = German |place = Berne, Switzerland |work = Annalen der Physik (Berlin) |volume = 322 |issue = 8 |pages = 549–560 |doi = 10.1002/andp.19053220806 |url = http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/andp.19053220806/pdf |format = PDF |bibcode = 1905AnP...322..549E }} * {{Citation |last = Einstein |first = Albert |date = 1905d |orig-year = Manuscript received: 30 June 1905 |publication-date = 10 March 2006 |via = Wiley Online Library |publication-place = Hoboken, NJ |title = Zur Elektrodynamik bewegter Körper |trans-title = On the Electrodynamics of Moving Bodies |language = German |place = Berne, Switzerland |work = Annalen der Physik (Berlin) |volume = 322 |issue = 10 |pages = 891–921 |doi = 10.1002/andp.19053221004 |url = http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/andp.19053221004/pdf |format = PDF |bibcode = 1905AnP...322..891E }} * {{Citation |last = Einstein |first = Albert |date = 1905e |orig-year = Manuscript received: 27 September 1905 |publication-date = 10 March 2006 |via = Wiley Online Library |publication-place = Hoboken, NJ |title = Ist die Trägheit eines Körpers von seinem Energieinhalt abhängig? |trans-title = Does the Inertia of a Body Depend Upon Its Energy Content? |language = German |place = Berne, Switzerland |work = Annalen der Physik (Berlin) |volume = 323 |issue = 13 |pages = 639–641 |doi = 10.1002/andp.19053231314 |url = http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/andp.19053231314/pdf |format = PDF |bibcode = 1905AnP...323..639E }} * {{Citation |last = Einstein |first = Albert |date = 1915 |orig-year = Published 25 November 1915 |via = ECHO, Cultural Heritage Online, [[Max Planck Institute]] for the History of Science |place = Berlin, Germany |title = Die Feldgleichungen der Gravitation |trans-title = The Field Equations of Gravitation |language = German |work = [[Prussian Academy of Sciences|Königlich Preussische Akademie der Wissenschaften]] |pages = 844–847 |url = http://echo.mpiwg-berlin.mpg.de/MPIWG:ZZB2HK6W |format = Online page images }} * {{Citation |last = Einstein |first = Albert |date = 1917a |title = Kosmologische Betrachtungen zur allgemeinen Relativitätstheorie |trans-title = Cosmological Considerations in the General Theory of Relativity |language = German |work = [[Prussian Academy of Sciences|Königlich Preussische Akademie der Wissenschaften]], Berlin }} * {{Citation |last = Einstein |first = Albert |date = 1917b |title = Zur Quantentheorie der Strahlung |trans-title = On the Quantum Mechanics of Radiation |language = German |work = Physikalische Zeitschrift |volume = 18 |pages = 121–128 |bibcode = 1917PhyZ...18..121E }} * {{cite speech |last = Einstein |first = Albert |date = 1923 |event = Lecture delivered to the Nordic Assembly of Naturalists at Gothenburg, 11 July 1923 |place = Gothenburg |orig-year = First published 1923, in English 1967 |publication-date = 3 February 2015 |title = Grundgedanken und Probleme der Relativitätstheorie |trans-title = Fundamental Ideas and Problems of the Theory of Relativity |language = German (1923) and English (1967) |work = Nobel Lectures, Physics 1901–1921 |publisher = Nobelprice.org |via = Nobel Media AB 2014 |publication-place = Stockholm |url = http://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/1921/einstein-lecture.html |format = PDF |ref = harv }} * {{Citation |last = Einstein |first = Albert |date = 1924 |title = Quantentheorie des einatomigen idealen Gases |trans-title = Quantum theory of monatomic ideal gases |language = German |orig-year = Published 10 July 1924 |via = ECHO, Cultural Heritage Online, [[Max Planck Institute]] for the History of Science |publication-place = Munich, Germany |journal = Sitzungsberichte der Preussischen Akademie der Wissenschaften, Physikalisch-Mathematische Klasse |pages = 261–267 |publisher = [[Prussian Academy of Sciences|Königlich Preussische Akademie der Wissenschaften]], Berlin |url = http://echo.mpiwg-berlin.mpg.de/MPIWG:DRQK5WYB |format = Online page images }}. First of a series of papers on this topic. * {{Citation |last = Einstein |first = Albert |date = 12 March 1926 |orig-year = Cover Date 1 March 1926 |place = Berlin |title = Die Ursache der Mäanderbildung der Flußläufe und des sogenannten Baerschen Gesetzes |trans-title = On [[Baer's law]] and [[meander]]s in the courses of rivers |language = German |journal = Die Naturwissenschaften |volume = 14 |pages = 223–224 |publisher = Springer-Verlag |via = SpringerLink |publication-place = Heidelberg, Germany |doi = 10.1007/BF01510300 |bibcode = 1926NW.....14..223E |issue = 11 |issn = 1432-1904 }} * {{Citation |last = Einstein |first = Albert |date = 1926b |title = Investigations on the Theory of the Brownian Movement |place = Berne, Switzerland |publisher = Dover Publications |editor = R. Fürth |others = Translated by A. D. Cowper |publication-date = 1956 |publication-place = USA |isbn = 978-1-60796-285-4 |url = http://www.pitt.edu/~jdnorton/lectures/Rotman_Summer_School_2013/Einstein_1905_docs/Einstein_Dissertation_English.pdf |format = PDF |accessdate = 2015-01-04 }} * {{Citation |last = Einstein |first = Albert |last2 = Podolsky |first2 = Boris |last3 = Rosen |first3 = Nathan |date = 15 May 1935 |title = Can Quantum-Mechanical Description of Physical Reality Be Considered Complete? |journal = Physical Review |publisher = American Physical Society |via = APS Journals |issue = 10 |volume = 47 |pages = 777–780 |orig-year = Received 25 March 1935 |doi = 10.1103/PhysRev.47.777 |bibcode = 1935PhRv...47..777E |url = http://journals.aps.org/pr/pdf/10.1103/PhysRev.47.777 |format = PDF |ref = {{harvid|Einstein|1935}} }} * {{Citation |last = Einstein |first = Albert |date = 9 November 1940 |title = On Science and Religion |journal = Nature |volume = 146 |issue = 3706 |doi = 10.1038/146605a0 |pages = 605–607 |isbn = 0-7073-0453-9 |publisher = Macmillan Publishers Group |location = Edinburgh |bibcode = 1940Natur.146..605E }} * {{Citation |last = Einstein |first = Albert |display-authors = etal |date = 4 December 1948 |title = To the editors of the New York Times |newspaper = New York Times |url = http://phys4.harvard.edu/~wilson/NYTimes1948.html |isbn = 0-7354-0359-7 |publisher = AIP, American Inst. of Physics |location = Melville, New York }} * {{Citation |last = Einstein |first = Albert |date = May 1949 |title = Why Socialism? (Reprise) |magazine = Monthly Review |volume = 61 |issue = 01 (May) |publisher = Monthly Review Foundation |via = MonthlyReview.org |publication-date = May 2009 |publication-place = New York |url = http://www.monthlyreview.org/598einst.htm |accessdate = 16 January 2006 | archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20060111081948/http://www.monthlyreview.org/598einst.htm| archivedate= 11 January 2006 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no }} * {{Citation |last = Einstein |first = Albert |date = 1950 |title = On the Generalized Theory of Gravitation |journal = Scientific American |volume = CLXXXII |issue = 4 |pages = 13–17 |doi=10.1038/scientificamerican0450-13 }} * {{Citation |last = Einstein |first = Albert |date = 1954 |title = Ideas and Opinions |place = New York |publisher = Random House |isbn = 0-517-00393-7 }} * {{Citation |last = Einstein |first = Albert |date = 1969 |title = Albert Einstein, Hedwig und Max Born: Briefwechsel 1916–1955 |publisher = Nymphenburger Verlagshandlung |location = Munich |language = German |isbn = 3-88682-005-X }} * {{Citation |last = Einstein |first = Albert |date = 1979 |edition = Centennial |title = Autobiographical Notes |place = Chicago |publisher = Open Court |isbn = 0-87548-352-6 |others = Paul Arthur Schilpp }}. The ''chasing a light beam'' thought experiment is described on pages 48–51. * Collected Papers: {{Citation |editor=Stachel, John |editor-link=John Stachel |editor2=Martin J. Klein |editor3=A. J. Kox |editor4=Michel Janssen |editor5=R. Schulmann |editor6=Diana Komos Buchwald |display-editors=etal |publication-date = 21 July 2008 |orig-year = Published between 1987–2006 |title = The Collected Papers of Albert Einstein |volume = 1–10 |work = Einstein's Writings |publisher = [[Princeton University Press]] |url = http://press.princeton.edu/einstein/writings.html#papers |ref = {{harvid|Stachel|2008}} }}. Further information about the volumes published so far can be found on the webpages of the [http://www.einstein.caltech.edu/index.html Einstein Papers Project] and on the [[Princeton University Press]] [http://press.princeton.edu/einstein/ Einstein Page] {{refend}} == See also == {{Div col|colwidth=20em}} * [[Einstein notation]] * ''[[The Einstein Theory of Relativity]]'' (educational film about the theory of relativity) * [[Heinrich Burkhardt]] * [[Historical Museum of Bern]] (Einstein Museum) * [[History of gravitational theory]] * [[Introduction to special relativity]] * [[List of coupled cousins]] * [[List of German inventors and discoverers]] * [[List of Jewish Nobel laureates|Jewish Nobel laureates]] * [[List of peace activists]] * [[Relativity priority dispute]] * [[Sticky bead argument]] * [[Albert Einstein House]] in Princeton *{{Books-inline}} {{div col end}} == References == {{Reflist|20em}} == Further reading == {{refbegin|30em}} * {{Citation |last=Brian |first=Denis |date=1996 |title=Einstein: A Life |location=New York |publisher=John Wiley}} * Calaprice, Alice, Daniel Kennefick, & Robert Schulmann. ''An Einstein Encyclopedia'' (Princeton University Press, 2015) * {{Citation |last=Clark |first=Ronald W. |date=1971 |title=Einstein: The Life and Times |location=New York |publisher=Avon Books |isbn=0-380-44123-3}} * {{Citation |last=Fölsing |first=Albrecht |date=1997 |title=Albert Einstein: A Biography |location=New York |publisher=Penguin Viking |others=Translated and abridged from German by Ewald Osers |isbn=978-0-670-85545-2}} * {{Citation |last1=Highfield |first1=Roger |authorlink=Roger Highfield |last2=Carter |first2=Paul |date=1993 |title=The Private Lives of Albert Einstein |location=London |publisher=Faber and Faber |isbn=978-0-571-16744-9}} * {{Citation |last=Hoffmann |first=Banesh |others=with the collaboration of Helen Dukas |date=1972 |title=Albert Einstein: Creator and Rebel' |location=London |publisher=Hart-Davis, MacGibbon |isbn=978-0-670-11181-7}} * {{Citation |last=Isaacson |first=Walter |date=2007 |title=Einstein: His Life and Universe |publisher=Simon & Schuster Paperbacks |location=New York |isbn=978-0-7432-6473-0}} * {{Citation |last=Moring |first=Gary |date=2004 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=875TTxildJ0C&dq=idiots+guide+to+einstein&printsec=frontcover |title=The complete idiot's guide to understanding Einstein |edition=1st |location=Indianapolis IN |publisher=Alpha books (Macmillan) |isbn=0-02-863180-3}} * {{Citation |last=Neffe |first=Jürgen |title=Einstein: A Biography |others=Translated by Shelley Frisch |date=2007 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=B8K6n177ZwcC |publisher=[[Farrar, Straus and Giroux]] |isbn=978-0-374-14664-1}} * {{Citation |last=Oppenheimer |first=J. Robert |date=1971 |title=On Albert Einstein |pages=8–12, 208 |work=Science and synthesis: an international colloquium organized by Unesco on the tenth anniversary of the death of Albert Einstein and Teilhard de Chardin |publisher=Springer-Verlag |others=Lecture delivered at the UNESCO House in Paris on 13 December 1965}}, or {{Citation |work=The New York Review of Books |date=17 March 1966 |url=http://www.nybooks.com/articles/archives/1966/mar/17/on-albert-einstein/?pagination=false |title=On Albert Einstein by Robert Oppenheimer}} * {{Citation |last=Pais |first=Abraham |date=1982 |title=Subtle is the Lord: The science and the life of Albert Einstein |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-853907-0}} * {{Citation |last=Pais |first=Abraham |date=1994 |title=Einstein Lived Here |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn= 0-19-280672-6}} * {{Citation |last=Parker |first=Barry |date=2000 |title=Einstein's Brainchild: Relativity Made Relatively Easy! |publisher= Prometheus Books |others=Illustrated by Lori Scoffield-Beer |isbn=978-1-59102-522-1}} * {{Citation |last=Rogers |first=Donald W. |title=Einstein's "Other" Theory: The Planck-Bose-Einstein Theory of Heat Capacity |publisher=Princeton University Press |date=2005 |isbn=978-0-691-11826-0}} * {{Citation |last=Schweber |first=Sylvan S. |date=2008 |title=Einstein and [[J. Robert Oppenheimer|Oppenheimer]]: The Meaning of Genius |publisher=Harvard University Press |isbn=978-0-674-02828-9}} * {{Citation |last=Stachel |first=John J. |date=2002 |title=Einstein from ‘B’ to ‘Z’ |url=http://www.worldcat.org/title/einstein-from-b-to-z/oclc/237532460 |publisher=Birkhäuser |series=Einstein Studies |volume=9 |isbn=978-0-8176-4143-6 |via=WorldCat by OCLC (Dublin, OH, USA) |accessdate=2015-03-23}} * {{Citation |last=Stone |first=A. Douglas |date=2013 |title=Einstein and the Quantum |publisher=Princeton University Press |isbn=978-0-691-13968-5}} * {{cite journal|last1=Weinberg|first1=Steven|title=Einstein’s mistakes|journal=Physics Today|date=2005|volume=58|issue=11|page=31|doi=10.1063/1.2155755|bibcode = 2005PhT....58k..31W }} {{refend}} == External links == {{Sister project links|Albert Einstein|wikt=Einstein|n=Einstein's equation turns 100|s=Author:Albert Einstein|b=Introduction to Astrophysics/Albert Einstein|voy=no}} {{wikilivres}} * {{Dmoz|Science/Physics/History/People/Einstein%2C_Albert/}} * {{gutenberg author|id=Albert_Einstein|name=Albert Einstein}} * {{Internet Archive author |sname=Albert Einstein}} * {{Librivox author |id=1035}} * [http://www.shapell.org/exhibitions.aspx?einstein-original-letters-in-aid-of-his-brethren Einstein's Personal Correspondence: Religion, Politics, The Holocaust, and Philosophy] Shapell Manuscript Foundation * [http://vault.fbi.gov/Albert%20Einstein FBI file on Albert Einstein] * [http://www.pha.jhu.edu/einstein/stuff/einstein&music.pdf Einstein and his love of music], [[Physics World]] * [http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/1921/einstein-bio.html Albert Einstein] on [[NobelPrize.org]] * [http://www.history.com/topics/albert-einstein Albert Einstein], videos on History.com * {{Wayback |date=20110608004818 |url=http://ocw.mit.edu/courses/science-technology-and-society/sts-042j-einstein-oppenheimer-feynman-physics-in-the-20th-century-spring-2006/ |title=MIT OpenCourseWare STS.042J/8.225J: Einstein, Oppenheimer, Feynman: Physics in the 20th century }} – free study course that explores the changing roles of physics and physicists during the 20th century * [http://www.alberteinstein.info/ Albert Einstein Archives Online (80,000+ Documents)] ([http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/46785542/ns/technology_and_science-science/ MSNBC, 19 March 2012]) * [http://www.wdl.org/en/item/2745/ Einstein's declaration of intention for American citizenship] on the [[World Digital Library]] * [http://archon.brandeis.edu/?p=collections/findingaid&id=41 Albert Einstein Collection] at [[Brandeis University]] * [http://einsteinpapers.press.princeton.edu/ The Collected Papers of Albert Einstein "Digital Einstein"] at [[Princeton University]] {{Einstein}} {{Copley Medallists 1901–1950}} {{Nobel Prize in Physics Laureates 1901–1925}} {{philosophy of science}} {{Use dmy dates|date=October 2012}} {{Portal bar|Biography|Physics|Science|Cosmology}} {{Authority control}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Einstein, Albert}} [[Category:Albert Einstein| ]] [[Category:1879 births]] [[Category:1955 deaths]] [[Category:20th-century American engineers]] [[Category:20th-century American writers]] [[Category:20th-century German writers]] [[Category:20th-century Jews]] [[Category:20th-century physicists]] [[Category:American agnostics]] [[Category:American engineers]] [[Category:American inventors]] [[Category:American pacifists]] [[Category:American people of German-Jewish descent]] 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Fairbairn 8008470 /* Recent history (2002–present) */ wikitext text/x-wiki {{pp-semi-indef}} {{pp-move-indef}} {{Use dmy dates|date=August 2012}} {{Coord|33|N|65|E|display=title}} {{Infobox country |conventional_long_name = Islamic Republic of Afghanistan {{unbulleted list|item_style=font-size:88%; | <hr/> {{longitem|{{nobold|{{Nastaliq|{{resize|120%|د افغانستان اسلامي جمهوریت}}}}<br/>{{nowrap|''Da Afġānistān Islāmī Jumhoryat''{{Spaces|2}}{{resize|70%|([[Pashto language|Pashto]])}}}}}}}} | <hr/> {{longitem|{{nobold|{{Nastaliq|{{resize|120%|جمهوری اسلامی افغانستان}}|fa}}<br />{{native name|fa|Jomhūrī-ye Eslāmī-ye Afġānestān}}}}}}}} |common_name = Afghanistan |image_flag = Flag of Afghanistan.svg |image_coat = National Emblem of Afghanistan 03.png |symbol_type = Coat of arms |national_motto = {{nowrap|{{big|{{lang|ar|لا إله إلا الله، محمد رسول الله}}}}}}<br />"{{transl|ar|Lā ʾilāha ʾillāl–lāh, Muhammadun rasūl allāh}}" <br />{{small|"There is no god but God; Muhammad is the messenger of God. ([[Shahada]])}} |national_anthem = {{transl|ur|ALA-LC|''[[Afghan National Anthem|Millī Surūd]]''}}<br/>{{lang|ps|{{Nastaliq|ملي سرود}}}}<br/><center><small>"The National Anthem"</small> |image_map = Afghanistan (orthographic projection).svg |image_map2 = Afghanistan - Location Map (2013) - AFG - UNOCHA.svg |capital = [[Kabul]] |latd = 34 |latm = 32 |latNS = N |longd = 69 |longm = 08 |longEW = E |largest_city = Kabul |languages_type = [[Official language]]s |languages = {{hlist|style=white-space:nowrap; |[[Pashto]]|[[Dari language|Dari]]}}<ref name=AO /> |religion = [[Islam]] |demonym = [[Demography of Afghanistan|Afghan]] |government_type = [[Unitary state|Unitary]] [[Presidential system|presidential]] [[Islamic republic]] |leader_title1 = [[President of Afghanistan|President]] |leader_name1 = [[Mohammad Ashraf Ghani|Ashraf Ghani]] |leader_title2 = [[Chief Executive Officer (Afghanistan)|Chief Executive Officer]] |leader_name2 = [[Abdullah Abdullah]] |legislature = [[National Assembly (Afghanistan)|National Assembly]] |upper_house = [[House of Elders (Afghanistan)|House of Elders]] |lower_house = [[House of the People (Afghanistan)|House of the People]] |established_event1 = {{nowrap|[[Hotak dynasty|First Afghan state]]}} |established_date1 = April 1709 |established_event2 = [[Afghan Independence Day|Recognized]] |established_date2 = 19 August 1919 |area_km2 = 652864<ref name="Area and administrative Population">[http://cso.gov.af/en Central Statistics Organization of Afghanistan]: [http://cso.gov.af/en/page/4722/2012-2-13 Statistical Yearbook 2012–2013]: [http://cso.gov.af/Content/files/Area%20and%20Administrative%20and%20Population.pdf Area and administrative Population] {{wayback|url=http://cso.gov.af/en |date=20151217003632 |df=y }}</ref> |area_sq_mi = 251827 |area_rank = 41st |area_magnitude = 1_E11 |percent_water = negligible |population_estimate = 32,564,342<ref name="Factbook"/> |population_estimate_year = 2015 |population_estimate_rank = 40th |population_density_km2 = 43.5 |population_density_sq_mi = 111.8 |population_density_rank = 150th |GDP_PPP_year = 2016 |GDP_PPP_rank = |GDP_PPP = $65.295 billion<ref name="imf2">{{cite web |url=http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2015/02/weodata/weorept.aspx?pr.x=103&pr.y=16&sy=2016&ey=2016&scsm=1&ssd=1&sort=country&ds=.&br=1&c=512%2C672%2C914%2C962%2C612%2C674%2C614%2C676%2C311%2C548%2C213%2C556%2C911%2C678%2C912%2C867%2C313%2C682%2C419%2C684%2C513%2C273%2C316%2C868%2C913%2C921%2C339%2C948%2C638%2C943%2C514%2C686%2C218%2C688%2C963%2C518%2C616%2C728%2C223%2C558%2C516%2C278%2C918%2C692%2C748%2C694%2C618%2C449%2C624%2C564%2C522%2C565%2C622%2C283%2C626%2C853%2C628%2C288%2C228%2C293%2C924%2C566%2C233%2C964%2C632%2C453%2C636%2C968%2C634%2C922%2C238%2C714%2C662%2C862%2C960%2C716%2C611%2C456%2C321%2C722%2C243%2C942%2C248%2C718%2C469%2C724%2C253%2C813%2C642%2C199%2C643%2C733%2C644%2C524%2C819%2C361%2C646%2C362%2C648%2C364%2C915%2C732%2C652%2C366%2C328%2C734%2C258%2C463%2C656%2C923%2C654%2C738%2C336%2C578%2C263%2C537%2C268%2C742%2C944%2C866%2C534%2C369%2C536%2C744%2C429%2C186%2C433%2C925%2C343%2C869%2C439%2C746%2C916%2C926%2C664%2C466%2C826%2C298%2C967%2C927%2C443%2C846%2C917%2C299%2C544%2C582%2C446%2C474%2C666%2C754%2C668%2C698&s=NGDPD%2CNGDPDPC%2CPPPGDP%2CPPPPC&grp=0&a= |title=Afghanistan |publisher=International Monetary Fund |accessdate=26 April 2014}}</ref> |GDP_PPP_per_capita = $1,994<ref name=imf2/> |GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = |GDP_nominal_year = 2016 |GDP_nominal = $19.654 billion<ref name=imf2/> |GDP_nominal_per_capita = $600<ref name=imf2/> |Gini_year = 2008 |Gini_rank = |Gini_change = <!-- increase/decrease/steady --> |Gini = 29<!-- number only --> |Gini_ref = <ref name="wb-gini">{{cite web |url=http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SI.POV.GINI/ |title=Gini Index |publisher=World Bank |accessdate=2 March 2011 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140511044958/http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SI.POV.GINI|archivedate=2014-05-11}}</ref> |HDI_year = 2014<!-- Please use the year to which the data refers, not the publication year --> |HDI_change = increase<!-- increase/decrease/steady --> |HDI = 0.465<!-- number only --> |HDI_ref = <ref name="HDI">{{cite web |url=http://hdr.undp.org/sites/default/files/hdr_2015_statistical_annex.pdf |title=2015 Human Development Report |date=14 December 2015 |accessdate=14 December 2015 |publisher=United Nations Development Programme | page=18}}</ref> |HDI_rank = 171st |currency = [[Afghan afghani|Afghani]] |currency_code = AFN |time_zone = D† |utc_offset = +4:30 [[Solar Hijri calendar|Solar Calendar]] |drives_on = [[Right- and left-hand traffic#Afghanistan|right]] |calling_code = [[Telephone numbers in Afghanistan|+93]] |country_code = AFG |cctld = [[.af]] [[افغانستان.]] }} '''Afghanistan''' {{IPAc-en|audio=En-us-Afghanistan.ogg|æ|f|ˈ|ɡ|æ|n|ɨ|s|t|æ|n}} ([[Pashto language|Pashto]]/[[Dari language|Dari]]: {{nq|افغانستان}}, ''Afġānistān''), officially the '''Islamic Republic of Afghanistan''', is a [[landlocked country]] located within [[South Asia]] and [[Central Asia]].<ref name="Factbook" /><ref name="South Asia" /> It has a population of approximately 32 million, making it the [[list of countries by population|42nd]] most populous country in the world. It is bordered by [[Pakistan]] in the south and east; [[Iran]] in the west; [[Turkmenistan]], [[Uzbekistan]], and [[Tajikistan]] in the north; and [[China]] in the far northeast. Its territory covers {{convert|652,000|km2|sqmi|abbr=on}}, making it the [[List of countries and dependencies by area|41st largest]] country in the world. Human habitation in Afghanistan dates back to the [[Middle Paleolithic]] Era, and the country's [[Geostrategy|strategic]] location along the [[Silk Road]] connected it to the cultures of the Middle East and other parts of Asia. Through the ages the land has been home to various peoples and witnessed numerous military campaigns; notably by [[Alexander the Great]], [[Islamic conquest of Afghanistan|Muslim Arabs]], [[Mongol invasion of Khwarezmia and Eastern Iran|Mongols]], [[First Anglo-Afghan War|British]], [[Soviet war in Afghanistan|Soviet Russians]], and in the modern-era by [[War in Afghanistan (2001–present)|Western powers]]. The land also served as the source from which the [[Kushan Empire|Kushans]], [[Hephthalite Empire|Hephthalites]], [[Samanid Empire|Samanids]], [[Saffarid Empire|Saffarids]], [[Ghaznavids]], [[Ghorids]], [[Khilji dynasty|Khiljis]], [[Mughal Empire|Mughals]], [[Hotak Empire|Hotaks]], [[Durrani dynasty|Durranis]], and others have risen to form major empires.<ref name="Galvin-PreIslamic">{{cite web |url=http://www.gl.iit.edu/govdocs/afghanistan/PreIslamic.html |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20011103002246/http://www.gl.iit.edu/govdocs/afghanistan/PreIslamic.html |archivedate=3 November 2001|title=The Pre-Islamic Period |publisher=Illinois Institute of Technology |work=Afghanistan Country Study |first=Luke |last=Griffin |date=14 January 2002 |accessdate=14 October 2010}}</ref> The political history of the modern state of Afghanistan began with the Hotak and Durrani dynasties in the 18th century. In the late 19th century, Afghanistan became a [[buffer state]] in the "[[The Great Game|Great Game]]" between [[British Raj|British India]] and the [[Russian Empire]]. Following the [[Third Anglo-Afghan War]] in 1919, [[Amanullah Khan|King Amanullah]] unsuccessfully attempted to modernize the country. It remained peaceful during [[Mohammed Zahir Shah|Zahir Shah]]'s forty years of monarchy. A series of coups in the 1970s was followed by a [[War in Afghanistan (1978–present)|series of civil wars]] that devastated much of Afghanistan. This was followed by the recent $100 billion nationwide rebuilding process.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.mcclatchydc.com/news/nation-world/national/national-security/article24783502.html |title=Pentagon can’t account for $1 billion in Afghan reconstruction aid |publisher=mcclatchydc.com |date=April 23, 2015 |accessdate=September 8, 2015}}</ref> == Etymology == {{Main|Name of Afghanistan}} The name ''Afghānistān'' ([[Pashto]] |افغانستان) is believed to be as old as the [[ethnonym]] [[Afghan (ethnonym)|''Afghan'']], which is documented in the 10th-century [[geography]] book ''[[Hudud ul-'alam]]''. The [[root (linguistics)|root]] name "[[Afghan]]" was used [[history|historically]] in reference to a member of the ethnic [[Pashtuns]], and the [[suffix]] "[[-stan]]" means "place of" in [[Sanskrit]]. Therefore, Afghanistan translates to ''land of the Afghans'' or, more specifically in a historical sense, to ''land of the Pashtuns''. However, the modern [[Constitution of Afghanistan]] states that "[t]he word Afghan shall apply to every [[Demographics of Afghanistan|citizen of Afghanistan]]."<ref>{{cite web|title=Constitution of Afghanistan|url=http://www.embassyofafghanistan.org/page/constitution |year=2004 |accessdate=2013-02-16}}</ref> == History == {{Main|History of Afghanistan}} {{History of Afghanistan}} [[Excavation (archaeology)|Excavations]] of prehistoric sites by [[Louis Dupree (professor)|Louis Dupree]] and others suggest that humans were living in what is now Afghanistan at least 50,000 years ago, and that farming communities in the area were among the earliest in the world. An important site of early historical activities, many believe that Afghanistan compares to [[Egypt]] in terms of the historical value of its archaeological sites.<ref name="JFS">{{cite web |url=http://www.webcitation.org/5kwDUj6WJ |title=Afghanistan&nbsp;– John Ford Shroder, University of Nebraska |publisher=Webcitation.org |accessdate=19 May 2012|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130726195140/http://www.webcitation.org/5kwDUj6WJ |archivedate=2013-07-26 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,1881896-1,00.html |title=Afghanistan: A Treasure Trove for Archaeologists |work=[[Time (magazine)|Time Magazine]] |date=26 February 2009 |accessdate=13 July 2011|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130726153721/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,1881896-1,00.html |archivedate=2013-07-26 }}</ref> The country sits at a unique nexus point where numerous civilizations have interacted and often fought. It has been home to various peoples through the ages, among them the [[ancient Iranian peoples]] who established the dominant role of [[Indo-Iranian languages]] in the region. At multiple points, the land has been incorporated within large regional empires, among them the [[Achaemenid Empire]], the [[Alexander the Great|Macedonian Empire]], the [[Maurya Empire|Indian Maurya Empire]], and the [[Islamic conquest of Afghanistan|Islamic Empire]].<ref>The Indo-Aryans of Ancient South Asia: Language, Material Culture and Ethnicity by George Erdosy, p.321</ref> Many empires and kingdoms have also risen to power in Afghanistan, such as the [[Greco-Bactrian Kingdom|Greco-Bactrians]], [[Kushan Empire|Kushans]], [[Hephthalites]], [[Kabul Shahi]]s, [[Saffarid Dynasty|Saffarids]], [[Samanids]], [[Ghaznavids]], [[Ghurid Dynasty|Ghurids]], [[Khilji dynasty|Khiljis]], [[Kartids]], [[Timurid dynasty|Timurids]], [[Mughal Empire|Mughals]], and finally the [[Hotak dynasty|Hotak]] and [[Durrani dynasty|Durrani]] dynasties that marked the political origins of the modern state.<ref>The History of Afghanistan by Meredith L. Runion, p.44-49</ref> === Pre-Islamic period === {{Main|Pre-Islamic period of Afghanistan}} [[File:AsokaKandahar.jpg|thumb|left|Bilingual ([[Koine Greek|Greek]] and [[Aramaic]]) [[Edicts of Ashoka|edict]] by Emperor [[Ashoka]] from the 3rd century BCE discovered in the southern city of [[Kandahar]]]] [[Archaeology|Archaeological]] exploration done in the 20th century suggests that the geographical area of Afghanistan has been closely connected by culture and trade with its neighbors to the east, west, and north. Artifacts typical of the [[Paleolithic]], [[Mesolithic]], [[Neolithic]], [[Bronze Age|Bronze]], and [[Iron age]]s have been found in Afghanistan. Urban civilization is believed to have begun as early as 3000 BCE, and the early city of [[Mundigak]] (near [[Kandahar]] in the south of the country) may have been a colony of the nearby [[Indus Valley Civilization]]. More recent findings established that the Indus Valley Civilisation stretched up towards modern-day Afghanistan, making the ancient civilisation today part of Pakistan, Afghanistan and India. In more detail, it extended from what today is northwest Pakistan to northwest India and northeast Afghanistan. An Indus Valley site has been found on the [[Oxus River]] at [[Shortugai]] in northern Afghanistan.<ref name="The Ancient Indus pp.1">The Ancient Indus: Urbanism, Economy, and Society. pp.1</ref><ref>Kenoyer, Jonathan Mark (1998). Ancient cities of the Indus Valley Civilisation. pp.96</ref> There are several smaller IVC colonies to be found in Afghanistan as well. [[File:BamyanBuddha Smaller 1.jpg|upright||thumb|One of the [[Buddhas of Bamiyan]]. [[Buddhism in Afghanistan|Buddhism]] was widespread before the [[Islamic conquest of Afghanistan]].]] After 2000 BCE, successive waves of semi-nomadic people from Central Asia began moving south into Afghanistan; among them were many [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European-speaking]] [[Indo-Iranians]]. These tribes later migrated further into South Asia, Western Asia, and toward Europe via the area north of the [[Caspian Sea]]. The region at the time was referred to as [[Ariana]].<ref name="JFS" /><ref>Bryant, Edwin F. (2001) ''The quest for the origins of Vedic culture: the Indo-Aryan migration debate'' Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0-19-513777-4.</ref><ref>Afghanistan: ancient Ariana (1950), Information Bureau, p3.</ref> The religion [[Zoroastrianism]] is believed by some to have originated in what is now Afghanistan between 1800 and 800 BCE, as its founder [[Zoroaster]] is thought to have lived and died in [[Balkh]]. Ancient [[Iranian languages|Eastern Iranian languages]] may have been spoken in the region around the time of the rise of Zoroastrianism. By the middle of the 6th century BCE, the Achaemenids overthrew the [[Medes]] and incorporated [[Arachosia]], [[Aria (satrapy)|Aria]], and [[Bactria]] within its eastern boundaries. An [[Epigraphy|inscription]] on the tombstone of [[Darius I of Persia]] mentions the [[Kabulistan|Kabul Valley]] in a list of the 29 countries that he had conquered.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.gandhara.com.au/afghan_table.html |title=Chronological History of Afghanistan&nbsp;– the cradle of Gandharan civilisation |publisher=Gandhara.com.au |date=15 February 1989 |accessdate=19 May 2012|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130727021728/http://www.gandhara.com.au/afghan_table.html |archivedate=2013-07-27 }}</ref> [[Alexander the Great]] and his Macedonian forces arrived to Afghanistan in 330 BCE after defeating [[Darius III of Persia]] a year earlier in the [[Battle of Gaugamela]]. Following Alexander's brief occupation, the successor state of the [[Seleucid Empire]] controlled the region until 305 BCE, when they gave much of it to the [[Maurya Empire]] as part of an alliance treaty. The Mauryans controlled the area south of the [[Hindu Kush]] until they were overthrown in about 185 BCE. Their decline began 60 years after [[Ashoka]]'s rule ended, leading to the [[Hellenistic civilization|Hellenistic]] reconquest by the [[Greco-Bactrians]]. Much of it soon broke away from them and became part of the [[Indo-Greek Kingdom]]. They were defeated and expelled by the [[Indo-Scythians]] in the late 2nd century BCE.<ref name="LoC-pdf" /><ref>The History of Afghanistan by Meredith L. Runion, p.44</ref> During the first century BCE, the [[Parthian Empire]] subjugated the region, but lost it to their [[Indo-Parthian]] vassals. In the mid-to-late first century CE the vast [[Kushan Empire]], centered in Afghanistan, became great patrons of Buddhist culture, making [[Buddhism]] flourish throughout the region. The Kushans were overthrown by the [[Sassanid Empire|Sassanids]] in the 3rd century CE, though the [[Indo-Sassanids]] continued to rule at least parts of the region. They were followed by the [[Kidarite]] who, in turn, were replaced by the [[Hephthalites]]. By the 6th century CE, the successors to the Kushans and Hepthalites established a small dynasty called [[Kabul Shahi]]. Much of the northeastern and southern areas of the country remained dominated by Buddhist culture.<ref name="Habibi">{{cite web |url=http://www.alamahabibi.com/English%20Articles/Afghan_and_Afghanistan.htm |title=Afghan and Afghanistan |work=[[Abdul Hai Habibi]]|publisher=alamahabibi.com|year=1969|accessdate=November 17, 2015}}</ref> === Islamization and Mongol invasion === {{Main|Islamic conquest of Afghanistan|Mongol invasion of Central Asia}} [[File:Jama Masjid of Herat 15 08.jpg|thumb|The [[Friday Mosque of Herat]] is one of the oldest mosques in Afghanistan. (March 1962 photo)]] [[Arab]] [[Muslim]]s brought Islam to [[Herat]] and [[Zaranj]] in 642&nbsp;CE and began spreading eastward; some of the native inhabitants they encountered accepted it while others revolted. The land was collectively recognized by the Arabs as al-Hind due to its cultural connection with [[Greater India]]. Before Islam was introduced, people of the region were mostly Buddhists and Zoroastrians, but there were also [[Surya]] and [[Nana (Afghan goddess)|Nana]] worshipers, [[History of the Jews in Afghanistan|Jews]], and others. The [[Zunbils]] and Kabul Shahi were first conquered in 870&nbsp;CE by the [[Saffarid Dynasty|Saffarid]] Muslims of Zaranj. Later, the [[Samanids]] extended their Islamic influence south of the Hindu Kush. It is reported that Muslims and non-Muslims still lived side by side in Kabul before the [[Ghaznavids]] rose to power in the 10th century.<ref name="Elliot-2">{{cite web |url=http://persian.packhum.org/persian/pf?file=80201012&ct=98 |title=A.—The Hindu Kings of Kábul |work=Sir H. M. Elliot |publisher=[[Packard Humanities Institute]] |location=London |date=1867–1877 |accessdate=18 September 2010|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140408220905/http://persian.packhum.org/persian/pf?file=80201012&ct=98 |archivedate=2014-04-08 }}</ref><ref name="Mustawfi">{{cite web |url=http://persian.packhum.org/persian/pf?file=16301012&ct=16 |title=The Geographical Part of the NUZHAT-AL-QULUB |author=?amd-Allah Mustawfi of Qazwin |work=Translated by Guy Le Strange |publisher=[[Packard Humanities Institute]] |year=1340 |accessdate=19 August 2011|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130726144951/http://persian.packhum.org/persian/pf?file=16301012&ct=16 |archivedate=2013-07-26 }}</ref><ref name="Elliot-3">{{cite web |url=http://persian.packhum.org/persian/pf?file=80201012&ct=100 |title=A.—The Hindu Kings of Kábul (p.3) |work=Sir H. M. Elliot |publisher=[[Packard Humanities Institute]] |location=London |date=1867–1877 |accessdate=18 September 2010|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130726133107/http://persian.packhum.org/persian/pf?file=80201012&ct=100 |archivedate=2013-07-26 }}</ref> By the 11th century, [[Mahmud of Ghazni]] defeated the remaining Hindu rulers and effectively [[Islamized]] the wider region, with the exception of [[Kafiristan]]. Afghanistan became one of the main centers in the [[Muslim world]] during this [[Islamic Golden Age]]. The Ghaznavid dynasty was overthrown by the [[Ghurid Dynasty|Ghurids]], who expanded and advanced the already powerful Islamic empire. In 1219&nbsp;AD, [[Genghis Khan]] and his [[Mongol Empire|Mongol]] army overran the region. His troops are said to have annihilated the Khorasanian cities of Herat and Balkh as well as [[Bamyan, Afghanistan|Bamyan]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://faculty.washington.edu/modelski/CAWC.htm |title=Central Asian world cities |publisher=Faculty.washington.edu |date=29 September 2007 |accessdate=6 May 2012|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130723185841/https://faculty.washington.edu/modelski/CAWC.htm |archivedate=2013-07-23 }}</ref> The destruction caused by the Mongols forced many locals to return to an agrarian rural society.<ref>{{cite news |last=Page |first=Susan |url=http://www.usatoday.com/news/world/2009-02-17-afghanistan-forces_N.htm |title=Obama's war: Deploying 17,000 raises stakes in Afghanistan |publisher=Usatoday.com |date=18 February 2009 |accessdate=19 May 2012}}</ref> Mongol rule continued with the [[Ilkhanate]] in the northwest while the [[Khilji dynasty]] administered the Afghan tribal areas south of the Hindu Kush until the invasion of [[Timur]], who established the [[Timurid Empire]] in 1370. In the early 16th century, [[Babur]] arrived from [[Fergana]] and captured Kabul from the [[Arghun dynasty]]. In 1526, he invaded [[Delhi Sultanate|Delhi]] in India to replace the [[Lodi dynasty]] with the [[Mughal Empire]]. Between the 16th and 18th century, the [[Khanate of Bukhara]], [[Safavid dynasty|Safavids]], and Mughals ruled parts of the territory. Before the 19th century, the northwestern area of Afghanistan was referred to by the regional name [[Greater Khorasan|Khorasan]]. Two of the four capitals of Khorasan ([[Herat]] and [[Balkh]]) are now located in Afghanistan, while the regions of [[Kandahar Province|Kandahar]], [[Zabul Province|Zabulistan]], Ghazni, Kabulistan, and [[name of Afghanistan|Afghanistan]] formed the [[frontier]] between Khorasan and [[Hindustan]].<ref name="EI">{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cJQ3AAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false |chapter=Khurasan |title=The Encyclopaedia of Islam |page=55 |quote=In pre-Islamic and early Islamic times, the term "Khurassan" frequently had a much wider denotation, covering also parts of what are now Soviet Central Asia and Afghanistan |publisher=Brill |year=2009|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209231141/https://books.google.com/books?id=cJQ3AAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover |archivedate=2014-02-09 }}</ref><ref name="Routledge">{{cite book |title=Travels in Asia and Africa, 1325–1354 |last1=Ibn Battuta |edition=reprint, illustrated |year=2004 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-415-34473-9 |page=416 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zKqn_CWTxYEC&lpg=PP1&pg=PA180#v=onepage&q&f=false|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140405002013/https://books.google.com/books?id=zKqn_CWTxYEC&lpg=PP1&pg=PA180 |archivedate=2014-04-05 }}</ref><ref name="Firishta">{{cite book |url=http://persian.packhum.org/persian/pf?file=80201016&ct=199 |title=The History of India |volume=6 |chapter=Chapter 200: Translation of the Introduction to Firishta's History |page=8 |accessdate=22 August 2010 |author=[[Firishta|Muhammad Qasim Hindu Shah]] |others=Sir H. M. Elliot |publisher=Packard Humanities Institute |location=London |year=1560|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130726121158/http://persian.packhum.org/persian/pf?file=80201016&ct=199 |archivedate=2013-07-26 }}</ref> === Hotak dynasty and Durrani Empire === {{Main|Hotak dynasty|Durrani Empire}} [[File:Portrait miniature of Ahmad Shah Durrani.jpg|thumb|left|150px|[[Ahmad Shah Durrani]], founder of the [[Durrani Empire|last Afghan empire]] and viewed as ''[[Father of the Nation]]'']] In 1709, [[Mirwais Hotak]], a local [[Ghilji|Ghilzai]] tribal leader, successfully rebelled against the Safavids. He defeated [[George XI of Kartli|Gurgin Khan]] and made Afghanistan independent.<ref name="Browne">{{cite web |url=http://persian.packhum.org/persian/main?url=pf%3Ffile%3D90001014%26ct%3D29 |title=A Literary History of Persia, Volume 4: Modern Times (1500–1924), Chapter IV. An Outline Of The History Of Persia During The Last Two Centuries (A.D. 1722–1922) |author=Edward G. Browne |publisher=[[Packard Humanities Institute]] |accessdate=9 September 2010|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130726142425/http://persian.packhum.org/persian/main?url=pf%3Ffile%3D90001014%26ct%3D29 |archivedate=2013-07-26 }}</ref> Mirwais died of a natural cause in 1715 and was succeeded by his brother [[Abdul Aziz Hotak|Abdul Aziz]], who was soon killed by Mirwais' son [[Mahmud Hotak|Mahmud]] for [[treason]]. Mahmud led the Afghan army in 1722 to the Persian capital of [[Isfahan]], captured the city after the [[Battle of Gulnabad]] and proclaimed himself King of Persia.<ref name="Browne" /> The Afghan dynasty was ousted from Persia by [[Nader Shah]] after the 1729 [[Battle of Damghan (1729)|Battle of Damghan]]. In 1738, Nader Shah and his [[Afsharid dynasty|forces]] captured Kandahar, the last Hotak stronghold, from Shah [[Hussain Hotak]], at which point the incarcerated 16-year-old [[Ahmad Shah Durrani]] was freed and made the commander of an Afghan regiment. Soon after the Persian and Afghan forces [[Nader Shah's invasion of India|invaded India]]. By 1747, the Afghans chose Durrani as their [[head of state]].<ref name="Brit-Durrani">{{cite web |url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/10162/Ahmad-Shah-Durrani |title=Ahmad Shah Durrani |work=Encyclopædia Britannica Online |accessdate=9 September 2010|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140404104909/http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/10162/Ahmad-Shah-Durrani |archivedate=2014-04-04 }}</ref> Durrani and his Afghan army conquered much of present-day Afghanistan, Pakistan, the [[Khorasan Province|Khorasan]] and [[Quhistan|Kohistan]] provinces of Iran, and Delhi in India.<ref name="Engels">{{cite web |url=http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1857/afghanistan/index.htm |title=Afghanistan |accessdate=25 August 2010 |author=[[Friedrich Engels]] |work=Andy Blunden |publisher=The New American Cyclopaedia, Vol. I |year=1857|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140427034439/http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1857/afghanistan/index.htm |archivedate=2014-04-27 }}</ref> He defeated the Indian [[Maratha Empire]], and one of his biggest victories was the [[Battle of Panipat (1761)|1761 Battle of Panipat]]. In October 1772, Durrani died of a natural cause and was buried at a site now adjacent to the [[Shrine of the Cloak]] in Kandahar. He was succeeded by his son, [[Timur Shah Durrani|Timur Shah]], who transferred the capital of Afghanistan from Kandahar to Kabul in 1776. After Timur's death in 1793, the Durrani throne passed down to his son [[Zaman Shah Durrani|Zaman Shah]], followed by [[Mahmud Shah Durrani|Mahmud Shah]], [[Shuja Shah Durrani|Shuja Shah]] and others.<ref>The Oxford Dictionary of Islam by John L. Esposito, p.71</ref> The Afghan Empire was under threat in the early 19th century by the [[Qajar dynasty|Persians]] in the west and the [[British Raj|British]]-backed [[Sikh Empire|Sikhs]] in the east. Fateh Khan, leader of the [[Barakzai dynasty|Barakzai tribe]], had installed 21 of his brothers in positions of power throughout the empire. After his death, they rebelled and divided up the provinces of the empire between themselves. During this turbulent period, Afghanistan had many temporary rulers until [[Dost Mohammad Khan]] declared himself emir in 1826.<ref name="Tanner 2009 126">{{cite book |title=Afghanistan: A Military History from Alexander the Great to the War against the Taliban |last=Tanner |first=Stephen |year=2009 |publisher=Da Capo Press |isbn=978-0-306-81826-4 |url={{Google books |plainurl=yes |id=J3pUS_-uD-oC |page=126 }} |page=126|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140123023628/https://books.google.com/books?id=J3pUS_-uD-oC&printsec=frontcover |archivedate=2014-01-23 }}</ref> The [[Punjab region]] was lost to [[Ranjit Singh]], who invaded [[Khyber Pakhtunkhwa]] and in 1834 captured the city of [[Peshawar]].<ref name="Nalwa">{{cite book |title=Hari Singh Nalwa, "champion of the Khalsaji" (1791–1837) |last=Nalwa |first=Vanit |year=2009 |publisher= |isbn=978-81-7304-785-5 |url={{Google books |plainurl=yes |id=ULhgNexD92QC |page=198 }} |page=198|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140122070538/https://books.google.com/books?id=ULhgNexD92QC&lpg=PA132&pg=PA198 |archivedate=2014-01-22 }}</ref> In 1837, during the [[Battle of Jamrud]] near the [[Khyber Pass]], [[Wazir Akbar Khan|Akbar Khan]] and the Afghan army killed Sikh Commander [[Hari Singh Nalwa]]. By this time the British were advancing from the east and the [[First Anglo-Afghan War|first major conflict]] during the "Great Game" was initiated.<ref name="Chahryar">{{cite book |title=History of Civilizations of Central Asia: Development in contrast: from the sixteenth to the mid-nineteenth century |last=Chahryar |first=Adle |year=2003 |publisher=UNESCO |isbn=978-92-3-103876-1 |url=https://books.google.com/?id=AzG5llo3YCMC&lpg=PA2&pg=PA296#v=onepage&q&f=false |page=296}}</ref> === Western influence === {{Further|European influence in Afghanistan|Reforms of Amānullāh Khān and civil war}} [[File:Kandahar-1881.jpg|thumb|[[British Raj|British]] and [[Afghan National Army|allied forces]] at Kandahar after the 1880 [[Battle of Kandahar]], during the [[Second Anglo-Afghan War]]. The large defensive wall around the city was removed in the early 1930s by the order of [[Mohammed Nadir Shah|King Nadir]].]] Following the [[1842 retreat from Kabul|1842 defeat of the British-Indian forces]] and victory of the Afghans, the British established [[foreign relations of Afghanistan|diplomatic relations]] with the Afghan government and withdrew all forces from the country. They returned during the [[Second Anglo-Afghan War]] in the late 1870s for about two years to assist [[Abdur Rahman Khan]] defeat [[Mohammad Ayub Khan (Emir of Afghanistan)|Ayub Khan]]. The United Kingdom began to exercise a great deal of influence after this and even controlled the state's [[foreign policy]]. In 1893, [[Mortimer Durand]] made Amir Abdur Rahman Khan sign a controversial agreement in which the ethnic [[Pashtun people|Pashtun]] and [[Baloch people|Baloch]] territories were divided by the [[Durand Line]]. This was a standard [[divide and rule]] policy of the British and would lead to strained relations, especially with the later new state of Pakistan. [[File:Zahir Shah of Afghanistan in 1930s-cropped.jpg|thumb|left|upright|[[Mohammed Zahir Shah|Zahir Shah]], the last king of Afghanistan, who reigned from 1933 to 1973.]] After the [[Third Anglo-Afghan War]] and the signing of the [[Anglo-Afghan Treaty of 1919|Treaty of Rawalpindi]] in 1919, King [[Amānullāh Khān|Amanullah Khan]] declared Afghanistan a [[sovereign state|sovereign]] and fully [[independence|independent state]]. He moved to end his country's traditional isolation by establishing diplomatic relations with the international community and, following a 1927–28 tour of Europe and [[Turkey]], introduced several reforms intended to modernize his nation. A key force behind these reforms was [[Mahmud Tarzi]], an ardent supporter of the education of women. He fought for Article 68 of Afghanistan's 1923 [[constitution of Afghanistan|constitution]], which made elementary education compulsory. The institution of [[slavery]] was abolished in 1923.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia | year = 1976| volume = Volume 25| encyclopedia = [[Encyclopedia Americana]]|publisher=Americana Corporation | page = 24 }}</ref> Some of the reforms that were actually put in place, such as the abolition of the traditional [[burqa]] for women and the opening of a number of co-educational schools, quickly alienated many tribal and religious leaders. Faced with overwhelming armed opposition, Amanullah Khan was forced to abdicate in January 1929 after Kabul fell to rebel forces led by [[Habibullah Kalakani]]. Prince [[Mohammed Nadir Shah]], Amanullah's cousin, in turn defeated and killed Kalakani in November 1929, and was declared King Nadir Shah. He abandoned the reforms of Amanullah Khan in favor of a more gradual approach to modernisation but was assassinated in 1933 by [[Abdul Khaliq Hazara (assassin)|Abdul Khaliq]], a [[Hazara people|Hazara]] school student. [[Mohammed Zahir Shah]], Nadir Shah's 19-year-old son, succeeded to the throne and reigned from 1933 to 1973. Until 1946, Zahir Shah ruled with the assistance of his uncle, who held the post of [[Prime Minister of Afghanistan|Prime Minister]] and continued the policies of Nadir Shah. Another of Zahir Shah's uncles, [[Shah Mahmud Khan]], became Prime Minister in 1946 and began an experiment allowing greater political freedom, but reversed the policy when it went further than he expected. He was replaced in 1953 by [[Mohammed Daoud Khan]], the king's cousin and brother-in-law. Daoud Khan sought a closer relationship with the [[Soviet Union]] and a more distant one towards Pakistan. Afghanistan remained neutral and was neither a participant in [[World War II]] nor aligned with either power bloc in the [[Cold War]]. However, it was a beneficiary of the latter rivalry as both the Soviet Union and the United States vied for influence by building Afghanistan's main highways, airports, and other vital infrastructure. On per capita basis, Afghanistan received more Soviet [[development aid]] than any other country. In 1973, while King Zahir Shah was on an official overseas visit, Daoud Khan launched a bloodless coup and became the first [[President of Afghanistan]]. In the meantime, [[Zulfikar Ali Bhutto]] got neighboring Pakistan involved in Afghanistan. Some experts suggest that Bhutto paved the way for the April 1978 [[Saur Revolution]].<ref name="Bowersox">{{cite book |title=The Gem Hunter: The Adventures of an American in Afghanistan |last1=Bowersox |first1=Gary W. |quote=To launch this plan, Bhutto recruited and trained a group of Afghans in the [[Bala Hissar, Peshawar|Bala-Hesar]] of [[Peshawar]], in Pakistan's [[Khyber Pakhtunkhwa|North-west Frontier Province]]. Among these young men were [[Ahmad Shah Massoud|Massoud]], [[Gulbuddin Hekmatyar]], and other members of Jawanan-e Musulman. Massoud's mission to Bhutto was to create unrest in northern Afghanistan. It served Massoud's interests, which were apparently opposition to the Soviets and independence for Afghanistan. Later, after Massoud and Hekmatyar had a terrible falling-out over Massoud's opposition to terrorist tactics and methods, Massoud overthrew from Jawanan-e Musulman. He joined [[Burhanuddin Rabbani|Rabani]]'s newly created Afghan political party, [[Jamiat-e Islami|Jamiat-i-Islami]], in exile in Pakistan. |authorlink=|year=2004|publisher=GeoVision, Inc.,|location=United States|isbn=0-9747323-1-1|page=100|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WVAN9pjnRzMC&lpg=PP1&pg=PA100#v=onepage&q&f=false|accessdate=2010-08-22}}</ref> === Marxist revolution and Soviet war === {{Main|Saur Revolution|Soviet war in Afghanistan|Democratic Republic of Afghanistan|History of Afghanistan (1978–1992)}} [[File:Day after Saur revolution in Kabul (773).jpg|thumb|Outside the [[Arg (Kabul)|Arg]] [[Presidential palace|Presidential Palace]] in [[Kabul]], a day after the April 1978 [[Saur Revolution|Marxist revolution]] in which [[list of Presidents of Afghanistan|President]] [[Mohammed Daoud Khan|Daoud Khan]] was assassinated along with his entire family.]] In April 1978, the communist [[People's Democratic Party of Afghanistan]] (PDPA) seized power in Afghanistan in the [[Saur Revolution]]. Within months, opponents of the communist government launched an uprising in eastern Afghanistan that quickly expanded into a [[War in Afghanistan (1978–present)|civil war]] waged by guerrilla [[mujahideen]] against government forces countrywide. The Pakistani government provided these rebels with covert training centers, while the Soviet Union sent thousands of military advisers to support the PDPA government.<ref>{{cite book |last=Hussain |first=Rizwan |title=Pakistan And The Emergence Of Islamic Militancy In Afghanistan |publisher=Ashgate Publishing |year=2005 |pages=108–109 |isbn=978-0-7546-4434-7}}</ref> Meanwhile, increasing friction between the competing factions of the PDPA&nbsp;— the dominant [[Khalq]] and the more moderate [[Parcham]]&nbsp;— resulted in the dismissal of Parchami cabinet members and the arrest of Parchami military officers under the pretext of a Parchami coup. In September 1979, [[Nur Muhammad Taraki]] was assassinated in a coup within the PDPA orchestrated by fellow Khalq member [[Hafizullah Amin]], who assumed the presidency. Distrusted by the Soviets, Amin was assassinated by Soviet special forces in December 1979. A Soviet-organized government, led by Parcham's [[Babrak Karmal]] but inclusive of both factions, filled the vacuum. Soviet troops were deployed to stabilize Afghanistan under Karmal in more substantial numbers, although the Soviet government did not expect to do most of the fighting in Afghanistan. As a result, however, the Soviets were now directly involved in what had been a domestic war in Afghanistan.<ref>{{cite book |last=Kalinovsky |first=Artemy M. |title=A Long Goodbye: The Soviet Withdrawal from Afghanistan |publisher=Harvard University Press |year=2011 |pages=25–28 |isbn=978-0-674-05866-8}}</ref> The PDPA prohibited [[usury]], declared equality of the sexes,<ref name=autogenerated4 /> and introduced women to political life.<ref name="autogenerated4">{{cite web |url=http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd/cstdy:@field(DOCID+af0028) |title=Afghanistan |publisher=[[Library of Congress Country Studies]] |accessdate=14 November 2010}}</ref> The [[Operation Cyclone|United States]] had been supporting anti-Soviet Afghan ''[[mujahideen]]'' and foreign "[[Afghan Arab]]" fighters through Pakistan's [[Inter-Services Intelligence|ISI]] as early as mid-1979 (see ''[[CIA activities in Afghanistan]]'').<ref>{{cite book |last=Meher |first=Jagmohan |title=America's Afghanistan War: The Success that Failed |publisher=Gyan Books |year=2004 |pages=68–69, 94 |isbn=978-81-7835-262-6}}</ref> Billions in cash and weapons, which included over two thousand [[FIM-92 Stinger]] [[surface-to-air missiles]], were provided by the United States and [[Saudi Arabia]] to Pakistan.<ref name="The Brunei Times">{{cite web |year=2009 |url=http://www.bt.com.bn/analysis/2008/12/17/story_of_us_cia_and_taliban |title=Story of US, CIA and Taliban |work=[[The Brunei Times]] |accessdate=16 December 2013|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20131205090713/http://www.bt.com.bn/analysis/2008/12/17/story_of_us_cia_and_taliban |archivedate=2013-12-05 }}</ref><ref name="The Nation">{{cite web |year=1999 |url=http://www.thenation.com/article/cost-afghan-victory?page=0,1 |title=The Cost of an Afghan 'Victory' |work=[[The Nation]] |accessdate=16 December 2013|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140302090727/http://www.thenation.com/article/cost-afghan-victory?page=0,1 |archivedate=2014-03-02 }}</ref> The [[Soviet war in Afghanistan]] resulted in the deaths of over 1 million Afghans, mostly civilians,<ref name="Soviet-war-video">{{cite web |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vYUzL1qhltA&feature=related |title=Soldiers of God: Cold War (Part 1/5) |publisher=CNN |year=1998 |accessdate=11 October 2011|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130729082646/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vYUzL1qhltA&feature=related |archivedate=2013-07-29 }}</ref><ref name="landmines">[[UNICEF]], [http://www.unicef.org/graca/mines.htm Land-mines: A deadly inheritance] {{Wayback|url=http://www.unicef.org/graca/mines.htm|date =20130805102916}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.defenseindustrydaily.com/Landmines-in-Afghanistan-A-Decades-Old-Danger-06143/ |title=Landmines in Afghanistan: A Decades Old Danger |publisher=Defenseindustrydaily.com |date=1 February 2010 |accessdate=6 May 2012|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140111130437/http://www.defenseindustrydaily.com/Landmines-in-Afghanistan-A-Decades-Old-Danger-06143/ |archivedate=2014-01-11 }}</ref> and the creation of about 6{{Spaces}}million refugees who fled Afghanistan, mainly to [[Afghans in Pakistan|Pakistan]] and [[Afghans in Iran|Iran]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.state.gov/j/prm/releases/onepagers/202635.htm |title=Refugee Admissions Program for Near East and South Asia |publisher=Bureau of Population, Refugees, and Migration |accessdate=29 December 2013|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140413191000/http://www.state.gov/j/prm/releases/onepagers/202635.htm |archivedate=2014-04-13 }}</ref><!--deadurl=http://www.state.gov/g/prm/rls/117283.htm--> Faced with mounting international pressure and numerous casualties, the Soviets withdrew in 1989 but continued to support Afghan President [[Mohammad Najibullah]] until 1992.<ref name="Columbia:Afghanistan:History">{{cite web |url=http://www.infoplease.com/ce6/world/A0856490.html |title=Afghanistan: History&nbsp;– ''Columbia Encyclopedia'' |publisher=Infoplease.com |date=11 September 2001 |accessdate=19 May 2012|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120810051626/http://www.infoplease.com:80/ce6/world/A0856490.html |archivedate=2012-08-10 }}</ref> === Civil war === {{Main|Civil war in Afghanistan (1989–92)|Civil war in Afghanistan (1992–96)}} From 1989 until 1992, Najibullah's government tried to solve the ongoing civil war with economic and military aid, but without Soviet troops on the ground. Najibullah tried to build support for his government by portraying his government as [[Islamism|Islamic]], and in the 1990 constitution the country officially became an [[Islamic state (government)|Islamic state]] and all references of communism were removed. Nevertheless, Najibullah did not win any significant support, and with the [[dissolution of the Soviet Union]] in December 1991, he was left without foreign aid. This, coupled with the internal collapse of his government, led to his ousting from power in April 1992. After the fall of Najibullah's government in 1992, the post-communist [[Islamic State of Afghanistan]] was established by the [[Peshawar Accord]], a peace and power-sharing agreement under which all the Afghan parties were united in April 1992, except for the Pakistani supported [[Hezb-e Islami]] of [[Gulbuddin Hekmatyar]]. Hekmatyar started a bombardment campaign against the capital city Kabul, which marked the beginning of a [[Civil war in Afghanistan (1992–96)|new phase in the war]].<ref>Afghanistan Country Study Guide Volume 1 Strategic Information and Developments by INB, p.73</ref> Saudi Arabia and Iran supported different Afghan militias<ref name="Amin Saikal">{{cite book |last=Amin Saikal |authorlink=Amin Saikal |title=Modern Afghanistan: A History of Struggle and Survival |edition=2006 1st |page=352 |publisher=I.B. Tauris & Co Ltd., London New York |isbn=978-1-85043-437-5}}</ref><ref name="Human Rights Watch (4)">{{cite web |date= |url=http://www.hrw.org/en/reports/2005/07/06/blood-stained-hands |title=Blood-Stained Hands, Past Atrocities in Kabul and Afghanistan's Legacy of Impunity |publisher=[[Human Rights Watch]]|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20091212081418/http://www.hrw.org:80/en/reports/2005/07/06/blood-stained-hands|archivedate=2009-12-12}}</ref><ref name="Roy Gutman">GUTMAN, Roy (2008): How We Missed the Story: Osama Bin Laden, the Taliban and the Hijacking of Afghanistan, Endowment of the United States Institute of Peace, 1st ed., Washington D.C.</ref> and instability quickly developed.<ref name="The National Security Archive">{{cite web |year=2003 |url=http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB97/ |title=The September 11 Sourcebooks Volume VII: The Taliban File |publisher=gwu.edu |accessdate=16 December 2013|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20131031042857/http://www2.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB97/ |archivedate=2013-10-31 }}</ref> The conflict between the two militias soon escalated into a full-scale war. [[File:Kabul during civial war of fundamentalists 1993-2.jpg|thumb|A section of Kabul during the [[Civil war in Afghanistan (1992–1996)|civil war]] in 1993]] Due to the sudden initiation of the war, working government departments, police units, and a system of justice and accountability for the newly created Islamic State of Afghanistan did not have time to form. Atrocities were committed by individuals of the different armed factions while Kabul descended into lawlessness and chaos.<ref name="Human Rights Watch (4)" /><ref name="Afghanistan Justice Project">{{cite web |year=2005 |url=http://www.afghanistanjusticeproject.org/warcrimesandcrimesagainsthumanity19782001.pdf |title=Casting Shadows: War Crimes and Crimes against Humanity: 1978–2001 |publisher=Afghanistan Justice Project |accessdate=16 December 2013|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20131004221455/http://www.afghanistanjusticeproject.org/warcrimesandcrimesagainsthumanity19782001.pdf |archivedate=2013-10-04 }}</ref> Because of the chaos, some leaders increasingly had only nominal control over their (sub-)commanders.<ref name="Human Rights Watch (5)">{{cite web |year= |url=http://www.hrw.org/reports98/afghan/Afrepor0-01.htm#P81_13959 |title=II. BACKGROUND |publisher=Human Rights Watch |accessdate=16 December 2013|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20081102042606/http://www.hrw.org:80/reports98/afghan/Afrepor0-01.htm|archivedate=2008-11-02}}</ref> For civilians there was little security from murder, rape, and extortion.<ref name="Human Rights Watch (5)" /> An estimated 25,000 people died during the most intense period of bombardment by Hekmatyar's Hezb-i Islami and the [[Junbish-i Milli]] forces of [[Abdul Rashid Dostum]], who had created an alliance with Hekmatyar in 1994.<ref name="Afghanistan Justice Project" /> Half a million people fled Afghanistan.<ref name="Human Rights Watch (5)" /> Southern and eastern Afghanistan were under the control of local commanders such as [[Gul Agha Sherzai]] and others. In 1994, the [[Taliban]] (a movement originating from [[Jamiat Ulema-e-Islam]]-run religious schools for Afghan refugees in Pakistan) also developed in Afghanistan as a political-religious force.<ref name="Matinuddin, Kamal 1999 pp.25">Matinuddin, Kamal, ''The Taliban Phenomenon, Afghanistan 1994–1997'', [[Oxford University Press]], (1999), pp. 25–26</ref> The Taliban first took control of southern Afghanistan in 1994 and forced the surrender of dozens of local Pashtun leaders.<ref name="Human Rights Watch (5)" /> In late 1994, forces of [[Ahmad Shah Massoud]] held on to Kabul.<ref name="amnesty.org">Amnesty International. "Document&nbsp;– Afghanistan: further information on fear for safety and new concern: Deliberate and arbitrary killings: Civilians in Kabul." 16 November 1995 Accessed at: [http://www.amnesty.org/en/library/asset/ASA11/015/1995/en/6d874caa-eb2a-11dd-92ac-295bdf97101f/asa110151995en.html Amnesty.org] {{wayback|url=http://www.amnesty.org/en/library/asset/ASA11/015/1995/en/6d874caa-eb2a-11dd-92ac-295bdf97101f/asa110151995en.html |date=20130726200033 |df=y }}</ref> Rabbani's government took steps to reopen courts, restore law and order, and initiate a nationwide [[political process]] with the goal of national [[Democratic consolidation|consolidation]] and democratic elections. Massoud invited Taliban leaders to join the process but they refused.<ref name="Webster University Press Book">{{cite book |last=Marcela Grad |title=Massoud: An Intimate Portrait of the Legendary Afghan Leader |edition=1 March 2009 |page=310 |publisher=Webster University Press |isbn=}}</ref> === Taliban Emirate and Northern Alliance === {{Main|Civil war in Afghanistan (1996–2001)|Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan}} [[File:1996afghan (1).png|thumb|Map of the situation in Afghanistan in late 1996; [[Ahmad Shah Massoud|Massoud]] (red), [[Abdul Rashid Dostum|Dostum]] (green) and [[Taliban]] (yellow) territories.]] The Taliban's early victories in late 1994 were followed by a series of defeats that resulted in heavy losses. The Taliban attempted to capture Kabul in early 1995 but were repelled by forces under Massoud. In September 1996, as the Taliban, with military support from Pakistan<ref name="George Washington University">{{cite web |year=2007 |url=http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB227/index.htm#17 |title=Documents Detail Years of Pakistani Support for Taliban, Extremists |publisher=[[George Washington University]] |accessdate=16 December 2013|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20131203002159/http://www2.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB227/index.htm |archivedate=2013-12-03 }}</ref> and financial support from Saudi Arabia, prepared for another major offensive, Massoud ordered a full retreat from Kabul.<ref>Coll, ''Ghost Wars'' (New York: Penguin, 2005), 14.</ref> The Taliban seized Kabul in the same month and established the [[Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan]]. They imposed a strict form of [[Sharia]], similar to that found in Saudi Arabia. According to [[Physicians for Human Rights]] (PHR), "no other regime in the world has methodically and violently forced half of its population into virtual house arrest, prohibiting them on pain of physical punishment from showing their faces, seeking medical care without a male escort, or attending school."<ref name="Physicians for Human Rights">{{cite web |year=1998 |url=http://physiciansforhumanrights.org/library/documents/reports/talibans-war-on-women.pdf |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070614032620/http://physiciansforhumanrights.org/library/documents/reports/talibans-war-on-women.pdf |archivedate=14 June 2007|title=The Taliban's War on Women. A Health and Human Rights Crisis in Afghanistan |publisher=[[Physicians for Human Rights]]}}</ref> [[Battle of Kabul (1992–96)|After the fall of Kabul]] to the Taliban, Massoud and Dostum formed the [[Northern Alliance]]. The Taliban defeated Dostum's forces during the [[Battles of Mazar-i-Sharif (1997–98)]]. Pakistan's Chief of Army Staff, [[Pervez Musharraf]], began sending thousands of Pakistanis to help the Taliban defeat the Northern Alliance.<ref name="Webster University Press Book" /><ref name="George Washington University" /><ref name="National Geographic" /><ref name="History Commons">{{cite web |year=2010 |url=http://www.historycommons.org/entity.jsp?entity=ahmed_shah_massoud |title=Ahmed Shah Massoud |publisher=[[History Commons]] |accessdate=16 December 2013|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140125130822/http://www.historycommons.org/entity.jsp?entity=ahmed_shah_massoud |archivedate=2014-01-25 }}</ref><ref name="Maley">{{cite book |last=Maley |first=William |title=The Afghanistan wars |year=2009 |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |isbn=978-0-230-21313-5 |page=288}}</ref><ref name="Ahmed Rashid/The Telegraph">{{cite news |url=http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/asia/afghanistan/1340244/Afghanistan-resistance-leader-feared-dead-in-blast.html |title=Afghanistan resistance leader feared dead in blast |work=The Telegraph |location=London |date=11 September 2001 |first=Ahmed |last=Rashid|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20131108225950/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/asia/afghanistan/1340244/Afghanistan-resistance-leader-feared-dead-in-blast.html |archivedate=2013-11-08 }}</ref> From 1996 to 2001, the [[al-Qaeda]] network of [[Osama bin Laden]] and [[Ayman al-Zawahiri]] was also operating inside Afghanistan.<ref name="CNN">{{cite web |date= |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Grugy2txSvc&feature=search |title=Brigade 055 |publisher=CNN|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130729101159/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Grugy2txSvc&feature=search|archivedate=2013-07-29}}</ref> This and the fact that around one million Afghans were internally displaced made the United States worry.<ref name="National Geographic">{{cite web |year=2007 |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xpQI6HKV-ZY&feature=related |title=Inside the Taliban |publisher=[[National Geographic Channel|National Geographic]]|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130729080835/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xpQI6HKV-ZY&feature=related |archivedate=2013-07-29 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |year=2007 |url=http://channel.nationalgeographic.com/episode/inside-the-taliban-3274/Overview |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080929130330/http://channel.nationalgeographic.com/episode/inside-the-taliban-3274/Overview |archivedate=29 September 2008 |title=Inside the Taliban |publisher=[[National Geographic Channel|National Geographic]]}}</ref> From 1990 to September 2001, around 400,000 Afghans have died in the internal mini wars.<ref>"[http://www.csmonitor.com/2001/0920/p1s3-wosc.html/(page)/4 Life under Taliban cuts two ways]". ''[[The Christian Science Monitor|CSM]]''. 20 September 2001 {{Wayback|url=http://www.csmonitor.com/2001/0920/p1s3-wosc.html/(page)/4|date =20131230233031}}</ref> On 9 September 2001, Massoud was assassinated by two Arab [[suicide attack]]ers in [[Panjshir province]] of Afghanistan. Two days later, the [[September 11 attacks]] were carried out in the United States. The US government suspected Osama bin Laden as the perpetrator of the attacks, and demanded that the Taliban hand him over.<ref>{{cite news |author=Rory McCarthy in Islamabad |url=http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2001/oct/17/afghanistan.terrorism11 |title=New offer on Bin Laden |publisher=Guardian |date= 17 October 2001|accessdate=17 July 2012 |location=London|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130628053351/http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2001/oct/17/afghanistan.terrorism11|archivedate=2013-06-28}}</ref> After refusing to comply, the October 2001 [[War in Afghanistan (2001–present)|Operation Enduring Freedom]] was launched. During the initial invasion, US and UK forces bombed al-Qaeda training camps. The United States began working with the Northern Alliance to remove the Taliban from power.<ref name="NYTOct8">{{cite news |url=http://www.nytimes.com/2001/10/08/world/nation-challenged-attack-us-britain-strike-afghanistan-aiming-bases-terrorist.html?scp=2&sq=Afghanistan+&st=nyt |title=A Nation challenged: The attack; U.S. and Britain strike Afghanistan, aiming at bases and terrorist camps; Bush warns 'Taliban will pay a price' |last=Tyler |first=Patrick |date=8 October 2001 |publisher=New York Times |accessdate=28 February 2010|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140411134316/http://www.nytimes.com/2001/10/08/world/nation-challenged-attack-us-britain-strike-afghanistan-aiming-bases-terrorist.html?scp=2&sq=Afghanistan+&st=nyt |archivedate=2014-04-11 }}</ref> === Recent history (2002–present) === {{Further|War in Afghanistan (2001–present)|Taliban insurgency|Civilian casualties in the war in Afghanistan (2001–present)}} [[File:Afghan history from 2008-2011.jpg|thumb|250px|Collage showing foreign armed force and US diplomat visits to Afghanistan]] In December 2001, after the Taliban government was overthrown and the new [[Politics of Afghanistan|Afghan government]] under [[List of Presidents of Afghanistan|President]] [[Hamid Karzai]] was formed, the [[International Security Assistance Force]] (ISAF) was established by the [[UN Security Council]] to help assist the [[Presidency of Hamid Karzai|Karzai administration]] and provide basic security.<ref>{{UN document |docid=S-RES-1386(2001) |type=Resolution |body=Security Council |year=2001 |resolution_number=1386 |accessdate=21 September 2007|date=31 May 2001}}&nbsp;– ([[s:United Nations Security Council Resolution 1386|UNSCR 1386]])</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://nato.usmission.gov/ |title=United States Mission to Afghanistan |publisher=Nato.usmission.gov |date= |accessdate=14 November 2010 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20101021065112/http://nato.usmission.gov/ |archivedate=21 October 2010 <!--DASHBot--> |deadurl=no}}</ref> Taliban forces also began regrouping inside Pakistan, while more coalition troops entered Afghanistan and began rebuilding the war-torn country.<ref>{{cite web |first=Julie |last=Fossler |url=http://afghanistan.usaid.gov/en/index.aspx |title=USAID Afghanistan |publisher=Afghanistan.usaid.gov |accessdate=14 November 2010 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20101017104214/http://afghanistan.usaid.gov/en/Index.aspx |archivedate=17 October 2010 <!--DASHBot--> |deadurl=no}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.afghanistan.gc.ca/canada-afghanistan/news-nouvelles/2010/2010_07_09.aspx?lang=eng |title=Canada's Engagement in Afghanistan: Backgrounder |publisher=Afghanistan.gc.ca |date=9 July 2010 |accessdate=14 November 2010 |archiveurl = http://www.webcitation.org/5uLgfkxeF |archivedate = 2010-11-19|deadurl=yes}}</ref> Shortly after their fall from power, the Taliban began an [[Taliban insurgency|insurgency]] to regain control of Afghanistan. Over the next decade, ISAF and [[Afghan National Army|Afghan troops]] led many offensives against the Taliban but failed to fully defeat them. Afghanistan remains one of the poorest countries in the world due to a lack of foreign investment, [[Corruption in Afghanistan|government corruption]], and the Taliban insurgency.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://abcnews.go.com/Video/video?id=5484891&tab=9482931&section=8865284&page=1 |publisher=[[ABC News (US)|ABC News]] |accessdate=28 September 2010 |title=Pakistan Accused of Helping Taliban |date=31 July 2008|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20131221050959/http://abcnews.go.com/Video/video?id=5484891&tab=9482931&section=8865284&page=1 |archivedate=2013-12-21 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/asia/afghanistan/7910687/Wikileaks-Pakistan-accused-of-helping-Taliban-in-Afghanistan-attacks.html |work=The Telegraph |accessdate=28 September 2010 |title=Wikileaks: Pakistan accused of helping Taliban in Afghanistan attacks |date=26 July 2010 |location=London |first1=Rob |last1=Crilly |first2=Alex |last2=Spillius|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140129073942/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/asia/afghanistan/7910687/Wikileaks-Pakistan-accused-of-helping-Taliban-in-Afghanistan-attacks.html |archivedate=2014-01-29 }}</ref> Meanwhile, the [[Politics of Afghanistan|Afghan government]] was able to build some democratic structures, and the country changed its name to the Islamic Republic of Afghanistan. Attempts were made, often with the support of foreign donor countries, to improve the country's economy, healthcare, education, transport, and agriculture. ISAF forces also began to train the [[Afghan National Security Forces]]. In the decade following 2002, over five million [[Afghan diaspora|Afghans]] were [[repatriation|repatriated]], including some who were forcefully [[deportation|deported]] from Western countries.<ref>{{cite web |title=Germany begins deportations of Afghan refugees |url=http://www.wsws.org/articles/2005/jun2005/afgh-j25.shtml |publisher=wsws.org |date=25 June 2005 |accessdate=2 October 2011|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20121002222758/http://www.wsws.org/articles/2005/jun2005/afgh-j25.shtml |archivedate=2012-10-02 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Living in Fear of Deportation |url=http://www.dw-world.de/dw/article/0,,1862149,00.html |publisher=DW-World.De |date=22 January 2006 |accessdate=2 October 2011|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120129193952/http://www.dw-world.de/dw/article/0,,1862149,00.html |archivedate=2012-01-29 }}</ref> By 2009, a Taliban-led shadow government began to form in parts of the country.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2009/12/07/AR2009120704127.html |work=The Washington Post |accessdate=30 March 2010 |title=Taliban shadow officials offer concrete alternative |first=Griff |last=Witte |date=8 December 2009}}</ref> In 2010, President Karzai attempted to hold [[Afghan Peace Jirga 2010|peace negotiations]] with the Taliban leaders, but the rebel group refused to attend until mid 2015 when Taliban supreme leader finally decided to back the peace talks.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://news.yahoo.com/afghan-taliban-leader-backs-peace-talks-kabul-officials-065951741.html|title=Afghan Taliban leader backs peace talks with Kabul officials|date=15 July 2015|work=Yahoo News}}</ref> After the May 2011 [[death of Osama bin Laden]] in Pakistan, many prominent Afghan figures were assassinated.<ref name="AfghamEmbassy">{{cite web |url=http://www.embassyofafghanistan.org/PresidentKarzaiAddresstotheNationonPeaceEfforts.htm |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20111012070131/http://www.embassyofafghanistan.org/PresidentKarzaiAddresstotheNationonPeaceEfforts.htm |archivedate=12 October 2011 |title=President Karzai Address to the Nation on Afghanistan's Peace Efforts |publisher=The Embassy of Afghanistan in Washington, DC |accessdate=10 October 2011}}</ref> [[Afghanistan–Pakistan skirmishes|Afghanistan–Pakistan border skirmishes]] intensified and many large scale attacks by the Pakistan-based [[Haqqani Network]] also took place across Afghanistan. The United States blamed rogue elements within the Pakistani government for the increased attacks.<ref name="US-blames-Pakistan">{{cite news |url=http://news.yahoo.com/pakistan-isi-urged-attacks-u-targets-officials-002201562.html |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110925075845/http://news.yahoo.com/pakistan-isi-urged-attacks-u-targets-officials-002201562.html |archivedate=25 September 2011 |title=U.S. blames Pakistan agency in Kabul attack |publisher=Reuters |date=22 September 2011 |accessdate=22 September 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.usatoday.com/news/washington/story/2011-09-15/panetta-pakistan/50410770/1?csp=34news |title=Panetta: U.S. will pursue Pakistan-based militants |work=[[USA Today]] |date=September 2011 |accessdate=21 September 2011}}</ref> Following the [[Afghan presidential election, 2014|2014 presidential election]] President Karzai left power and [[Ashraf Ghani]] became President in September 2014.<ref>{{cite web|title=Afghan president Ashraf Ghani inaugurated after bitter campaign|url=http://www.theguardian.com/world/2014/sep/29/afghan-president-ashraf-ghani-inaugurated|publisher=The Guardian|accessdate=12 April 2015}}</ref> The US war in Afghanistan (America's longest war) officially ended on December 28, 2014. However, thousands of US-led NATO troops have remained in the country to train and advise Afghan government forces.<ref>{{cite web|title=U.S. formally ends the war in Afghanistan|url=http://www.cbsnews.com/news/america-formally-ends-the-war-in-afghanistan/|publisher=CBS News|accessdate=12 April 2015}}</ref> The 2001–present war has resulted in over 90,000 direct war-related [[Civilian casualties in the war in Afghanistan (2001–present)|deaths]], which includes insurgents, Afghan civilians and government forces. Over 100,000 have been injured.<ref>{{cite web|title=Afghan Civilians|url=http://watson.brown.edu/costsofwar/costs/human/civilians/afghan|publisher=Brown University|year=2015|accessdate=3 September 2015}}</ref> == Geography == {{Main|Geography of Afghanistan}} [[File:Afghanistan map of Köppen climate classification.svg|thumb|Afghanistan map of Köppen climate classification.]] [[File:Afghanistan physical en.png|thumb|Topography]] A [[landlocked]] mountainous country with plains in the north and southwest, Afghanistan is located within South Asia<ref name="South Asia">* {{cite web|url=http://pubs.usgs.gov/of/1997/ofr-97-470/OF97-470C/asiaGmap.html |title=U.S. maps |publisher=Pubs.usgs.gov |date= |accessdate=19 May 2012 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20131225134851/http://pubs.usgs.gov/of/1997/ofr-97-470/OF97-470C/asiaGmap.html |archivedate=2013-12-25 }} * {{cite web|url=http://www.worldbank.org/en/region/sar |title=South Asia: Data, Projects, and Research |accessdate=2 March 2015 }} * {{cite web|url=http://pubs.usgs.gov/of/1997/ofr-97-470/OF97-470C/asiaGmap.html |title=MAPS SHOWING GEOLOGY, OIL AND GAS FIELDS AND GEOLOGICAL PROVINCES OF SOUTH ASIA (Includes Afghanistan) |accessdate=2 March 2015 }} * {{cite web|url=http://jsis.washington.edu/advise/catalog/soasia-b.html |title=University of Washington Jackson School of International Studies: The South Asia Center |accessdate=2 March 2015 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150402100846/http://jsis.washington.edu/advise/catalog/soasia-b.html |archivedate=2 April 2015 }} * {{cite web|url=http://www.maxwell.syr.edu/moynihan/programs/sac/ |title=Syracruse University: The South Asia Center |accessdate=2 March 2015 }} * {{cite web|url=http://www.ii.umich.edu/csas |title=Center for South Asian studies |accessdate=2 March 2015 }}</ref><ref name="UNdata">{{cite web |url=http://millenniumindicators.un.org/unsd/methods/m49/m49regin.htm#asia |title=Composition of macro geographical (continental) regions, geographical sub-regions, and selected economic and other groupings |publisher=[[UNdata]] |date=26 April 2011 |accessdate=13 July 2011 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110713041240/http://millenniumindicators.un.org/unsd/methods/m49/m49regin.htm |archivedate=13 July 2011 <!--DASHBot--> |deadurl=no}}</ref> and Central Asia.<ref name="Britannica">{{cite web |url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/7798/Afghanistan |title=Afghanistan |publisher=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]] |accessdate=17 March 2010 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100225235842/http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/7798/Afghanistan |archivedate=25 February 2010 <!--DASHBot--> |deadurl=no}}</ref> It is part of the US-coined [[Greater Middle East]] [[Muslim world]], which lies between [[latitude]]s [[29th parallel north|{{nowrap|29° N}}]] and [[39th parallel north|{{nowrap|39° N}}]], and [[longitude]]s [[60th meridian east|{{nowrap|60° E}}]] and [[75th meridian east|{{nowrap|75° E}}]]. The country's highest point is [[Noshaq]], at {{convert|7492|m|abbr=on}} above sea level. It has a [[continental climate]] with harsh winters in the [[Hazarajat|central highlands]], the glaciated northeast (around [[Nuristan]]), and the [[Wakhan Corridor]], where the average temperature in January is below {{convert|-15|C}}, and hot summers in the low-lying areas of the [[Sistan Basin]] of the southwest, the [[Jalalabad]] basin in the east, and the [[Afghan Turkestan|Turkestan]] plains along the [[Amu River]] in the north, where temperatures average over {{convert|35|C}} in July. [[File:Geography of Afghanistan.jpg|thumb|left|270px|[[Geography of Afghanistan|Landscapes of Afghanistan]], from left to right: 1. [[Band-e Amir National Park]]; 2. [[Salang Pass]] in [[Parwan Province]]; 3. [[Korangal Valley]] in [[Kunar Province]]; and 4. [[Kajaki Dam]] in [[Helmand Province]]]] Despite having numerous rivers and [[list of dams and reservoirs in Afghanistan|reservoirs]], large parts of the country are dry. The [[endorheic basin|endorheic]] Sistan Basin is one of the driest regions in the world.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://postconflict.unep.ch/publications/sistan.pdf |title=History of Environmental Change in the Sistan Basin 1976–2005 |accessdate=20 July 2007 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070807214557/http://postconflict.unep.ch/publications/sistan.pdf |archivedate=7 August 2007 <!--DASHBot--> |deadurl=no}}</ref> Aside from the usual rainfall, Afghanistan receives snow during the winter in the [[Hindu Kush]] and [[Pamir Mountains]], and the melting snow in the spring season enters the [[list of rivers of Afghanistan|rivers, lakes, and streams]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/NaturalHazards/view.php?id=16066 |title=Snow in Afghanistan: Natural Hazards |publisher=NASA |date=3 February 2006 |accessdate=6 May 2012|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20131230235107/http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/NaturalHazards/view.php?id=16066 |archivedate=2013-12-30 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=http://in.reuters.com/article/2012/01/18/afghanistan-snow-idINDEE80H0BR20120118 |agency=Reuters |title=Snow may end Afghan drought, but bitter winter looms |date=18 January 2012|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20131230233432/http://in.reuters.com/article/2012/01/18/afghanistan-snow-idINDEE80H0BR20120118 |archivedate=2013-12-30 }}</ref> However, two-thirds of the country's water flows into the neighboring countries of Iran, Pakistan, and Turkmenistan. The state needs more than {{US$|2 billion}} to rehabilitate its irrigation systems so that the water is properly managed.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.csmonitor.com/World/Asia-South-Central/2010/0615/Afghanistan-s-woeful-water-management-delights-neighbors |title=Afghanistan's woeful water management delights neighbors |publisher=Csmonitor.com |date=15 June 2010 |accessdate=14 November 2010 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20101114131338/http://www.csmonitor.com/World/Asia-South-Central/2010/0615/Afghanistan-s-woeful-water-management-delights-neighbors |archivedate=14 November 2010 <!--DASHBot--> |deadurl=no}}</ref> The northeastern Hindu Kush [[mountain range]], in and around the [[Badakhshan Province]] of Afghanistan, is in a [[natural environment#Geological activity|geologically active]] area where earthquakes may occur almost every year.<ref name="crone2007">{{cite techreport |last=Crone |first=Anthony J. |title=Earthquakes Pose a Serious Hazard in Afghanistan |url=http://pubs.usgs.gov/fs/2007/3027/pdf/FS07-3027_508.pdf |publisher=[[US Geological Survey]] |accessdate=14 October 2011 |id=Fact Sheet FS 2007–3027 |date=April 2007|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130727072311/http://pubs.usgs.gov/fs/2007/3027/pdf/FS07-3027_508.pdf |archivedate=2013-07-27 }}</ref> They can be deadly and destructive sometimes, causing [[landslide]]s in some parts or [[2009 Afghan avalanches|avalanches]] during the winter.<ref>{{cite web |title=Earthquake Hazards |url=http://afghanistan.cr.usgs.gov/earthquake-hazards |work=USGS Projects in Afghanistan |publisher=US Geological Survey |accessdate=13 October 2011 |date=1 August 2011|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20131230235224/http://afghanistan.cr.usgs.gov/earthquake-hazards |archivedate=2013-12-30 }}</ref> The last strong earthquakes were in [[February 4, 1998 Afghanistan earthquake|1998]], which killed about 6,000 people in Badakhshan near Tajikistan.<ref name="bbcquake2010">{{cite news |title='Seven dead' as earthquake rocks Afghanistan |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/8628901.stm |accessdate=13 October 2011 |newspaper=BBC News |date=19 April 2010|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20131231000835/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/8628901.stm |archivedate=2013-12-31 }}</ref> This was followed by the [[2002 Hindu Kush earthquakes]] in which over 150 people were killed and over 1,000 injured. A [[2010 Afghanistan earthquake|2010 earthquake]] left 11 Afghans dead, over 70 injured, and more than 2,000 houses destroyed. The country's natural resources include: [[coal]], [[copper]], [[iron ore]], [[lithium]], [[uranium]], [[rare earth element]]s, [[chromite]], [[gold]], [[zinc]], [[talc]], [[barites]], [[sulfur]], [[lead]], [[marble]], precious and [[semi-precious stones]], [[natural gas]], and [[petroleum]], among other things.<ref name="peters2007">{{cite techreport |last=Peters |first=Steven G. |title=Preliminary Assessment of Non-Fuel Mineral Resources of Afghanistan, 2007 |url=http://pubs.usgs.gov/fs/2007/3063/fs2007-3063.pdf |publisher=USGS Afghanistan Project/[[US Geological Survey]]/Afghanistan Geological Survey |accessdate=13 October 2011 |id=Fact Sheet 2007–3063 |date=October 2007|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130727053445/http://pubs.usgs.gov/fs/2007/3063/fs2007-3063.pdf |archivedate=2013-07-27 }}</ref><ref name="bgs" /> In 2010, US and Afghan government officials estimated that untapped mineral deposits located in 2007 by the [[United States Geological Survey|US Geological Survey]] are worth between {{nowrap|$900 bn}} and {{nowrap|$3 trillion}}.<ref name="bbcminerals">{{cite news |title=Afghans say US team found huge potential mineral wealth |url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/10311752 |accessdate=13 October 2011 |newspaper=BBC News |date=14 June 2010|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130809125352/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/10311752 |archivedate=2013-08-09}}</ref> At {{convert|652230|km2|abbr=on}},<ref>{{cite web|title=Land area (sq. km) |url=http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/AG.LND.TOTL.K2 |work=World Development Indicators |publisher=World Bank |accessdate=13 October 2011 |year=2011|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20131029185313/http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/AG.LND.TOTL.K2 |archivedate=2013-10-29 }}</ref> Afghanistan is the world's [[List of countries and dependencies by area|41st largest country]],<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2147.html#af |title=CIA Factbook&nbsp;– Area: 41 |publisher=CIA |date=26 November 1991 |accessdate=4 February 2012|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140131115000/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2147.html |archivedate=2014-01-31 }}</ref> slightly bigger than France and smaller than Burma, about the size of Texas in the United States. It borders Pakistan in the south and east; Iran in the west; Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, and Tajikistan in the north; and China in the far east. == Demographics == {{Main|Demographics of Afghanistan|Afghan diaspora}} {{as of|2015}}, the population of Afghanistan is around 32,564,342,<ref name="Factbook">{{cite web |url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/af.html |title=Afghanistan |work=The World Factbook |publisher=CIA |accessdate=5 September 2015}}</ref> which includes the roughly 2.7 million [[Afghan diaspora|Afghan refugees]] still living in [[Afghans in Pakistan|Pakistan]] and [[Afghans in Iran|Iran]]. In 1979, the population was reported to be about 15.5 million.<ref>"[http://www.un.org/News/dh/latest/afghan/un-afghan-history.shtml United Nations and Afghanistan]". UN News Centre. Retrieved 29 December 2013. {{Wayback|url=http://www.un.org/News/dh/latest/afghan/un-afghan-history.shtml|date =20131031084259}}</ref> The only city with over a million residents is its capital, Kabul. Other [[list of cities in Afghanistan|large cities in the country]] are, in order of population size, [[Kandahar]], [[Herat]], [[Mazar-i-Sharif]], [[Jalalabad]], [[Lashkar Gah]], [[Taloqan]], [[Khost]], [[Sheberghan]], and [[Ghazni]]. Urban areas are experiencing rapid population growth following the return of over 5 million [[expatriate]]s. According to the [[Population Reference Bureau]], the Afghan population is estimated to increase to 82 million by 2050.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.prb.org/Countries/Afghanistan.aspx |title=Afghanistan&nbsp;– Population Reference Bureau |publisher=[[Population Reference Bureau]] |date= |accessdate=29 December 2009|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20131202224051/http://www.prb.org/Countries/Afghanistan.aspx|archivedate=2013-12-02}}</ref> {{Largest cities of Afghanistan}} === Ethnic groups === {{Main|Ethnic groups in Afghanistan}} [[File:US Army ethnolinguistic map of Afghanistan -- circa 2001-09.jpg|thumb|250px|[[Ethnolinguistics|Ethnolinguistic]] groups of Afghanistan]] Afghanistan is a multiethnic society, and its historical status as a crossroads has contributed significantly to its diverse ethnic makeup. The population of the country is divided into a wide variety of [[ethnolinguistics|ethnolinguistic]] groups. Because a systematic census has not been held in the nation in decades, exact figures about the size and composition of the various ethnic groups are unavailable. An approximate distribution of the ethnic groups is shown in the chart below: {| class="wikitable sortable" style="width:65%; float:center;" |+Ethnic groups in Afghanistan |- ! style="background:#ddf; width:10%;"|Ethnic group ! style="background:#ddf; width:15%;"|{{small|2004–2014 estimate}}<ref name="CIA-Ethnic-groups">{{cite web |url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2075.html?countryName=Afghanistan&countryCode=af&regionCode=sas&#af |title=Ethnic groups |work=The World Factbook |publisher=CIA |accessdate=18 September 2010|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20131014200908/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2075.html?countryName=Afghanistan&countryCode=af&regionCode=sas&|archivedate=2015-07-11 |quote=Pashtun, Tajik, Hazara, Uzbek, other (includes smaller numbers of Baloch, Turkmen, Nuristani, Pamiri, Arab, Gujar, Brahui, Qizilbash, Aimaq, Pashai, and Kyrghyz) note: current statistical data on the sensitive subject of ethnicity in Afghanistan is not available, and ethnicity data from small samples of respondents to opinion polls are not a reliable alternative; Afghanistan's 2004 constitution recognizes 14 ethnic groups: Pashtun, Tajik, Hazara, Uzbek, Baloch, Turkmen, Nuristani, Pamiri, Arab, Gujar, Brahui, Qizilbash, Aimaq, and Pashai (2015)}}</ref> ! style="background:#ddf; width:15%;"|{{small|Pre-2004 estimate}}<ref name="CIA-1991">{{cite web |url=http://www.umsl.edu/services/govdocs/wofact90/world12.txt |title=Afghanistan |work=The World Factbook/Central Intelligence Agency |publisher=[[University of Missouri]] |date=15 October 1991 |accessdate=20 March 2011 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110427053700/http://www.umsl.edu/services/govdocs/wofact90/world12.txt |archivedate=27 April 2011 <!--DASHBot--> |deadurl=no}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.umsl.edu/services/govdocs/wofact92/wf930006.txt |title=Ethnic divisions |work=The World Factbook/CIA |publisher=[[University of Missouri]] |date=22 January 1993 |accessdate=16 October 2010}}</ref><ref name="LoC-Ethnic-Groups">{{cite web |url=http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd/cstdy:@field(DOCID+af0037) |title=Ethnic Groups |publisher=Library of Congress Country Studies |year=1997 |accessdate=8 October 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.umsl.edu/services/govdocs/wofact2003/geos/af.html |title=Ethnic groups: |work=The World Factbook/CIA |publisher=University of Missouri |year=2003 |accessdate=18 September 2010}}</ref> |- | [[Pashtun people|Pashtun]] | align=center|42% | align=center|38–55% |- | [[Tajik people|Tajik]] | align=center|27% | align=center|26% (of this 1% are [[Qizilbash]]) |- | [[Hazara people|Hazara]] | align=center|8% | align=center|9–10% |- | [[Uzbeks|Uzbek]] | align=center|9% | align=center|6–8% |- | [[Aimaq people|Aimaq]] | align=center|4% | align=center|500,000 to 800,000 |- | [[Turkmen people|Turkmen]] | align=center|3% | align=center|2.5% |- | [[Baloch people|Baloch]] | align=center|2% | align=center|100,000 |- | Others ([[Pashayi people|Pashayi]], [[Nuristani people|Nuristani]], [[History of Arabs in Afghanistan|Arab]], [[Brahui people|Brahui]], [[Pamiri people|Pamiri]], [[Gurjar]], etc.) | align=center|4% | align=center|6.9% |} {{clear}} === Languages === {{Main|Languages of Afghanistan}} {{bar box |float = right |title = Spoken languages of Afghanistan<ref name="Factbook" /><ref name="LoC-pdf" /> |bars = {{bar percent|[[Dari language|Dari]] (Afghan Persian)|DarkSlateGray|50}} {{bar percent|[[Pashto language|Pashto]]|DarkSlateGray|35}} {{bar percent|[[Uzbek language|Uzbek]] and [[Turkmen language|Turkmen]]|DarkSlateGray|11}} {{bar percent|30 others including [[Arabic language|Arabic]]|DarkSlateGray|4}} }} [[Pashto language|Pashto]] and [[Dari language|Dari]] are the [[official language]]s of Afghanistan; [[bilingualism]] is very common.<ref name="AO">{{cite web |title=Article Sixteen of the 2004 Constitution of Afghanistan |url=http://www.afghan-web.com/politics/current_constitution.html#preamble |quote=From among the languages of Pashto, Dari, Uzbeki, Turkmani, Baluchi, Pashai, Nuristani, Pamiri (alsana), Arab and other languages spoken in the country, '''Pashto and Dari are the official languages of the state.''' |year=2004 |accessdate=13 June 2012|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20131028065437/http://www.afghan-web.com:80/politics/current_constitution.html |archivedate=2013-10-28 }}</ref> Both are [[Indo-European languages]] from the [[Iranian languages]] sub-family. Dari (Afghan Persian) has long been the [[prestige (sociolinguistics)|prestige language]] and a [[lingua franca]] for inter-ethnic communication. It is the native tongue of the Tajiks, Hazaras, Aimaks, and Kizilbash.<ref name="Encyclopædia Britannica">{{cite web |url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/7798/Afghanistan/226122/Languages |title=Languages of Afghanistan |work= |accessdate= |publisher=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20131112115208/http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/7798/Afghanistan/226122/Languages/|archivedate=2013-11-12}}</ref> Pashto is the native tongue of the Pashtuns, although many Pashtuns often use Dari and some non-Pashtuns are fluent in Pashto. Other languages, including [[Uzbek language|Uzbek]], [[Arabic language|Arabic]], [[Turkmen language|Turkmen]], [[Balochi language|Balochi]], [[Pashayi language|Pashayi]], and [[Nuristani languages]] ([[Askunu language|Ashkunu]], [[Kamkata-viri language|Kamkata-viri]], [[Vasi-vari language|Vasi-vari]], [[Tregami language|Tregami]], and [[Kalasha-ala language|Kalasha-ala]]), are the native tongues of minority groups across the country and have official status in the regions where they are widely spoken. Minor languages also include [[Pamir languages|Pamiri]] ([[Shughni language|Shughni]], [[Munji language|Munji]], [[Ishkashimi language|Ishkashimi]], and [[Wakhi language|Wakhi]]), [[Brahui language|Brahui]], [[Hindko language|Hindko]], and [[Kyrgyz language|Kyrgyz]]. A small percentage of Afghans are also fluent in [[Urdu]], English, and other languages. === Religions === {{bar box |title=Religion in Afghanistan |titlebar=#Fcd116 |left1=Religion |right1=Percent |float=right |bars= {{bar percent|[[Islam]]|green|99}} {{bar percent|Others|violet|1}} |caption=Distribution of religions }} {{Main|Religion in Afghanistan}} Over 99% of the Afghan population is Muslim; up to 90% are from the [[Sunni]] branch, 7–19% are [[Shia Islam in Afghanistan|Shia]].<ref name="Factbook" /><ref name="LoC-pdf">{{cite web |url=http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/profiles/Afghanistan.pdf |title=Country Profile: Afghanistan |publisher=[[Library of Congress Country Studies]] on Afghanistan |date=August 2008 |accessdate=10 October 2010|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140408085103/http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/profiles/Afghanistan.pdf |archivedate=2014-04-08 }}</ref><ref name="Pew">{{cite web|url=http://www.pewforum.org/2012/08/09/the-worlds-muslims-unity-and-diversity-1-religious-affiliation/#identity|title=Chapter 1: Religious Affiliation|date=August 9, 2012|work=The World’s Muslims: Unity and Diversity|publisher=[[Pew Research Center]]'s Religion & Public Life Project|accessdate=4 September 2013}}</ref> Until the 1890s, the region around [[Nuristan Province|Nuristan]] was known as [[Kafiristan]] (land of the [[kafir]]s (unbelievers)) because of its non-Muslim inhabitants, the [[Nuristani people|Nuristanis]], an ethnically distinct people whose religious practices included [[animism]], [[polytheism]], and [[shamanism]].<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |last=Klimberg |first=Max |encyclopedia=[[Encyclopædia Iranica]] |title=NURISTAN |url=http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/nuristan |edition=online |date=1 October 2004 |publisher=Columbia University |location=United States|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130726102738/http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/nuristan |archivedate=2013-07-26 }}</ref> Thousands of Afghan [[Sikhism in Afghanistan|Sikhs]] and [[Hinduism in Afghanistan|Hindus]] are also found in the major cities.<ref>{{cite web |author=Lavina Melwani, New York |url=http://www.hinduismtoday.com/archives/1994/4/1994-4-02.shtml |title=Hindus Abandon Afghanistan |work=Hinduism Today |date= |accessdate=19 May 2012|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070111080626/http://www.hinduismtoday.com:80/archives/1994/4/1994-4-02.shtml|archivedate=2007-01-11}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=Majumder |first=Sanjoy |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/south_asia/3138282.stm |title=Sikhs struggle in Afghanistan |publisher=BBC News |date=25 September 2003 |accessdate=19 May 2012|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090222132753/http://news.bbc.co.uk:80/1/hi/world/south_asia/3138282.stm |archivedate=2009-02-22 }}</ref> There was a small [[History of the Jews in Afghanistan|Jewish community in Afghanistan]] who had emigrated to Israel and the United States by the end of the twentieth century; only one Jew, [[Zablon Simintov]], remained by 2005.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/articles/A39702-2005Jan26.html |title=Afghan Jew Becomes Country's One and Only |author=N.C. Aizenman |publisher=Washingtonpost.com |date= 27 January 2005|accessdate=19 May 2012}}</ref> == Governance == {{Main|Politics of Afghanistan|Presidency of Hamid Karzai|Constitution of Afghanistan}} [[File:Afghan parliament in 2006.jpg|thumb|The [[National Assembly of Afghanistan]] in 2006]] [[File:Taliban insurgency in Afghanistan (2015–present).svg|thumb|Current military situation, as of 27 February 2016. {{legend|#ebc0b3|Under control of the [[Politics of Afghanistan|Afghan Government]], [[Resolute Support Mission|NATO]], and [[War in Afghanistan (2015–present)#Allied militias|Allies]]}} {{legend|#b3b2ae|Under control of the [[Taliban]], [[Al-Qaeda]], and [[Islamic Jihad Union|Allies]]}}]] Afghanistan is an [[Islamic republic]] consisting of three branches, the executive, legislative, and judicial. The nation is led by President [[Ashraf Ghani]] with [[Abdul Rashid Dostum]] and [[Sarwar Danish]] as vice presidents. [[Abdullah Abdullah]] serves as the chief executive officer (CEO). The [[National Assembly of Afghanistan|National Assembly]] is the legislature, a [[bicameralism|bicameral]] body having two chambers, the [[House of the People (Afghanistan)|House of the People]] and the [[House of Elders]]. The [[Afghan Supreme Court|Supreme Court]] is led by [[Chief Justice of Afghanistan|Chief Justice]] [[Said Yusuf Halem]], the former Deputy Minister of Justice for Legal Affairs.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://supremecourt.gov.af/en/page/614/the-supreme-court-chief-justice-biography|title=The Supreme Court Chief Justice Biography|work=supremecourt.gov.af}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.afghan-bios.info/index.php?option=com_afghanbios&id=3158&task=view&total=3197&start=1041&Itemid=2|title=Database|work=afghan-bios.info}}</ref> A January 2010 report published by the [[United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime]] revealed that bribery consumed an amount equal to 23% of the GDP of the nation.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.unodc.org/unodc/en/frontpage/2010/January/corruption-widespread-in-afghanistan-unodc-survey-says.html |title=Corruption widespread in Afghanistan, UNODC survey says |publisher=UNODC.org |date=19 January 2010 |accessdate=14 November 2010|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140416023007/http://www.unodc.org/unodc/en/frontpage/2010/January/corruption-widespread-in-afghanistan-unodc-survey-says.html |archivedate=2014-04-16 }}</ref> A number of [[Council of Ministers (Afghanistan)|government ministries]] are believed to be rife with corruption, and while President Karzai vowed to tackle the problem in late 2009 by stating that "individuals who are involved in corruption will have no place in the government",<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.cbc.ca/news/world/karzai-vows-to-tackle-corruption-1.827422 |title=Karzai vows to tackle corruption |publisher=CBC.ca |date=9 November 2009 |accessdate=14 November 2010|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20131230233852/http://www.cbc.ca/news/world/karzai-vows-to-tackle-corruption-1.827422 |archivedate=2013-12-30 }}</ref><!--deadurl=http://business.maktoob.com/20090000393686/Karzai_vows_to_tackle_corruption/Article.htm--> top government officials were stealing and misusing hundreds of millions of dollars through the [[Kabul Bank]]. According to [[Transparency International]]'s 2014 corruption perceptions index results, Afghanistan was ranked as the fourth most corrupt country in the world.<ref name="TI">{{cite web |url=http://www.transparency.org/cpi2014/results |title=Corruption Perceptions Index 2014 Results |publisher=[[Transparency International]] |accessdate=5 September 2015}}</ref> === Elections and parties === {{Main|Elections in Afghanistan|List of political parties in Afghanistan}} [[File:Secretary Kerry meets Abdullah and Ghani 2014.jpg|thumb|From left to right: [[Abdullah Abdullah]], [[John Kerry]] and [[Ashraf Ghani]] during the [[Afghan presidential election, 2014|2014 presidential election]]]] The [[Afghan presidential election, 2004|2004 Afghan presidential election]] was relatively peaceful, in which Hamid Karzai won in the first round with 55.4% of the votes. However, the [[Afghan presidential election, 2009|2009 presidential election]] was characterized by lack of security, low voter turnout, and widespread electoral fraud.<ref name="Karzai Gets New Term as Afghan Runoff is Scrapped">{{cite news |last=Cooper |first=Helene |url=http://www.nytimes.com/2009/11/03/world/asia/03afghan.html?_r=1&hp |title=Karzai Gets New Term as Afghan Runoff is Scrapped |publisher=Nytimes.com |date=2 November 2009 |accessdate=4 February 2012|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110511225923/http://www.nytimes.com/2009/11/03/world/asia/03afghan.html?_r=1&hp |archivedate=2011-05-11 }}</ref> The vote, along with elections for 420 [[Provinces of Afghanistan|provincial council]] seats, took place in August 2009, but remained unresolved during a lengthy period of vote counting and fraud investigation. Two months later, under international pressure, a second round run-off vote between Karzai and remaining challenger [[Abdullah Abdullah|Abdullah]] was announced, but a few days later Abdullah announced that he would not participate in the 7 November run-off because his demands for changes in the electoral commission had not been met. The next day, officials of the election commission cancelled the run-off and declared Hamid Karzai as President for another five-year term.<ref name="Karzai Gets New Term as Afghan Runoff is Scrapped" /> In the [[Afghan parliamentary election, 2005|2005 parliamentary election]], among the elected officials were former mujahideen, [[Islamic fundamentalists]], warlords, communists, [[reformists]], and several Taliban associates.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.rawa.org/temp/runews/rawagallery.php?mghash=dc96d38caecd6694eb17fc894bb73212&mggal=2 |title=RAWA Photo Gallery: They are Responsible for Afghanistan's Tragedy |publisher=RAWA |accessdate=11 October 2010 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20101019075455/http://www.rawa.org/temp/runews/rawagallery.php?mghash=dc96d38caecd6694eb17fc894bb73212&mggal=2 |archivedate=19 October 2010 <!--DASHBot--> |deadurl=no}}</ref> In the same period, Afghanistan reached to the 30th highest nation in terms of female representation in parliament.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ipu.org/wmn-e/classif.htm |title=Women in Parliaments: World Classification |publisher=Ipu.org |date=30 November 2009 |accessdate=29 December 2009|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140328105108/http://www.ipu.org/wmn-e/classif.htm |archivedate=2014-03-28 }}</ref> The last [[Afghan parliamentary election, 2010|parliamentary election]] was held in September 2010, but due to disputes and investigation of fraud, the swearing-in ceremony took place in late January 2011. The [[Afghan presidential election, 2014|2014 presidential election]] ended with Ashraf Ghani winning by 56.44% votes. === Administrative divisions === {{Main|Provinces of Afghanistan|Districts of Afghanistan}} Afghanistan is administratively divided into 34 provinces (''[[wilayah|wilayats]]''), with each province having its own capital and a provincial administration. The provinces are further divided into about 398 smaller provincial districts, each of which normally covers a city or a number of villages. Each district is represented by a district governor. The [[list of current governors of Afghanistan|provincial governors]] are appointed by the [[President of Afghanistan]] and the district governors are selected by the provincial governors. The provincial governors are representatives of the central government in Kabul and are responsible for all administrative and formal issues within their provinces. There are also provincial councils that are elected through direct and general elections for a period of four years.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.iec.org.af/eng/content.php?id=5&cnid=24 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100827204439/http://www.iec.org.af/eng/content.php?id=5&cnid=24 |archivedate=27 August 2010 |title=Explaining Elections, Independent Election Commission of Afghanistan |publisher=Iec.org.af |date=9 October 2004 |accessdate=4 February 2012}}</ref> The functions of provincial councils are to take part in provincial development planning and to participate in the monitoring and appraisal of other provincial governance institutions. According to article 140 of the constitution and the presidential decree on electoral law, mayors of cities should be elected through free and direct elections for a four-year term. However, due to huge election costs, mayoral and municipal elections have never been held. Instead, mayors have been appointed by the government. In the capital city of Kabul, the mayor is appointed by the President of Afghanistan. The following is a list of all the 34 provinces in alphabetical order: [[File:Afghanistan provinces numbered.png|thumb|350px|Afghanistan is divided into [[provinces of Afghanistan|34 provinces]], and every province is further divided into a [[Districts of Afghanistan|number of districts]]]] {{col-begin}} <div style="column-count:2;-moz-column-count:2;-webkit-column-count:2;"> # [[Badakhshan Province|Badakhshan]] # [[Badghis Province|Badghis]] # [[Baghlan Province|Baghlan]] # [[Balkh Province|Balkh]] # [[Bamyan Province|Bamyan]] # [[Daykundi Province|Daykundi]] # [[Farah Province|Farah]] # [[Faryab Province|Faryab]] # [[Ghazni Province|Ghazni]] # [[Ghor Province|Ghor]] # [[Helmand Province|Helmand]] # [[Herat Province|Herat]] # [[Jowzjan Province|Jowzjan]] # [[Kabul Province|Kabul]] # [[Kandahar Province|Kandahar]] # [[Kapisa Province|Kapisa]] # [[Khost Province|Khost]] # [[Kunar Province|Kunar]] # [[Kunduz Province|Kunduz]] # [[Laghman Province|Laghman]] # [[Logar Province|Logar]] # [[Nangarhar Province|Nangarhar]] # [[Nimruz Province|Nimruz]] # [[Nuristan Province|Nuristan]] # [[Oruzgan Province|Oruzgan]] # [[Paktia Province|Paktia]] # [[Paktika Province|Paktika]] # [[Panjshir Province|Panjshir]] # [[Parwan Province|Parwan]] # [[Samangan Province|Samangan]] # [[Sar-e Pol Province|Sar-e Pol]] # [[Takhar Province|Takhar]] # [[Wardak Province|Wardak]] # [[Zabul Province|Zabul]] </div> {{col-end}} === Foreign relations and military === {{Main|Foreign relations of Afghanistan|Afghan Armed Forces}} [[File:Afghan soldiers.jpg|thumb|Soldiers of the [[Afghan National Army]], including the [[ANA Commando Battalion]] standing in the front]] The [[Ministry of Foreign Affairs (Afghanistan)|Afghan Ministry of Foreign Affairs]] is in charge of maintaining the [[foreign relations of Afghanistan]]. The state has been a member of the United Nations since 1946. It enjoys strong economic relations with a number of [[NATO]] and allied states, particularly the [[Afghanistan–United States relations|United States]], [[Afghanistan–United Kingdom relations|United Kingdom]], [[Afghanistan–Germany relations|Germany]] and [[Afghanistan–Turkey relations|Turkey]]. In 2012, the United States designated Afghanistan as a [[major non-NATO ally]] and created the [[U.S.–Afghanistan Strategic Partnership Agreement]]. Afghanistan also has friendly diplomatic relations with neighboring [[Afghanistan–Pakistan relations|Pakistan]], [[Afghanistan–Iran relations|Iran]], [[Foreign relations of Turkmenistan#Afghanistan|Turkmenistan]], [[Foreign relations of Uzbekistan|Uzbekistan]], [[Afghanistan–Tajikistan relations|Tajikistan]], and [[Afghanistan–China relations|China]], and with regional states such as [[Afghanistan–India relations|India]], [[Afghanistan–Bangladesh relations|Bangladesh]], [[Foreign relations of Nepal|Nepal]], [[Foreign relations of Kazakhstan|Kazakhstan]], [[Afghanistan–Russia relations|Russia]], the [[Afghanistan–United Arab Emirates relations|UAE]], Saudi Arabia, Iraq, Egypt, [[Afghanistan–Japan relations|Japan]], and [[Afghanistan–South Korea relations|South Korea]]. It continues to develop diplomatic relations with other countries around the world. [[United Nations Assistance Mission in Afghanistan]] (UNAMA) was established in 2002 under [[United Nations Security Council Resolution 1401]] in order to help the country recover from decades of war. Today, a number of NATO member states deploy about 38,000 troops in Afghanistan as part of the [[International Security Assistance Force]] (ISAF).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://news.yahoo.com/mounting-death-toll-afghan-troops-us-general-200602525.html|title=Mounting death toll for Afghan troops: US general|date=5 November 2014|work=Yahoo News}}</ref> Its main purpose is to [[NATO Training Mission-Afghanistan|train]] the [[Afghan National Security Forces]] (ANSF). The [[Afghan Armed Forces]] are under the [[Ministry of Defense (Afghanistan)|Ministry of Defense]], which includes the [[Afghan National Army]] (ANA) and the [[Afghan Air Force]] (AAF). The ANA is divided into 7 major [[Corps]], with the [[201st Corps (Afghanistan)|201st Selab ("Flood")]] in Kabul followed by the 203rd in Gardez, [[205th Corps|205th Atul ("Hero")]] in Kandahar, 207th in [[Herat]], 209th in [[Mazar-i-Sharif]], and the 215th in [[Lashkar Gah]]. The ANA also has a [[ANA Commando Brigade|commando brigade]], which was established in 2007. The [[Afghan Defense University]] (ADU) houses various educational establishments for the Afghan Armed Forces, including the [[National Military Academy of Afghanistan]].{{citation needed|date=January 2016}} === Law enforcement === {{Main|Crime in Afghanistan|Law enforcement in Afghanistan|Alcohol in Afghanistan}} [[File:ANP trucks in Kunar.jpg|thumb|[[Afghan National Police]] (ANP) in [[Kunar Province]]]] The [[National Directorate of Security]] (NDS) is the nation's domestic [[intelligence agency]], which operates similar to that of the [[United States Department of Homeland Security]] (DHS) and has between 15,000 and 30,000 employees. The nation also has about 126,000 national police officers, with plans to recruit more so that the total number can reach 160,000.<ref name=Pellerindate /> The [[Afghan National Police]] (ANP) is under the [[Ministry of the Interior (Afghanistan)|Ministry of the Interior]] and serves as a single [[law enforcement agency]] all across the country. The [[Afghan National Civil Order Police]] is the main branch of the ANP, which is divided into five Brigades, each commanded by a Brigadier General. These brigades are stationed in Kabul, [[Gardez]], [[Kandahar]], [[Herat]], and [[Mazar-i-Sharif]]. Every province has an appointed provincial [[Chief of Police]] who is responsible for [[law enforcement in Afghanistan|law enforcement]] throughout the province. The police receive most of their training from Western forces under the [[NATO Training Mission-Afghanistan]]. According to a 2009 news report, a large proportion of police officers were illiterate and accused of demanding bribes.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=121559123&ps=cprs |title=For U.S., Vast Challenge To Expand Afghan Forces |publisher=NPR |date= |accessdate=19 May 2012|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20131230234157/http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=121559123&ps=cprs|archivedate=2013-12-30}}</ref> Jack Kem, deputy to the commander of NATO Training Mission Afghanistan and Combined Security Transition Command Afghanistan, stated that the literacy rate in the ANP would rise to over 50% by January 2012. What began as a voluntary literacy program became mandatory for basic police training in early 2011.<ref name="Pellerindate">{{cite web |url=http://www.defense.gov//news/newsarticle.aspx?id=64044 |title=Afghan Security Forces Grow in Numbers, Quality |publisher=[[United States Department of Defense]] |work=American Forces Press Service |first=Cheryl |last=Pellerindate |date=23 May 2011 |accessdate=10 July 2011|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140414185255/http://www.defense.gov/news/newsarticle.aspx?id=64044 |archivedate=2014-04-14 }}</ref> Approximately 17% of them tested positive for illegal drug use. In 2009, President Karzai created two anti-corruption units within the Interior Ministry.<ref>{{cite web |author=&nbsp;16 November 2009 |url=http://www1.voanews.com/english/news/a-13-2009-11-16-voa7-70423472.html |title=Afghanistan to Form Major Anti-Corruption Unit |publisher=voanews.com |date=16 November 2009 |accessdate=29 December 2009 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20091120054104/http://www1.voanews.com/english/news/a-13-2009-11-16-voa7-70423472.html |archivedate=20 November 2009 <!--DASHBot--> |deadurl=no}}</ref> Former Interior Minister [[Hanif Atmar]] said that security officials from the US ([[FBI]]), Britain ([[Scotland Yard]]), and the European Union will train prosecutors in the unit. All parts of Afghanistan are considered dangerous due to militant activities. Hundreds of Afghan police are [[list of Afghan security forces fatality reports in Afghanistan|killed]] in the line of duty each year. Kidnapping and robberies are also reported. The [[Afghan Border Police]] (ABP) are responsible for protecting the nation's airports and borders, especially the disputed [[Durand Line]] border, which is often used by members of criminal organizations and terrorists for their illegal activities. A report in 2011 suggested that up to 3 million people were involved in the illegal drug business in Afghanistan. Attacks on government employees may be ordered by powerful mafia groups who reside inside and outside the country. Drugs from Afghanistan are exported to neighboring countries and then to other countries. The [[Ministry of Counter Narcotics (Afghanistan)|Afghan Ministry of Counter Narcotics]] is tasked to deal with these issues by bringing to justice major drug traffickers.<ref>[http://mcn.gov.af/en Ministry of Counter Narcotics] {{Wayback|url=http://mcn.gov.af/en|date =20140328013458}}</ref> == Economy == {{Main|Economy of Afghanistan}} [[File:Afghan pomegranate processing.jpg|thumb|Workers processing [[pomegranate production in Afghanistan|pomegranates]] (''anaar''), which Afghanistan is famous for in Asia]] [[File:Afghan women at a textile factory in Kabul.jpg|thumb|Afghan women at a textile factory in Kabul]] Afghanistan is an impoverished [[least developed country]], one of the world's poorest because of decades of war and lack of foreign investment. {{as of|2014}}, the nation's GDP stands at about $60.58 billion with an exchange rate of $20.31 billion, and the [[List of countries by GDP (PPP) per capita|GDP per capita]] is $1,900. The country's exports totaled $2.7 billion in 2012. Its unemployment rate was reported in 2008 at about 35%.<ref name="Factbook" /> According to a 2009 report, about 42% of the population lives on less than $1 a day.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=83417 |title=Afghanistan: Food still unaffordable for millions |work= |publisher=[[IRIN]] |date=12 March 2009 |accessdate=11 October 2010 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100827210523/http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=83417 |archivedate=27 August 2010 <!--DASHBot--> |deadurl=no}}</ref> The nation has less than $1.5 billion in [[external debt]].<ref name="Factbook" /> The Afghan economy has been growing at about 10% per year in the last decade, which is due to the infusion of over $50 billion in international aid and remittances from Afghan expats.<ref name="Factbook" /> It is also due to improvements made to the [[transport in Afghanistan|transportation system]] and agricultural production, which is the backbone of the nation's economy.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://afghanistan.usaid.gov/en/programs/agriculture#Tab=Description |title=Agriculture |work= |publisher=USAID |accessdate=20 October 2010|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130929082220/http://afghanistan.usaid.gov/en/programs/agriculture|archivedate=2013-09-29}}</ref> The country is known for producing some of the finest [[pomegranate production in Afghanistan|pomegranates]], grapes, apricots, melons, and several other fresh and dry fruits, including nuts.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20100104080643/http://www.ipsnews.net/news.asp?idnews=49291 Exporting Afghanistan], by P.J. Tobia. 17 November 2009.</ref> Many sources indicate that as much as 11% or more of Afghanistan's economy is derived from the cultivation and sale of [[opium]], and Afghanistan is widely considered the world's largest producer of opium despite Afghan government and international efforts to eradicate the crop.<ref>http://www.unodc.org/pdf/publications/afg_opium_economy_www.pdf</ref> While the nation's current account deficit is largely financed with donor money, only a small portion is provided directly to the government budget. The rest is provided to non-budgetary expenditure and donor-designated projects through the United Nations system and non-governmental organizations. The [[Ministry of Finance (Afghanistan)|Afghan Ministry of Finance]] is focusing on improved revenue collection and public sector expenditure discipline. For example, government revenues increased 31% to $1.7 billion from March 2010 to March 2011. [[File:Afghanistan, Trends in the Human Development Index 1970-2010.png|thumb|left|Afghanistan, Trends in the [[Human Development Index]], 1970–2010]] [[Da Afghanistan Bank]] serves as the central bank of the nation and the [[Afghan afghani|"Afghani"]] (AFN) is the national currency, with an exchange rate of about 47 Afghanis to [[United States dollar|1 US dollar]]. Since 2003, over 16 new banks have opened in the country, including [[Afghanistan International Bank]], [[Kabul Bank]], [[Azizi Bank]], [[Pashtany Bank]], [[Standard Chartered Bank]], and [[First Micro Finance Bank]]. One of the main drivers for the current economic recovery is the return of over 5 million [[Afghan diaspora|expatriates]], who brought with them fresh energy, entrepreneurship and wealth-creating skills as well as much needed funds to start up businesses. For the first time since the 1970s, Afghans have involved themselves in construction, one of the largest industries in the country.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.nytimes.com/2010/07/08/world/asia/08contract.html |title=Afghan Companies Say U.S. Did Not Pay Them |work=New York Times |first=Carlotta |last=Gall |date=7 July 2010 |accessdate=30 September 2011|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130402005151/http://www.nytimes.com/2010/07/08/world/asia/08contract.html |archivedate=2013-04-02 }}</ref> Some of the major national construction projects include {{nowrap|$35 billion}} New Kabul City next to the capital, [[Ghazi Amanullah Khan City]] near Jalalabad, and Aino Mena in Kandahar.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.dcda.gov.af/ |title=the Kabul New City Official Website |publisher=DCDA |date= |accessdate=4 February 2012|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20131230233634/http://www.dcda.gov.af/|archivedate=2013-12-30}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.najeebzarab.af/town_main.php |title=Ghazi Amanullah Khan City |year=2009 |publisher=najeebzarab.af |accessdate=15 August 2011|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130429180506/http://www.najeebzarab.af/town_main.php |archivedate=2013-04-29 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.designmena.com/portfolio/aino-mina |title=Case study: Aino Mina |publisher=Designmena.com |date= |accessdate=4 February 2012|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140106003655/http://www.designmena.com/portfolio/aino-mina|archivedate=2014-01-06}}</ref> Similar development projects have also begun in [[Herat]], [[Mazar-e-Sharif]], and other cities.<ref>[http://www.forbes.com/2009/09/02/mazar-i-sharif-khaled-amiri-opinions-21-century-cities-09-ann-marlowe.html A Humane Afghan City?] by Ann Marlowe in [[Forbes]] 2 September 2009. {{Wayback|url=http://www.forbes.com/2009/09/02/mazar-i-sharif-khaled-amiri-opinions-21-century-cities-09-ann-marlowe.html|date =20131231001216}}</ref> In addition, a number of companies and small factories began operating in different parts of the country, which not only provide revenues to the government but also create new jobs. Improvements to the business environment have resulted in more than $1.5 billion in [[Telecommunication|telecom]] investment and created more than 100,000 jobs since 2003.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://afghanistan.usaid.gov/en/programs/economic_growth#Tab=Description |title=Economic Growth |publisher=USAID |accessdate=25 September 2011|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130929082351/http://afghanistan.usaid.gov/en/programs/economic_growth |archivedate=2013-09-29 }}</ref> [[Afghan rug]]s are becoming popular again, allowing many carpet dealers around the country to hire more workers. Afghanistan is a member of [[World Trade Organization|WTO]], [[South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation|SAARC]], [[Economic Cooperation Organization|ECO]], and [[Economy of the OIC|OIC]]. It holds an observer status in [[Shanghai Cooperation Organisation|SCO]]. Foreign Minister [[Zalmai Rassoul]] told the media in 2011 that his nation's "goal is to achieve an Afghan economy whose growth is based on trade, private enterprise and investment".<ref>{{cite news |url=http://news.yahoo.com/afghanistan-neighbors-unveil-silk-road-plan-003308692.html |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110927095824/http://news.yahoo.com/afghanistan-neighbors-unveil-silk-road-plan-003308692.html |archivedate=27 September 2011 |title=Afghanistan, neighbors unveil 'Silk Road' plan |publisher=Reuters |date=22 September 2011 |accessdate=24 September 2011}}</ref> Experts believe that this will revolutionize the economy of the region. [[Opium production in Afghanistan]] soared to a record in 2007 with about 3 million people reported to be involved in the business,<ref>{{cite news |author=Declan Walsh |url=http://www.guardian.co.uk/afghanistan/story/0,,2157313,00.html |title=UN horrified by surge in opium trade in Helmand |work=Guardian |date= 30 August 2007|accessdate=19 May 2012 |location=London|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080115174607/http://www.guardian.co.uk:80/afghanistan/story/0,,2157313,00.html|archivedate=2008-01-15}}</ref> but then declined significantly in the years following.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.unodc.org/unodc/en/frontpage/2009/September/afghan-opium-production-in-significant--decline.html |title=Afghan opium production in significant decline |publisher=[[United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime|UNDOC]] |accessdate=|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140416022244/http://www.unodc.org/unodc/en/frontpage/2009/September/afghan-opium-production-in-significant--decline.html |archivedate=2014-04-16 }}</ref> The government started programs to help reduce poppy cultivation, and by 2010 it was reported that 24 out of the 34 provinces were free from poppy growing. In June 2012, India advocated for private investments in the resource rich country and the creation of a suitable environment therefor.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.indianexpress.com/news/ceos-should-replace-generals-in-afghanistan-india/967880/ |title=CEOs should replace generals in Afghanistan: India |date=28 June 2012}}</ref> === Mining === {{Main|Mining in Afghanistan}} [[Michael E. O'Hanlon]] of the [[Brookings Institution]] estimated that if Afghanistan generates about $10 bn per year from its [[mining in Afghanistan|mineral deposits]], its [[gross national product]] would double and provide long-term funding for Afghan security forces and other critical needs.<ref>O'Hanlon, Michael E. [http://www.brookings.edu/opinions/2010/0616_afghanistan_minerals_ohanlon.aspx "Deposits Could Aid Ailing Afghanistan"], [http://www.brookings.edu/ The Brookings Institution], 16 June 2010. {{Wayback|url=http://www.brookings.edu/opinions/2010/0616_afghanistan_minerals_ohanlon.aspx|date =20110923172142}}</ref> The [[United States Geological Survey]] (USGS) estimated in 2006 that northern Afghanistan has an average {{nowrap|2.9 billion (bn) [[barrel (unit)|barrels]]}} (bbl) of [[crude oil]], 15.7 trillion cubic feet ({{convert|15700|ft3|disp=output number only}} bn m³) of natural gas, and {{nowrap|562 million bbl}} of [[natural gas liquids]].<ref name="klett2006">{{cite techreport|last=Klett |first=T.R. |title=Assessment of Undiscovered Petroleum Resources of Northern Afghanistan, 2006 |url=http://pubs.usgs.gov/fs/2006/3031/pdf/FS-3031.pdf |publisher=USGS-Afghanistan Ministry of Mines & Industry Joint Oil & Gas Resource Assessment Team |accessdate=13 October 2011 |date=March 2006 |id=Fact Sheet 2006–3031|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130727060903/http://pubs.usgs.gov/fs/2006/3031/pdf/FS-3031.pdf |archivedate=2013-07-27 }}</ref> In 2011, Afghanistan signed an oil exploration contract with [[China National Petroleum Corporation]] (CNPC) for the development of three oil fields along the Amu Darya river in the north.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://ph.news.yahoo.com/afghanistan-signs-7-bn-oil-deal-china-102107778.html |title=Afghanistan signs '$7 bn' oil deal with China |date=28 December 2011 |accessdate=29 December 2013|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20131230233953/http://ph.news.yahoo.com/afghanistan-signs-7-bn-oil-deal-china-102107778.html |archivedate=2013-12-30 }}</ref><!--deadurl=http://news.yahoo.com/afghanistan-signs-7-bn-oil-deal-china-102107384.html--> The country has significant amounts of [[lithium]], copper, gold, coal, [[iron ore]], and other [[minerals]].<ref name=peters2007 /><ref name="bgs">{{cite web |url=http://www.bgs.ac.uk/AfghanMinerals/docs/Gold_A4.pdf#search='gold%20and%20copper%20discovered%20in%20afghanistan' |format=PDF |title=Minerals in Afghanistan |publisher=[[British Geological Survey]] |accessdate=4 December 2010|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130726155518/http://www.bgs.ac.uk/AfghanMinerals/docs/Gold_A4.pdf |archivedate=2013-07-26 }}</ref><ref name="Afghanistan's Mineral Fortune">{{cite web |url=http://www.uvm.edu/ieds/node/568/ |title=Afghanistan's Mineral Fortune |publisher=Institute for Environmental Diplomacy and Security Report |year=2011 |accessdate=16 December 2013|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20131212153853/http://www.uvm.edu/ieds/node/568 |archivedate=2013-12-12 }}</ref> The [[Khanashin]] [[carbonatite]] in [[Helmand Province]] contains {{convert|1000000|MT|ST|lk=out}} of [[rare earth element]]s.<ref name="tucker2011">{{cite techreport|last=Tucker |first=Ronald D. |title=Rare Earth Element Mineralogy, Geochemistry, and Preliminary Resource Assessment of the Khanneshin Carbonatite Complex, Helmand Province, Afghanistan |url=http://pubs.usgs.gov/of/2011/1207/pdf/ofr2011-1207.pdf |publisher=USGS |accessdate=13 October 2011 |year=2011 |id=Open-File Report 2011–1207|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130727062511/http://pubs.usgs.gov/of/2011/1207/pdf/ofr2011-1207.pdf |archivedate=2013-07-27 }}</ref> In 2007, a 30-year lease was granted for the [[Mes Aynak#Copper Mine|Aynak]] copper mine to the [[China Metallurgical Group]] for $3 billion,<ref>"[http://www.dailyfinance.com/2010/06/14/china-us-afghanistan-mineral-mining/ China, Not U.S., Likely to Benefit from Afghanistan's Mineral Riches]". ''Daily Finance''. 14 June 2010 {{Wayback|url=http://www.dailyfinance.com/2010/06/14/china-us-afghanistan-mineral-mining/|date =20131231001630}}</ref> making it the biggest foreign investment and private business venture in Afghanistan's history.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.nytimes.com/2009/12/30/world/asia/30mine.html?pagewanted=all |title=China Willing to Spend Big on Afghan Commerce |work=The New York Times |date=29 December 2009 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110731145815/http://www.nytimes.com/2009/12/30/world/asia/30mine.html?pagewanted=all |archivedate=2011-07-31}}</ref> The state-run [[Steel Authority of India]] won the mining rights to develop the huge [[Hajigak Pass|Hajigak]] iron ore deposit in central Afghanistan.<ref>|url=http://www.businessweek.com/news/2011-12-06/indian-group-wins-rights-to-mine-in-afghanistan-s-hajigak.html |date=20131010060446 |df=y "[http://www.businessweek.com/news/2011-12-06/indian-group-wins-rights-to-mine-in-afghanistan-s-hajigak.html Indian Group Wins Rights to Mine in Afghanistan's Hajigak] {{wayback}}". ''Businessweek''. 6 December 2011 {{Wayback|url=http://www.businessweek.com/news/2011-12-06/indian-group-wins-rights-to-mine-in-afghanistan-s-hajigak.html|date =20131010060446}}{{dead link|date=October 2015}}</ref> Government officials estimate that 30% of the country's untapped mineral deposits are worth between {{nowrap|$900 bn}} and {{nowrap|$3 trillion}}.<ref name=bbcminerals /> One official asserted that "this will become the backbone of the Afghan economy" and a Pentagon memo stated that Afghanistan could become the "Saudi Arabia of lithium".<ref name="risen2010">{{cite news |url=http://www.nytimes.com/2010/06/14/world/asia/14minerals.html?hp |title=U.S. Identifies Vast Riches of Minerals in Afghanistan |newspaper=The New York Times |first=James |last=Risen |date=17 June 2010 |accessdate=14 November 2010 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20101115222457/http://www.nytimes.com/2010/06/14/world/asia/14minerals.html?hp |archivedate=15 November 2010 <!--DASHBot--> |deadurl=no}}</ref> In a 2011 news story, the ''[[The Christian Science Monitor|CSM]]'' reported, "The United States and other Western nations that have borne the brunt of the cost of the Afghan war have been conspicuously absent from the bidding process on Afghanistan's mineral deposits, leaving it mostly to regional powers."<ref>"[http://www.csmonitor.com/World/Asia-South-Central/2011/1228/China-wins-700-million-Afghan-oil-and-gas-deal.-Why-didn-t-the-US-bid China wins $700 million Afghan oil and gas deal. Why didn't the US bid?]". CSMonitor.com. 28 December 2011 {{Wayback|url=http://www.csmonitor.com/World/Asia-South-Central/2011/1228/China-wins-700-million-Afghan-oil-and-gas-deal.-Why-didn-t-the-US-bid|date =20131231001743}}</ref> == Transport == {{Main|Transport in Afghanistan}} === Air === {{Main|List of airports in Afghanistan}} [[File:Ariana Afghan A310-300 F-GEMO.jpg|thumb|An [[Ariana Afghan Airlines]] (AAA) [[Airbus A310]] in 2006]] Air transport in Afghanistan is provided by the national carrier, [[Ariana Afghan Airlines]] (AAA), and by private companies such as [[Afghan Jet International]], [[East Horizon Airlines]], [[Kam Air]], [[Pamir Airways]], and [[Safi Airways]]. Airlines from a number of countries also provide flights in and out of the country. These include [[Air India]], [[Emirates (airline)|Emirates]], [[Gulf Air]], [[Iran Aseman Airlines]], [[Pakistan International Airlines]], and [[Turkish Airlines]]. The country has four international airports: [[Herat International Airport]], [[Hamid Karzai International Airport]] (formerly Kabul International Airport), [[Kandahar International Airport]], and [[Mazar-e Sharif International Airport]]. There are also around a dozen domestic airports with flights to Kabul or Herat. === Rail === {{Main|Rail transport in Afghanistan}} {{as of|2014}}, the country has only two rail links, one a 75&nbsp;km line from [[Kheyrabad, Balkh|Kheyrabad]] to the [[Afghanistan–Uzbekistan Friendship Bridge|Uzbekistan border]] and the other a 10&nbsp;km long line from [[Toraghundi]] to the Turkmenistan border. Both lines are used for freight only and there is no passenger service as of yet. There are various proposals for the construction of additional rail lines in the country.<ref>Maps, Railways of Afghanistan, http://www.andrewgrantham.co.uk/afghanistan/tag/map/</ref> In 2013, the presidents of Afghanistan, Turkmenistan, and Uzbekistan attended the groundbreaking ceremony for a 225&nbsp;km line between Turkmenistan-[[Andkhvoy]]-[[Mazar-i-Sharif]]-[[Kheyrabad, Balkh|Kheyrabad]]. The line will link at [[Kheyrabad, Balkh|Kheyrabad]] with the existing line to the Uzbekistan border.<ref>Three presidents launch construction of international rail link, 06 Jun 2013, http://www.railwaygazette.com/news/infrastructure/single-view/view/three-presidents-launch-construction-of-international-rail-link.html?sword_list[]=afghan&no_cache=1</ref> Plans exist for a rail line from Kabul to the eastern border town of [[Torkham]], where it will connect with [[Pakistan Railways]].<ref>|url=http://tolonews.com/en/business/4215-construction-on-kabul-torkham-railway-to-start-soon-ministry-of-mines-says |date=20131109024009 |df=y [[Tolo TV|Tolo News]]&nbsp;– [http://tolonews.com/en/business/4215-construction-on-kabul-torkham-railway-to-start-soon-ministry-of-mines-says Construction on Kabul-Torkham Railway to Start Soon, Ministry of Mines Says] {{wayback}}, Tamim Shaheer. 18 October 2011. {{Wayback|url=http://tolonews.com/en/business/4215-construction-on-kabul-torkham-railway-to-start-soon-ministry-of-mines-says|date =20131109024009}}{{dead link|date=October 2015}}</ref> There are also plans to finish a rail line between [[Khaf, Iran]] and [[Herat]], Afghanistan.<ref>Khaf-Herat railway, http://www.raillynews.com/2013/khaf-herat-railway/</ref> === Roads === {{Further|Highway 1 (Afghanistan)}} Traveling by bus in Afghanistan remains dangerous due to careless and intoxicated bus drivers as well as militant activities.{{citation needed|date=July 2015}} The buses are usually older model [[Mercedes-Benz buses|Mercedes-Benz]] and owned by private companies. Serious traffic accidents are common on Afghan roads and highways, particularly on the [[Kabul–Kandahar Highway|Kabul–Kandahar]] and the [[Kabul–Jalalabad Road]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.theguardian.com/world/2013/apr/26/afghan-bus-crash |title=Afghan bus crash kills 45 |publisher=theguardian.com |date=26 April 2013 |accessdate=2014-11-04}}</ref> Newer automobiles have recently become more widely available after the rebuilding of roads and highways. They are imported from the [[United Arab Emirates]] through Pakistan and Iran. {{as of|2012}}, vehicles more than 10 years old are banned from being imported into the country. The development of the nation's road network is a major boost for the economy due to trade with neighboring countries. Postal services in Afghanistan are provided by the publicly owned [[Afghan Post]] and private companies such as [[FedEx]], [[DHL Express|DHL]], and others. == Communication == {{Main|Communications in Afghanistan}} Telecommunication services in the country are provided by [[Afghan Wireless]], [[Etisalat]], [[Roshan (telco)|Roshan]], [[MTN Group]], and [[Afghan Telecom]]. In 2006, the [[Ministry of Communications (Afghanistan)|Afghan Ministry of Communications]] signed a $64.5 million agreement with [[ZTE]] for the establishment of a countrywide [[optical fiber cable]] network. {{as of|2011}}, Afghanistan had around 17 million [[GSM]] phone subscribers and over 1 million internet users, but only had about 75,000 fixed telephone lines and a little over 190,000 [[code division multiple access|CDMA]] subscribers.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://mcit.gov.af/en |title=Statistics |publisher=[[Ministry of Communications (Afghanistan)]] |year=2006 |accessdate=17 January 2012|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140329172724/http://mcit.gov.af/en |archivedate=2014-03-29 }}</ref> [[3G]] services are provided by Etisalat and MTN Group. In 2014, Afghanistan leased a space [[satellite]] from [[Eutelsat]], called [[Eutelsat 48D|AFGHANSAT 1]].<ref name="Afghanistan's maiden satellite launched">{{cite news |title=Afghanistan's maiden satellite launched |url=http://www.pajhwok.com/en/2014/05/10/afghanistan%E2%80%99s-maiden-satellite-launched |publisher=Pajhwok Afghan News |first=Muhammad Hassan |last=Khetab |date=10 May 2014 |accessdate=2014-05-10}}</ref> == Health == {{Main|Health in Afghanistan}} [[File:Opening ceremony of the Kandahar Nursing and Midwifery Institute.jpg|thumb|Opening ceremony at a public health institute in [[Kandahar]].]] According to the [[Human Development Index]], Afghanistan is the [[List of countries by Human Development Index|15th least developed country in the world]]. The average [[List of countries by life expectancy|life expectancy]] is estimated to be around 60 years for both sexes.<ref name="WHO">{{cite news |url=http://www.who.int/countries/afg/en/ |title=Afghanistan |publisher=[[World Health Organization]] (WHO) |accessdate=6 July 2013 |quote=Life expectancy at birth m/f (years) 59/61|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20131026145555/http://www.who.int:80/countries/afg/en/ |archivedate=2013-10-26 }}</ref> The country has one of the highest [[maternal mortality]] rate in the world as well as the highest [[infant mortality]] rate in the world (deaths of babies under one year), estimated in 2015 to be 115.08 deaths/1,000 live births.<ref name="Factbook" /> The [[Ministry of Public Health (Afghanistan)|Ministry of Public Health]] plans to cut the infant mortality rate to 400 for every 100,000 live births before 2020.<ref name="reuters.com">{{cite news |author=Tan Ee Lyn |url=http://www.reuters.com/article/healthNews/idUSISL1059520080506 |title=Afghan medical college struggles to rise from the ashes |publisher=Reuters |date=6 May 2008 |accessdate=29 December 2009 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100121221039/http://www.reuters.com/article/healthNews/idUSISL1059520080506 |archivedate=21 January 2010 <!--DASHBot--> |deadurl=no}}</ref> The country currently has more than 3,000 [[midwifery|midwives]], with an additional 300 to 400 being trained each year.<ref name="csm">{{cite web |url=http://news.yahoo.com/childbirth-maternal-health-improve-afghanistan-160657704.html |title=Childbirth and maternal health improve in Afghanistan |first=Tom A. |last=Peter |publisher=Christian Science Monitor |date=17 December 2011 |accessdate=12 January 2012|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20131231002243/http://news.yahoo.com/childbirth-maternal-health-improve-afghanistan-160657704.html |archivedate=2013-12-31 }}</ref> A number of hospitals and clinics have been built over the last decade, with the most advanced treatments being available in Kabul. The [[French Medical Institute for Children]] and [[Indira Gandhi Childrens Hospital]] in Kabul are the leading [[children's hospital]]s in the country. Some of the other main hospitals in Kabul include the 350-bed [[Jamhuriat Hospital]] and the Jinnah Hospital, which is still under construction. There are also a number of well-equipped military-controlled hospitals in different regions of the country. It was reported in 2006 that nearly 60% of the population lives within a two-hour walk of the nearest health facility, up from 9% in 2002.<ref name="USAID-Health">{{cite web |url=http://afghanistan.usaid.gov/en/programs/health |title=Health |work= |publisher=[[United States Agency for International Development]] (USAID) |accessdate=20 October 2010|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130929082306/http://afghanistan.usaid.gov/en/programs/health|archivedate=2013-09-29}}</ref> The latest surveys show that 57% of Afghans say they have good or very good access to clinics or hospitals.<ref name=csm /> The nation has one of the highest incidences of people with [[disability|disabilities]], with around a million people affected.<ref>{{cite web |author=Anne-Marie DiNardo, LPA/PIPOS |url=http://www.usaid.gov/stories/afghanistan/fp_afghan_disabled.html |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20040508140406/http://www.usaid.gov/stories/afghanistan/fp_afghan_disabled.html |archivedate=8 May 2004|title=Empowering Afghanistan's Disabled Population&nbsp;– 31 March 2006 |publisher=Usaid.gov |date=31 March 2006 |accessdate=19 May 2012}}</ref> About 80,000 people are missing limbs; most of these were injured by landmines.<ref>{{cite news |author=Richard Norton-Taylor |url=http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2008/feb/13/afghanistan |title=Afghanistan's refugee crisis 'ignored' |work=Guardian |date=13 February 2008 |accessdate=19 May 2012 |location=London|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20101215150225/http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2008/feb/13/afghanistan |archivedate=2010-12-15 }}</ref><ref>"[http://www.irinnews.org/report.aspx?reportid=26520 Afghanistan: People living with disabilities call for integration] {{Wayback|url=http://www.irinnews.org/report.aspx?reportid=26520|date =20110920142752}}</ref> Non-governmental charities such as [[Save the Children]] and [[Mahboba's Promise]] assist orphans in association with governmental structures.<ref>Virginia Haussegger ''Mahooba's Promise'' ABC TV 7.30 Report. 2009. [http://www.abc.net.au/7.30/content/2009/s2615472.htm ABC.net.au]. Retrieved 15 July 2009. {{Wayback|url=http://www.abc.net.au/7.30/content/2009/s2615472.htm|date =20130726123857}}</ref> [[Demographic and Health Surveys]] is working with the [[Indian Institute of Health Management Research]] and others to conduct a survey in Afghanistan focusing on [[maternal death]], among other things.<ref name="MEASUREDHS">{{cite web |url=http://www.measuredhs.com/Where-We-Work/Country-Main.cfm?ctry_id=71 |title=Afghanistan |publisher=Measuredhs.com |accessdate=14 November 2010|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20131230233502/http://www.measuredhs.com/Where-We-Work/Country-Main.cfm?ctry_id=71 |archivedate=2013-12-30 }}</ref> == Education == {{Main|Education in Afghanistan}} Education in the country includes [[K–12 (education)|K–12]] and higher education, which is supervised by the [[Ministry of Education (Afghanistan)|Ministry of Education]] and the [[Ministry of Higher Education (Afghanistan)|Ministry of Higher Education]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.mohe.gov.af/?lang=en&p=home |title=Afghanistan's Ministry of Higher Education |accessdate=23 June 2011 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110531154257/http://www.mohe.gov.af/?lang=en&p=home |archivedate=31 May 2011 <!--DASHBot--> |deadurl=no}}</ref> The nation's education system was destroyed due to the decades of war, but it began reviving after the [[Presidency of Hamid Karzai|Karzai administration]] came to power in late 2001. More than 5,000 schools were built or renovated in the last decade, with more than 100,000 teachers being trained and recruited.<ref name="USAID-Education">{{cite web |url=http://www.usaid.gov/afghanistan/education |title=Education |work= |publisher=[[United States Agency for International Development]] (USAID) |accessdate=11 August 2011}}</ref> More than seven million male and female students are enrolled in schools,<ref name="USAID-Education" /> with about 100,000 being enrolled in different [[list of universities in Afghanistan|universities around the country]]; at least 35% of these students are female. {{as of|2013}}, there are 16,000 schools across Afghanistan. Education Minister [[Ghulam Farooq Wardak]] stated that another 8,000 schools are required to be constructed for the remaining 3 million children who are deprived of education.<ref name="Wardak seeks $3b in aid for school buildings">{{cite web |url=http://www.pajhwok.com/en/2013/05/18/wardak-seeks-3b-aid-school-buildings |title=Wardak seeks $3b in aid for school buildings |publisher=Pajhwok Afghan News |date=18 May 2013 |accessdate=13 August 2013|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20131230234222/http://www.pajhwok.com/en/2013/05/18/wardak-seeks-3b-aid-school-buildings |archivedate=2013-12-30 }}</ref> [[File:Saleha Bayat Building at AUAF in Kabul-2.jpg|thumb|[[American University of Afghanistan]] (AUAF) in Kabul]] [[Kabul University]] reopened in 2002 to both male and female students. In 2006, the [[American University of Afghanistan]] was established in Kabul, with the aim of providing a world-class, English-language, co-educational learning environment in Afghanistan. The capital of Kabul serves as the learning center of Afghanistan, with many of the best [[educational institution]]s being based there. Major universities outside of Kabul include [[Kandahar University]] in the south, [[Herat University]] in the northwest, [[Balkh University]] in the north, [[Nangarhar University]] and [[Khost University]] in the east. The [[National Military Academy of Afghanistan]], modeled after the [[United States Military Academy]] at West Point, is a four-year military development institution dedicated to graduating officers for the [[Afghan Armed Forces]]. The $200 million [[Afghan Defense University]] is under construction near [[Qargha Reservoir|Qargha]] in Kabul. The United States is building six faculties of education and five provincial teacher training colleges around the country, two large secondary schools in Kabul, and one school in Jalalabad.<ref name="USAID-Education" /> The literacy rate of the entire population has been very low but is now rising because more students go to schools.<ref name="autogeneratedmil">{{cite web |url=http://www.army.mil/article/59541/Rising_literacy_in_Afghanistan_ensures_transition/ |title=Rising literacy in Afghanistan ensures transition |publisher=Army.mil |date= |accessdate=4 February 2012|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20131209021825/http://www.army.mil/article/59541/Rising_literacy_in_Afghanistan_ensures_transition/|archivedate=2013-12-09}}</ref> In 2010, the United States began establishing a number of Lincoln learning centers in Afghanistan. They are set up to serve as programming platforms offering English language classes, library facilities, programming venues, [[Internet in Afghanistan|Internet]] connectivity, and educational and other counseling services. A goal of the program is to reach at least 4,000 Afghan citizens per month per location.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://photos.state.gov/libraries/afghanistan/231771/PDFs/RFP-Lincoln-Learning-Centers.pdf |format=PDF |title=Management and Establishment of Lincoln Learning Centers in Afghanistan |accessdate=19 May 2012|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130726162255/http://photos.state.gov/libraries/afghanistan/231771/PDFs/RFP-Lincoln-Learning-Centers.pdf |archivedate=2013-07-26 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://waronterrornews.typepad.com/home/2010/09/ghazni-gov-lincoln-learning-center.html |title=Ghazni governor signs memorandum for Lincoln Learning Center&nbsp;– War On Terror News |publisher=Waronterrornews.typepad.com |date=22 September 2010 |accessdate=4 February 2012|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20131231002648/http://waronterrornews.typepad.com/home/2010/09/ghazni-gov-lincoln-learning-center.html |archivedate=2013-12-31 }}</ref> The Afghan National Security Forces are provided with mandatory literacy courses.<ref name="autogeneratedmil" /> In addition to this, [[Baghch-e-Simsim]] (based on the American [[Sesame Street]]) was launched in late 2011 to help young Afghan children learn. In 2009 and 2010, a 5,000 OLPC – [[One Laptop Per Child]] schools deployment took place in Kandahar with funding from an anonymous foundation.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://armdevices.net/2011/10/24/olpc-summit-afghanistan/#disqus_thread |title=Interview with Carol Ruth Silver |year=2011}}</ref> The OLPC team seeks local support to undertake larger deployment.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://wiki.laptop.org/go/OLPC_Afghanistan|title=OLPC Afghanistan|work=laptop.org}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://wiki.laptop.org/images/4/48/OLPC-BriefingNote.pdf |title=Briefing Note – One Laptop Per Child (OLPC) in Afghanistan |author=Lima Ahmad, Kenneth Adams, Mike Dawson, Carol Ruth Silver |accessdate=2 October 2014}}</ref> == Culture == {{Culture of Afghanistan}} {{Main|Culture of Afghanistan}} The Afghan culture has been around for over two millennia, tracing back to at least the time of the Achaemenid Empire in 500 BCE.<ref name="LoC">{{cite web |url=http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/profiles/Afghanistan.pdf |title=Country Profile: Afghanistan |work= |publisher=[[Library of Congress Country Studies]] on Afghanistan |date=August 2008 |accessdate=16 August 2010|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140408085103/http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/profiles/Afghanistan.pdf|archivedate=2014-04-08}}</ref><ref name="autogenerated5">Barbara Robson, Juliene Lipson, Farid Younos, Mariam Mehdi. {{cite web |url=http://www.cal.org/co/afghan/ahist.html |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070105173916/http://www.cal.org/co/afghan/ahist.html |archivedate=5 January 2007 |title=The Afghans&nbsp;– Their History and Culture |publisher=[[Center for Applied Linguistics]] |location=United States |date=30 June 2002 |accessdate=25 September 2010}}</ref> It is mostly a [[nomad]]ic and [[tribal society]], with different regions of the country having their own traditions, reflecting the multi-cultural and multi-lingual character of the nation. In the southern and eastern region the people live according to the [[Pashtun culture]] by following [[Pashtunwali]], which is an ancient way of life that is still preserved.<ref>US Library of Congress: Afghanistan&nbsp;– [http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd/cstdy:@field(DOCID+af0037) Ethnic Groups (''Pashtun'')]</ref> The remainder of the country is culturally [[Persian language|Persian]] and [[Turkic peoples|Turkic]]. Some non-Pashtuns who live in proximity with Pashtuns have adopted Pashtunwali<ref name="Banting">{{cite book |title=Afghanistan: The land |last1=Banting |first1=Erinn |year=2003 |publisher=Crabtree Publishing Company |isbn=978-0-7787-9335-9 |page=32 |url={{Google books |plainurl=yes |id=KRt0HfYFZGsC |page=4 }} |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20131231090626/https://books.google.com/books?id=KRt0HfYFZGsC&lpg=PP1&vq=place%20of%20Afghans&pg=PA4 |archivedate=2013-12-31 }}</ref> in a process called [[Pashtunization]] (or ''Afghanization''), while some Pashtuns have been [[Persianization|Persianized]]. Millions of Afghans who have been living in Pakistan and Iran over the last 30 years have been influenced by the cultures of those neighboring nations. [[File:Tribal and religious leaders in southern Afghanistan.jpg|thumb|upright|left|Men wearing traditional [[Pashtun dress|Afghan dress]] in the southern city of [[Kandahar]]]] Afghans display pride in their culture, nation, ancestry, and above all, their religion and independence. Like other highlanders, they are regarded with mingled apprehension and condescension, for their high regard for personal honor, for their tribe loyalty and for their readiness to use force to settle disputes.<ref name="Heathcote">Heathcote, Tony (1980, 2003) "The Afghan Wars 1839–1919", Sellmount Staplehurst.</ref> As tribal warfare and internecine feuding has been one of their chief occupations since time immemorial, this individualistic trait has made it difficult for foreigners to conquer them. Tony Heathcote considers the tribal system to be the best way of organizing large groups of people in a country that is geographically difficult, and in a society that, from a materialistic point of view, has an uncomplicated lifestyle.<ref name="Heathcote" /> There are an estimated 60 major [[Pashtun tribes]],<ref>"[http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/445546/Pashtun Pashtun (people)]". Encyclopædia Britannica. {{Wayback|url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/445546/Pashtun|date =20131030170021}}</ref> and the Afghan nomads are estimated at about 2–3 million.<ref>"[http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76794 Afghanistan: Kuchi nomads seek a better deal]". [[IRIN]] Asia. 18 February 2008. {{Wayback|url=http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76794|date =20110910205256}}</ref> The nation has a complex history that has survived either in its current cultures or in the form of various languages and monuments. However, many of its historic monuments have been damaged in recent wars.<ref>G.V. Brandolini. ''Afghanistan [[cultural heritage]]''. Orizzonte terra, [[Bergamo]]. 2007. p. 64.</ref> The two famous [[Buddhas of Bamiyan]] were destroyed by the Taliban, who regarded them as [[idolatry|idolatrous]]. Despite that, archaeologists are still finding Buddhist relics in different parts of the country, some of them dating back to the 2nd century.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.cal.org/co/afghan/ahist.html |title=42 Buddhist relics discovered in Logar |accessdate=23 August 2010 |work=Maqsood Azizi |publisher=[[Pajhwok Afghan News]] |date=18 August 2010|archiveurl = http://www.webcitation.org/657c9EzAx |archivedate = 2012-02-01|deadurl=yes}}{{failed verification|date=December 2013}} (bad URL&nbsp;- does not match page title)</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.newsdaily.com/stories/tre67g1cn-us-afghanistan-buddhist-relics/ |title=Afghan archaeologists find Buddhist site as war rages |accessdate=16 August 2010 |work=Sayed Salahuddin |publisher=News Daily |date=17 August 2010 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100818151642/http://www.newsdaily.com/stories/tre67g1cn-us-afghanistan-buddhist-relics/ |archivedate=18 August 2010 <!--DASHBot--> |deadurl=no}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.presstv.ir/detail/139117.html |title=Buddhist remains found in Afghanistan |accessdate=16 August 2010 |work= |publisher=Press TV |date=17 August 2010 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100820081616/http://www.presstv.ir/detail/139117.html |archivedate=20 August 2010 <!--DASHBot--> |deadurl=no}}</ref> This indicates that Buddhism was widespread in Afghanistan. Other historical places include the cities of [[Herat]], [[Kandahar]], [[Ghazni]], [[Mazar-i-Sharif]], and [[Zarang]]. The [[Minaret of Jam]] in the [[Hari River, Afghanistan|Hari River]] valley is a [[World Heritage Site|UNESCO World Heritage site]]. A cloak reputedly worn by Islam's prophet [[Muhammad]] is kept inside the [[Shrine of the Cloak]] in Kandahar, a city founded by [[Alexander the Great|Alexander]] and the first capital of Afghanistan. The [[citadel of Herat|citadel of Alexander]] in the western city of Herat has been renovated in recent years and is a popular attraction for tourists. In the north of the country is the [[Shrine of Hazrat Ali]], believed by many to be the location where [[Ali]] was buried. The Afghan Ministry of Information and Culture is renovating 42 historic sites in Ghazni until 2013, when the province will be declared as the capital of [[Islamic Golden Age|Islamic civilization]].<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.pajhwok.com/en/2011/08/27/survey-historical-sites-ghazni-launched |title=Survey of historical sites in Ghazni launched |publisher=Pajhwok Afghan News |date=27 August 2011 |accessdate=27 August 2011|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20131105194347/http://www.pajhwok.com/en/2011/08/27/survey-historical-sites-ghazni-launched |archivedate=2013-11-05 }}</ref> The [[National Museum of Afghanistan]] is located in Kabul. Although literacy is low, classic [[Persian literature|Persian]] and [[Pashto literature and poetry|Pashto poetry]] plays an important role in the Afghan culture. [[Poetry of Afghanistan|Poetry]] has always been one of the major educational pillars in the region, to the level that it has integrated itself into culture. Some notable poets include [[Rumi]], [[Rabi'a Balkhi]], [[Sanai]], [[Jami]], [[Khushal Khan Khattak]], [[Rahman Baba]], [[Khalilullah Khalili]], and [[Parween Pazhwak]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.afghan-web.com/culture/poetry/cpoets.html |title=Classical Dari and Pashto Poets |publisher=Afghan-web.com |date= |accessdate=4 February 2012|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20131006084545/http://www.afghan-web.com/culture/poetry/cpoets.html|archivedate=2013-10-06}}</ref> === Media and entertainment === {{Main|Media of Afghanistan}} [[File:Farhad Darya's Peace Concert in 2010-cropped.jpg|thumb|[[Farhad Darya]] performing at the [[Serena Hotel]] in Kabul.]] The Afghan mass media began in the early 20th century, with the first newspaper published in 1906. By the 1920s, [[Radio Kabul]] was broadcasting local radio services. [[Afghanistan National Television]] was launched in 1974 but was closed in 1996 when the media was tightly controlled by the Taliban.<ref name="dart">Dartnell, M. Y. ''Insurgency Online: Web Activism and Global Conflict.'' University of Toronto Press, 2006. ISBN 978-0-8020-8553-5.</ref> Since 2002, press restrictions have been gradually relaxed and private media diversified. [[Freedom of expression]] and the press is promoted in the 2004 constitution and censorship is banned, although [[defamation|defaming]] individuals or producing material contrary to the principles of Islam is prohibited. In 2008, [[Reporters Without Borders]] ranked the media environment as 156 out of 173 countries, with the 1st being the most free. Around 400 publications were registered, at least 15 local [[List of television channels in Afghanistan|Afghan television channels]], and 60 radio stations.<ref name="fh">[http://www.freedomhouse.org/template.cfm?page=251&year=2008 Afghanistan Press Report 2008], ''Freedom House''. {{Wayback|url=http://www.freedomhouse.org/template.cfm?page=251&year=2008|date =20110623013644}}</ref> Foreign radio stations, such as [[Voice of America]], [[BBC World Service]], and [[Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty]] (RFE/RL) broadcast into the country. The city of Kabul has been home to many musicians who were masters of both traditional and modern [[Music of Afghanistan|Afghan music]]. Traditional music is especially popular during the [[Nowruz]] (New Year) and [[Afghan Independence Day|National Independence Day]] celebrations. [[Ahmad Zahir]], [[Nashenas]], [[Mohammad Hussain Sarahang|Ustad Sarahang]], [[Abdul Rahim Sarban|Sarban]], [[Ubaidullah Jan]], [[Farhad Darya]], and [[Naghma]] are some of the notable Afghan musicians, but there are many others.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.afghanland.com/entertainment/music/bio.html |title=Artist Biographies |publisher=Afghanland.com |accessdate=17 October 2011|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130809214750/http://www.afghanland.com/entertainment/music/bio.html |archivedate=2013-08-09 }}</ref> Most Afghans are accustomed to watching Indian [[Bollywood]] films and listening to its [[filmi]] hit songs. Many major Bollywood film stars have roots in Afghanistan, including [[Salman Khan]], [[Saif Ali Khan]], [[Shah Rukh Khan]] (SRK), [[Aamir Khan]], [[Feroz Khan (Indian actor)|Feroz Khan]], [[Kader Khan]], [[Naseeruddin Shah]], [[Zarine Khan]] and [[Celina Jaitly]]. In addition, several Bollywood films, such as ''[[Dharmatma]]'', ''[[Khuda Gawah]]'', ''[[Escape from Taliban]]'', and ''[[Kabul Express]]'' have been shot inside Afghanistan. === Sports === {{Main|Sport in Afghanistan}} [[File:Ahmad Faisal - football - A.jpg|thumb|The [[Afghanistan national football team]] (in red uniforms) before its first win over [[India national football team|India]] (in blue) during the [[2011 SAFF Championship]].]] In recent years, Afghan sports teams have increasingly celebrated titles at international events. Afghanistan's [[Afghanistan national basketball team|basketball team]] won the first team sports title at the [[2010 South Asian Games]]. Later that year, the country's [[Afghanistan national cricket team|cricket team]] followed as it won the 2010 [[ICC Intercontinental Cup]].<ref>[http://www.cricketeurope4.net/CRICKETEUROPE/DATABASE/2009/TOURNAMENTS/INTERCONTINENTAL/about.shtml 2009–10 Intercontinental Cup] at CricketEurope</ref> In 2012, the country's [[Afghanistan national 3x3 team|3x3 basketball team]] won the gold medal at the [[3-on-3 basketball at the 2012 Asian Beach Games|2012 Asian Beach Games]],<ref>[http://www.afghan-web.com/sports/sports_history.html A Chronological History of Sports in Afghanistan] at Afghanistan Online</ref> in 2013, Afghanistan's [[Afghanistan national football team|football team]] followed as it won the [[SAFF Championship]]. Cricket is the country's most popular sport, followed by [[association football]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/asia/afghanistan/9574387/Afghanistan-launches-first-professional-football-league.html |title=Afghanistan launches first professional football league |first=Ben |last=Farmer |location=Kabul |date=28 September 2012 |publisher=The Telegraph |accessdate=2012-09-29}}</ref> The [[Afghanistan national cricket team|Afghan national cricket team]], which was formed in the last decade, participated in the [[2009 ICC World Cup Qualifier]], [[2010 ICC World Cricket League Division One]] and the [[2010 ICC World Twenty20]]. It won the [[ACC Twenty20 Cup]] in 2007, 2009, 2011 and 2013. The team eventually made it to play in the [[2015 Cricket World Cup]]. The [[Afghanistan Cricket Board]] (ACB) is the official governing body of the sport and is headquartered in Kabul. The [[Ghazi Amanullah Khan International Cricket Stadium]] serves as the nation's main cricket stadium, followed by the [[Kabul National Cricket Stadium]]. Several other stadiums are under construction.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.pajhwok.com/en/2010/10/11/all-provinces-have-cricket-grounds-minister |title=All provinces to have cricket grounds: minister |author=Javed Hamim Kakar |date=11 October 2010 |work=[[Pajhwok Afghan News]] |publisher=pajhwok.com |accessdate=14 September 2011|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20131230234105/http://www.pajhwok.com/en/2010/10/11/all-provinces-have-cricket-grounds-minister |archivedate=2013-12-30 }}</ref> Domestically, cricket is played between teams from different provinces. The [[Afghanistan national football team]] has been competing in international [[Association football|football]] since 1941. The national team plays its home games at the [[Ghazi Stadium]] in Kabul, while [[football in Afghanistan]] is governed by the [[Afghanistan Football Federation]]. The national team has never competed or qualified for the [[FIFA World Cup]], but has recently won an international football trophy in 2013. The country also has a national team in the sport of futsal, a 5-a-side variation of football. Other popular sports in Afghanistan include basketball, volleyball, [[taekwondo]], and [[bodybuilding]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.pajhwok.com/en/sports |title=Sports |work=[[Pajhwok Afghan News]] |publisher=pajhwok.com |accessdate=14 September 2011|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209082121/http://www.pajhwok.com/en/sports |archivedate=2014-02-09 }}</ref> [[Buzkashi]] is a traditional sport, mainly among the northern Afghans. It is similar to [[polo]], played by horsemen in two teams, each trying to grab and hold a goat carcass. The [[Afghan Hound]] (a type of running dog) originated in Afghanistan and was originally used in hunting. == See also == {{Portal|Afghanistan|Asia|Central Asia|Geography}} {{Wikipedia books}} * [[Afghanistanism]] * [[Bibliography of Afghanistan]] * [[Environmental issues in Afghanistan]] * [[Index of Afghanistan-related articles]] * [[International rankings of Afghanistan]] * [[List of power stations in Afghanistan]] * [[Outline of Afghanistan]] == Notes == {| |valign="top"|<small>a.{{note label|crown|alternatives|none}}</small> |valign="top"|Other terms that have been used as demonyms are '''Afghani'''<ref>Dictionary.com. [[The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language]], Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004. [http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/afghani Reference.com] (Retrieved 13 November 2007).</ref> and '''Afghanistani'''.<ref>Dictionary.com. [[WordNet]] 3.0. [[Princeton University]]. [http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/afghanistani Reference.com] (Retrieved 13 November 2007). {{wayback|url=http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/afghanistani |date=20140328102257 |df=y }}</ref> |} == References == <div style="height:250px; overflow:auto; padding:3px; border:1px solid #aaa;" class="scrollbox"> {{Reflist|30em}} </div> == Further reading == ;Books {{refbegin}} {{columns|width=50% |col1= * {{cite book |last=Banting |first=Erinn. |url={{Google books |plainurl=yes |id=fl8cd15sc7wC }} |title=Afghanistan the People |publisher=Crabtree Publishing Company |year=2003 |isbn=978-0-7787-9336-6|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140112040605/https://books.google.com/books?id=fl8cd15sc7wC |archivedate=2014-01-12 }} * {{cite book |last=Bleaney |first=C. H |last2=Gallego |first2=María Ángeles |url={{Google books |plainurl=yes |id=qCh41lAvg8oC }} |title=Afghanistan: a bibliography |publisher=BRILL |year=2006 |isbn=978-90-04-14532-0|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140112033848/https://books.google.com/books?id=qCh41lAvg8oC |archivedate=2014-01-12 }} * {{cite book |last=Clements |first=Frank |url={{Google books |plainurl=yes |id=bv4hzxpo424C }} |title=Conflict in Afghanistan: a Historical Encyclopedia |publisher=ABC-CLIO |year=2003 |isbn=978-1-85109-402-8|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140112045524/https://books.google.com/books?id=bv4hzxpo424C |archivedate=2014-01-12 }} * {{cite book |last=Fowler |first=Corinne |url={{Google books |plainurl=yes |id=o4IrhX7n66YC }} |title=Chasing Tales: Travel Writing, Journalism and the History of British Ideas About Afghanistan |publisher=Rodopi |year=2007 |isbn=978-90-420-2262-1|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140112023838/https://books.google.com/books?id=o4IrhX7n66YC |archivedate=2014-01-12 }} * {{cite book |last=Griffiths |first=John C |url={{Google books |plainurl=yes |id=M7nMtaXdAS8C }} |title=Afghanistan: a History of Conflict |publisher=Carlton Books |year=2001 |isbn=978-1-84222-597-4|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140112023924/https://books.google.com/books?id=M7nMtaXdAS8C |archivedate=2014-01-12 }} * {{cite book |last=Habibi |first=Abdul Hai |authorlink=Abdul Hai Habibi |year=2003 |title=Afghanistan: an Abridged History |publisher=Fenestra Books |isbn=978-1-58736-169-2}} * {{cite book |last=Hopkins |first=B.D. |url={{Google books |plainurl=yes |id=FOMUAQAAIAAJ }} |title=The Making of Modern Afghanistan |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |year=2008 |isbn=978-0-230-55421-4|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140112030245/https://books.google.com/books?id=FOMUAQAAIAAJ |archivedate=2014-01-12 }} * {{cite book |last=Johnson |first=Robert |title=The Afghan Way of War: How and Why They Fight |year=2011 |url={{Google books |plainurl=yes |id=lNuH5YQJr6UC }} |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-979856-8}} |col2= * {{cite book |last=Levi |first=Peter |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KakcAAAAMAAJ |title=The Light Garden of the Angel King: Journeys in Afghanistan |publisher=Collins |year=1972 |isbn=978-0-00-211042-6|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140112032642/https://books.google.com/books?id=KakcAAAAMAAJ |archivedate=2014-01-12 }} * {{cite book |last=Malleson |first=George Bruce |authorlink=George Bruce Malleson |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pqNGBEmHUd4C |title=History of Afghanistan, from the Earliest Period to the Outbreak of the War of 1878 |edition=Elibron Classic Replica |publisher=Adamant Media Corporation |year=2005 |isbn=978-1-4021-7278-6|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140102050104/https://books.google.com/books?id=pqNGBEmHUd4C |archivedate=2014-01-02 }} * {{cite book |last=Olson |first=Gillia M |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0KhVWQeRGJsC |title=Afghanistan |publisher=Capstone Press |year=2005 |isbn=978-0-7368-2685-3|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140112045512/https://books.google.com/books?id=0KhVWQeRGJsC |archivedate=2014-01-12 }} * {{cite book |last=Omrani |first=Bijan |last2=Leeming |first2=Matthew |url=https://books.google.com/?id=VVu_NwAACAAJ&dq=editions:MLexHQAACAAJ |title=Afghanistan: A Companion and Guide |publisher=Odyssey Publications |edition=2nd |year=2011 |isbn=978-962-217-816-8|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140112025621/https://books.google.com/books?id=VVu_NwAACAAJ&dq=editions:MLexHQAACAAJ&hl=en&ei=Bbk3TrLMF5K7hAfqwPibAg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=2&ved=0CC4Q6AEwAQ |archivedate=2014-01-12 }} * {{cite book |last=Reddy |first=L.R. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NubtDf2T3cAC |title=Inside Afghanistan: End of the Taliban Era? |publisher=APH Publishing |year=2002 |isbn=978-81-7648-319-3}} * {{cite book |last=Romano |first=Amy |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TKUxyVCrYn0C |title=A Historical Atlas of Afghanistan |publisher=The Rosen Publishing Group |year=2003 |isbn=978-0-8239-3863-6|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140112040337/https://books.google.com/books?id=TKUxyVCrYn0C |archivedate=2014-01-12 }} * {{cite book |last=Runion |first=Meredith L. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aZk9XzqCFGUC |title=The History of Afghanistan |publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group |year=2007 |isbn=978-0-313-33798-7|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140112031902/https://books.google.com/books?id=aZk9XzqCFGUC |archivedate=2014-01-12 }} }} {{refend}} ;Articles {{refbegin}} *Meek, James. [http://www.lrb.co.uk/v36/n24/james-meek/worse-than-a-defeat Worse than a Defeat].'' London Review of Books,'' Vol. 36, No. 24, December 2014, pages 3–10 {{refend}} == External links == {{Sister project links|voy=Afghanistan|Afghanistan|s=Wikisource:Afghanistan}} {{EB1911 poster}} * [http://president.gov.af/en Office of the President] * {{CIA World Factbook link|af|Afghanistan}} * {{GovPubs|Afghanistan}} * {{Dmoz|Regional/Asia/Afghanistan}} * {{Wikiatlas|Afghanistan}} * [http://uiuc.libguides.com/afghanistan_research_guide Research Guide to Afghanistan] {{Navboxes |list= {{Afghanistan topics}} {{Provinces of Afghanistan}} {{Economic Cooperation Organization}} {{South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation|state=collapsed}} {{Cold War}} {{US War on Terror}} {{Afghanistan War}} }} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Afghanistan| ]] [[Category:South Asian countries]] [[Category:Central Asian countries]] [[Category:Landlocked countries]] [[Category:Iranian Plateau]] [[Category:Republics]] [[Category:Islamic republics]] [[Category:Islamic states]] [[Category:Least developed countries]] [[Category:Member states of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation]] [[Category:Member states of the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation]] [[Category:Member states of the United Nations]] [[Category:Muslim-majority countries]] [[Category:Pashto-speaking countries and territories]] [[Category:Persian-speaking countries and territories]] [[Category:States and territories established in 1709]] [[Category:States and territories established in 1747]] [[Category:Territories under military occupation]] fihf0mevfjnf73enwdbr0kvz6uticq9 0 738 717977168 717778694 2016-04-30T20:45:03Z 79.106.209.141 info for airport of kukes wikitext text/x-wiki {{About|the modern state}} {{Use dmy dates|date=September 2015}} {{Infobox country |conventional_long_name = Republic of Albania |native_name = ''{{small|{{lang|sq|Republika e Shqipërisë}}}}'' |common_name = Albania |image_flag = Flag of Albania.svg |image_coat = Albania state emblem.svg |symbol_type = Coat of arms |national_motto = ''Ti Shqipëri, më jep nder, më jep emrin Shqipëtar''<br>{{small|You Albania, give me honour, give me the name Albanian}} |national_anthem = ''[[Himni i Flamurit]]''<br>{{small|Hymn to the Flag}}<br><center>[[File:Hymni i Flamurit instrumental.ogg]]</center> |image_map = Europe-Albania.svg |map_caption = {{map caption |location_color=green |region=Europe |region_color=dark grey |legend=Location Albania Europe.png}} |capital = [[Tirana]] |latd = 41 |latm = 20 |latNS = N |longd = 19 |longm = 48 |longEW = E |largest_city = [[Tirana]] |official_languages = [[Albanian language|Albanian]]^a |demonym = [[Albanians|Albanian]] |government_type = {{nowrap|[[Unitary state|Unitary]] [[Parliamentary system|parliamentary]]}} [[constitution]]al [[republic]] |leader_title1 = [[List of heads of state of Albania|President]] |leader_name1 = [[Bujar Nishani]] |leader_title2 = [[List of Prime Ministers of Albania|Prime Minister]] |leader_name2 = [[Edi Rama]] |legislature = ''[[Parliament of Albania|Kuvendi]]'' |sovereignty_type = [[History of Albania#Independence of Albania (1912)|Formation]] |established_event1 = [[Principality of Arbanon]] |established_date1 = 1190 |established_event2 = [[Kingdom of Albania (medieval)|Anjou Kingdom of Albania]] |established_date2 = February 1272 |established_event3 = [[Principality of Albania (medieval)|Princedom of Albania]] |established_date3 = 1368 |established_event4 = [[League of Lezhë]] |established_date4 = 2 March 1444 |established_event5 = Proclamation of independence from {{nowrap|the [[Ottoman Empire]]}} |established_date5 = 28 November 1912 |established_event6 = [[Principality of Albania]] {{small|(Recognised)}} |established_date6 = 29 July 1913 |established_event7 = [[Albanian Republic]] {{small|(1st republic)}} |established_date7 = 31 January 1925 |established_event8 = [[Albanian Kingdom (1928–39)|Albanian Kingdom]] |established_date8 = 1 September 1928 |established_event9 = Under [[Albanian Kingdom (1939–43)|Italy]]<br>Under [[Albanian Kingdom (1943–44)|Nazi Germany]] |established_date9 = 7 April 1939<br>29 November 1944 |established_event10 = [[People's Socialist Republic of Albania|People's Republic of Albania]] {{small|(2nd republic)}} |established_date10 = 11 January 1946 |established_event11 = [[People's Socialist Republic of Albania]] {{small|(3rd republic)}} |established_date11 = 28 December 1976 |established_event12 = Republic of Albania {{small|(4th republic)}}<br>{{nowrap|[[Constitution of Albania|Current constitution]]}} |established_date12 = 29 April 1991<br><br>28 November 1998 |area_km2 = 28748 |area_sq_mi = 11100 |area_rank = 143rd |percent_water = 4.7 |population_estimate = 2,886,026<ref name="Statistics">{{cite web |publisher=Republic of Albania Institute of Statistics |title=Population Of Albania 1 January 2016 |url=http://www.instat.gov.al/al/themes/popullsia/publications/books/2016/popullsia-e-shqipërisë,-1-janar-2016.aspx}}</ref> |population_estimate_year = 2016 |population_census = 2,821,977<ref name="Population and Housing Census 2011">{{cite web |title=Population and Housing Census 2011 |url=http://www.instat.gov.al/en/themes/population/publications/books/2012/main-results-of-population-and-housing-census-2011.aspx |publisher=INSTAT (Albanian Institute of Statistics)}}</ref> |population_census_year = 2011 |population_density_km2 = 98 |population_density_sq_mi = 254 |population_density_rank = 63rd |GDP_PPP_year = 2016 |GDP_PPP = $34.282 billion<ref name=imf2>{{cite web |url=http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2015/02/weodata/weorept.aspx?pr.x=103&pr.y=16&sy=2016&ey=2016&scsm=1&ssd=1&sort=country&ds=.&br=1&c=512%2C672%2C914%2C962%2C612%2C674%2C614%2C676%2C311%2C548%2C213%2C556%2C911%2C678%2C912%2C867%2C313%2C682%2C419%2C684%2C513%2C273%2C316%2C868%2C913%2C921%2C339%2C948%2C638%2C943%2C514%2C686%2C218%2C688%2C963%2C518%2C616%2C728%2C223%2C558%2C516%2C278%2C918%2C692%2C748%2C694%2C618%2C449%2C624%2C564%2C522%2C565%2C622%2C283%2C626%2C853%2C628%2C288%2C228%2C293%2C924%2C566%2C233%2C964%2C632%2C453%2C636%2C968%2C634%2C922%2C238%2C714%2C662%2C862%2C960%2C716%2C611%2C456%2C321%2C722%2C243%2C942%2C248%2C718%2C469%2C724%2C253%2C813%2C642%2C199%2C643%2C733%2C644%2C524%2C819%2C361%2C646%2C362%2C648%2C364%2C915%2C732%2C652%2C366%2C328%2C734%2C258%2C463%2C656%2C923%2C654%2C738%2C336%2C578%2C263%2C537%2C268%2C742%2C944%2C866%2C534%2C369%2C536%2C744%2C429%2C186%2C433%2C925%2C343%2C869%2C439%2C746%2C916%2C926%2C664%2C466%2C826%2C298%2C967%2C927%2C443%2C846%2C917%2C299%2C544%2C582%2C446%2C474%2C666%2C754%2C668%2C698&s=NGDPD%2CNGDPDPC%2CPPPGDP%2CPPPPC&grp=0&a= |title=Report for Selected Countries and Subjects |publisher=Imf.org |date=14 September 2006 |accessdate=7 October 2014}}</ref> |GDP_PPP_per_capita = $12,484<ref name=imf2/> |GDP_nominal_year = 2016 |GDP_nominal = $12.204 billion<ref name="imf2"/> |GDP_nominal_per_capita = $4,444<ref name=imf2/> |Gini_year = 2013 |Gini = 34.5<!-- number only --> |Gini_ref = <ref>{{cite web |url=http://hdr.undp.org/en/content/income-gini-coefficient |title=Income Gini coefficient |work=World Bank |publisher=UNDP |accessdate=3 July 2015 |archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/5rRcwIiYs |archivedate=23 July 2010 |deadurl=no}}</ref> |HDI_year = 2014<!-- Please use the year to which the data refers, not the publication year --> |HDI_change = increase<!-- increase/decrease/steady --> |HDI = 0.733<!-- number only --> |HDI_ref = <ref name="HDI">{{cite web |url=http://hdr.undp.org/sites/default/files/hdr_2015_statistical_annex.pdf|title=Human Development Report 2015 |year=2015 |publisher=United Nations |accessdate=14 December 2015}}</ref> |HDI_rank = 85th |currency = [[Albanian lek|Lek]] |currency_code = ALL |time_zone = [[Central European Time|CET]] |utc_offset = +1 |time_zone_DST = [[Central European Summer Time|CEST]] |utc_offset_DST = +2 |date_format = dd/mm/yyyy |drives_on = right |calling_code = [[Telephone numbers in Albania|355]] |country_code = AL |cctld = [[.al]] |footnote_a = [[Aromanian language|Aromanian]], [[Greek language|Greek]], [[Macedonian language|Macedonian]] and other regional languages are government-recognised minority languages. }} '''Albania''' ({{IPAc-en|audio=en-us-Albania.ogg|æ|l|ˈ|b|eɪ|n|i|ə|,_|ɔː|l|-}}, {{respell|a(w)l|BAY|nee-ə}}; {{lang-sq|Shqipëri/Shqipëria}}; {{lang-aln|Shqipni/Shqipnia, Shqypni/Shqypnia<ref>[https://archive.org/details/fialuurivoghels00junggoog Fialuur i voghel Sccyp e ltinisct (Small Dictionary of Albanian and Latin), 1895, [[Shkodër]]]</ref>}}), officially known as the '''Republic of Albania''' ({{lang-sq|Republika e Shqipërisë}}; {{IPA-sq|ɾɛpuˈblika ɛ ʃcipəˈɾiːs}}), is a country in [[Southeast Europe|Southeastern Europe]]. It is bordered by [[Montenegro]] to the northwest, [[Kosovo]] to the northeast,{{efn|name=status}} the [[Republic of Macedonia]] to the east, and [[Greece]] to the south and southeast. It has a coast on the [[Adriatic Sea]] to the west and on the [[Ionian Sea]] to the southwest. It is less than {{convert|72|km|mi|0|abbr=on}} from [[Italy]], across the [[Strait of Otranto]] which connects the Adriatic Sea to the Ionian Sea. The modern-day territory of Albania was at various points in history part of the Roman provinces of [[Dalmatia (Roman province)|Dalmatia]] (southern [[Illyricum (Roman province)|Illyricum]]), [[Macedonia (Roman province)|Macedonia]] (particularly [[Epirus Nova]]), and [[Moesia Superior]]. The modern Republic became independent after the collapse of the [[Ottoman Empire]] in Europe following the [[Balkan Wars]].<ref name="cia">{{cite web |url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/al.html |publisher=Central Intelligence Agency |title=The World Factbook: Albania |accessdate=21 June 2013}}</ref> Albania declared independence in 1912 and was [[London Conference of 1912–13|recognized]] the following year. It then became a [[Principality of Albania|Principality]], [[Albanian Republic|Republic]], and [[Kingdom of Albania (1928–39)|Kingdom]] until being invaded by [[Kingdom of Italy|Italy]] in 1939, which formed [[Albanian Kingdom (1939–43)|Greater Albania]]. The latter eventually turned into a [[Albanian Kingdom (1943–44)|Nazi German protectorate]] in 1943.<ref>Zolo, D. ''Invoking Humanity: War, Law and Global Order'', Continuum International Publishing Group, 27 August 2002, 224 pages. p. 180 [https://books.google.com/books?id=t7KNgpZRnM8C&pg=PA181&dq=Albania+nazi+protectorate&hl=en&sa=X&ei=SK4FUderL-rW2wX36ICwCg&ved=0CDwQ6AEwAg#v=onepage&q=Albania%20nazi%20protectorate&f=false]</ref> The following year, a [[Socialist state|socialist]] [[People's Socialist Republic of Albania|People's Republic]] was established under the leadership of [[Enver Hoxha]] and the [[Party of Labour of Albania|Party of Labour]]. Albania experienced widespread social and political transformations during the communist era, as well as isolationism from much of the international community. In 1991, the Socialist Republic was [[Fall of Communism in Albania|dissolved]] and the Republic of Albania was established. Albania is a [[parliamentary republic]]. The country's capital, [[Tirana]], represents its financial and industrial heartland, with a metropolitan population of almost 800,000 people out of around 2.9 million Albanians.<ref name="Statistics"/><ref name="Albanian 2011 census">{{cite web|url=http://census.al/Resources/Data/Census2011/Instat_print%20.pdf |title=Population and Housing Census in Albania |year=2011 |publisher=Institute of Statistics of Albania |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/20120112022139/http://census.al/Resources/Data/Census2011/Instat_print%20.pdf |archivedate=12 January 2012 }}</ref> [[Free-market]] reforms have opened the country to foreign investment, especially in the development of energy and transportation infrastructure.<ref>Reports: Poverty Decreases In Albania After Years Of Growth. Dow Jones Newswires, 201-938-5500 201-938-5500 201-938-5500.[http://www.nasdaq.com/aspx/stock-market-news-story.aspx?storyid=200904231403dowjonesdjonline000935&title=reports-poverty-decreases-in-albania-after-years-of-growth Nasdaq.com]</ref><ref>Albania plans to build three hydropower plants. People's Daily</ref><ref>Strong GDP growth reduces poverty in Albania-study. [[Reuters]].[http://www.forbes.com/feeds/afx/2009/04/23/afx6330798.html Forbes.com] {{wayback|df=yes|url=http://www.forbes.com/feeds/afx/2009/04/23/afx6330798.html |date=20120117160122 }}</ref> Albania has a high [[Human Development Index|HDI]] and provides a universal health care system and free primary and secondary education.<ref name="HDI" /> Albania is an upper-middle income economy with the service sector dominating the country's economy, followed by the industrial sector and agriculture.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://data.worldbank.org/country/albania/|title=The world bank|publisher=|accessdate=13 September 2014}}</ref> Albania is a member of the [[United Nations]], [[NATO]], the [[Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe]], the [[Council of Europe]], the [[Organisation of Islamic Cooperation]] and the [[World Trade Organization]]. It is one of the founding members of the [[Energy Community]], [[Organization of the Black Sea Economic Cooperation]] and the [[Union for the Mediterranean]]. It is also an [[Accession of Albania to the European Union|official candidate]] for membership in the [[European Union]].<ref>{{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/8023127.stm | accessdate=29 April 2009 |publisher=BBC News |title=Albania applies for EU membership |date=28 April 2009 |archiveurl= //web.archive.org/web/20090430184517/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/8023127.stm| archivedate=30 April 2009 |deadurl=no}}</ref> == Etymology == ''Albania'' is the [[Medieval Latin]] name of the country, from the [[Medieval Greek]] [[wikt:Ἀλβανία|Ἀλβανία]] ''Albania''. The country is called ''Shqipëri'' by its people. The name may be derived from the [[Illyrian tribe]] of the Albani recorded by [[Ptolemy]], the geographer and astronomer from [[Alexandria]] who drafted a map in 150&nbsp;AD that shows the city of [[Albanopolis]] located northeast of [[Durrës]].<ref>Madrugearu A, Gordon M. The wars of the [[Balkan Peninsula]]. Rowman & Littlefield, 2007. p. 146.</ref><ref>{{Barrington|49 & notes}}</ref> The name may have a continuation in the name of a medieval settlement called Albanon and Arbanon, although it is not certain this was the same place.<ref>The Illyrians by J. J. Wilkes, 1992, ISBN 978-0-631-19807-9, page 279,"We cannot be certain that the Arbanon of Anna Comnena is the same as Albanopolis of the Albani, a place located on the map of Ptolemy (3.12)"</ref> In his ''History'' written in 1079–1080, the [[Byzantine]] historian [[Michael Attaliates]] was the first to refer to ''[[Albanoi]]'' as having taken part in a revolt against [[Constantinople]] in 1043 and to the ''Arbanitai'' as subjects of the Duke of [[Dyrrachium]].<ref>Robert Elsei. ''The Albanian lexicon of Dion Von Kirkman. Earliest reference to the existence of the Albanian language'', pp. 113–122.</ref> During the [[Middle Ages]], the Albanians called their country ''Arbëri'' or ''Arbëni'' and referred to themselves as [[Arbëresh]] or ''Arbënesh''.<ref>[http://www.pinocacozza.it/ Pinocacozza.it {{sq icon}}] {{it icon}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.radio-arberesh.eu/|title=Radio-Arberesh.eu|author=Casanova|publisher=|accessdate=13 September 2014}}</ref> As early as the 17th century the placename ''Shqipëria'' and the ethnic demonym ''Shqiptarë'' gradually replaced ''Arbëria'' and ''Arbëresh''. The two terms are [[folk etymology|popularly]] interpreted as "Land of the Eagles" and "Children of the Eagles".<ref>Kristo Frasheri. ''History of Albania (A Brief Overview)''. Tirana, 1964.</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://mirror.undp.org/albania/download/pdf/albanian.pdf|title=The Albanian Language|last=Lloshi|first=Xhevat|publisher=United Nations Development Programme|accessdate=9 November 2010}}</ref> ==History== {{Main|History of Albania}} The history of Albania emerged from the [[Prehistoric Balkans|prehistoric stage]] from the 4th century BC, with early records of [[Illyria]] in [[Greco-Roman historiography]]. The modern territory of Albania has no counterpart in antiquity, comprising parts of the Roman provinces of [[Dalmatia (Roman province)|Dalmatia]] (southern [[Illyricum (Roman province)|Illyricum]]) and [[Macedonia (Roman province)|Macedonia]] (particularly [[Epirus Nova]]). ===Prehistory=== The first traces of human presence in Albania, dating to the [[Middle Paleolithic]] and [[Upper Paleolithic]] eras, were found in the village of Xarrë, near [[Sarandë]] and [[Mount Dajt]] near [[Tiranë]].<ref name="Prendi">F. Prendi, “The Prehistory of Albania”, ''The Cambridge Ancient History'', 2nd edn., vol. 3, part 1: ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=vXljf8JqmkoC&pg=PA187 The Prehistory of the Balkans; and the Middle East and the Aegean World, Tenth to Eighth Centuries B.C.]'', ed. John Boardman et al. (Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 1982), 189-90.</ref> The objects found in a cave near Xarrë include flint and jasper objects and fossilized animal bones, while those found at Mount Dajt comprise bone and stone tools similar to those of the [[Aurignacian culture]]. The Paleolithic finds of Albania show great similarities with objects of the same era found at Crvena Stijena in [[Montenegro]] and north-western [[Greece]].<ref name="Prendi"/> ===Antiquity=== [[File:Mbretëresha Teuta në Muzeun e Shkodrës.JPG|thumb|[[Queen Teuta]] of the [[Ardiaei]] 231–227 BC|217x217px]] [[File:Illyria and Dardania Kingdoms.png|thumb|left|[[Illyria|Kingdom of Illyria]] and [[Dardanian Kingdom|Dardania]] in the 3rd century BC]] In ancient times, the territory of modern Albania was mainly inhabited by a number of [[Illyrians|Illyrian]] tribes. This territory was known as [[Illyria]], corresponding roughly to the area east of the Adriatic sea to the mouth of the [[Vjosë]] river in the south.<ref>The Illyrians (The Peoples of Europe) by John Wilkes, 1996, ISBN 978-0-631-19807-9, page 92, "Appian's description of the Illyrian territories records a southern boundary with Chaonia and Thesprotia, where ancient Epirus began south of river Aoous (Vjose)" [https://books.google.com/books?id=4Nv6SPRKqs8C&lpg=PP1&dq=illyrians%20wilkes&pg=PR20 also map]</ref><ref>Cambridge University Press. [https://books.google.com/books?id=0qAoqP4g1fEC&pg=PA266&dq=campridge+ancient+history+epirus&hl=el#v=onepage&q=epirus&f=false ''The Cambridge ancient history'']. 2000. ISBN 0-521-23447-6, page 261,"...down to the mouth of Aous"</ref> The first account of the Illyrian groups comes from ''[[Periplus of the Euxine Sea]]'', an ancient Greek text written in the middle of the 4th century BCE.<ref>The Illyrians (The Peoples of Europe) by John Wilkes, 1996, page&nbsp;94</ref> One of the most powerful tribes that ruled over modern Albania was the [[Ardiaei]]. The Ardiaen Kingdom reached its greatest extent under [[Agron of Illyria]], son of [[Pleuratus II]]. Agron extended his rule over other neighboring tribes as well.<ref>{{Cite book|title = A History of Macedonia: 336-167 B.C|url = https://books.google.com/books?id=qpb3JdwuDQIC|publisher = Clarendon Press|date = 1972-01-01|isbn = 9780198148159|first = Nicholas Geoffrey Lemprière|last = Hammond|first2 = Frank William|last2 = Walbank}}</ref> After Agron's death in 230 BC, his wife Teuta inherited the&nbsp;Ardiaean kingdom. Teuta's forces extended their operations further southward into the&nbsp;[[Ionian Sea]], defeating the combined&nbsp;Achaean&nbsp;and&nbsp;Aetolian&nbsp;fleet in the&nbsp;[[Battle of Paxos]]&nbsp;and capturing the island of [[Corfu|Corcyra]], which put them in position to breach the important&nbsp;trade routes&nbsp;between the mainland of&nbsp;Greece&nbsp;and the&nbsp;Greek cities in Italy.<ref>{{Cite book|title = Women Rulers Throughout the Ages: An Illustrated Guide|url = https://books.google.com/books?id=x3BzmTdQLioC|publisher = ABC-CLIO|date = 1999-01-01|isbn = 9781576070918|first = Guida Myrl|last = Jackson-Laufer|pages = 382–383}}</ref> In 229 BC, Rome declared war<ref>{{Cite book|title = The History of Rome|url = https://books.google.com/books?id=j74oAAAAYAAJ|publisher = D. Appleton & Company|date = 1846-01-01|page = 259}}</ref> on Illyria for extensively plundering Roman ships. The war ended in Illyrian defeat in 227&nbsp;BC. Teuta was eventually succeeded by&nbsp;[[Gentius]]&nbsp;in 181&nbsp;BC.<ref>{{Cite book|title = The Illyrians|url = https://books.google.com/books?id=4Nv6SPRKqs8C|publisher = Wiley|date = 1996-01-09|isbn = 9780631198079|first = John|last = Wilkes|page = 189}}</ref> Gentius clashed with the Romans in 168&nbsp;BC, initiating the [[Third Illyrian War|Third Illyrian war]]. The conflict resulted in Roman victory and the end of Illyrian independence by 167&nbsp;BC. After his defeat, the Romans split the region into three administrative divisions.<ref>Marjeta Šašel Kos, “The Illyrian King Ballaeus — Some Historical Aspects”, ''Épire, Illyrie, Macédoine: Mélanges offerts au professeur Pierre Cabanes'', ed. Danièle Berranger (Clermont-Ferrand: Presses Universitaires Blaise Pascal, 2007), 127.</ref> ===Middle Ages=== {{Main|Albania in the Middle Ages}}{{See also|Principality of Arbanon|Kingdom of Albania (medieval)|Albanian principalities}}[[File:Map of the Principality of Arbanon.png|thumb|[[Principality of Arbanon]] (11th–12th century AD)]] [[File:Palazzo Reale di Napoli - Carlo I d'Angiò.jpg|thumb|left|180px|[[Charles I of Naples]] established [[Kingdom of Albania (medieval)|''Regnum Albaniae'' (Kingdom of Albania)]] after he conquered a part the [[Despotate of Epirus]].]][[File:Venice1400.png|thumb|[[Albanian principalities]] in the 14th century.]]The territory now known as Albania remained under Roman ([[Albania under the Byzantine Empire|Byzantine]]) control until the [[Slavic migrations|Slavs began to overrun it]] from 548 and onward,<ref name="BideleuxJeffries2007">{{cite book|last1=Bideleux|first1=Robert|last2=Jeffries|first2=Ian|title=Balkans: A Post-Communist History|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=G6iBAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA25|date=24 January 2007|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-134-58328-7|page=25|quote=From AD 548 onward, the lands now known as Albania began to be overrun from the north by ever-increasing&nbsp;...}}</ref> and was captured by the [[Albania under the Bulgarian Empire|Bulgarian Empire]] in the 9th century. After the weakening of the [[Byzantine Empire]] and the [[Bulgarian Empire]] in the middle and late 13th century, some of the territory of modern-day Albania was captured by the [[Serbian Grand Principality|Serbian Principality]]. In general, the invaders destroyed or weakened Roman and [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantine]] cultural centers in the lands that would become Albania.<ref name="Barbarian Invasions">{{cite web | author= Raymond Zickel and Walter R. Iwaskiw, editors.| year= 1994 | title= "The Barbarian Invasions and the Middle Ages," Albania: A Country Study | url=http://countrystudies.us/albania/15.htm| accessdate=9 April 2008 }}</ref> The territorial nucleus of the Albanian state formed in the Middle Ages, as the [[Principality of Arbër]] and the [[Kingdom of Albania (medieval)|Kingdom of Albania]]. The [[Principality of Arbër]] or '''Albanon''' ([[Albanian language|Albanian]]): Arbër or Arbëria, was the first [[Albanian Principalities|Albanian state]] during the [[Middle Ages]] , it was established by ''[[archon]]'' [[Progon of Kruja|Progon]] in the region of [[Kruja]], in c. 1190. Progon, the founder, was succeeded by his sons Gjin and Demetrius, the latter which attained the height of the realm. After the death of Dhimiter, the last of the [[Progon family]], the principality came under [[Gregory Kamonas]], and later [[Golem of Kruja|Golem]]. The Principality was dissolved in 1255.<ref name=Clements31>Clements 1992, p. 31 ''"By 1190, Byzantium's power had so receded that the archon Progon succeeded in establishing the first Albanian state of the Middle Ages, a principality"''</ref><ref name="PickardÇeliku2008">Pickard-Çeliku 2008, p. 16</ref><ref name="Norris1993">Norris 1993, p. 35</ref> Pipa and Repishti conclude that Arbanon was the first sketch of an "Albanian state", and that it retained semi-autonomous status as the western extremity of an empire (under the [[Doukas|Doukai]] of [[Despotate of Epirus|Epirus]] or the [[Laskaris|Laskarids]] of [[Empire of Nicaea|Nicaea]]).<ref>Pipa-Repishti 1983, pp.&nbsp;7–8</ref> The Kingdom of Albania was established by Charles of Anjou in the Albanian territory he conquered from the Despotate of Epirus in 1271. He took the title of "King of Albania" in February 1272. The kingdom extended from the region of Durrës (then known as Dyrrhachium) south along the coast to Butrint. After the creation of the kingdom, a Catholic political structure was a good basis for the papal plans of spreading Catholicism in the Balkans. This plan found also the support of Helen of Anjou, a cousin of Charles of Anjou, who was at that time ruling territories in North Albania. Around 30 Catholic churches and monasteries were built during her rule in North Albania and in Serbia.<ref>{{Cite book|title = Regnum Albaniae, the Papal Curia, and the Western Visions of a Borderline Nobility|last = Etleva|first = Lala|publisher = Cambridge University Press|year = 2008|isbn = |location = |pages = |url = http://www.etd.ceu.hu/2009/mphlae01.pdf}}</ref> During 1331–55, the Serbian empire wrestled control over Albania. After the dissolution of the Serbian empire, several Albanian principalities were created, and among the most powerful were the Balsha, Thopia, Kastrioti, Muzaka and Arianiti. In the first half of the 14th century, the Ottoman Empire invaded most of Albania. But in 1444, the Albanian principalities were united under [[Skanderbeg|George Castrioti Skanderbeg]], the national hero of Albania. ===Ottoman Albania=== {{Main|Ottoman Albania}} [[File:Sanjak of Albania Map 1431.svg|thumb|200px|Sanjak of Albania 1431]] [[File:Đurađ Kastriota (Skenderbeg).jpg|thumb|left|After serving the [[Ottoman Empire]] for 20 years [[Skanderbeg]] deserted and began a rebellion that halted Ottoman advance into Europe for 25 years.]] At the dawn of the establishment of the [[Ottoman Empire]] in Southeast Europe, the geopolitical landscape was marked by scattered kingdoms of small principalities. The Ottomans erected their garrisons throughout southern Albania by 1415 and occupied most of Albania by 1431.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Licursi |first=Emiddio Pietro|title=Empire of Nations: The Consolidation of Albanian and Turkish National Identities in the Late Ottoman Empire, 1878–1913 |url=http://www.scribd.com/doc/72122169/7/Pashko-Vasa|archiveurl= |archivedate= |accessdate= |edition= |series= |volume= |origyear=|year=2011 |publisher= Columbia University |location= New York |language= |isbn= |oclc= |doi= |doi_inactivedate= |bibcode= |id=|page=19 |pages= |nopp= |at= |chapter= |chapterurl= |quote= By 1415, after a chaotic interregnum, Sultan Mehmet I sent the military to erect the first Ottoman garrisons throughout southern Albania, establishing direct military authority in the region&nbsp;... l jurisdiction over most of Albania&nbsp;... |postscript=<!-- Bot inserted parameter. Either remove it; or change its value to "." for the cite to end in a ".", as necessary. -->{{inconsistent citations}} }}</ref> However, in 1443 a great and longstanding [[History of the Albanian-Turkish Wars|revolt broke]] out under the lead of the Albanian national hero [[Skanderbeg]], which lasted until 1479, many times defeating major [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] armies led by the sultans [[Murad II]] and [[Mehmed II]]. [[Skanderbeg]] united initially the Albanian princes, and later on established a centralized authority over most of the non-conquered territories, becoming the ruling Lord of Albania. He also tried relentlessly but rather unsuccessfully to create a [[Europe]]an coalition against the Ottomans. He thwarted every attempt by the Turks to regain Albania, which they envisioned as a springboard for the invasion of Italy and western Europe. His unequal fight against the mightiest power of the time won the esteem of Europe as well as some support in the form of money and military aid from Naples, the Papacy, Venice, and Ragusa.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/12472/Albania/42646/The-decline-of-Byzantium|title=Albania :: The decline of Byzantium -- Encyclopedia Britannica|work=Encyclopedia Britannica|accessdate=13 September 2014}}</ref> With the arrival of the Turks, Islam was introduced in Albania as a third religion. This conversion caused a massive emigration of Albanians to the Christian European countries.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OKEal7FHClUC&pg=PA7&dq=ottomans+converted+muslims+albania&hl=en&sa=X&ei=98U5VImdBaK6ygO-qYKQAQ&ved=0CDIQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=ottomans%20converted%20muslims%20albania&f=false |title=Communism, Health and Lifestyle: The Paradox of Mortality Transition in Albania by Arjan Gjonca |publisher=Google Books.au |date=31 July 2011 |accessdate=11 October 2014|isbn=978-1-59884-337-8}}</ref> Along with the [[Bosniaks]], Muslim Albanians occupied an outstanding position in the Ottoman Empire, and were the main pillars of Ottoman Porte's policy in the Balkans.<ref>Clayer, Nathalie. " Albania ." Encyclopaedia of Islam, THREE. Edited by: Gudrun Krämer, Denis Matringe, Rokovet, John Nawas, Everett Rowson. Brill Online, 2012. Reference. 18 December 2012<http://referenceworks.brillonline.com/entries/encyclopaedia-of-islam-3/albania-COM_23054></ref> [[File:Mehmedpasha.jpg|thumb|[[Köprülü Mehmed Pasha]] was the most effective and influential [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] [[Grand Vizier]] of [[Albanians|Albanian]] origin.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/?id=jBBYD2J2oE4C&pg=PA487&lpg=PA487&dq=Koprulu+mehmed+pasha#v=onepage&q=koprulu%2C%20Mehmed%20Pasha&f=false |title=Conflict and Conquest in the Islamic World: A Historical Encyclopedia |publisher=Google Books.au |date=31 July 2011 |accessdate=25 March 2013|isbn=978-1-59884-337-8}}</ref>|264x264px]] Enjoying this privileged position in the empire, Muslim Albanians held various high administrative positions, with over two dozen [[Grand Viziers]] of Albanian origin, such as Gen. [[Köprülü Mehmed Pasha]], who commanded the Ottoman forces during the [[Ottoman-Persian Wars]]; Gen. [[Köprülü Fazıl Ahmed]], who led the Ottoman armies during the [[Austro-Turkish War (1663–1664)]]; and, later, [[Muhammad Ali Pasha]] of Egypt.<ref name="Arnawutluḳ - Brill Reference" >" Arnawutluḳ." Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition. Brill Online, 2012. Reference. 2 January 2009.[http://referenceworks.brillonline.com/entries/encyclopaedia-of-islam-2/arnawutluk-COM_0065]</ref> [[File:Dupré - Ali Pasha.jpg|thumb|left|[[Ali Pasha]] of Tepelena was notably one of the most powerful autonomous Muslim Albanian rulers, he ruled over the [[Pashalik of Yanina]], and even attempted to rival the [[Dey]] of [[Algiers]] in the seas.]] In the 15th century, when the Ottomans were gaining a firm foothold in the region, Albanian towns were organised into four principal [[sanjaks]]. The government fostered trade by settling a sizeable Jewish colony of refugees fleeing persecution in Spain (at the end of the 15th century). [[Vlorë]] saw passing through its ports imported merchandise from Europe such as velvets, cotton goods, mohairs, carpets, spices and leather from [[Bursa]] and [[Constantinople]]. Some citizens of Vlorë even had business associates in Europe.<ref name="Arnawutluḳ - Brill Reference"/> Albanians could also be found throughout the empire in [[Iraq]], [[Egypt]], [[Algeria]] and across the [[Maghreb]], as vital military and administrative retainers.<ref>H. T. Norris, Islam in the Balkans: Religion and Society Between Europe and the Arab World, p. 196.</ref> This was partly due to the [[Devşirme]] system. The process of Islamization was an incremental one, commencing from the arrival of the Ottomans in the 14th century (to this day, a minority of Albanians are Catholic or Orthodox Christians, though the vast majority became Muslim). [[Timar]] holders, the bedrock of early Ottoman control in Southeast Europe, were not necessarily converts to Islam, and occasionally rebelled; the most famous of these rebels is [[Skanderbeg]] (his figure would rise up later on, in the 19th century, as a central component of the Albanian national identity). The most significant impact on the Albanians was the gradual Islamisation process of a large majority of the population, although it became widespread only in the 17th century.<ref name="referenceworks.brillonline">Clayer, Nathalie. " Albania ." Encyclopaedia of Islam, THREE. Edited by: Gudrun Krämer, Denis Matringe, John Nawas, Everett Rowson. Brill Online, 2012. 2 April 2012<http://referenceworks.brillonline.com/entries/encyclopaedia-of-islam-3/albania-COM_23054></ref> Mainly [[Catholic Church|Catholics]] converted in the 17th century, while the [[Eastern Orthodox Church|Orthodox]] Albanians followed suit mainly in the following century. Initially confined to the main city centres of [[Elbasan]] and [[Shkoder]], by this period the countryside was also embracing the new religion.<ref name="referenceworks.brillonline"/> The motives for conversion according to some scholars were diverse, depending on the context. The lack of source material does not help when investigating such issues.<ref>Clayer, Nathalie. " Albania ." Encyclopaedia of Islam, THREE. Edited by: Gudrun Krämer, Denis Matringe, John Nawas, Everett Rowson. Brill Online, 2012. Reference. 17 April 2012 <http://referenceworks.brillonline.com/entries/encyclopaedia-of-islam-3/albania-COM_23054></ref> Albania remained under Ottoman control as part of the [[Rumelia]] province until 1912, when [[independent Albania]] was [[Albanian Declaration of Independence|declared]]. ===Era of nationalism and League of Prizren=== [[File:League of Prizren, group photo, 1878.jpg|thumb|250px|[[League of Prizren]] delegates 1878]] [[File:Albanian vilayet.jpg|200px|thumb|left|Map outlining the [[Albanian Vilayet]] requested by the League of Prizren]] The [[League of Prizren]] was formed on 1 June 1878, in [[Prizren]], [[Kosovo Vilayet]] of Ottoman Empire. At first the Ottoman authorities supported the League of Prizren, whose initial position was based on the religious solidarity of Muslim [[landlords]] and people connected with the [[Ottoman Porte|Ottoman administration]]. The Ottomans favoured and protected Muslim solidarity, and called for defense of Muslim lands, including present-day [[Bosnia and Herzegovina]]. This was the reason for naming the league ''The Committee of the Real Muslims'' ({{lang-sq|Komiteti i Myslimanëve të Vërtetë}}).<ref>{{Citation |last=Kopecek |first=Michal |authorlink= |first2= Ahmed|last2= Ersoy|first3=Maciej|last3=Gorni |first4=Vangelis |last4= Kechriotis |first5= Boyan |last5= Manchev |first6= Balazs |last6= Trencsenyi |first7= Marius |last7= Turda |author-separator= |editor= |editorn= |editorn-last= |editorn-first= |editor-link= |editorn-link= |others= |title= Discourses of collective identity in Central and Southeast Europe (1770–1945)|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=k5Vsjg508EYC&pg=PA349&dq=%22albanian+vilayet%22+%22Greater+albania%22#v=onepage&q&f=false|archiveurl= |archivedate= |accessdate= 18 January 2011 |edition= |series= |volume= 1|year=2006 |publisher=Central European University Press |location= Budapest, Hungary|isbn=963-7326-52-9 |oclc= |doi= |doi_inactivedate= |bibcode= |page= 348 |pages= |nopp= |chapter= |chapterurl= |quote= The position of the League in the beginning was based on religious solidarity. It was even called ''Komiteti i Myslimanëve të Vërtetë'' (The Committee of the Real Muslims)&nbsp;... decisions are taken and supported mostly by landlords and people closely connected with Ottoman administration and religious authorities.. |ref= }}</ref> The League issued a decree known as [[Kararname (League of Prizren)|Kararname]]. Its text contained a proclamation that the people from "northern Albania, Epirus and Bosnia" are willing to defend the "territorial integrity" of the Ottoman Empire "by all possible means" from the troops of the [[Kingdom of Bulgaria|Bulgaria]], [[Kingdom of Serbia|Serbia]] and [[Kingdom of Montenegro|Montenegro]]. It was signed by 47 Muslim deputies of the League on 18 June 1878.<ref name="albanianhistory.net">{{cite web |url= http://www.albanianhistory.net/texts19/AH1878_2.html|title= 1878 The Resolutions of the League of Prizren|first= Robert |last= Elsie|authorlink= Robert Elsie |work= |publisher= |location= |page= |pages= |at= |language= |trans_title= |doi= |archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/query?url=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.albanianhistory.net%2Ftexts19%2FAH1878_2.html&date=2011-02-19 |archivedate=20 February 2011 |accessdate= 20 February 2011 |quote=On 10 June 1878,&nbsp;... The League of Prizren, Alb. Lidhja e Prizrenit,&nbsp;... On 13 June 1878, the League submitted an eighteen-page memorandum to Benjamin Disraeli, the British representative at the Congress of Berlin |ref= |separator= |postscript=}}</ref> Around 300 Muslims participated in the assembly, including delegates from Bosnia and mutasarrif ([[sanjakbey]]) of the [[Sanjak of Prizren]] as representatives of the central authorities, and no delegates from [[Scutari Vilayet]].<ref>{{Citation |last=Kopeček |first=Michal |authorlink= |first2= Ahmed|last2= Ersoy|first3=Maciej|last3=Gorni | first4=Vangelis |last4= Kechriotis |first5= Boyan |last5= Manchev |first6= Balazs |last6=Trencsenyi |first7= Marius |last7= Turda |author-separator= |editor= |editor2= |editor2-last= |editor2-first= |editor-link= |editor2-link= |others= |title= Discourses of collective identity in Central and Southeast Europe (1770–1945)|url= https://books.google.com/?id=k5Vsjg508EYC&pg=PA349&dq=%22albanian+vilayet%22+%22Greater+albania%22#v=onepage&q&f=false|archiveurl= |archivedate= |format= |accessdate= 18 January 2011 |edition= |series= |volume= 1|origyear= |year=2006 |publisher=Central European University Press |location= Budapest, Hungary|language= |isbn=963-7326-52-9 |oclc= |doi= |doi_inactivedate= |bibcode= |id= |page=347 |pages= |nopp= |at= |chapter= Program of the Albanian League of Prizren |chapterurl= |quote= there were no delegates from Shkodra villayet and a few Bosnian delegates also participated. Present was also mutasarrif (administrator of sandjak) of Prizren as representative of the central authorities |laysummary= |laydate= |separator= |postscript= |lastauthoramp= |ref= }}</ref> The Ottomans cancelled their support when the League, under the influence of [[Abdyl Frashëri|Abdyl bey Frashëri]], became focused on working toward Albanian autonomy and requested merging of four Ottoman vilayets ([[Kosovo Vilayet|Kosovo]], [[Scutari Vilayet|Scutari]], [[Monastir Vilayet|Monastir]] and [[Janina Vilayet|Ioannina]]) into a new ''[[vilayet]]'' of the [[Ottoman Empire]] (the [[Albanian Vilayet]]). The League used military force to prevent the annexing areas of [[Plav Municipality|Plav]] and [[Gusinje]] assigned to Montenegro by the [[Congress of Berlin]]. After several successful battles with Montenegrin troops such as in [[Battle of Novšiće|Novsice]],under the pressure of the [[great powers]],the League of Prizren was forced to retreat from their contested regions of Plav and Gusinje and later on,the league was defeated by the Ottoman army sent by the Sultan.<ref name="League of Prizren">{{cite web|title=Albanian League|url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/12553/Albanian-League|publisher=Encyclopædia Britannica|accessdate=5 January 2012}}</ref> The [[Albanian Revolt of 1912|Albanian uprising of 1912]], the Ottoman defeat in the [[Balkan Wars]] and the advance of Montenegrin, Serbian and Greek forces into territories claimed as Albanian, led to the [[Albanian Declaration of Independence|proclamation of independence]] by [[Ismail Qemali]] in [[Vlora]], on 28 November 1912. ===Independence=== {{Main|Albanian Declaration of Independence}} {{Further|Albanian Revolt of 1912|Independent Albania|Treaty of London (1913)|Principality of Albania|Peasant Revolt in Albania|Albania during the Balkan Wars|Albania during World War I}} [[File:Shkup1912.jpg|thumb|left|242x242px|[[Skopje]] after being captured by [[Albanian Revolt of 1912|Albanian revolutionaries]] in August, 1912 after defeating the Ottoman forces holding the city. This led to the [[Albanian Declaration of Independence|proclamation of independence]] shortly after.]] At the [[All-Albanian Congress]] in [[Vlorë]] on 28 November 1912<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.albanianhistory.net/texts20_1/AH1920.html |title= Ismail Kemal bey Vlora: Memoirs |first= Ismail |last= Qemali |author= |authorlink= |work= |publisher= |location= |page= |pages= |at= |language= |trans_title= |doi= |archiveurl= |archivedate= |accessdate= 23 January 2011 |quote=...&nbsp;November 15th–28th, 1912&nbsp;... |ref= |separator= |postscript=}}</ref> Congress participants constituted the [[Assembly of Vlorë]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.albanianhistory.net/texts20_1/AH1920.html |title= Ismail Kemal bey Vlora: Memoirs |first= Ismail |last= Qemali |author= |authorlink= |work= |publisher= |location= |page= |pages= |at= |language= |trans_title= |doi= |archiveurl= |archivedate= |accessdate= 23 January 2011 |quote=...&nbsp;On the resumption of the sitting, I was elected President of the Provisional Government, with a mandate to form a Cabinet&nbsp;... |ref= |separator= |postscript=}}</ref> The assembly of eighty-three leaders meeting in [[Vlorë]] in November 1912 declared Albania an independent country and set up a provisional government. The [[Provisional Government of Albania]] was established on the second session of the assembly held on 4 December 1912. It was a government of ten members, led by [[Ismail Qemali]] until his resignation on 22 January 1914.<ref>{{cite book | last = Giaro | first = Tomasz | title = Modernisierung durch Transfer zwischen den Weltkriegen | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=dmrRCdTQBTcC&pg=PA185&dq=Provisional+government+of+vlore+december+4+1912&hl=en&ei=x5k9TeLYM83A8QO_qMisCA&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=4&ved=0CC4Q6AEwAw#v=onepage&q=Provisional%20government%20of%20vlore%20december%204%201912&f=false | accessdate = 24 January 2011 | year = 2007 | publisher = Vittorio Klosterman GmbH | location = Frankfurt am Main, Germany | isbn = 978-3-465-04017-0 | page = 185 | chapter = The Albanian legal and constitutional system between the World Wars | quote =...&nbsp;a provisional government, consisting of ten members and led by Vlora, was formed on 4 December.}}</ref> The Assembly also established the [[Senate of Albania|Senate]] ({{lang-sq|Pleqësi}}) with an advisory role to the government, consisting of 18 members of the Assembly.<ref>{{cite book | last = Giaro | first = Tomasz | title = Modernisierung durch Transfer zwischen den Weltkriegen | trans_title = | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=dmrRCdTQBTcC&pg=PA185&dq=Provisional+government+of+vlore+december+4+1912&hl=en&ei=x5k9TeLYM83A8QO_qMisCA&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=4&ved=0CC4Q6AEwAw#v=onepage&q=Provisional%20government%20of%20vlore%20december%204%201912&f=false | accessdate = 24 January 2011 | year = 2007 | publisher = Vittorio Klosterman GmbH | location = Frankfurt am Main, Germany | isbn = 978-3-465-04017-0 | page = 185 | chapter = The Albanian legal and constitutional system between the World Wars | quote = From its own members congress elected a senate (Pleqësi), composed of 18 members, which assumed advisory role to the government.}}</ref> [[File:28nentor.jpg|thumb|[[Ismail Qemali]] and his cabinet during the celebration of the first anniversary of independence in [[Vlorë]] on 28 November 1913.]]Albania's independence was recognized by the [[London Conference of 1912-1913|Conference of London]] on 29 July 1913, but the drawing of the borders of the newly established [[Principality of Albania]] ignored the demographic realities of the time. The [[International Commission of Control]] was established on 15 October 1913 to take care of the administration of newly established Albania until its own political institutions were in order.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.cecl.gr/RigasNetwork/databank/REPORTS/r23/ZAHARIA.html| title = The post - 1989 constitutional course of south east Europe | first = Perikli| last = Zaharia| date = 24 March 2003| publisher = Centre for European Constitutional Law | location = Athens| archiveurl = http://www.webcitation.org/query?url=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.cecl.gr%2FRigasNetwork%2Fdatabank%2FREPORTS%2Fr23%2FZAHARIA.html&date=2011-01-21 | archivedate = 22 January 2011| accessdate = 22 January 2011}}</ref> Its headquarters were in [[Vlorë]].<ref>{{Citation |last= Jelavich |first= Barbara |author= |authorlink= |author-separator= |editor= |editorn= |editorn-last= |editorn-first= |editor-link= |editorn-link= |others= |title=History of the Balkans: Twentieth century |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Hd-or3qtqrsC&pg=PA100&dq=albanian+congress+in+trieste+1913&hl=en&ei=Su45Tdn6K4al8QPo7ajBCA&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=4&ved=0CDMQ6AEwAw#v=onepage&q&f=false |archiveurl= |archivedate= |format= |accessdate= 21 January 2011 |edition= |series= |volume=2 |origyear= 1983 |year= 1999 |publisher= The Press Syndicate of University of Cambridge |location= Cambridge, United Kingdom |language= |isbn= 0-521-27459-1 |oclc= |doi= |doi_inactivedate= |bibcode= |id= |page= 101|pages= |nopp= |at= |chapter= The end of Ottoman rule in Europe |chapterurl= |quote= the International Commission&nbsp;... had headquarters in Vlorë|laysummary= |laydate= |separator= |postscript= |lastauthoramp= |ref= }}</ref> The [[International Gendarmerie]] was established as the first [[law enforcement agency]] of the [[Principality of Albania]]. At the beginning of November the first gendarmerie members arrived in Albania. [[Wilhelm of Wied]] was selected as the first prince.<ref>{{Citation |last=Seton-Watson |first=R.W. |author2= J. Dover Wilson, Alfred E. Zimmern, and Arthur Greenwood |author-separator= |editor= |editorn= |editorn-last= |editorn-first= |editor-link= |editorn-link= |others= |title= The War and Democracy |url=http://www.gutenberg.org/files/10668/10668.txt |archiveurl= |archivedate= |format= |accessdate= |edition= |series= |volume= |date= 10 January 2004 |origyear= 1915 |publisher= MacMillan And Co. Ltd.; 1st Edition |location= London |language= |isbn= |oclc= |doi= |doi_inactivedate= |bibcode= |page= |pages= |nopp= |at= |chapter= III Germany |chapterurl= |quote=Prince William of Wied, the first Prince of Albania |laysummary= |laydate= |separator= |postscript= |lastauthoramp= |ref= }}</ref> In November 1913 the Albanian pro-Ottoman forces had offered the throne of Albania to the Ottoman war minister of Albanian origin, [[Ahmed Izzet Pasha|Izzet Pasha]].<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.albanianphotography.net/en/dmm.html | title= Albania under prince Wied | first= Robert | last= Elsie | authorlink= Robert Elsie | archiveurl= http://www.webcitation.org/query?url=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.albanianphotography.net%2Fen%2Fdmm.html&date=2011-01-25 |quote=pro-Ottoman forces&nbsp;... were opposed to the increasing Western influence&nbsp;... In November 1913, these forces,&nbsp;... , had offered the vacant Albanian throne to General Izzet Pasha&nbsp;... War Minister who was of Albanian origin. |archivedate= 25 January 2011 | accessdate= 25 January 2011 }}</ref> The pro-Ottoman peasants believed that the new regime of the Principality of Albania was a tool of the six Christian [[Great Power]]s and local landowners that owned half of the arable land.<ref>{{Citation |last= Jelavich |first= Barbara |title=History of the Balkans: Twentieth century |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Hd-or3qtqrsC&pg=PA100&dq=albanian+congress+in+trieste+1913&hl=en&ei=Su45Tdn6K4al8QPo7ajBCA&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=4&ved=0CDMQ6AEwAw#v=onepage&q&f=false |archiveurl= |archivedate= |format= |accessdate= 25 January 2011 |edition= |series= |volume=2 |origyear= 1983 |year= 1999 |publisher= The Press Syndicate of University of Cambridge |location= Cambridge, United Kingdom |language= |isbn= 0-521-27459-1 |oclc= |doi= |doi_inactivedate= |bibcode= |id= |page=103 |pages= |nopp= |at= |chapter= |chapterurl= |quote= peasants..willing listeners to Ottoman propaganda&nbsp;... attached the new regime as a tool of the beys and Christian powers |laysummary= |laydate= |separator= |postscript= |lastauthoramp= |ref= }}</ref> In February 28, 1914, the [[Autonomous Republic of Northern Epirus]] was proclaimed in Gjirokastër by the local Greek population against incorporation to Albania. This initiative was short lived and in 1921 the southern provinces were finally incorporated to the Albanian Principality.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Bowden|first1=William|title=Epirus Vetus : the archaeology of a late antique province|date=2003|publisher=Duckworth|location=London|isbn=978-0-7156-3116-4|page=28|url=https://books.google.gr/books?hl=el&id=IjsbAAAAYAAJ&dq=autonomous+republic+of+northern+epirus+1914&focus=searchwithinvolume&q=%22+Autonomous+Republic+of+Northern+Epirus.%22|quote=the Greek Epirote population of the area refused to be incorporated into the new Albanian state and in February 1914 declared the Autonomous Republic of Northern Epirus&nbsp;... in 1921 Albania was recognised as an independent sovereign state, with its borders established on their present lines.}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=ed|first1=Gregory C. Ference,|title=Chronology of 20th century eastern European history|date=1994|publisher=Gale Research|location=Detroit [u.a.]|isbn=978-0-8103-8879-6|page=9|url=https://books.google.gr/books?id=RSLsAAAAMAAJ&q=%22February+28+George+Zographos,+a+former+foreign+minister+of+Greece,+proclaims+at+Gjirokaster+the+establishment+of+the+Autonomous+Republic+of+Northern+Epirus%22&dq=%22February+28+George+Zographos,+a+former+foreign+minister+of+Greece,+proclaims+at+Gjirokaster+the+establishment+of+the+Autonomous+Republic+of+Northern+Epirus%22&hl=el&sa=X&ved=0CBsQ6AEwAGoVChMIuKmTsKPZyAIVhr8UCh0u0gXX|quote=February 28 George Zographos, a former foreign minister of Greece, proclaims at Gjirokaster the establishment of the Autonomous Republic of Northern Epirus, with Zographos as president. He notifies the International Commission that his government has been established because the Great Powers have not provided the Greeks in southern Albania any guarantees for the protection of the life, property and religious freedom, and ethnic existence.}}</ref> Meanwhile, the [[Peasant Revolt in Albania|revolt of Albanian peasants]] against the new Albanian regime erupted under the leadership of the group of Muslim clerics gathered around [[Essad Pasha Toptani]], who proclaimed himself the savior of Albania and Islam.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.albaniainbrief.com/Albanian%20History/Fighting%20for%20amputated%20Albania.htm | title = The Efforts to settle amputated Albania state | publisher = albaniainbrief.com | archiveurl = http://www.webcitation.org/query?url=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.albaniainbrief.com%2FAlbanian%2520History%2FFighting%2520for%2520amputated%2520Albania.htm&date=2011-01-28 | archivedate = 28 January 2011 | accessdate = 28 January 2011 | quote = Thousands of muslim peasants,&nbsp;... were exploited by their leaders Haxhi Qamili, Arif Hiqmeti, Musa Qazimi and Mustafa Ndroqi,&nbsp;... to rebel }}</ref><ref>{{cite book | last = Vickers | first = Miranda | title = The Albanians: a modern history | publisher = I.B.Tauris | year = 1999 |quote= He gathered round him a group of discontented Muslim priests&nbsp;... and proclaimed himself the savior of Albania and the Champion of Islam.| page=81 |isbn = 978-1-86064-541-9 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=IzI0uOZ2j6gC}}</ref> In order to gain support of the [[Mirdita]] Catholic volunteers from the northern mountains, Prince of Wied appointed their leader, [[Prênk Bibë Doda]], to be the foreign minister of the [[Principality of Albania]]. In May and June 1914 the International Gendarmerie joined by [[Isa Boletini]] and his men, mostly from [[Kosovo]],<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.albanianphotography.net/en/dmm.html | title= Albania under prince Wied | first= Robert | last= Elsie | authorlink= Robert Elsie | archiveurl= http://www.webcitation.org/query?url=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.albanianphotography.net%2Fen%2Fdmm.html&date=2011-01-25 |quote=...&nbsp;mostly volunteers from Kosova under their leader Isa Boletini |archivedate= 25 January 2011 | accessdate= 25 January 2011 }}</ref> and northern [[Mirdita]] Catholics were defeated by the rebels who captured most of Central Albania by the end of August 1914.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.albanianphotography.net/en/dmm.html | title= Albania under prince Wied | first= Robert | last= Elsie| authorlink= Robert Elsie | archiveurl= http://www.webcitation.org/query?url=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.albanianphotography.net%2Fen%2Fdmm.html&date=2011-01-25 |quote=Panic broke out in Durrës, and the royal family sought refuge on an Italian vessel&nbsp;... |archivedate= 25 January 2011 | accessdate= 25 January 2011 }}</ref> The regime of Prince of Wied collapsed and he left the country on 3 September 1914.<ref>{{cite book| last = Springer| first =Elisabeth|author2=Leopold Kammerhofer | title =Archiv und Forschung| publisher =Oldenbourg Wissenschaftsverlag| year =1993| page =346| isbn =3-486-55989-3 }}</ref> === Republic and Monarchy === {{Main|Albanian Republic|Kingdom of Albania (1928–39)}} [[File:Coat of arms of the Albanian Kingdom (1928–1939).svg|left|120px|Coat of arms of the Albanian Kingdom (1928–1939)]] [[File:Ahmet-Zogu-1895---1961.jpg|thumb|175px|[[Zog I of Albania|Zog I]],King of [[Kingdom of Albania (1928–39)|Albania]]]]The short-lived [[Principality of Albania|monarchy]] (1914–1925) was succeeded by the first [[Albanian Republic]] (1925–1928). In 1925 the four-member Regency was abolished and Ahmed Zogu was elected president of the newly declared republic. [[Tirana]] was endorsed officially as the country's permanent capital.<ref>{{Cite book|title = The Albanians: A Modern History|url = https://books.google.com/books?id=IzI0uOZ2j6gC|publisher = I.B.Tauris|date = 1999-01-01|isbn = 978-1-86064-541-9|first = Miranda|last = Vickers|page = 118}}</ref> Zogu led an authoritarian and conservative regime, the primary aim of which was the maintenance of stability and order. Zogu was forced to adopt a policy of cooperation with Italy. A pact had been signed between Italy and Albania on 20 January 1925 whereby Italy gained a monopoly on shipping and trade concessions.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|title = The Albanians: A Modern History|url = https://books.google.com/books?id=IzI0uOZ2j6gC|publisher = I.B.Tauris|date = 1999-01-01|isbn = 978-1-86064-541-9|first = Miranda|last = Vickers}}</ref> The Albanian republic was eventually replaced by another [[Kingdom of Albania (1928–39)|monarchy]] in 1928. In order to extend his direct control throughout the entire country, Zogu placed great emphasis on the construction of roads. Every male Albanian over the age of 16 years was legally bound to give ten days of free labor each year to the state.<ref name=":0" /> King Zogu remained a conservative, but initiated reforms. For example, in an attempt at social modernization, the custom of adding one's region to one's name was dropped. Zogu also made donations of land to international organisations for the building of schools and hospitals. The armed forces were trained and supervised by Italian instructors. As a counterweight, Zogu kept British officers in the [[Gendarmerie]] despite strong Italian pressure to remove them. The kingdom was supported by the [[Italian Fascism|fascist regime in Italy]] and the two countries maintained close relations until Italy's sudden [[Italian invasion of Albania|invasion of the country]] in 1939. Albania was occupied by [[Italian Fascism|Fascist Italy]] and [[Albanian Kingdom (1943-1944)|then]] by [[Nazi Germany]] during World War II. === World War II === {{Main|Albanian Kingdom (1939–43)|Albanian resistance during World War II}} [[File:Map of Albania during WWII.png|thumb|left|200px|[[Albanian Kingdom (1939–43)|Kingdom of Albania]] during World War II]] [[File:Flag of Albania (1939-1943; crowned).svg|thumb|Flag of the [[Albanian Kingdom (1939–43)|Albanian Kingdom]] (1939-1943)]] After being [[Italian invasion of Albania|militarily occupied by Italy]], from 1939 until 1943 the [[Albanian Kingdom (1939–43)|Albanian Kingdom]] was a [[protectorate]] and a [[Dependent territory|dependency]] of [[Kingdom of Italy (1861–1946)|Italy]] governed by the Italian King [[Victor Emmanuel III of Italy|Victor Emmanuel III]] and his government. After the Axis' [[invasion of Yugoslavia]] in April 1941, territories of Yugoslavia with substantial Albanian population were annexed to Albania: most of [[Kosovo]],{{efn|name=status}} as well as Western Macedonia, the town of [[Tutin, Serbia|Tutin]] in Central Serbia and a strip of Eastern [[Montenegro]].<ref name="BogdaniLoughlin2007">{{cite book|last1=Bogdani|first1=Mirela|last2=Loughlin|first2=John|title=Albania and the European Union: The Tumultuous Journey Towards Integration and Accession|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=32Wu8H7t8MwC&pg=PA230|date=15 March 2007|publisher=I.B.Tauris|isbn=978-1-84511-308-7|page=230}}</ref> In November 1941, the small Albanian Communist groups established an&nbsp;Albanian Communist Party&nbsp;in Tirana of 130 members under the leadership of [[Enver Hoxha]] and an eleven-man Central Committee. The party at first had little mass appeal, and even its youth organization netted few recruits. After March 1943, the [[National Liberation Movement (Albania)|National Liberation Movement]] formed its first and second regular battalions, which subsequently became brigades, to operate along with existing smaller and irregular units. Resistance to the occupation grew rapidly as signs of Italian weakness became apparent. At the end of 1942, guerrilla forces numbered no more than 8,000 to 10,000. By the summer of 1943, when the Italian effort collapsed, almost all of the mountainous interior was controlled by resistance units.<ref>{{cite web|title=World War II|url=http://countrystudies.us/albania/151.htm|website=countrystudies.us|publisher=U.S. Library of Congress}}{{PD-notice}}</ref>[[File:Tirana Albania 1944-11-20.jpg|thumb|260px|[[National Liberation Movement (Albania)|Albanian partisans]] march in [[Tirana]] 29 November 1944]] After the capitulation of Italy in 1943, Nazi Germany occupied Albania too. The nationalist [[Balli Kombëtar|Balli Kombetar]], which had fought against Italy, formed a "neutral" government in Tirana, and side by side with the Germans fought against the communist-led [[National Liberation Movement (Albania)|National Liberation Movement of Albania]].<ref name="Morrock2010">{{cite book|last=Morrock|first=Richard|title=The Psychology of Genocide and Violent Oppression: A Study of Mass Cruelty from Nazi Germany to Rwanda|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CZtnAbKkOmIC&pg=PA55|date=11 October 2010|publisher=McFarland|isbn=978-0-7864-5628-4|page=55|quote=The nationalist Balli Kombetar, which had fought against Italy, made a deal with the German invaders, and formed a "neutral" government in Tirana which&nbsp;...}}</ref> The Center for Relief to Civilian Populations (Geneva) reported that Albania was one of the most devastated countries in Europe. 60,000 houses were destroyed and about 10% of the population was left homeless.The communist partisans had regrouped and gained control of much of southern Albania in January 1944. However, they were subject to German attacks driving them out of certain areas. In the Congress of Përmet, the NLF formed an Anti-Fascist Council of National Liberation to act as Albania's administration and legislature. By the last year in WWII Albania fell into a civil war-like state between the communists and nationalists. The communist partisans however defeated the last Balli Kombëtar forces in southern Albania by mid-summer 1944. Before the end of November, the main German troops had withdrawn from [[Tirana]], and the communists took control by attacking it. The partisans entirely liberated Albania from German occupation on 29 November 1944. A provisional government, which the communists had formed at&nbsp;Berat&nbsp;in October, administered Albania with Enver Hoxha as prime minister. ===Communist Albania=== {{main|People's Socialist Republic of Albania}} [[File:HODŽA druhá míza.jpg|thumb|left|[[Enver Hoxha]] in 1971]] By the end of [[World War II]], the main military and political force in the country, the Communist party, sent forces to northern Albania against the nationalists to eliminate its rivals. They faced open resistance in Nikaj-Mertur, Dukagjin and Kelmend (Kelmendi was led by [[Prek Cali]]).<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.me/books?id=IJ2s9sQ9bGkC&pg=PA431&dq=Anti+Communist+Uprising+albania&hl=en&sa=X&ei=G5bhUsjnD9GThgefw4GYCQ&ved=0CC8Q6AEwAg#v=onepage&q=Anti%20Communist%20Uprising%20albania&f=false |title=The Albanians: An Ethnic History from Prehistoric Times to the Present - Edwin E. Jacques - Google Books |publisher=Books.google.me |date=28 November 1912 |accessdate=15 February 2014}}</ref> On 15 January 1945, a clash took place between partisans of the first Brigade and nationalist forces at the Tamara Bridge, resulting in the defeat of the nationalist forces . About 150 Kelmendi<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.me/books?id=0WP5UXsrAP4C&pg=PA12&dq=prenk+cali&hl=en&sa=X&ei=gyXhUu3mJLSzsQSXkYAI&redir_esc=y#v=snippet&q=communism%20kelmend&f=false |title=Live to Tell: A True Story of Religious Persecution in Communist Albania - Zef Pllumi - Google Books |publisher=Books.google.me |date=28 November 1948 |accessdate=15 February 2014}}</ref> people were killed or tortured. This event was the starting point of many other issues which took place during Enver Hoxha's dictatorship. Class struggle was strictly applied, human freedom and human rights were denied.{{citation needed|date=May 2015}} Kelmend region was isolated both by the border and by lack of roads for another 20 years, the institution of agricultural cooperative brought about economic decline. Many Kelmendi people fled, some were executed trying to cross the border.{{citation needed|date=May 2015}} [[File:Ppshsymbol1981.png|thumb|Symbol of the [[Labour Party of Albania]].]] After the liberation of Albania from Nazi occupation, the country became a [[Communist state]], the [[People's Socialist Republic of Albania|People's Republic of Albania]] (renamed "the People's Socialist Republic of Albania" in 1976), which was led by [[Enver Hoxha]] and the [[Labour Party of Albania]].{{citation needed|date=May 2015}} The socialist reconstruction of Albania was launched immediately after the annulling of the monarchy and the establishment of a "[[People's Republic]]". In 1947, Albania's first railway line was completed, with the second completed eight months later. New land reform laws were passed granting the land to the workers and peasants who tilled it. Agriculture became [[Worker cooperative|cooperative]], and production increased significantly, leading to Albania's becoming agriculturally self-sufficient. By 1955, illiteracy was eliminated among Albania's adult population.<ref>''40 Years of Socialist Albania'', Dhimiter Picani</ref> [[File:Bunker in Albanian Alps.jpg|thumb|left|An [[Bunkers in Albania|old communist bunker]] overlooking the peaks of [[Valbonë Valley National Park|Valbona Valley]]. An estimated 700,000 concrete bunkers were built by Hoxha's government.]]During this period Albania became industrialized and saw rapid economic growth, as well as unprecedented progress in the areas of education and health.{{citation needed|date=May 2015}} The average annual rate of Albania's national income was 29% higher than the world average and 56% higher than the European average.<ref>{{cite web|last=Dalakoglou|first=Dimitris|title=The Road from Capitalism to Capitalism |url= http://www.academia.edu/1934474/The_Road_from_Capitalism_to_Capitalism_Infrastructures_of_Post_Socialism_in_Albania|accessdate=11 November 2012}}</ref> Albania's Communist [[Constitution of Albania|constitution]] did not allow taxes on individuals; instead, taxes were imposed on cooperatives and other organizations, with much the same effect.<ref>{{cite web|last=Pano|first=Aristotel|title=Panorama of the Economic-Social Development of Socialist Albania |url=http://www.revolutionarydemocracy.org/archive/panorama.htm|accessdate=11 April 2012}}</ref> Religious freedoms were severely curtailed during the Communist period, with all forms of worship being outlawed. In August 1945, the Agrarian Reform Law meant that large swaths of property owned by religious groups (mostly Islamic [[waqfs]]) were nationalized, along with the estates of monasteries and dioceses. Many believers, along with the [[ulema]] and many [[priests]], were arrested, tortured and executed. In 1949, a new Decree on Religious Communities required that all their activities be sanctioned by the state alone.<ref>Library of Congress Country Studies, Albania: Hoxha's Antireligious Campaign</ref> In 1967, after hundreds of mosques and dozens of Islamic libraries containing priceless manuscripts were destroyed, Hoxha proclaimed Albania the "world's first [[State atheism|atheist state]]".<ref>Kombësia dhe feja në Shqipëri, 1920–1944 / Roberto Morocco dela Roka ; e përktheu nga origjinali Luan Omari.</ref><ref name = "Elsie p27">{{Cite book|title=Historical Dictionary of Albania|last=Elsie|first=Robert|publisher=[[The Scarecrow Press]]|year=2010|isbn=978-0-810-86188-6|edition=2nd|series=Historical Dictionaries of Europe, No. 75|location=Lanham, MD, and Plymouth|page=[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=haFlGXIg8uoC&pg=PA27 27]}}</ref> The country's churches had not been spared either, and many were converted into cultural centers for young people. A 1967 law banned all "fascist, religious, warmongerish, antisocialist activity and propaganda." Preaching religion carried a three to ten years prison sentence. Nonetheless, many Albanians continued to practice their beliefs secretly. The Hoxha dictatorship's anti-religion crusade attained its most fundamental legal and political expression a decade later: "The state recognizes no religion," declared Communist Albania's 1976 constitution, "and supports and carries out atheistic propaganda in order to implant a scientific materialistic world outlook in people."<ref name = "Elsie p27" /> Hoxha's political successor [[Ramiz Alia]] oversaw the dismemberment of the "[[Hoxhaist]]" state during the breakup of the [[Eastern Bloc]] in the later 1980s. ===Post-Communist Albania=== {{main|Fall of communism in Albania}} After protests beginning in 1989 and reforms made by the communist government in 1990, the People's Republic was dissolved in 1991–92 and the Republic of Albania was founded. The communists retained a stronghold in parliament after popular support in the elections of 1991. However, in March 1992, amid liberalization policies resulting in economic collapse and social unrest, a new front led by the new [[Democratic Party of Albania|Democratic Party]] took power. [[File:Albanian army deploys T-59 tanks near Kosovo border, May 1999 (Robert Wright).jpg|thumb|260px|Albanian T-59 tanks near Kosovo border, May 1999 during the [[Kosovo war]]]]In the following years, much of the accumulated wealth of the country was invested in [[Ponzi scheme|Ponzi]] pyramid banking schemes, which were widely supported by government officials. The schemes swept up somewhere between one-sixth to one-third of the country's population.<ref>Jarvis, Christopher. 2000. "[http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/fandd/2000/03/jarvis.htm The Rise and Fall of the Albanian Pyramid Schemes]." Finance and Development, Vol 37:1</ref><ref>Bezemer, Dirk. 2001. "Post-socialist Financial Fragility: The Case of Albania." Cambridge Journal of Economics. Vol 25: 1–25.</ref> Despite IMF warnings in late 1996, then president [[Sali Berisha]] defended the schemes as large investment firms, leading more people to redirect their remittances and sell their homes and cattle for cash to deposit in the schemes.<ref>Musaraj, Smoki. 2011. "Tales from Albarado: The Materiality of Pyramid Schemes in Post-socialist Albania." ''Cultural Anthropology'', Vol 26(1): 84–110.</ref> The schemes began to collapse in late 1996, leading many of the investors into initially peaceful protests against the government, requesting their money back. The protests turned violent in February as government forces responded with fire. In March the police and Republican Guard deserted, leaving their armories open. They were promptly emptied by militias and criminal gangs. The [[1997 rebellion in Albania|resulting crisis]] caused a wave of evacuations of foreign nationals<ref>[[Operation Libelle]]</ref><ref>[[Operation Silver Wake]]</ref> and of refugees.<ref>The [[Albanian diaspora|mass emigration of Albanians]] was mostly to [[Albanians in Italy|Italy]], [[Albanian communities in Greece|Greece]], [[Albanians in Switzerland|Switzerland]], [[Albanians in Germany|Germany]] and North America.</ref> The crisis led Prime Minister [[Aleksandër Meksi]] to resign on 11 March 1997, followed by President Sali Berisha in July in the wake of the June General Election. In April 1997, [[Operation Alba]], a UN peacekeeping force led by Italy, entered the country with two goals: assistance in evacuation of expatriates and to secure the ground for international organizations. This was primarily WEU MAPE, who worked with the government in restructuring the judicial system and police. The Socialist Party won the elections in 1997, and a degree of political stabilization followed. In 1999, the country was affected by the [[1999 NATO bombing of the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia|Kosovo War]], when a great number of Albanians from Kosovo found refuge in Albania. Albania became a full member of [[NATO]] in 2009, and has [[Accession of Albania to the European Union|applied]] to join the [[European Union]]. In 2013, the Socialist Party won the national elections. In June 2014, the Republic of Albania became an official candidate for accession to the European Union. == Government == {{Main|Politics of Albania|Law of Albania}} {{Use dmy dates|date=September 2015}} The Albanian republic is a parliamentary democracy established under a constitution renewed in 1998.<ref>{{cite web|title=Albania 1998 (rev. 2008)|url=https://www.constituteproject.org/constitution/Albania_2008?lang=en|website=Constitute|accessdate=16 February 2015}}</ref> Elections are held every four years to the 140-seat [[Unicameralism|unicameral]] [[Assembly of Albania|Assembly of the Republic of Albania]]. In June 2002, a compromise candidate, [[Alfred Moisiu]], former [[Army General]], was elected to succeed President [[Rexhep Meidani]]. After parliamentary elections in July 2005, [[Sali Berisha]], the leader of the Democratic Party, became prime minister, while on 20 July 2007 Bamir Topi became president. The current Albanian president [[Bujar Nishani]] was elected by Parliament in July 2012. The Euro-Atlantic integration of Albania has been the ultimate goal of the post-communist governments. Albania's EU membership bid has been set as a priority by the European Commission. Albania, along with Croatia, joined NATO on 1 April 2009, becoming the 27th and 28th members of the alliance.<ref>{{cite news | url =http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/7977332.stm | accessdate =2 April 2009 |work=BBC News |title=Nato welcomes Albania and Croatia | date=1 April 2009| archiveurl= //web.archive.org/web/20090404233013/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/7977332.stm| archivedate= 4 April 2009 | deadurl= no}}</ref> === Executive branch === [[File:Cabinet of albania logo.svg|thumb|right|175px|Cabinet of Albania Logo]] The head of state in Albania is the [[List of Presidents of Albania|President]] of the Republic. The President is elected to a 5-year term by the Assembly by secret ballot, requiring a 50%+1 majority of the votes of all deputies. The current President of the Republic is Bujar Nishani elected in July 2012. The President has the power to guarantee observation of the constitution and all laws, act as commander in chief of the armed forces, exercise the duties of the Assembly of the Republic of Albania when the Assembly is not in session, and appoint the Chairman of the Council of Ministers (prime minister). Executive power rests with the Council of Ministers (cabinet). The Chairman of the Council (prime minister) is appointed by the president; ministers are nominated by the president on the basis of the prime minister's recommendation. The People's Assembly must give final approval of the composition of the Council. The Council is responsible for carrying out both foreign and domestic policies. It directs and controls the activities of the ministries and other state organs. {| class="wikitable" |- !align=left|[[List of Presidents of Albania|President]] |[[Bujar Nishani]]||[[Democratic Party of Albania|PD]] ||24 July 2012 |- !align=left|[[List of Prime Ministers of Albania|Prime Minister]] |[[Edi Rama]]||[[Socialist Party of Albania|PS]]||15 September 2013 |} === Legislative branch === {{Main|Assembly of the Republic of Albania}} [[File:Zyrat te parlamentit.jpg|thumb|240px|Parliament offices in [[Tirana]]]] The [[Assembly of Albania|Assembly of the Republic of Albania]] (''Kuvendi i Republikës së Shqipërisë'') is the lawmaking body in Albania. There are 140 deputies in the Assembly, which are elected through a [[party-list proportional representation]] system. The President of the Assembly (or Speaker), who has two deputies, chairs the Assembly. There are 15 permanent commissions, or committees. Parliamentary elections are held at least every four years. The Assembly has the power to decide the direction of domestic and foreign policy; approve or amend the constitution; declare war on another state; ratify or annul international treaties; elect the President of the Republic, the Supreme Court, and the Attorney General and his or her deputies; and control the activity of state radio and television, state news agency and other official information media. === Armed forces === {{Main|Military of Albania}} [[File:2015 228 CCF 776 (22450176570).jpg|thumbnail|Albanian infantry units in a NATO joint live excersise in Italy, 2015.]] [[File:Patrol Boat Iliria.jpg|thumb|left|Patrol boat ''Iliria'' of the [[Albanian Navy]].]] The [[Military of Albania|Albanian Armed Forces]] (''Forcat e Armatosura të Shqipërisë'') were first formed after the country declared its independence in 1912. Albania reduced the number of active troops from 65,000 in 1988 to 14,500 in 2009.<ref>{{cite news | url = http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/1935630.stm |work=BBC News |title=Albania sells off its military hardware | date=17 April 2002}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.setimes.com/cocoon/setimes/xhtml/en_GB/features/setimes/features/2008/08/21/feature-03 |title=Albania to abolish conscription by 2010 |publisher=SETimes.com |date=21 August 2008 |accessdate=29 December 2009}}</ref> The military now consists mainly of a small fleet of aircraft and sea vessels. In the 1990s, the country scrapped enormous amounts of obsolete hardware from China, such as tanks and [[Surface-to-air missile|SAM systems]]. The armed forces currently include the [[Albanian General Staff|General Staff]], the [[Albanian Land Force]], the [[Albanian Air Force]] and the [[Albanian Naval Force]]. Increasing the military budget was one of the most important conditions for [[NATO]] integration. Military spending has generally been lower than 1.5% since 1996, only to peak in 2009 at 2% and fall again to 1.5%.<ref>{{cite web|title=Albanian military expenditure as % of GDP|url=https://www.google.com/publicdata/explore?ds=d5bncppjof8f9_&met_y=ms_mil_xpnd_gd_zs&idim=country:ALB&dl=en&hl=en&q=military+expenditure+of+albania#!ctype=l&strail=false&bcs=d&nselm=h&met_y=ms_mil_xpnd_gd_zs&scale_y=lin&ind_y=false&rdim=region&idim=country:ALB&ifdim=region&hl=en_US&dl=en&ind=false|publisher=World Bank}}</ref> Since February 2008, Albania has participated officially in NATO's [[Operation Active Endeavor]] in the [[Mediterranean Sea]].<ref>[http://www.nato.int/issues/active_endeavour/index.html ] {{wayback|df=yes|url=http://www.nato.int/issues/active_endeavour/index.html |date=20110830210539 }}</ref> It was invited to join NATO on 3 April 2008, and it became a full member on 2 April 2009.<ref>{{cite web|title=Albania membership Nato |publisher=NATO |url=http://www.nato.int/issues/nato_albania/evolution.html |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/20110728003727/http://www.nato.int/issues/nato_albania/evolution.html |archivedate=28 July 2011 }}</ref> === Administrative divisions === {{Main|Administrative divisions of Albania}} Albania is divided into 12 administrative counties ({{lang-sq|qark or prefekturë}}). Since June 2015, these counties are divided into 61 municipalities ({{lang-sq|bashki}}). These counties were further divided in 36 districts ({{lang-sq|rreth}}) which became defunct in 2000.<ref name="terref">[http://www.reformaterritoriale.al/en/roadmap/history A Brief History of the Administrative-territorial Organization in Albania]</ref> The government introduced a new administrative division to be implemented in 2015 whereby municipalities are reduced to 61 in total, while rural ones called ''komuna'' are abolished. The defunct municipalities will be known as Neighborhoods or Villages ({{lang-sq|Lagje / Fshat}}).<ref>http://www.top-channel.tv/lajme/artikull.php?id=292404</ref><ref>http://www.shekulli.com.al/web/p.php?id=38109&kat=88</ref> There are overall 2980 villages/communities ({{lang-sq|fshat}}) in all Albania, formerly known as localities ({{lang-sq|lokalitete}}). The municipalities are the first level of local governance, responsible for local needs and law enforcement.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.moi.gov.al/english/images/pdf/qeverisja_vendore.pdf |title=On the Organization and Functioning of the Local Government, Republic of Albania, 2000 |format=PDF |accessdate=27 August 2010|archiveurl = http://www.webcitation.org/5sskA8M0G |archivedate = 20 September 2010|deadurl=yes}}</ref> As part of the reform, major town centers in Albania are being physically redesigned and façades painted to reflect a more Mediterranean look.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.shekulli.com.al/web/p.php?id=38109&kat=88 |title=Ndarja e re, mbeten 28 bashki, shkrihen komunat &#124; Shekulli Online |publisher=Shekulli.com.al |date=10 January 2014 |accessdate=15 February 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.reformaterritoriale.al/ |title=Reforma Territoriale - KRYESORE |publisher=Reformaterritoriale.al |accessdate=15 August 2014}}</ref> == Geography == {{Main|Geography of Albania}} [[File:Albania space.jpg|thumb|left|230px|A satellite image of Albania]] [[File:Skrapar Osum Canyon.jpg|thumb|Osum Canyon in Skrapar]] [[File:2013-10-04 Valbona, Albania 7997.jpg|thumb|Paved road in [[Valbona Valley]], part of the Albanian Alps. Main mountain roads in Albania have recently begun to be reconstructed.]] Albania has a total area of {{convert|28748|km2|0|abbr=off}}. It lies between latitudes [[39th parallel north|39°]] and [[43rd parallel north|43° N]], and mostly between longitudes [[19th meridian east|19°]] and [[21st meridian east|21° E]] (a small area lies east of 21°). Albania's coastline length is {{convert|476|km|0|abbr=on}}<ref name="Albania pdf">{{cite web| author=R. Eftimi|url=http://aguas.igme.es/igme/publica/tiac-02/ALBANIA-I.pdf|title=SOME CONSIDERATIONS ON SEAWATER-FRESHWATER RELATIONSHIP IN ALBANIAN COASTAL AREA|publisher=ITA Consult}}</ref>{{rp|240}} and extends along the [[Adriatic Sea|Adriatic]] and [[Ionian Sea]]s. The lowlands of the west face the Adriatic Sea. The 70% of the country that is mountainous is rugged and often inaccessible from the outside. The highest mountain is [[Mount Korab|Korab]] situated in the [[district of Dibër]], reaching up to {{convert|2764|m|ft}}. The climate on the coast is typically [[Mediterranean climate|Mediterranean]] with mild, wet winters and warm, sunny, and rather dry summers. Inland conditions vary depending on elevation, but the higher areas above 1,500&nbsp;m/5,000&nbsp;ft are rather cold and frequently snowy in winter; here cold conditions with snow may linger into spring. Besides the capital city of [[Tirana]], which has 420,000 inhabitants, the principal cities are [[Durrës]], [[Korçë]], [[Elbasan]], [[Shkodër]], [[Gjirokastër]], [[Vlorë]] and [[Kukës]]. In Albanian grammar, a word can have indefinite and definite forms, and this also applies to city names: both ''Tiranë'' and ''Tirana'', ''Shkodër'' and ''Shkodra'' are used. The three largest and deepest tectonic lakes of the [[Balkan Peninsula]] are partly located in Albania. [[Lake Shkodër]] in the country's northwest has a surface which can vary between {{convert|370|km2|sqmi|abbr=on}} and 530&nbsp;km², out of which one third belongs to Albania and rest to Montenegro. The Albanian shoreline of the lake is {{convert|57|km|0|abbr=on}}. [[Ohrid Lake]] is situated in the country's southeast and is shared between Albania and Republic of Macedonia. It has a maximal depth of 289&nbsp;meters and a variety of unique flora and fauna can be found there, including "living fossils" and many endemic species. Because of its natural and historical value, Ohrid Lake is under the protection of [[UNESCO]]. There is also Butrinti Lake which is a small tectonic lake. It is located in the national park of Butrint. === Climate === [[File:PalasëKüstePanorama.jpg|thumb|350px|[[Albanian Riviera]] as seen from Llogora Pass along SH8]] [[File:Albania map of Köppen climate classification.svg|thumb|175px|Albania map of Köppen climate classification.|left]] With its coastline facing the Adriatic and Ionian seas, its highlands backed upon the elevated Balkan landmass, and the entire country lying at a latitude subject to a variety of weather patterns during the winter and summer seasons, Albania has a high number of climatic regions relative to its landmass. The coastal lowlands have typically Mediterranean climate; the highlands have a Mediterranean continental climate. In both the lowlands and the interior, the weather varies markedly from north to south. The lowlands have mild winters, averaging about {{convert|7|°C|0|abbr=on}}. Summer temperatures average {{convert|24|°C|0|abbr=on}}. In the southern lowlands, temperatures average about {{convert|5|C-change|0|abbr=on}} higher throughout the year. The difference is greater than {{convert|5|C-change|0|abbr=on}} during the summer and somewhat less during the winter. Inland temperatures are affected more by differences in elevation than by latitude or any other factor. Low winter temperatures in the mountains are caused by the continental air mass that dominates the weather in Eastern Europe and the [[Balkan]]s. Northerly and northeasterly winds blow much of the time. Average summer temperatures are lower than in the coastal areas and much lower at higher elevations, but daily fluctuations are greater. Daytime maximum temperatures in the interior basins and [[river valley]]s are very high, but the nights are almost always cool. Average [[precipitation (meteorology)|precipitation]] is heavy, a result of the convergence of the prevailing airflow from the [[Mediterranean Sea]] and the continental air mass. Because they usually meet at the point where the terrain rises, the heaviest rain falls in the central uplands. Vertical currents initiated when the Mediterranean air is uplifted also cause frequent thunderstorms. Many of these storms are accompanied by high local winds and torrential downpours. [[File:Albania pasture.jpg|thumb|left|Landscape of Albanian countryside]] When the continental air mass is weak, Mediterranean winds drop their moisture farther inland. When there is a dominant continental air mass, cold air spills onto the lowland areas, which occurs most frequently in the winter. Because the season's lower temperatures damage olive trees and citrus fruits, groves and orchards are restricted to sheltered places with southern and western exposures, even in areas with high average winter temperatures. Lowland rainfall averages from {{convert|1000|mm|in|1|sp=us}} to more than {{convert|1500|mm|in|1|sp=us}} annually, with the higher levels in the north. Nearly 95% of the rain falls in the winter. Rainfall in the upland mountain ranges is heavier. Adequate records are not available, and estimates vary widely, but annual averages are probably about {{convert|1800|mm|in|1|sp=us}} and are as high as {{convert|2550|mm|in|1|sp=us}} in some northern areas. The western Albanian Alps (valley of Boga) are among the wettest areas in Europe, receiving some {{convert|3100|mm|1|abbr=on}} of rain annually.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://qendrim.forumotion.net/gjeografia-f61/tiparet-e-pergjithshme-te-klimes-t3725.htm |title=Tiparet e pergjithshme te klimes |publisher=Qendrim.forumotion.net |date=20 December 2009 |accessdate=5 May 2013}}</ref> The seasonal variation is not quite as great in the coastal area. The higher inland mountains receive less precipitation than the intermediate uplands. Terrain differences cause wide local variations, but the seasonal distribution is the most consistent of any area. In 2009, an expedition from University of Colorado discovered four small glaciers in the "Cursed" mountains in North Albania. The glaciers are at the relatively low level of {{convert|2000|m|ft}}, almost unique for such a southerly latitude.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://instaar.metapress.com/content/273213h3t4370272/ |title=Twenty-first Century Glaciers and Climate in the Prokletije Mountains, Albania Journal Arctic, Antarctic, and Alpine Research Publisher Institute of Arctic and Alpine Research, University of Colorado ISSN 1523-0430 (Print) 1938–4246 (Online) Issue Volume 41, Number 4 / November 2009 DOI 10.1657/1938-4246-41.4.455 Pages 455–459 Online Date: 30 November 2009|publisher=Instaar.metapress.com |date=30 November 2009 |accessdate=27 August 2010}}</ref> === Flora and fauna === [[File:Lynx lynx poing.jpg|thumb|upright|The [[lynx]] still survives in Albania.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.catsg.org/balkanlynx/01_recovery-programme/1_7_conferences/tirana-sept-08/Tirana_Proceedings_Trajce_et_al_2008_Conservation_of_the_critically_endangered_Balkan_lynx.pdf|title=Conservation of the Critically Endangered Balkan Lynx |publisher=Catsg.org |accessdate=5 January 2011}}</ref>]] Although a small country, Albania is distinguished for its rich [[biological]] diversity. The variation of geomorphology, climate and terrain create favorable conditions for a number of endemic and sub-endemic species with 27 endemic and 160 subendemic vascular plants present in the country. The total number of plants is over 3250 species, approximately 30% of the entire flora species found in Europe. Over a third of the territory of Albania&nbsp;– about {{convert|10000|km2|0|abbr=off}};– is forested and the country is very rich in flora. About 3,000 different species of plants grow in Albania, many of which are used for medicinal purposes. [[Phytogeography|Phytogeographically]], Albania belongs to the [[Boreal Kingdom]], the [[Mediterranean Region]] and the Illyrian province of the [[Circumboreal Region]]. Coastal regions and lowlands have typical Mediterranean [[macchia]] vegetation, whereas [[oak]] forests and vegetation are found on higher elevations. Vast forests of [[European black pine|black pine]], [[beech]] and [[fir]] are found on higher mountains and alpine [[grasslands]] grow at elevations above 1800&nbsp;meters.<ref name="cbd.int">http://www.cbd.int/doc/world/al/al-nbsap-01-p1-en.pdf</ref> [[File:Steinadler Aquila chrysaetos closeup2 Richard Bartz.jpg|thumb|left|235px|[[Golden eagle]]–the national symbol of Albania.<ref name="Streissguth">{{cite book|last=Streissguth|first=Thomas |url=https://books.google.com/?id=wL_-zcyLn6kC&pg=PA14&dq=The+golden+eagle+is+Albania's+national+symbol.#v=onepage&q=The%20golden%20eagle%20is%20Albania's%20national%20symbol.&f=false|title=Albania in Pictures |publisher=Twenty-First Century Books |year=2010|isbn=978-0-7613-4629-6}}</ref>]] According to the [[World Wide Fund for Nature]] and Digital Map of European Ecological Regions by the [[European Environment Agency]], the territory of Albania can be subdivided into three [[ecoregion]]s: the [[Illyrian deciduous forests]], [[Pindus Mountains mixed forests]] and [[Dinaric Alps|Dinaric Alpine]] mixed forests. The forests are home to a wide range of mammals, including [[Gray wolf|wolves]], [[bear]]s, [[wild boar]]s and [[chamois]]. [[Lynx]], [[wildcat]]s, [[pine marten]]s and [[European polecat|polecats]] are rare, but survive in some parts of the country. There are around 760 vertebrate species found so far in Albania. Among these there are over 350 bird species, 330 freshwater and marine fish and 80 mammal species. There are some 91 globally threatened species found within the country, among which the [[Dalmatian pelican]], [[pygmy cormorant]], and the [[European sea sturgeon]]. Rocky coastal regions in the south provide good habitats for the endangered [[Mediterranean monk seal]]. Some of the most significant bird species found in the country include the [[golden eagle]]&nbsp;– known as the national symbol of Albania<ref name="Streissguth"/> &nbsp;– [[vulture]] species, [[capercaillie]] and numerous [[waterfowl]]. The Albanian forests still maintain significant communities of large mammals such as the [[brown bear]], [[gray wolf]], [[chamois]] and [[wild boar]].<ref name="cbd.int"/> The north and eastern mountains of the country are home to the last remaining [[Balkan lynx]]&nbsp;– a critically endangered population of the [[Eurasian lynx]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.catsg.org/balkanlynx/20_blx-compendium/index.htm |title=The Balkan Lynx Conservation Compendium|publisher=Catsg.org |accessdate=29 December 2009}}</ref> == Economy == {{Main|Economy of Albania}} {{See also|Agriculture in Albania}} [[File:Tirana 001.jpg|thumb|[[Tirana]] the capital and economic hub of Albania.]] [[File:Ulza Dam.jpg|thumb|left|Ulza Dam|221x221px]] Albania's transition from a [[Socialism|socialist]] [[Planned economy|centrally planned economy]] to free-market [[capitalism]] has been largely successful.<ref name="worlddiplomacy">{{cite web | url=http://www.worlddiplomacy.org/Countries/Albania/InfoAlb.html | title=Albania | publisher=World Diplomacy | accessdate=1 August 2014}}</ref> There are signs of increasing investments, and power cuts are reduced to the extent that Albania is now exporting energy.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/8406675.stm |publisher=BBC News |title=Albania's strides to EU accession |date=11 December 2009}}</ref> In 2012, its [[GDP per capita]] (expressed in [[Purchasing power parity|Purchasing Power Standards]]) stood at 30% of the EU average, while AIC (Actual Individual Consumption) was 35%.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/cache/ITY_PUBLIC/2-12122013-BP/EN/2-12122013-BP-EN.PDF|format=PDF|title=GDP per capita in purchasing power standards in 2012|publisher=Eurostat |accessdate=14 December 2013}}</ref> Still, Albania has shown potential for economic growth, as more and more businesses relocate there and consumer goods are becoming available from emerging market traders as part of the current massive global cost-cutting exercise. Albania, Cyprus, and Poland are the only countries in Europe that recorded economic growth in the first quarter of 2010.<ref>Business: Albania, Cyprus register economic growth [http://www.setimes.com/cocoon/setimes/xhtml/en_GB/features/setimes/roundup/2009/05/15/roundup-bs-03 SEtimes.com]</ref><ref>Strong economic growth potential puts Albania and Panama top of long term investment list,[http://www.propertywire.com/news/related-stories/albania-panama-long-term-investment-200807201344.html Propertywire.com]</ref> [[International Monetary Fund]] (IMF) predicted 2.6% growth for Albania in 2010 and 3.2% in 2011.<ref>International Monetary Fund (IMF), 9 October 2010. [http://www.imf.org/external/country/alb/index.htm Albania and the IMF]</ref>[[File:Something in Albania (10759257413).jpg|thumb|Cement factory in [[Fushë-Krujë]]]]Albania and Croatia have discussed the possibility of jointly building a nuclear power plant at Lake [[Shkoder]], close to the [[Border crossings of Albania|border]] with Montenegro, a plan that has gathered criticism from Montenegro due to seismicity in the area.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.balkaninsight.com/en/main/news/18259/ |title=Albania, Croatia plan nuclear power plant |publisher=Balkaninsight.com |accessdate=27 August 2010 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/20100328065915/http://www.balkaninsight.com:80/en/main/news/18259 |archivedate=28 March 2010 }}</ref> In addition, there is some doubt whether Albania would be able to finance a project of such a scale with a total national budget of less than $5&nbsp;billion.<ref name="cia" /> However, in February 2009 Italian company [[Enel]] announced plans to build an 800 MW coal-fired power plant in Albania, to diversify electricity sources.<ref name="diversify">[http://www.allbusiness.com/energy-utilities/utilities-industry-electric-power/11935171-1.html Enel Albanian Joint Venture Introduces Coal In Albania's Power Mix], Business Monitor Online, 24 February 2009 {{wayback|df=yes|url=http://www.allbusiness.com/energy-utilities/utilities-industry-electric-power/11935171-1.html |date=20120219093411 }}</ref> Nearly 100% of the electricity is generated by ageing hydroelectric power plants, which are becoming more ineffective due to increasing droughts.<ref name="diversify" /> However, there have been many private investments in building new hydroelectric power plants such as [[Devoll Hydro Power Plant]] and the Ashta hydropower plant.[[File:StauseeBeiFierze2014-2.JPG|thumb|left|Koman Hydroelectric Power Station]]The country has large deposits of petroleum and natural gas, and produced 26,000 barrels of oil per day in the first quarter of 2014 (BNK-TC).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.newswire.ca/en/story/1383301/bankers-petroleum-operational-update-for-the-second-quarter-2014 |title=Bankers Petroleum Ltd. &#124; Bankers Petroleum Operational Update for the Second Quarter 2014 |publisher=Newswire.ca |accessdate=15 August 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/rankorder/2241rank.html?countryName=Albania&countryCode=al&regionCode=eur&rank=77#al |title=CIA The World Factbook: Oil producers |deadurl=no |accessdate=23 June 2013}}</ref> Natural gas production, estimated at about 30 million m³, is sufficient to meet consumer demands.<ref name="cia"/> Other natural resources include coal, [[bauxite]], copper and iron ore.Albania has the largest onshore oil reserves in Europe. Albania's crude output amounted to more than 1.2 million tonnes in 2013, including 1.06 million by Canada's Bankers Petroleum, 87,063 tonnes from Canada's Stream Oil and 37,406 tonnes by Albpetrol on its own. Three foreign firms produced the rest.<ref>{{Cite web|url = http://in.reuters.com/article/2014/05/06/albania-crude-idINL6N0NS55T20140506|title = INTERVIEW-Albania to auction 13 blocks for oil exploration|date = |accessdate = |website = |publisher = |last = |first = }}</ref>[[File:Albania Export Treemap.jpg|thumb|263x263px|Albania Export Treemap]][[Agriculture in Albania|Agriculture]] is the most significant sector, employing a significant proportion of the labor force and generating about 21% of GDP. Agriculture in Albania employs 47.8% of the population and about 24.31% of the land is used for agricultural purposes. Domestic farm products accounted for 63% of household expenditures and 25% of exports in 1990. As part of the pre-accession process of Albania to the EU, farmers are being aided through IPA 2011 funds to improve Albanian agriculture standards.<ref>{{Cite web|url = http://ec.europa.eu/enlargement/pdf/albania/ipa/2011/pf_7_agriculture_ipard_like_measures.pdf|title = IPA National Programme 2011 for Albania Project Fiche 7: Support to Agriculture and Rural Development|date = |accessdate = |website = ec.europa.eu|publisher = |last = |first = }}</ref> Albania produces significant amounts of [[tobacco]], [[olive]]s, [[wheat]], [[maize]], [[potato]]es, [[Vegetable oil|vegetables]], [[fruit]]s, [[sugar beet]]s, [[grape]]s; [[meat]], [[honey]], [[dairy product]]s, and traditional medicine and [[Essential oil|aromatic plants]], [[figs]] (13th largest producer in the world)<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.fao.org/es/ess/top/topproduction.html?lang=en&country=3&year=2005|title=Albania Country Profile|publisher=|accessdate=13 September 2014}}</ref> and [[Prunus cerasus|sour cherries]].<ref>http://www.factfish.com/statistic-country/albania/sour+cherries,+production+quantity</ref> Albania's proximity to the Ionian Sea and the Adriatic Sea give the underdeveloped fishing industry great potential. World Bank and European Community economists report that Albania's fishing industry has good potential to generate export earnings because prices in the nearby Greek and Italian markets are many times higher than those in the Albanian market. The fish available off the coasts of Albania are carp, trout, sea bream, mussels, and crustaceans. "[[Tourism in Albania|Tourism]] is gaining a fair share of Albania's GDP with visitors growing every year. {{As of|2014}} [[exports]] seem to gain momentum and have increased 300% from 2008, although their contribution to the GDP is still moderate ( the exports per capita ratio currently stands at 1100 $ ) . Although Albania's growth has slowed in 2013 tourism is expanding rapidly and foreign investments are becoming more common as the government continues the modernization of Albania's institutions."<ref name="worlddiplomacy"/> === Tourism === {{Main|Tourism in Albania}} [[File:Ag.Saranta.jpg|thumb|left|Seaside town of [[Saranda]] across from [[Corfu]]]] [[File:Grama Bay.JPG|210px|thumb|Grama Bay in Karaburun]] [[File:Beach in Himarë.jpg|thumb|left|Beach in [[Himarë]] on the Albanian Riviera]] A large part of Albania's national income comes from [[tourism]]. Tourism - {{As of|2013|lc=y}} - funds 10% of its gross domestical product, and this is expected to increase. Albania welcomed around 4.2 million visitors in 2012, mostly from neighbouring countries and the [[European Union]]. In 2011, Albania was recommended as a top travel destination, by [[Lonely Planet]].<ref name="Lonely Planet's top 10">{{cite web |url=http://www.lonelyplanet.com/albania/travel-tips-and-articles/76164 |title=Lonely Planet's top 10 countries for 2011&nbsp;– travel tips and articles&nbsp;– Lonely Planet |archiveurl=//web.archive.org/web/20101104050258/http://www.lonelyplanet.com/albania/travel-tips-and-articles/76164|archivedate=4 November 2010 |deadurl=no |accessdate=7 August 2013}}</ref> In 2014, Albania was nominated number 4 global touristic destination by the ''[[New York Times]]''.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2014/01/10/travel/2014-places-to-go.html?_r=0|title=52 Places to Go in 2014 |work=The New York Times|date=5 September 2014}}</ref> The number of tourists has increased by 20% for 2014 as well. The bulk of the tourist industry is concentrated along the [[Adriatic]] and the [[Ionian Sea]] coast. The latter has the most beautiful and pristine beaches, and is often called the [[Albanian Riviera]]. Albanian seaside has a considerable length of 360&nbsp;km, including even the [[lagoon]] area which you find within. The seaside has a particular character because it is rich in varieties of sandy beaches, capes, coves, covered bays, lagoons, small gravel beaches, sea caves etc. Some parts of this seaside are very clean ecologically, which represent in this prospective unexplored areas, very rare in [[Mediterranean]] area.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://albania.al/explore/natural-heritage/coast-line |title=Coastline &#124; Visit Albania &#124; The Official website of Albanian Tourism |publisher=Albania.al |accessdate=15 August 2014}}</ref> The increase in foreign visitors is dramatic, Albania had only 500,000 visitors in 2005, while in 2012 had an estimated 4.2 million tourists, an increase of 740% in only 7 years. Several of the country's main cities are situated along the pristine seashores of the Adriatic and Ionian Seas. An important gateway to the [[Balkan Peninsula]], Albania's ever-growing road network provides juncture to reach its neighbors in north south, east, and west. Albania is within close proximity to all the major European capitals with short two- or three-hour flights that are available daily. Tourists can see and experience Albania's ancient past and traditional culture.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://albania.al/about-albania |title=About Albania &#124; Visit Albania &#124; The Official website of Albanian Tourism |publisher=Albania.al |accessdate=15 August 2014}}</ref> Seventy percent of Albania's terrain is mountainous and there are valleys that spread in a beautiful mosaic of forests, pastures, springs framed by high peaks capped by snow until late summer spreads across them.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.albanian-mountains.com |title=Albanian Mountain Tourism |publisher=albanian-mountains.com |accessdate=15 August 2014}}</ref> [[Albanian Alps]], part of the Prokletije or Accursed Mountains range in Northern Albania bearing the highest mountain peak. The most beautiful mountainous regions that can be easily visited by tourists are [[Dajti Mountain]], [[Thethi]], [[Moscopole|Voskopoja]], [[Valbonë (river)|Valbona]], [[Kelmend]], [[Prespa]], Lake Koman, [[Dukat, Albania|Dukat]] and [[Shkrel]]. [[File:Lac de Shkodra.jpg|thumb|Lake Scutari]] ==== National parks and World Heritage Sites ==== {{See also|List of national parks in Albania}} [[File:Apollonia, Albania (by Pudelek) - Monument of Agonothetes.JPG|thumb|left|Ruins of [[Apollonia (Illyria)|Apollonia]]]] [[File:Gjirokaster, street 3.jpg|thumb|Street of [[Gjirokastër]] with cafes in the Citadel]] [[File:2013-10-05 Valbona, Albania 8265.jpg|thumb|left|[[Valbona Valley National Park|Valbona valley]] in autumn, part of the [[Albanian Alps]]]] [[File:Berat at night.jpg|thumb|left|[[Berat]] UNESCO World Heritage City|alt=Berat at night]] [[File:Butrint (18) Basilica.jpg|thumb|UNESCO World Heritage Site of the ancient city of [[Butrint]]]] Albania offers many places for hiking, the most spectacular landscapes being those of the national parks. One of the most impressive mountain national parks is the {{convert|4000|ha|acre|adj=on}} Tomorr National Park, established south of the [[Shkumbin]] river in the Tomorr Range just east of the beautiful museum-city of [[Berat]], and overlooking the city of Polican. Other important mountain national parks are: Theth (Thethi) National Park in the Shale basin around Theth (2630 hectares)<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.lonelyplanet.com/albania/theth-valbone |title=Theth & Valbonë |publisher=Lonely Planet |accessdate=15 August 2014}}</ref> Dajti (Daiti) National Park, 3300 hectares of the mountain overlooking the capital, Tirana and [[Valbona Valley National Park]], in the Valbona Gorge from the gorge entrance through to Rrogam and the surrounding mountains.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://albaniatourism.info/hiking-in-albania |title=Hiking and trekking in Albania &#124; Albania Tourism Information |publisher=Albaniatourism.info |accessdate=15 August 2014}}</ref> Although relatively small, Albania is home to a large number of lakes. Three of the largest lakes are Shkodra, Ohrid and Prespa.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://albania.al/explore/natural-heritage/rivers-and-lakes |title=Rivers and Lakes &#124; Visit Albania &#124; The Official website of Albanian Tourism |publisher=Albania.al |accessdate=15 August 2014}}</ref> There are a number of associations of the tourism industry such as ATA, Unioni, etc.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ata.org.al |title=Kryefaqa |publisher=Ata.org.al |accessdate=15 August 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sondortravel.com |title=Tour Operator Albania |publisher=Sondor Travel |accessdate=15 August 2014}}</ref> Albania is home to two World Heritage Sites (Berat and Gjirokastër are listed together) *[[Butrint]], an [[Ancient Greece|ancient Greek]] and [[Ancient Rome|Roman]] city *[[Gjirokastër]], a well-preserved [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] medieval town *[[Berat]], the 'town of a thousand and one windows' The following is the UNESCO Tentative List of Albania:<ref>http://whc.unesco.org/en/tentativelists/state=al</ref> *Gashi River and Rrajca (latter part of [[Shebenik-Jabllanica National Park]]) under primeval beech forests of the Carpathians and the ancient beech forests of Germany *[[Durrës Amphitheatre]] *[[Royal Tombs of Selca e Poshtme|Ancient Tombs of Lower Selca]] *[[Natural and Cultural Heritage of the Ohrid Region (Albania)|Natural and Cultural Heritage of the Ohrid Region]] *Ancient City of [[Apollonia (Illyria)|Apollonia]] Most of the international tourists going to Albania are from [[Kosovo]], [[Republic of Macedonia|Macedonia]], [[Montenegro]], Greece, and Italy.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.mtkrs.gov.al/web/Treguesit_statistikore_te_turizmit_30_1.php |title=Treguesit statistikorë të turizmit |publisher=Mtkrs.gov.al |accessdate=15 February 2014}}</ref> Foreign tourists mostly come from Eastern Europe, particularly from [[Poland]], and the [[Czech Republic]], but also from Western European countries such as [[Germany]], [[Belgium]], [[Netherlands]], [[France]], Scandinavia, and others. {{wide image|Valbona_Haze_Panorama.jpg|1200px|Valbona Valley Panorama}} <ref>{{cite web|url=http://lajme.shqiperia.com/lajme/artikull/iden/1046860598/titulli/Turizmi-ne-Shqiperi-reklama-per-Evropen-Lindore|title=Turizmi ne Shqiperi: Reklama per Evropen Lindore|publisher=|accessdate=13 September 2014}}</ref> == Crime and law enforcement == [[File:RENEA exhibition ALMEX 2010.jpg|thumbnail|left|RENEA exhibition ALMEX 2010]] Law enforcement in Albania is primarily the responsibility of the [[Albanian Police]]. Albania also has a counter-terrorism unit called [[RENEA]]. [[File:Policia e Shtetit.svg|thumb|Albanian State Police Logo|120px]] Homicide is a problem in the country, especially [[Gjakmarrja|blood feuds]] in rural areas of the north and domestic crime.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.gendercide.org/case_honour.html |title=Gendercide Watch: "Honour" Killings and Blood Feuds |publisher=Gendercide.org |accessdate=25 March 2013}}</ref> In 2014 about 3000 Albanian families were estimated to be involved in blood feuds and this had since the fall of Communism led to the deaths of 10,000 people.<ref name=spiegel_06June2014>{{cite news|title='We'll Get You': An Albanian Boy's Life Ruined by Blood Feuds|url=http://www.spiegel.de/international/world/blood-feuds-still-prevalent-in-albania-a-973498.html|accessdate=12 June 2014|work=[[Spiegel Online]]|publisher=Spiegel Online GmbH|date=6 June 2014}}</ref> == Science and technology == {{Main|Science and technology in Albania}} From 1993 human resources in sciences and technology have drastically decreased. Various surveys show that during 1991–2005, approximately 50% of the professors and research scientists of the universities and science institutions in the country have emigrated.<ref name="dfid">{{cite web|url=http://www.dfid.gov.uk/R4D/SearchResearchDatabase.asp?OutputID=177440|title=Research for Development|publisher=|accessdate=13 September 2014}}</ref> However, in 2009 the government approved the "National Strategy for Science, Technology and Innovation in Albania"<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.dsdc.gov.al/dsdc/pub/national_strategy_of_science_technology_and_innovation_final_draft_381_1.pdf |title=Strategy of Science, Technology and Innovation 2009–2015 |format=PDF |accessdate=27 August 2010}}</ref> covering the period 2009–2015. It aims to triple public spending on research and development (R&D) to 0.6% of GDP and augment the share of gross domestic expenditure on R&D from foreign sources, including via the [[European Union]]'s Framework Programmes for Research, to the point where it covers 40% of research spending, among others. == Transport == {{Main|Transport in Albania}} === Highways === {{Main|Highways in Albania}} [[File: Autostrada Durrës-Morina-04.jpg|thumb|A1 Highway connecting Albania with Kosovo]] Currently, there are three main motorways in Albania: the dual carriageway connecting Durrës with [[Vlorë]], the [[Albania–Kosovo Highway]], and the [[Tirana–Elbasan Highway]]. The A1 [[Albania–Kosovo Highway]] links [[Kosovo]] to Albania's Adriatic coast: the Albanian side was completed in June 2009,<ref>{{cite web|last=Wynne |first=Alexandra |url=http://www.nce.co.uk/news/transport/albania-motorway-making-the-first-move/5203302.article# |title=Albania highway: Making the first move |publisher=Nce.co.uk |accessdate=29 December 2009}}</ref> and now it takes only two hours and a half to go from the Kosovo border to [[Durrës]]. Overall the highway will be around {{convert|250|km|0|abbr=on}} when it reaches [[Prishtina]]. The project was the biggest and most expensive infrastructure project ever undertaken in Albania. The cost of the highway appears to have breached €800&nbsp; million, although the exact cost for the total highway has yet to be confirmed by the government. Two additional highways will be built in Albania in the near future: [[Pan-European corridors|Corridor VIII]], which will link Albania with the Republic of Macedonia and Bulgaria, and the north-south highway, which corresponds to the Albanian side of the [[Adriatic–Ionian motorway]], a larger regional highway connecting [[Croatia]] with Greece along the [[Adriatic Sea|Adriatic]] and [[Ionian Sea|Ionian]] coasts. When all three corridors are completed Albania will have an estimated 759&nbsp; kilometers of highway linking it with all its neighboring countries: Kosovo, the Republic of Macedonia, Montenegro, and Greece. === Aviation === [[File:Terminal jashte.jpg|thumb|[[Tirana International Airport Nënë Tereza]]]] The civil air transport in Albania marked its beginnings in November 1924, when the Republic of Albania signed a governmental agreement with German air company [[Deutsche Luft Hansa]]. On the basis of a ten-year concession agreement, the Albanian Airlines Company Adria Aero Lloyd was established.{{Citation needed|date=December 2009}} In the spring of 1925, the first domestic flights from [[Tirana]] to [[Shkodër]] and [[Vlorë]] began.{{Citation needed|date=December 2009}} In August 1927, the office of Civil Aviation of Air Traffic Ministry of Italy purchased Adria Aero Lloyd. The company, now in Italian hands, expanded its flights to other cities, such as [[Elbasan]], [[Korçë]], [[Kukës]], [[Peshkopi]] and [[Gjirokastër]], and opened up international lines to Rome, [[Milan]], [[Thessaloniki]], [[Sofia]], [[Belgrade]], and [[Podgorica]]. The construction of a more modern airport in [[Laprakë]] started in 1934 and was completed by the end of 1935. This new airport, which was later officially named "Airport of Tirana", was constructed in conformity with optimal technological parameters of that time, with a reinforced concrete runway of {{convert|2700|m|0|abbr=on}}, and complemented with technical equipment and appropriate buildings. During 1955–1957, the [[Tirana International Airport Nënë Tereza|Rinasi Airport]] was constructed for military purposes. Later, its administration was shifted to the Ministry of Transport. On 25 January 1957 the State-owned Enterprise of International Air Transport ([[Transport in Albania|Albtransport]]) established its headquarters in Tirana. [[Aeroflot]], [[Jat Airways]], [[Malév]], [[TAROM]] and [[Interflug]] were the air companies that started to have flights with Albania until 1960.<ref name="Tirana International Airport Website">{{cite web |url=http://www.tirana-airport.com/?RoseToken=169180229114147161160144183148154169229193083155156151160214184090168180231crc339 | title=History of the Airport | accessdate=15 January 2011 | publisher=Tirana International Airport Website}}</ref> During 1960–1978, several airlines ceased to operate in Albania due to the impact of the politics, resulting in a decrease of influx of flights and passengers. In 1977 Albania's government signed an agreement with Greece to open the country's first air links with non-communist Europe. As a result, [[Olympic Airlines|Olympic Airways]] was the first non-communist airline to commercially fly into Albania after World War II. By 1991 Albania had air links with many major European cities, including Paris, Rome, [[Zürich]], Vienna and [[Budapest]], but no regular domestic air service.<ref name="Tirana International Airport Website"/> A French-Albanian joint venture [[Ada Air]], was launched in Albania as the first private airline, in 1991. The company offered flights in a thirty-six-passenger airplane four days a week between Tirana and [[Bari]], Italy and a charter service for domestic and international destinations.<ref name="Tirana International Airport Website"/> From 1989 to 1991, because of political changes in the Eastern European countries, Albania adhered to the [[International Civil Aviation Organization]] (ICAO), opened its air space to international flights, and had its duties of Air Traffic Control defined. As a result of these developments, conditions were created to separate the activities of air traffic control from Albtransport. Instead, the National Agency of Air Traffic (NATA) was established as an independent enterprise. In addition, during these years, governmental agreements of civil air transport were established with countries such as [[Bulgaria]], Germany, [[Slovenia]], Italy, Russia, Austria, the UK and [[Republic of Macedonia|Macedonia]]. The Directory General of Civil Aviation (DGCA) was established on 3 February 1991, to cope with the development required by the time. Albania has one [[international airport]], [[Tirana International Airport Nënë Tereza]], which is linked to 29 destinations by 14 airlines. It has seen a dramatic rise in passenger numbers and aircraft movements since the early 1990s. '''Kukës Airport''' The government of Albania granted permission for it to host international passenger traffic in 2016. === Railways === {{Main|Rail transport in Albania|Hekurudha Shqiptare}} [[File:Albanian Railways T-669 Locomotive.JPG|thumb|Newly painted T-669 Locomotive of the Albanian Railways at Kashar transit stop]] The railways in Albania are administered by the national railway company ''[[Hekurudha Shqiptare]]'' (HSH) (which means ''Albanian Railways''). It operates a {{RailGauge|1435 mm}} gauge (standard gauge) rail system in Albania. All trains are hauled by [[Czech Republic|Czech]]-built [[ČKD]] [[diesel-electric locomotive]]s. The railway system was extensively promoted by the [[totalitarianism|totalitarian]] regime of [[Enver Hoxha]], during which time the use of private transport was effectively prohibited. Since the collapse of the former regime, there has been a considerable increase in car ownership and [[bus]] usage. Whilst some of the country's roads are still in very poor condition, there have been other developments (such as the construction of a motorway between Tirana and Durrës) which have taken much traffic away from the railways.{{citation needed|date=December 2012}} == Demographics == {{Main|Demographics of Albania}} [[File:Albania minorities.png|thumbnail|Regions with a traditional presence of ethnic groups other than Albanian.]] [[File:Albania majority ethnicity 2011 census.PNG|thumb|250px|Representation of the distribution of ethnic groups within the Republic of Albania, as according to the 2011 census. Districts colored gray are those where a majority of people did not declare an ethnicity (the question was optional).]] According to the 2011 Census results, the total population of Albania is 2,821,977 with a low [[Fertility rate]] of 1.49 children born per woman.<ref>Albania: People, CIA World Factbook, 2012. Retrieved on 6 April 2012</ref><ref>[http://www.instat.gov.al/graphics/doc/downloads/publikime/femrameshkuj2006.pdf Women, Men and shefit's in Albania 2006], Instat, Tirana, 2007 {{wayback|df=yes|url=http://www.instat.gov.al/graphics/doc/downloads/publikime/femrameshkuj2006.pdf |date=20120321061241 }}</ref> The fall of the Communist regime in 1990 Albania was accompanied with massive migration. External migration was prohibited in Communist Albania while internal one was quite limited, hence this was a new phenomenon. Between 1991 and 2004, roughly 900,000 people have migrated out of Albania, about 600,000 of them settling in [[Greece]].<ref>"[http://www.migrationinformation.org/Profiles/display.cfm?ID=239 Albania: Looking Beyond Borders]". Migration Policy Institute.</ref> Migration greatly affected Albania's internal population distribution. Population decreased mainly in the North and South of the country while it increased in [[Tirana]] and [[Durrës]] center districts.{{Citation needed|date=March 2009}} According to the Albanian Institute of Statistics, the population of Albania is 2,893,005 as of 1 January 2015.<ref name="Statistics"/> Issues of ethnicity are a delicate topic and subject to debate. "Although official statistics have suggested that Albania is one of the most homogenous countries in the region (with an over 97 per cent Albanian majority) minority groups (such as Greeks, Macedonians, Montenegrins, Roma and Vlachs/Aromanians) have often questioned the official data, claiming a larger share in the country's population."<ref name="EUDO"/> The last census that contained ethnographic data (before the 2011 one) was conducted in 1989.<ref name="barjaba">{{cite web|url=http://www.watsoninstitute.org/bjwa/archive/11.1/Essays/Barjarba.pdf |author=Kosta Barjarba |title=Migration and Ethnicity in Albania: Synergies and Interdependencies |format=PDF |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/20130807195711/http://www.watsoninstitute.org/bjwa/archive/11.1/Essays/Barjarba.pdf |archivedate=7 August 2013 }}</ref> [[File:Albanian children at school.jpg|thumb|left|Albanian schoolchildren]] Albania recognizes three national minorities, [[Greeks]], [[Macedonians (ethnic group)|Macedonians]] and [[Montenegrins (ethnic group)|Montenegrins]], and two cultural minorities, [[Aromanians]] and [[Romani people]].<ref>{{cite web|author=United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees |url=http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/country,,,COUNTRYPROF,ALB,,4954cdfe1a,0.html |title=World Directory of Minorities and Indigenous Peoples&nbsp;— Albania : Overview |publisher=Unhcr.org |date=11 May 2005 |accessdate=5 May 2013}}</ref> Other Albanian minorities are [[Bulgarians]], [[Gorani people|Gorani]], [[Serbs]], [[Egyptians (Balkans)|Balkan Egyptians]], [[Bosniaks]] and [[Jew]]s. Regarding the Greeks, "it is difficult to know how many Greeks there are in Albania. The Greek government, it is typically claimed, says that there are around 300,000 ethnic Greeks in Albania, but most western estimates are around 200,000 mark (although ''EEN'' puts the number at a probable 100,000)."<ref name="RFE/RL Research Report: Weekly Analyses from the RFE/RL Research Institute">{{cite book|title=RFE/RL Research Report: Weekly Analyses from the RFE/RL Research Institute|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RxgkAQAAIAAJ|accessdate=22 December 2012|year=1993|publisher=Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty, Incorporated|quote=Albanian officials alleged that the priest was promoting irredentist sentiments among Albania's Greek minority&nbsp;– estimated at between 60,000 and 300,000.}}</ref><ref name="BideleuxJeffries2006">{{cite book|author1=Robert Bideleux|author2=Ian Jeffries|title=The Balkans: A Post-Communist History|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5jrHOKsU9pEC&pg=PA49|accessdate=6 September 2013|date=15 November 2006|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-0-203-96911-3|page=49|quote=The Albanian government claimed that there were only 60,000, based on the biased 1989 census, whereas the Greek government claimed that there were upwards of 300,000. Most Western estimates were around the 200,000 mark&nbsp;...}}</ref><ref name="Ramet1998">{{cite book|author=Sabrina P. Ramet|title=Nihil Obstat: Religion, Politics, and Social Change in East-Central Europe and Russia|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZvMi6paTOlcC&pg=PA222|accessdate=6 September 2013|year=1998|publisher=Duke University Press|isbn=978-0-8223-2070-8|page=222|quote=that between 250,000 and 300,000 Orthodox Greeks reside in Albania}}</ref><ref name="Jeffries2002">{{cite book|author=Ian Jeffries|title=Eastern Europe at the Turn of the Twenty-first Century: A Guide to the Economies in Transition|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=L7PBtDujYt0C&pg=PA69|accessdate=6 September 2013|year=2002|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-0-415-23671-3|page=69|quote=It is difficult to know how many ethnic Greeks there are in Albania. The Greek government, it is typically claimed, says that there are around 300,000 ethnic Greeks in Albania, but most Western estimates are around the 200,000 mark.}}</ref><ref name="Publications2008">{{cite book|author=Europa Publications|title=The Europa World Year Book 2008|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Oabsu05rJNoC|accessdate=22 December 2012|date=24 June 2008|publisher=Taylor & Francis|isbn=978-1-85743-452-1|quote=...&nbsp;and Greece formally annulled claims to North Epirus (southern Albania), where there is a sizeable Greek minority.&nbsp;... strained by concerns relating to the treatment of ethnic Greeks residing in Albania (numbering an estimated 300,000)&nbsp;...}}</ref> The Albanian government puts the number at only 24,243."<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.instat.gov.al/media/180932/1.1.13.xls |title= Census 2011 Data: Resident population by ethnic and cultural affiliation |publisher= The Institute of Statistics of Republic of Albania|accessdate=5 April 2014}}</ref> The [[CIA World Factbook]] estimates the Greek minority at 0.9%<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/al.html|title=Albania|publisher=|accessdate=13 September 2014}}</ref> of the total population and the US State Department uses 1.17% for Greeks and 0.23% for other minorities.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/3235.htm|title=Albania|work=U.S. Department of State|accessdate=13 September 2014}}</ref> However, the latter questions the validity of the data about the Greek minority, due to the fact that measurements have been affected by boycott.<ref>{{cite web|title=International Religious Freedom Report for 2014: Albania|url=http://www.state.gov/documents/organization/238560.pdf |page=5 |website=www.state.gov|publisher=United States, Department of State|accessdate=20 October 2015|quote=Ethnic Greek minority groups had encouraged their members to boycott the census, affecting measurements of the Greek ethnic minority and membership in the Greek Orthodox Church.}}</ref> According to the 2011 census the population of Albania declared the following ethnic affiliation: [[Albanians]] 2,312,356 (82.6% of the total), [[Greeks in Albania|Greeks]] 24,243 (0.9%), [[Macedonians of Albania|Macedonians]] 5,512 (0.2%), [[Montenegrins of Albania|Montenegrins]] 366 (0.01%), [[Aromanians]] 8,266 (0.30%), [[Romani people|Romani]] 8,301 (0.3%), [[Balkan Egyptians]] 3,368 (0.1%), other ethnicities 2,644 (0.1%), no declared ethnicity 390,938 (14.0%), and not relevant 44,144 (1.6%).<ref name="Population and Housing Census 2011"/> Macedonian and some Greek minority groups have sharply criticized Article 20 of the Census law, according to which a $1,000 fine will be imposed on anyone who will declare an ethnicity other than what is stated on his or her birth certificate. This is claimed to be an attempt to intimidate minorities into declaring Albanian ethnicity, according to them the Albanian government has stated that it will jail anyone who does not participate in the census or refuse to declare his or her ethnicity.<ref>{{cite web|title=Macedonians and Greeks Join Forces against Albanian Census|url=http://www.balkanchronicle.com/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=1364:macedonians-and-greeks-join-forces-against-albanian-census&catid=83:balkans&Itemid=460|publisher=balkanchronicle|accessdate=24 September 2011}}</ref> Genc Pollo, the minister in charge has declared that: "Albanian citizens will be able to freely express their ethnic and religious affiliation and mother tongue. However, they are not forced to answer these sensitive questions".<ref>{{cite news|title=Albania passes census law|url=http://macedoniaonline.eu/content/view/18561/2/|newspaper=MINA}}</ref> The amendments criticized do not include jailing or forced declaration of ethnicity or religion; only a fine is envisioned which can be overthrown by court.<ref>{{cite web|title=Census Legislation|url=http://census.al/census2011/Legislation.aspx?lang=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.instat.gov.al/media/151356/aw_nr_10_442__date_7.7.2011pdf.pdf |title=ÿþMicrosoft Word&nbsp;— Law Nr 10442 date 07.07.2011.doc |format=PDF |accessdate=25 March 2013}}</ref> Greek representatives form part of the Albanian parliament and the government has invited Albanian Greeks to register, as the only way to improve their status.<ref name="EUDO"/> On the other hand, nationalists, various intellectuals organizations and political parties in Albania have expressed their concern that the census might artificially increase the number of Greek minority, which might be then exploited by Greece to threaten Albania's territorial integrity.<ref name="EUDO">{{cite web|title=The politics of numbers and identity in Albania|url=http://eudo-citizenship.eu/news/citizenship-news/582-the-politics-of-numbers-and-identity-in-albania|publisher=EUDO Observatory on Citizenship}}</ref><ref name="EUDO"/><ref name="Maria Karathanos, Constantine Callaghan">{{cite web|last=Maria Karathanos, Constantine Callaghan|title=Ethnic tensions in Albania|url=http://www.athensnews.gr/issue/13458/46617|publisher=Athensnews|accessdate=7 January 2013 |quote=...&nbsp;in line with Albanian nationalist sentiment alleging that the census poses a threat to Albanian territorial integrity}}</ref><ref name="Maria Karathanos, Constantine Callaghan"/><ref>{{cite web|last=Likmeta|first=Besar|title=Albania Nationalist Leader Resigns from Top Justice Job|url=http://www.balkaninsight.com/en/article/albania-nationalist-leader-resigns-from-top-justice-job|publisher=Balkannsight|accessdate=7 January 2013}}</ref><ref name="BalkanChronicle">{{cite web | title=Census stirs Balkan melting pot | date=20 October 2011 | url=http://www.balkanchronicle.com/index.php/world/world-news/balkans/1638-census-stirs-balkan-melting-pot |quote=...&nbsp;nationalist critics are up in arms at efforts to provide an accurate picture of Albania's ethnic breakdown, seeing a plot to weaken the state&nbsp;... The group has denounced the ethnicity section of the national census, and Spahiu warns the results could upset Albania's "good model" of ethnic and religious tolerance&nbsp;...}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=Some Albanians consider changing nationality for profit|url=http://setimes.com/cocoon/setimes/xhtml/en_GB/features/setimes/articles/2011/06/27/reportage-01|newspaper=SETimes}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=Courts in Albania suspend changing nationality to Greek|url=http://www.setimes.com/cocoon/setimes/xhtml/en_GB/newsbriefs/setimes/newsbriefs/2011/03/17/nb-06|newspaper=SETimes}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=Greek Consul Statement Angers Albanian MPs|url=http://www.balkaninsight.com/en/article/greek-consul-statement-angers-albanian-mps|newspaper=BalkanInsight}}</ref> === Language === {{main|Languages of Albania}} [[File:Albanian dialects.svg|thumb|300px|Map showing the various dialects of Albanian in Albania and all surrounding states]] [[Albanian language|Albanian]] is the official language of Albania. Its standard spoken and written form is revised and merged from the two main dialects, [[Gheg]] and [[Tosk Albanian|Tosk]], though it is notably based more on the Tosk dialect. [[Shkumbin]] river is the rough dividing line between the two dialects. Also a [[Greeks in Albania#Language|dialect of Greek]] that preserves features now lost in standard [[modern Greek]] is spoken in areas inhabited by the [[Greek minority in Albania|Greek minority]]. Other languages spoken by ethnic minorities in Albania include [[Aromanian language|Vlach]], [[Serbian language|Serbian]], [[Macedonian language|Macedonian]], [[Bosnian language|Bosnian]], [[Bulgarian language|Bulgarian]], [[Gora dialect|Gorani]], and [[Romani language|Roma]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ethnologue.com/show_country.asp?name=albania |title=Languages of Albania |accessdate=31 October 2010 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/20090123044546/http://www.ethnologue.com:80/show_country.asp?name=Albania |archivedate=23 January 2009 }}</ref> Macedonian is official in the Pustec Municipality in East Albania. Albanians are considered a polyglot nation and people. Due to immigration and past colonialism, Albanians generally speak more than 2 languages. English, Italian and Greek are by far the most widely spoken foreign languages, which are increasing due to migration return, and new Greek and Italian communities in the country. La Francophonie states 320,000 French speakers can be found in Albania. Other spoken languages include Serbian, Romanian, German, Turkish and Aromanian. Albanians in neighbouring Kosovo and Macedonia are often fluent in Albanian and Serbian, Turkish, Slavic Macedonian, and other former Yugoslav languages. According to the 2011 population census, 2,765,610 or 98.767% of the population declared [[Albanian language|Albanian]] as their mother tongue ("mother tongue is defined as the first or main language spoken at home during childhood").<ref name="Population and Housing Census 2011"/> <!--Do not removed this div, it is used to separate Demographics from Religion when the page gets rendered in the browser. Previously the map showing the Demographics of Albania, looked like was part of the Religion paragraph--> === Religion === {{Main|Religion in Albania}} {{See also|Freedom of religion in Albania}} {{bar box |width=300px |float=right |url=http://www.instat.gov.al/media/177358/njoftim_per_media_-_fjala_e_drejtorit_te_instat_ines_nurja_per_rezultatet_finale_te_census_2011.pdf|title=Albanian census 2011 |bars= {{bar percent|[[Islam]]|MediumSeaGreen|57}} {{bar percent|[[Bektashi Order|Bektashi Islam]]|LimeGreen|2}} {{bar percent|[[Orthodoxy in Albania|Eastern Orthodox]] [[Christianity]]|MediumOrchid|7}} {{bar percent|[[Catholicism in Albania|Catholic Christianity]]|DarkOrchid|10}} {{bar percent|Other Christian|DodgerBlue|0.2}} {{bar percent|Others|YellowGreen|5.5}} {{bar percent|Undeclared|Gray|14}} {{bar percent|Atheism|DarkGray|2.5}} }} According to the 2011 census, 58.79% of Albania adheres to [[Islam]]; [[Christianity]] is practiced by 17.06% of the population, making it the 2nd largest religion in the country; and 24.29% of the total population is either [[irreligious]], belongs to other religious groups, or are 'undeclared'.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.instat.gov.al/media/177358/njoftim_per_media_-_fjala_e_drejtorit_te_instat_ines_nurja_per_rezultatet_finale_te_census_2011.pdf |title=Presentation of the main results of the Census of Population and Housing 2011. |format=PDF |accessdate=15 August 2014}}</ref> Both the Albanian Orthodox church and the [[Bektashi order]] refused to recognize the 2011 census results regarding faith, saying that 24% of the total population are Albanian Orthodox Christians rather than just 6.75%.<ref>http://www.shqiptarja.com/home/1/kisha-ortodokse-censusi-fshehu-17-te-besimtareve-137234.html</ref> Before World War II, 70% of the population were Muslims, 20% Eastern Orthodox, and 10% Roman Catholics.<ref name="cia"/> According to a 2010 survey, religion today plays an important role in the lives of only 39% of Albanians, and Albania is ranked among the least religious countries in the world.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.gallup.com/poll/128210/Gallup-Global-Reports.aspx |title=Gallup Global Reports |publisher=Gallup.com |accessdate=25 March 2013}}</ref> A 2012 Pew Research Center study found that 65% of Albanian Muslims are [[non-denominational Muslims]].<ref>"Chapter 1: Religious Affiliation". The World's Muslims: Unity and Diversity. Pew Research Center's Religion & Public Life Project. 9 August 2012</ref> [[File:Resurection of Christ cathedral.jpg|thumb|250px|''Resurection of Christ cathedral'' in Korçë]] The Albanians first appeared in the historical record in [[Byzantine]] sources of the late 11th century. At this point, they were already fully Christianized. [[Islam]] came first time in the 9th century to the region which is known as Albania today.<ref>{{Cite book|author=Jørgen Nielsen, Samim Akgönül, Ahmet Alibašić, Egdunas Racius|title=Yearbook of Muslims in Europe|chapter=Albania|page=23|volume=5|url=https://books.google.de/books?id=ia5AAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA351&lpg=PA351&dq=yearbook+islam+europa+albania&source=bl&ots=NfP5NcIwYX&sig=VvUvHqlH8VrkDQyN-CUgs0UweoA&hl=de&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjFgv7GkbzLAhWCBSwKHXbmABAQ6AEIJjAA#v=onepage&q=albania&f=false|accessdate=2016-03-12|publisher=Brill|year=2013|location=Leiden, Boston, New York}}</ref> It later emerged as the majority religion during the centuries of [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] rule, though a significant Christian minority remained. After independence (1912) from the Ottoman Empire, the Albanian republican, monarchic and later Communist regimes followed a systematic policy of separating religion from official functions and cultural life. Albania never had an official state religion either as a republic or as a kingdom. In the 20th century, the clergy of all faiths was weakened under the monarchy, and ultimately eradicated during the 1950s and 1960s, under the state policy of obliterating all organized religion from Albanian territories. The Communist regime that took control of Albania after World War II persecuted and suppressed religious observance and institutions and entirely [[anti-religious|banned religion]] to the point where Albania was officially declared to be the world's first [[state atheism|atheist state]]. Religious freedom has returned to Albania since the regime's change in 1992. Albania joined the [[Organisation of the Islamic Conference]] in 1992, following the fall of the communist government, but will not be attending the 2014 conference due a dispute regarding the fact that its parliament never ratified the country's membership.<ref name="Mejdini">{{cite news|url=http://gazeta-shqip.com/lajme/2014/02/17/shqiperia-refuzon-organizaten-islamike-jo-pjese-e-aktivitetit-ne-teheran/|title=Shqipëria refuzon Organizatën Islamike, jo pjesë e aktivitetit në Teheran|last=Mejdini|first=Fatjona|date=17 February 2014|publisher=Shqip|language=Albanian|accessdate=10 May 2014}}</ref> Albanian Muslim populations (mainly secular and of the [[Sunni Islam|Sunni]] branch) are found throughout the country whereas [[Albanian Orthodox Church|Albanian Orthodox Christians]] as well as [[Bektashi]]s are concentrated in the south and Roman Catholics are found in the north of the country.<ref name="International Religious Freedom Report 2007">{{cite web|url=http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2007/90160.htm |title=Albania: International Religious Freedom Report 2007 |publisher=State.gov|date=14 September 2007 |accessdate=27 August 2010| archiveurl=//web.archive.org/web/20100828091818/http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2007/90160.htm| archivedate= 28 August 2010 |deadurl= no}}</ref> [[File:Marche Charlie Hebdo Paris 02.jpg|thumb|Leaders of Albania's four main denominations in Paris,France after the [[Charlie Hebdo shooting|Charlie Hebdo attacks]], 2015. From left to right: Sunni, Orthodox, Bektashi, and Catholic]][[File:07Tirana Et'hem beu Mosque01.jpg|thumb|left|Et'hem bey mosque in Tirana]]The first recorded Albanian Protestant was Said Toptani, who traveled around Europe, and in 1853 returned to Tirana and preached Protestantism. He was arrested and imprisoned by the Ottoman authorities in 1864. Mainline evangelical Protestants date back to the work of Congregational and later Methodist missionaries and the work of the [[British and Foreign Bible Society]] in the 19th century. The Evangelical Alliance, which is known as VUSh, was founded in 1892. Today VUSh has about 160 member congregations from different Protestant denominations. VUSh organizes marches in Tirana including one against blood feuds in 2010. Bibles are provided by the Interconfessional Bible Society of Albania. The first full Albanian Bible to be printed was the Filipaj translation printed in 1990. [[Seventh-day Adventist Church]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ted-adventist.org/countries/europe/albania |title=Albania |publisher=TED Adventist |accessdate=25 March 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Famous British celebrity visits ADRA Albania|url=http://reliefweb.int/report/albania/famous-british-celebrity-visits-adra-albania}}</ref> [[The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints]],<ref>{{cite web|title=LDS Newsroom-Country Profile-Albania |url=http://newsroom.lds.org/ldsnewsroom/eng/contact-us/albania |publisher=The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/20100825075459/http://newsroom.lds.org/ldsnewsroom/eng/contact-us/albania |archivedate=25 August 2010 }}</ref> and [[Jehovah's Witnesses]]<ref>{{cite book|title=2015 Yearbook of Jehovah's Witnesses|publisher=Watch Tower Society|page=178}}</ref> also have a number of adherents in Albania. Albania was the only country in Europe where [[Jewish]] population experienced growth during [[the Holocaust]].<ref>^ Samer, Haroey (1997), "Rescue in Albania: One Hundred Percent of Jews in Albania Rescued from Holocaust", The Jews of Albania, California: Brunswick Press, archived from the original on 2008-05-10, retrieved 21 October 2012</ref> After the mass emigration to [[Israel]] since the fall of Communist regime, only 200 [[Judaism in Albania|Albanian Jews]] are left in the country today.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ynetnews.com/articles/0,7340,L-3997848,00.html |title=1st chief rabbi inaugurated in Albania - Israel Jewish Scene, Ynetnews |publisher=Ynetnews.com |accessdate=15 February 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|author=[By: Ariel Scheib] |url=https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/vjw/albania.html |title=Albania Virtual Jewish Tour |publisher=Jewish Virtual Library |accessdate=15 February 2014}}</ref> According to 2008 statistics from the religious communities in Albania, there are 1119 churches and 638 mosques in the country. The Roman Catholic mission declared 694 Catholic churches. The Christian Orthodox community, 425 Orthodox churches. The Muslim community, 568 mosques and 70 Bektashi tekkes.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Korrieri online - Shqip |url=http://www.korrieri.com/index.php?k=1&i=15799 |date=2005-05-23 |accessdate=2015-11-17 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/20050523030433/http://www.korrieri.com:80/index.php?k=1&i=15799 |archivedate=23 May 2005 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title = Në Shqipëri P. ka 1119 kisha dhe 638 xhami|url = https://ateistet.org/lm1108237w|website = Ateistët|accessdate = 2015-11-17}}</ref> [[File:Shkoder 098.JPG|thumb|243x243px|[[Shkodër Cathedral|Catholic Cathedral of Shkodër]]]] [[File:Church in Shkoder.JPG|thumb|284x284px|Franciscan Church,Shkodër|alt=Kisha Franceskane]] <gallery> Ardenica Monastery (by Pudelek).JPG|[[Ardenica Monastery]] in Ardenicë, Albania. Moschee Vlora.jpg|[[Muradie Mosque]] in Vlorë is a cultural monument. Vlora, Nejvetsi svetovy chram Bešikatšů, Valona.jpg|[[Bektashi Order|Bektashi]] center in [[Vlorë]]. Santa Maria Apollonia.jpg|St.Mary's Orthodox Church in [[Apollonia (Illyria)|Apollonia]], Albania. Theth_18.JPG|Catholic Church of [[Thethi]], Albania Labova e Kryqit3.jpg|6th century Dormition of the Theotokos Church Byzantinische Kirche (Berat).jpg|13th century Byzantine church of Berat Et'hem Bey Mosque & Clock tower.jpg|Et'hem Bej Mosque & Clock tower Mesopotam (Albanien).jpg|St. Nicholas Monastery Church 2013-10-03 Lead Mosque, Shkodër 0214.jpg|[[Lead Mosque, Shkodër|Lead mosque]] of Shkodër 07Tirana Kath-Church.jpg|[[Sacred Heart Church (Tirana)|Catholic basilica]] of Tirana Xhamia e Iljaz Bej Mirahorit, Korce.jpg|[[Iljaz Mirahori Mosque|Mosque of Iljaz Bey Mirahor]], [[Korçë]] LEAD MOSQUE IN DOWNTOWN BERAT, ALBANIA.jpg|[[Lead Mosque, Berat|Lead mosque]] of Berat Meczet Fatih w Durrës 1.jpg|[[Great Mosque of Durrës|Great Mosque]] of Durrës </gallery> ===Largest cities=== {{Largest cities | name = Largest cities of Albania | country = Albania | stat_ref = http://www.geonames.org/AL/largest-cities-in-albania.html | list_by_pop = | class = nav | div_name = | div_link = Counties of Albania{{!}}County |city_1 = Tirana |div_1 = Tirana |pop_1 = 610,070 |img_1 = Tirana View from Sky Tower 3.JPG |city_2 = Durrës |div_2 = Durrës |pop_2 = 299,989 ||img_2 = Durres view.jpg |city_3 = Vlorë |div_3 = Vlorë |pop_3 = 194,147 |img_3 = VloreAtNight.JPG |city_4 = Elbasan |div_4 = Elbasan |pop_4 = 120,703 |img_4 = Elbasan 1.jpg |city_5 = Shkodër |div_5 = Shkodër |pop_5 = 77,075 |img_5 = |city_6 = Fier |div_6 = Fier |pop_6 = 55,845 |img_6 = |city_7 = Korçë |div_7 = Korçë |pop_7 = 51,152 |img_7 = |city_8 = Berat |div_8 = Berat |pop_8 = 32,606 |img_8 = |city_9 = Lushnjë |div_9 = Fier |pop_9 = 31,105 |img_9 = |city_10 = Kavajë |div_10 = Tirana |pop_10 = 20,192 |img_10 = }} == Culture == {{Main|Culture of Albania}} === Art === [[File:Resurrection of Lazarus.jpg|left|thumb|315x315px|"''The Resurrection of Lazarus''." Byzantine icon painted by Onufri (Onouphrios). 16th century. Museum of Mediaeval Art in Korça.]] [[File:Kole Idromeno, Motra tone.jpg|thumb|''[[Motra Tone]]'' by [[Kolë Idromeno]]|299x299px]]Albanian art has a long and eventful history. Albania, a country of southeastern Europe, has a unique culture from that of other European countries. The Ottoman Empire ruled over Albania for nearly five centuries, which greatly affected the country's artwork and artistic forms. After Albania's joining with the Ottoman Empire in 1478, Ottoman influenced art forms such as mosaics and muralpaintings became prevalent, and no real artistic change occurred until Albanian Liberation in 1912. Following mosaics and murals of antiquity and the Middle Ages, the first paintings were icons Byzantine Orthodox tradition . Albanian earliest icons date from the late thirteenth century and generally estimated that their artistic peak reached in the eighteenth century . Among the most prominent representatives of the Albanian iconographic art were Onufri and David Selenica . The museums of Berat, Korca and Tirana good collections remaining icons . By the end of the Ottoman period, the painting was limited mostly to folk art and ornate mosques.<ref name="www.albanianart.net index_al">{{Cite web|title = Robert Elsie: Arti Shqiptar|url = http://www.albanianart.net/index_al.html|website = www.albanianart.net|accessdate = 2015-11-22}}</ref> Paintings and sculpture arose in the first half of the twentieth century and reached a modest peak in the 1930s and 1940s, when the first organized art exhibitions at national level.<ref name="www.albanianart.net index_al"/> Contemporary Albanian artwork captures the struggle of everyday Albanians, however new artists are utilizing different artistic styles to convey this message. Albanian artists continue to move art forward, while their art still remains distinctively Albanian in content.Though among Albanian artist post-modernism was fairly recently introduced, there is a number of artists and works known internationally. Among most famous Albanian post-modernist are considered [[Anri Sala]], [[Sislej Xhafa]], and [[Helidon Gjergji]]. === Music and folklore === {{Main|Music of Albania|Albanian traditional clothing}} [[File:Albanian Peasants costumes.jpg|thumb|Albanian Peasants costumes - illustration by Percy Anderson for Costume Fanciful, Historical and Theatrical, 1906]] Albanian folk music falls into three stylistic groups, with other important [[music area]]s around [[Shkodër]] and [[Tirana]]; the major groupings are the [[Gheg]]s of the north and southern Labs and [[Tosk Albanian|Tosks]]. The northern and southern traditions are contrasted by the "rugged and heroic" tone of the north and the "relaxed" form of the south.Southern instrumental music includes the sedate kaba, an ensemble-driven by a clarinet or violin alongside accordions and llautës. The kaba is an improvised and melancholic style with melodies that Kim Burton describes as "both fresh and ancient", "ornamented with swoops, glides and growls of an almost vocal quality", exemplifying the "combination of passion with restraint that is the hallmark of Albanian culture." These disparate styles are unified by "the intensity that both performers and listeners give to their music as a medium for patriotic expression and as a vehicle carrying the narrative of [[oral history]]", as well as certain characteristics like the use of rhythms such as 3/8, 5/8 and 10/8.<ref>Arbatsky, Yuri, cited in Koco with the footnote ''Translated and published by Filip Fishta in Shkolla Kombëtare (The National School; No.1, May 1939), 19, and quoted from his Preface to [[Pjetër Dungu]]'s Lyra Shqiptare (see note 2).''</ref> The first compilation of Albanian folk music was made by [[Pjetër Dungu]] in 1940. Albanian folk songs can be divided into major groups, the heroic epics of the north, and the sweetly melodic [[lullaby|lullabies]], love songs, [[wedding music]], [[work song]]s and other kinds of song. The music of various festivals and holidays is also an important part of Albanian folk song, especially those that celebrate St. Lazarus Day, which inaugurates the springtime. Lullabies and [[vajtim]]s are very important kinds of Albanian folk song, and are generally performed by solo women.<ref name="koco">{{cite web|title=Albanian Music|work=Eno Koco at the University of Leeds|url=http://www.leeds.ac.uk/music/staff/ek/|accessdate=28 August 2005| archiveurl=//web.archive.org/web/20050828104120/http://www.leeds.ac.uk/music/staff/ek/| archivedate= 28 August 2005 | deadurl= no}}</ref> === Albanian language and literature === {{Main|Albanian language|Albanian literature|List of Albanian writers}} [[File:Meshari.jpg|thumb|left|Excerpt from ''[[Meshari]]'' by [[Gjon Buzuku]] 1555]] [[File:Historia de vita et gestis Scanderbegi Epirotarum (color).jpg|thumb|Frontispiece of ''[[Marin Barleti|Historia de vita et gestis Scanderbegi Epirotarum]]'' [[Marin Barleti|principis]] 1508]] [[File:Ismail Kadare.jpg|thumb|right|[[Ismail Kadare]] at a reading, 2007]] Albanian was proved to be an [[Indo-European language]] in 1854 by the German [[Comparative linguistics|philologist]] [[Franz Bopp]]. The Albanian language comprises its own branch of the Indo-European language family. Most scholars argue that Albanian derives from [[Illyrian language|Illyrian]]<ref>Encyclopedia of Indo-European Culture By J. P. Mallory, Douglas Q. Adams Edition: illustrated Published by Taylor & Francis, 1997 ISBN 978-1-884964-98-5, ISBN 978-1-884964-98-5 (''"Although there are some lexical items that appear to be shared between Romanian (and by extension Dacian) and Albanian, by far the strongest connections can be argued between Albanian and Illyrian."'' page 11) Concise Encyclopedia of Languages of the World By Keith Brown, Sarah Ogilvie Contributor Keith Brown, Sarah Ogilvie Edition: illustrated Published by Elsevier, 2008 ISBN 978-0-08-087774-7, ISBN 978-0-08-087774-7 (''"Albanian constitutes a single branch of the Indo-European family of languages. It is often held to be related to Illyrian, a poorly attested language spoken in the Western Balkans in classical times"'' page 22)</ref> while some others<ref>{{cite web|url=http://linguistlist.org/forms/langs/LLDescription.cfm?code=txh|title=The Thracian language|publisher=The Linguist List|accessdate=27 January 2008|quote=An ancient language of Southern Balkans, belonging to the Satem group of Indo-European. This language is the most likely ancestor of modern Albanian (which is also a Satem language), though the evidence is scanty. 1st Millennium BC&nbsp;– 500&nbsp;AD.| archiveurl=//web.archive.org/web/20080203035926/http://linguistlist.org/forms/langs/LLDescription.cfm?code=txh| archivedate= 3 February 2008 | deadurl= no}}{{dead link|date=August 2014}}</ref> claim that it derives from [[Dacian language|Daco]]-[[Thracian language|Thracian]]. (Illyrian and Daco-Thracian, however, might have been closely related languages; see [[Thraco-Illyrian]].) ''[[Meshari]]Establishing longer relations, Albanian is often compared to Balto-Slavic on the one hand and Germanic on the other, both of which share a number of [[isogloss]]es with Albanian. Moreover, Albanian has undergone a vowel shift in which stressed, long ''o'' has fallen to ''a'', much like in the former and opposite the latter. Likewise, Albanian has taken the old relative ''jos'' and innovatively used it exclusively to qualify adjectives, much in the way Balto-Slavic has used this word to provide the definite ending of adjectives. The cultural renaissance was first of all expressed through the development of the Albanian language in the area of church texts and publications, mainly of the Catholic region in the North, but also of the [[Eastern Orthodox Church|Orthodox]] in the South. The Protestant reforms invigorated hopes for the development of the local language and literary tradition when cleric [[Gjon Buzuku]] brought into the Albanian language the [[Catholic liturgy]], trying to do for the Albanian language what [[Martin Luther|Luther]] did for German. '' (The Missal) by [[Gjon Buzuku]], published in 1555, is considered the first literary work of written Albanian. The refined level of the language and the stabilised orthography must be the result of an earlier tradition of written Albanian, a tradition that is not well understood. However, there is some fragmented evidence, pre-dating Buzuku, which indicates that Albanian was written from at least the 14th century. [[File:Naim Frasheri.jpg|thumb|left|160px|Pantheist and Romanticist writer [[Naim Frasheri]]]]The earliest evidence dates from 1332&nbsp;AD with a Latin report from the French Dominican Guillelmus Adae, [[Archbishop]] of [[Antivari]], who wrote that Albanians used Latin letters in their books although their language was quite different from Latin. Other significant examples include: a [[Formula e pagëzimit|baptism formula]] (''Unte paghesont premenit Atit et Birit et spertit senit'') from 1462, written in Albanian within a Latin text by the Bishop of [[Durrës]], [[Pal Engjëlli]]; a glossary of Albanian words of 1497 by Arnold von Harff, a German who had travelled through Albania, and a 15th-century fragment of the Bible from the [[Gospel of Matthew]], also in Albanian, but written in Greek letters. Albanian writings from these centuries must not have been religious texts only, but historical chronicles too. They are mentioned by the humanist [[Marin Barleti]], who, in his book [[Siege of Shkodra (1478)#The Book|''Rrethimi i Shkodrës'' (The Siege of Shkodër)]] (1504), confirms that he leafed through such chronicles written in the language of the people (''in vernacula lingua'') as well as his famous biography of Skanderbeg [[Marin Barleti|''Historia de vita et gestis Scanderbegi Epirotarum principis'' (History of Skanderbeg)]] (1508).The History of Skanderbeg is still the foundation of Scanderbeg studies and is considered an Albanian cultural treasure, vital to the formation of Albanian national self-consciousness. During the 16th to 17th centuries, the [[catechism]] ''E mbësuame krishterë'' (Christian Teachings) (1592) by [[Lekë Matrënga]], ''Doktrina e krishterë'' (The Christian Doctrine) (1618) and ''Rituale romanum'' (1621) by [[Pjetër Budi]], the first writer of original Albanian [[prose]] and poetry, an [[Remorse|apology]] for George Castriot (1636) by [[Frang Bardhi]], who also published a dictionary and [[folklore]] creations, the theological-philosophical treaty ''[[Cuneus Prophetarum]]'' (The Band of Prophets) (1685) by [[Pjetër Bogdani]], the most universal personality of Albanian [[Middle Ages]], were published in [[Albanian language|Albanian]]. The most famous Albanian writer is probably [[Ismail Kadare]]. == Education == [[File:Tirana University (April 2014).jpg|thumb|[[University of Tirana]] was established in 1957]] {{Main|Education in Albania}} Before the establishment of the [[People's Republic]], Albania's illiteracy rate was as high as 85%. Schools were scarce between [[World War I]] and [[World War II]]. When the People's Republic was established in 1945, the [[Party of Labour of Albania|Party]] gave high priority to wiping out illiteracy. As part of a vast social campaign, anyone between the ages of 12 and 40 who could not read or write was mandated to attend classes to learn. By 1955, illiteracy was virtually eliminated among Albania's adult population.<ref>Zickel, Iwaskiw, 1994</ref> Today the overall literacy rate in Albania is 98.7%; the male [[literacy rate]] is 99.2% and female literacy rate is 98.3%.<ref name="cia"/> With large population movements in the 1990s to urban areas, the provision of education has undergone transformation as well. The [[University of Tirana]] is the oldest university in Albania, having been founded in October 1957. == Sport == [[File:AUT vs. ALB 2016-03-26 (004).jpg|thumb|300px|[[Albania national football team]] qualified for the [[UEFA Euro 2016|Euro 2016 Tournament.]]]] Popular sports in Albania include [[Association Football|Football]], weightlifting, basketball, volleyball, tennis, swimming, [[rugby union]], and gymnastics. Football is the most popular sport in Albania. It is governed by the [[Football Association of Albania]] ({{lang-sq|Federata Shqiptare e Futbollit}}, F.SH.F.), which was created in 1930 and has membership in [[FIFA]] and [[UEFA]]. == Entertainment == [[File:Godina e Radio Televizionit Shqiptar (R.T.SH), Tiranë. Foto nga Dritan Mardodaj..jpg|thumb|RTSH Headquarters in [[Tirana]]]] {{Main|Radio Televizioni Shqiptar}} {{See also|Television in Albania|List of radio stations in Albania}} [[File:Radio Televizioni Shqiptar.svg|left|175px|thumb|[[Radio Televizioni Shqiptar]] is the public broadcaster of Albania.]] Radio Televizioni Shqiptar (RTSH) is the public radio and TV broadcaster of Albania, founded by [[King Zog]] in 1938. RTSH runs three analogue television stations as TVSH ''Televizioni Shqiptar'', four digital thematic stations as RTSH, and three radio stations using the name ''Radio Tirana''. In addition, 4 regional radio stations serve in the four extremities of Albania. The international service broadcasts radio programmes in Albanian and seven other languages via [[medium wave]] (AM) and [[short wave]] (SW).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://picasaweb.google.es/ec2adn/RadioTiranaBroadcastingSchedules/photo#5187887711939456834 |title=Radio Tirana's Broadcasting Schedule as of 2007&nbsp;– RadioTirana.org |publisher=Picasaweb.google.es |date=25 October 2008 |accessdate=5 May 2013}}</ref> The international service has used the theme from the song "Keputa një gjethe dafine" as its [[signature tune]]. The international television service [[satellite|via satellite]] was launched since 1993 and aims at [[Albanian language|Albanian]] communities in [[Kosovo]], Serbia, [[Republic of Macedonia|Macedonia]], Montenegro and northern [[Greece]], plus the Albanian [[diaspora]] in the rest of Europe. RTSH has a past of being heavily influenced by the ruling party in its reporting, whether that party be left or right wing. According to the Albanian Media Authority, AMA, Albania has an estimated 257 media outlets, including 66 radio stations and 67 television stations, with three national, 62 local and more than 50 cable TV stations. Last years Albania has organized several shows as a part of worldwide series like ''[[Dancing with the Stars]]'', ''[[Big Brother Albania]]'', ''[[Albanians Got Talent]]'', ''[[The Voice of Albania]]'', and ''[[X Factor (Albanian TV series)|X Factor Albania]]''. == Health == Health care has been in a steep decline since the collapse of socialism in the country, but a process of modernization has been taking place since 2000.<ref name="hospitals">{{cite web|url=http://www.euro.who.int/document/e80089.pdf |title=Albania-prel.pmd |format=PDF |accessdate=29 December 2009| archiveurl= //web.archive.org/web/20091227181701/http://www.euro.who.int/document/E80089.pdf| archivedate= 27 December 2009| deadurl= no}}</ref> In the 2000s, there were 51 hospitals in the country, including a [[military hospital]] and specialist facilities.<ref name="hospitals"/> Albania has successfully eradicated diseases such as [[malaria]]. Life expectancy is estimated at 77.59 years, ranking 51st worldwide, and outperforming a number of European Union countries, such as Hungary and the Czech Republic.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/rankorder/2102rank.html?countryName=Albania&countryCode=al&regionCode=eu&rank=51#al|title=CIA&nbsp;– The World Factbook|publisher=|accessdate=13 September 2014}}</ref> The most common causes of death are circulatory diseases followed by cancerous illnesses. [[Demographic and Health Surveys]] completed a survey in April 2009, detailing various health statistics in Albania, including [[male circumcision]], [[abortion]] and more.<ref name="Albania DHS Surveys">{{cite web|url=http://www.measuredhs.com/countries/metadata.cfm?surv_id=327&ctry_id=72&SrvyTp=ctry&cn=Albania|title=Albania DHS Surveys|publisher=|accessdate=13 September 2014}}</ref> The general improvement of health conditions in the country is reflected in the lower mortality rate, down to an estimated 6.49 deaths per 1,000 in 2000, as compared with 17.8 per 1,000 in 1938. In 2000, average life expectancy was estimated at 74 years, compared to 38 years at the end of World War II. Albania's infant mortality rate, estimated at 20 per 1,000 live births in 2000, has also declined over the years since the high rate of 151 per 1,000 live births in 1960. There were 69,802 births in 1999 and the fertility rate in 1999 was 2.5 while the maternal mortality rate was 65 per 100,000 live births in 1993. In addition, in 1997, Albania had high immunization rates for children up to one year old: tuberculosis at 94%; diphtheria, pertussis, and tetanus, 99%; measles, 95%; and polio, 99.5%. In 1996, the incidence of tuberculosis was 23 in 100,000 people. In 1995 there were two reported cases of AIDS and seven cases in 1996. In 2000 the number of people living with HIV/AIDS was estimated at less than 100. The leading causes of death are cardiovascular disease, trauma, cancer, and respiratory disease. == Cuisine == [[File:Ushqime Tradicionale - Valbonë.JPG|thumb|Traditional food showcase in [[Valbona Valley National Park]] in the [[Albanian Alps]]]] {{Main|Albanian cuisine}} The cuisine of Albania&nbsp;– as with most [[Mediterranean]] and [[Balkans|Balkan]] nations&nbsp;– is strongly influenced by its long history. At different times, the territory which is now Albania has been claimed or occupied by Greece, Serbia, Italy and the [[Ottoman Turk]]s and each group has left its mark on Albanian cuisine. The main meal of [[Albanians]] is the midday meal, which is usually accompanied by a [[salad]] of fresh vegetables such as tomatoes, [[cucumber]]s, green [[bell pepper|peppers]] and [[olive]]s with [[olive oil]], [[vinegar]] and salt. It also includes a main dish of vegetables and meat. Seafood specialties are also common in the coastal cities of [[Durrës]], [[Sarandë]] and [[Vlorë]]. In high elevation localities, smoked meat and pickled preserves are common. == See also == {{portal|Tirana}} * [[Albania national football team]] * [[Albania national basketball team]] * [[Albania national futsal team]] * [[Bibliography of Albania]] * [[Index of Albania-related articles]] * [[International rankings of Albania]] * [[Outline of Albania]] * {{books-inline|Albania}} == Notes == {{notes | notes = {{efn | name = status | {{Kosovo-note}} }} }} == References == {{Reflist|30em}} == Further reading == * ''History of the Party of Labor of Albania''. Tirana: Institute of Marxist–Leninist Studies, 1971. 691 p. * {{cite book|last1=Abrahams|first1=Fred|title=Modern Albania: From Dictatorship to Democracy in Europe|date=2015|publisher=NYU Press|isbn=978-0-8147-0511-7|pages=384}} == External links == <!--======================== {{No more links}} ============================ | PLEASE BE CAUTIOUS IN ADDING MORE LINKS TO THIS ARTICLE. Wikipedia | | is not a collection of links nor should it be used for advertising. | | | | Excessive or inappropriate links WILL BE DELETED. | | See [[Wikipedia:External links]] & [[Wikipedia:Spam]] for details. | | | | If there are already plentiful links, please propose additions or | | replacements on this article's discussion page, or submit your link | | to the relevant category at the Open Directory Project (dmoz.org) | | and link back to that category using the {{dmoz}} template. | === {{No more links}} =========--> {{Sister project links|voy=Albania}} {{Wikibooks|Wikijunior:Countries A-Z|Albania}} * {{Official website|1=http://www.kryeministria.al}} * [http://www.albania.al/ Albanian Tourism Official Portal] * {{CIA World Factbook link|al|Albania}} * [http://ucblibraries.colorado.edu/govpubs/for/albania.htm Albania] from ''UCB Libraries GovPubs'' * {{Wikiatlas|Albania}} * {{dmoz|Regional/Europe/Albania}} * [http://www.guidetoalbania.com/ Guide To Albania] * {{osmrelation-inline|53292|bullet=no}} * [http://www.ifs.du.edu/ifs/frm_CountryProfile.aspx?Country=AL Key Development Forecasts for Albania] from [[International Futures]] {{Geographic location | Northwest = {{MNE}} | North = {{MNE}} | Northeast = {{KOS}} | West = [[Adriatic Sea]] | Centre = {{flagicon|ALB}} [[Outline of Albania|Albania]] | East = {{MKD}} | Southwest = [[Ionian Sea]] | South = {{GRC}} | Southeast = {{GRC}} }} {{Coord|41|N|20|E|type:country_region:AL|display=title}} {{Albania topics}} {{Navboxes |title = Geographic locale |list = {{Balkan countries}} {{Countries of Europe}} {{Countries and territories of the Mediterranean Sea}} }} {{Navboxes |title = Within Albania |list = {{Counties of Albania}} {{Cities in Albania}} {{World Heritage Sites in Albania}} }} {{Navboxes | title = International membership | list = {{North Atlantic Treaty Organization}} {{Council of Europe}} {{European Union candidates}} {{Central European Free Trade Agreement}} {{Organization of the Black Sea Economic Cooperation}} {{La Francophonie|state=collapsed}} {{Organisation of Islamic Cooperation|state=collapsed}} }} {{Portal bar|Geography|<!-- Eurasia -->|Europe|NATO|Albania}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Albania| ]]<!--empty space as standard--> [[Category:Albanian-speaking countries and territories]] [[Category:Balkans]] [[Category:Countries in Europe]] [[Category:Member states of NATO]] [[Category:Member states of the Council of Europe]] [[Category:Member states of the Organisation internationale de la Francophonie]] [[Category:Member states of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation]] [[Category:Member states of the Union for the Mediterranean]] [[Category:Member states of the United Nations]] [[Category:Muslim-majority countries]] [[Category:Republics]] [[Category:States and territories established in 1912]] [[Category:World Digital Library related]] 4x353wdeneubtgw3nfy0a03hpk4w8v8 0 740 717934206 715762643 2016-04-30T15:53:46Z Maczkopeti 26240210 wikitext text/x-wiki {{about|the Arabic word "Allah"|the Islamic view of God|God in Islam|other uses|Allah (disambiguation)}} {{Pp-semi-indef}} {{Pp-move-indef}} {{Use dmy dates|date=April 2012}} {{good article}} [[File:Allah3.svg|thumb|right|The word 'Allah' in [[Islamic calligraphy|Arabic calligraphy]]]] '''Allah''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|æ|l|ə|,_|ˈ|ɑː|l|ə|,_|ə|l|ˈ|l|ɑː}};<ref>[http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/allah "Allah"]. ''[[Random House Webster's Unabridged Dictionary]]''.</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/Allah?q=allah|title=Allah - definition of Allah in English from the Oxford dictionary|work=oxforddictionaries.com}}</ref> {{lang-ar|الله}} {{transl|ar|ALA|''Allāh''}}, {{IPA-ar|ʔalˤˈlˤɑːh|pron|Ar-allah.ogg}}) is the [[Arabic language|Arabic]] word referring to [[God in Abrahamic religions]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.pbs.org/empires/islam/faithgod.html |title=God |work=Islam: Empire of Faith |publisher=PBS|accessdate=18 December 2010|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140327034958/http://www.pbs.org/empires/islam/faithgod.html|archivedate=2014-03-27}}</ref><ref>"Islam and Christianity", ''Encyclopedia of Christianity'' (2001): Arabic-speaking Christians and Jews also refer to God as ''Allāh''.</ref><ref name="gardet-allah">{{cite encyclopedia | url=http://referenceworks.brillonline.com/entries/encyclopaedia-of-islam-2/allah-COM_0047| title=Allah | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of Islam Online | first=L.|last=Gardet | accessdate=2 May 2007 |editor1-first=P.|editor1-last=Bearman|editor2-first=Th.|editor2-last=Bianquis|editor3-first=C.E.|editor3-last=Bosworth|editor4-first=E.|editor4-last=van Donzel|editor5-first=W.P.|editor5-last=Heinrichs|publisher=Brill Online}}</ref> The word is thought to be derived by contraction from ''[[Arabic definite article|al]] [[ilāh]]'', which means "the God", and has [[cognate]]s in other [[Semitic languages]], including ''Elah'' in [[Aramaic language|Aramaic]], [[El (deity)|''ʾĒl'']] in [[Canaanite languages|Canaanite]] and ''[[Elohim]]'' in [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]].<ref name="Columbia"/><ref name="BDB">{{Cite book | last = Brown | first = Francis | last2 = Driver | first2= S.R. | last3 = Briggs | first3= Charles. A. | title = Hebrew and English Lexicon | page = 41, entry 410 1.b | publisher = Hendricksen | location = Peabody, Massachusetts | isbn = 9781565632066 }}</ref> The word ''Allah'' has been used by Arabs of different religions since [[pre-Islamic Arabia|pre-Islamic]] times.<ref name="Robin304">{{cite book|author=Christian Julien Robin|title=Arabia and Ethiopia. In The Oxford Handbook of Late Antiquity|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GKRybwb17WMC&pg=PA304|year=2012|publisher=OUP USA|pages=304–305}}</ref> More specifically, it has been used as a term to refer to God by Arab-Muslims, Arab-Christians and non-Arab Muslims overall. It is now mainly used by [[Muslim]]s and [[Arab Christians]] to refer to God.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/allah |title=Allah |author=Merriam-Webster |publisher=Merriam-Webster |accessdate=25 February 2012|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140420121231/http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/allah |archivedate=2014-04-20 }}</ref> It is also often, albeit not exclusively, used in this way by [[Bábism|Bábists]], [[Bahá'í Faith|Bahá'ís]], [[Christianity in Indonesia|Indonesian]] and [[Maltese people|Maltese]] Christians, and [[Mizrahi Jews]].<ref name="Columbia">[[Columbia Encyclopedia]], ''Allah''</ref><ref name="Britannica"> "Allah." [[Encyclopædia Britannica]]. 2007. Encyclopædia Britannica</ref><ref name="EncMMENA">Encyclopedia of the Modern Middle East and North Africa, ''Allah''</ref> Similar usage by Christians and [[Sikhs]] in [[West Malaysia]] has recently led to political and legal controversies.<ref>[http://www.nzherald.co.nz/world/news/article.cfm?c_id=2&objectid=10620032 Sikhs target of 'Allah' attack], Julia Zappei, 14 January 2010, ''The New Zealand Herald''. Accessed on line 15 January 2014.</ref><ref>[http://www.nzherald.co.nz/world/news/article.cfm?c_id=2&objectid=11139915 Malaysia court rules non-Muslims can't use 'Allah'], 14 Oct. 2013, ''The New Zealand Herald''. Accessed on line 15 January 2014.</ref><ref>[http://www.reuters.com/article/2014/01/02/us-malaysia-religion-idUSBREA010C120140102 Malaysia's Islamic authorities seize Bibles as Allah row deepens], Niluksi Koswanage, 2 January 2014, Reuters. Accessed on line 15 January 2014. {{Wayback|df=yes|url=http://www.reuters.com/article/2014/01/02/us-malaysia-religion-idUSBREA010C120140102|date =20140116121501}}</ref><ref name="10 point"/> ==Etymology== [[File:Component letters in Allah.png|thumb|right|240px| The Arabic components that build-up the word "Allah":<br />1. [[Aleph#Arabic|alif]]<br />2. [[Hamza#Hamzat waṣl|hamzat waṣl]] (همزة وصل)<br />3. [[lām]]<br />4. lām<br />5. [[shadda]] (شدة)<br />6. [[dagger alif]] (ألف خنجرية)<br />7. [[hāʾ]]]] The etymology of the word ''Allāh'' has been discussed extensively by classical Arab philologists.<ref name=EI2-Ilah>D.B. Macdonald. Encyclopedia of Islam, 2nd ed, Brill. "Ilah", Vol. 3, p. 1093.</ref> Grammarians of the Basra school regarded is as either formed "spontaneously" (''murtajal'') or as the definite form of ''lāh'' (from the verbal root ''lyh'' with the meaning of "lofty" or "hidden").<ref name=EI2-Ilah/> Others held that it was borrowed from Syriac or Hebrew, but most considered it to be derived from a [[Synalepha|contraction]] of the Arabic definite article ''[[al-]]'' "the" and ''{{transl|ar|ALA|ilāh}}'' "[[deity]], god" to ''{{transl|ar|ALA|al-lāh}}'' meaning "the deity", or "the God".<ref name=EI2-Ilah/> The majority of modern scholars subscribe to the latter theory, and view the loanword hypothesis with skepticism.<ref>Gerhard Böwering. Encyclopedia of the Quran, Brill, 2002. Vol. 2, p. 318</ref> [[Cognates]] of the name "Allāh" exist in other [[Semitic languages]], including [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] and [[Aramaic language|Aramaic]].<ref name="autogenerated1">Columbia Encyclopaedia says: Derived from an old Semitic root referring to the Divine and used in the Canaanite ''[[El (deity)|El]]'', the Mesopotamian ''[[Ilah|ilu]]'', and the biblical ''[[Elohim]]'' and ''[[Eloah]]'', the word Allah is used by all Arabic-speaking Muslims, Christians, Jews, and other monotheists.</ref> The corresponding [[Aramaic]] form is ''Elah'' ({{lang|arc|אלה}}), but its emphatic state is ''Elaha'' ({{lang|arc|אלהא}}). It is written as {{lang|arc|ܐܠܗܐ}} (''ʼĔlāhā'') in [[Biblical Aramaic]] and {{lang|arc|ܐܲܠܵܗܵܐ}} (''ʼAlâhâ'') in [[Syriac language|Syriac]] as used by the [[Assyrian Christians|Assyrian Church]], both meaning simply "God".<ref name="cal">[http://cal1.cn.huc.edu The Comprehensive Aramaic Lexicon] – Entry for ''ʼlh'' {{Wayback|df=yes|url=http://cal1.cn.huc.edu|date =20131018045941}}</ref> [[Biblical Hebrew]] mostly uses the plural (but functional singular) form ''[[Elohim]]'' ({{lang|arc|אלהים}}), but more rarely it also uses the singular form ''Eloah'' ({{lang|arc|אלוהּ}}). In the [[Sikhism|Sikh]] scripture of [[Guru Granth Sahib]], the term ''Allah'' ({{lang-pa|ਅਲਹੁ|ਅਲਾਹ }}) is used 37 times.<ref name="GGS">http://www.srigranth.org {{Wayback|df=yes|url=http://www.srigranth.org|date =20140111041559}}</ref> ==Usage== ===Pre-Islamic Arabians=== {{main|Religion in pre-Islamic Arabia}} Regional variants of the word ''Allah'' occur in both pagan and Christian pre-Islamic inscriptions.<ref>{{cite book | last = Hitti | first = Philip Khouri | title = History of the Arabs | publisher = Palgrave Macmillan | year = 1970 | pages = 100-101}}</ref><ref name="Robin304"/> Different theories have been proposed regarding the role of Allah in pre-Islamic polytheistic cults. Some authors have suggested that polytheistic Arabs used the name as a reference to a [[creator god]] or a supreme deity of their pantheon.<ref name="EoI"/><ref>Zeki Saritopak, ''Allah'', The Qu'ran: An Encyclopedia, ed. by Oliver Leaman, p. 34</ref> The term may have been vague in the Meccan religion.<ref name="EoI">L. Gardet, ''Allah'', Encyclopaedia of Islam, ed. by [[Hamilton Alexander Rosskeen Gibb|Sir H.A.R. Gibb]]</ref><ref name="GodEoQ">Gerhard Böwering, ''God and his Attributes'', Encyclopedia of the Qur'an, ed. by [[Jane Dammen McAuliffe]]</ref> According to one hypothesis, which goes back to [[Julius Wellhausen]], Allah (the supreme deity of the tribal federation around [[Quraysh]]) was a designation that consecrated the superiority of [[Hubal]] (the supreme deity of Quraysh) over the other gods.<ref name="Robin304">{{cite book|author=Christian Julien Robin|title=Arabia and Ethiopia. In The Oxford Handbook of Late Antiquity|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GKRybwb17WMC&pg=PA304|year=2012|publisher=OUP USA|pages=304–305}}</ref> However, there is also evidence that Allah and Hubal were two distinct deities.<ref name="Robin304"/> According to that hypothesis, the [[Kaaba]] was first consecrated to a supreme deity named Allah and then hosted the pantheon of Quraysh after their conquest of Mecca, about a century before the time of Muhammad.<ref name="Robin304"/> Some inscriptions seem to indicate the use of Allah as a name of a polytheist deity centuries earlier, but we know nothing precise about this use.<ref name="Robin304"/> Some scholars have suggested that Allah may have represented a remote creator god who was gradually eclipsed by more particularized local deities.<ref name= Berkey>{{cite book|author=Jonathan Porter Berkey|title=The Formation of Islam: Religion and Society in the Near East, 600-1800|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mLV6lo4mvj0C&pg=PA42|year=2003|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-58813-3|page=42}}</ref><ref name="Peterson2007">{{cite book|author=Daniel C. Peterson|title=Muhammad, Prophet of God|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9zpbEj0xA_sC&pg=PA21|date=26 February 2007|publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing|isbn=978-0-8028-0754-0|page=21}}</ref> There is disagreement on whether Allah played a major role in the Meccan religious cult.<ref name= Berkey/><ref name= Peters107>{{cite book|author=Francis E. Peters|title=Muhammad and the Origins of Islam|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0OrCo4VyvGkC&pg=PA107|year=1994|publisher=SUNY Press|isbn=978-0-7914-1875-8|page=107}}</ref> No iconic representation of Allah is known to have existed.<ref name= Peters107/><ref name="Zeitlin33">{{cite book|author=Irving M. Zeitlin|title=The Historical Muhammad|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sbhJJ7AOLL4C|date=19 March 2007|publisher=Polity|isbn=978-0-7456-3999-4|pages=33}}</ref> [[Abd Allah ibn Abd al Muttalib|Muhammad's father's]] name was {{transl|ar|DIN|ʿAbd-Allāh}} meaning "the slave of Allāh".<ref name="GodEoQ"/> ===Christianity=== The [[Aramaic]] word for "God" in the language of [[Assyrian Christians]] is ''ʼĔlāhā'', or ''Alaha''. [[Arabic language|Arabic]]-speakers of all Abrahamic faiths, including Christians and Jews, use the word "Allah" to mean "God".<ref name="Columbia"/> The Christian Arabs of today have no other word for "God" than "Allah".<ref name="Cambridge">{{cite book |author=Lewis, Bernard; Holt, P. M.; Holt, Peter R.; Lambton, Ann Katherine Swynford |title=The Cambridge history of Islam |publisher=University Press |location=Cambridge, Eng |year=1977 |page=32 |isbn=978-0-521-29135-4 |oclc= }}</ref> (Even the Arabic-descended [[Maltese language]] of [[Malta]], whose population is almost entirely Roman Catholic, uses ''Alla'' for "God".) Arab Christians, for example, use the terms ''{{transl|ar|ALA|Allāh al-ab}}'' ({{lang|ar|الله الأب}}) for [[God the Father]], ''{{transl|ar|ALA|Allāh al-ibn}}'' ({{lang|ar|الله الابن}}) for [[Son of God|God the Son]], and ''{{transl|ar|ALA|Allāh al-rūḥ al-quds}}'' ({{lang|ar|الله الروح القدس}}) for [[Holy Spirit|God the Holy Spirit]]. (See [[God in Christianity]] for the Christian concept of God.) [[Arab Christian]]s have used two forms of invocations that were [[affix]]ed to the beginning of their written works. They adopted the Muslim ''{{transl|ar|ALA|bismillāh}}'', and also created their own [[Trinity|Trinitized]] ''{{transl|ar|ALA|bismillāh}}'' as early as the 8th century.<ref name="Thomas"/> The Muslim ''{{transl|ar|ALA|bismillāh}}'' reads: "In the name of God, the Compassionate, the Merciful." The Trinitized ''{{transl|ar|ALA|bismillāh}}'' reads: "In the name of Father and the Son and the Holy Spirit, One God." The [[Syriac language|Syriac]], [[Latin]] and [[Greek language|Greek]] invocations do not have the words "One God" at the end. This addition was made to emphasize the [[monotheism|monotheistic]] aspect of Trinitarian belief and also to make it more palatable to Muslims.<ref name="Thomas">Thomas E. Burman, ''Religious Polemic and the Intellectual History of the Mozarabs'', [[Brill Publishers|Brill]], 1994, p. 103</ref> According to [[Marshall Hodgson]], it seems that in the pre-Islamic times, some Arab Christians made pilgrimage to the [[Kaaba]], a pagan temple at that time, honoring Allah there as God the Creator.<ref>Marshall G. S. Hodgson, ''The Venture of Islam: Conscience and History in a World Civilization'', [[University of Chicago Press]], p. 156</ref> Some archaeological excavation quests have led to the discovery of ancient [[pre-Islamic Arabia|pre-Islamic]] inscriptions and tombs made by [[Arab Christians]] in the ruins of a church at [[Umm el-Jimal]] in Northern [[Jordan]], which contained references to Allah as the proper name of God, and some of the graves contained names such as "Abd Allah" which means "the servant/slave of Allah".<ref>James Bellamy, "Two Pre-Islamic Arabic Inscriptions Revised: Jabal Ramm and Umm al-Jimal", ''Journal of the American Oriental Society'', 108/3 (1988)</ref><ref>Enno Littmann, Arabic Inscriptions (Leiden, 1949)</ref><ref>Rick Brown, Who is "Allah" ? - International Journal of Frontier Missions, (23:2 Summer 2006), page 80.</ref> The name Allah can be found countless times in the reports and the lists of names of Christian martyrs in South Arabia, as reported by antique Syriac documents of the names of those martyrs from the era of the [[Himyarite]] and [[Aksumite]] kingdoms.<ref name="rick brown">Rick Brown, Who was 'Allah' before Islam? Evidence that the term 'Allah' originated with Jewish and Christian Arabs (2007), page 8.</ref><ref>Ignatius Ya`qub III, The Arab Himyarite Martyrs in the Syriac Documents (1966), Pages: 9-65-66-89</ref> A Christian leader named Abd Allah ibn Abu Bakr ibn Muhammad was martyred in Najran in 523, as he had worn a ring that said "Allah is my lord".<ref name="rick brown"/><ref>Alfred Guillaume& Muhammad Ibn Ishaq, (2002 [1955]). The Life of Muhammad: A Translation of Isḥāq's Sīrat Rasūl Allāh with Introduction and Notes. Karachi and New York: Oxford University Press, page 18.</ref> In an inscription of Christian martyrion dated back to 512, references to Allah can be found in both Arabic and Aramaic, which called him "Allah" and "Alaha", and the inscription starts with the statement "By the Help of Allah".<ref name="rick brown"/><ref>Adolf Grohmann, Arabische Paläographie II: Das Schriftwesen und die Lapidarschrift (1971), Wien: Hermann Böhlaus Nochfolger, Page: 6-8</ref><ref>Beatrice Gruendler, The Development of the Arabic Scripts: From the Nabatean Era to the First Islamic Century according to Dated Texts (1993), Atlanta: Scholars Press, Page:</ref> In pre-Islamic Gospels, the name used for God was "Allah", as evidenced by some discovered Arabic versions of the [[New Testament]] written by [[Arab Christians]] during the pre-Islamic era in Northern and Southern [[Arabia]].<ref name="before">Rick Brown, Who was 'Allah' before Islam? Evidence that the term 'Allah' originated with Jewish and Christian Arabs (2007), page 10.</ref><ref>Frederick Winnett V, Allah before Islam-The Moslem World (1938), Pages: 239–248</ref><ref>Michael Macdonald, Personal Names in the Nabataean Realm-Journal Of Semitic Studies (1999), Page: 271</ref> Pre-Islamic Arab Christians have been reported to have raised the battle cry "''Ya La Ibad Allah''" (O slaves of Allah) to invoke each other into battle.<ref>Irfan Shahîd, Byzantium and the Arabs in the Fourth Century, Dumbarton Oaks Trustees for Harvard University-Washington DC, page 418.</ref> "Allah" was also mentioned in pre-Islamic Christian poems by some [[Ghassanid]] and [[Tanukhids|Tanukhid]] poets in [[Syria]] and Northern [[Arabia]].<ref>Irfan Shahîd, Byzantium and the Arabs in the Fourth Century, Dumbarton Oaks Trustees for Harvard University-Washington DC, Page: 452</ref><ref>A. Amin and A. Harun, Sharh Diwan Al-Hamasa (Cairo, 1951), Vol. 1, Pages: 478-480</ref><ref>Al-Marzubani, Mu'jam Ash-Shu'araa, Page: 302</ref> ===Islam=== {{main|God in Islam}} {{see also|Names of God in the Qur'an}} [[File:Istanbul, Hagia Sophia, Allah.jpg|thumb|Medallion showing "Allah [[Jalla Jalaluhu]]" in the [[Hagia Sophia]], [[Istanbul]], Turkey.]] In Islam, ''Allah'' is the unique, omnipotent and only deity and [[Creator deity|creator of the universe]] and is equivalent to [[God in Abrahamic religions|God in other Abrahamic religions]].<ref name="Britannica"/><ref name="EncMMENA"/> According to Islamic belief, Allah is the most common word to represent God,<ref name="EoQ">Böwering, Gerhard, ''God and His Attributes'', Encyclopaedia of the Qurʼān, Brill, 2007.</ref> and humble submission to his will, divine ordinances and commandments is the pivot of the Muslim faith.<ref name="Britannica"/> "He is the only God, creator of the universe, and the judge of humankind."<ref name="Britannica"/><ref name="EncMMENA"/> "He is unique (''{{transl|ar|ALA|wāḥid}}'') and inherently one (''{{transl|ar|ALA|aḥad}}''), all-merciful and omnipotent."<ref name="Britannica"/> The Qur'an declares "the reality of Allah, His inaccessible mystery, His various names, and His actions on behalf of His creatures."<ref name="Britannica"/> [[File:Dcp7323-Edirne-Eski Camii Allah.jpg|thumb|150px|Allah script outside [[Eski Cami]] (The Old Mosque) in [[Edirne]], Turkey.]] In Islamic tradition, there are [[99 Names of God]] (''{{transl|ar|ALA|al-asmā’ al-ḥusná}}'' lit. meaning: 'the best names' or 'the most beautiful names'), each of which evoke a distinct characteristic of Allah.<ref name="EncMMENA"/><ref name="Ben">{{cite book |last=Bentley |first=David |title=The 99 Beautiful Names for God for All the People of the Book |publisher=William Carey Library |date=September 1999 |isbn=978-0-87808-299-5 }}</ref> All these names refer to Allah, the supreme and all-comprehensive divine name.<ref name="Tao-Islam"> {{cite book | last =Murata | first =Sachiko | author-link = | last2 = | first2 = | author2-link = | publication-date = | year =1992 | title =The Tao of Islam : a sourcebook on gender relationships in Islamic thought | edition = | series = | publication-place =Albany NY USA | place = | publisher=SUNY | id = | isbn =978-0-7914-0914-5 | oclc = | url = }}</ref> Among the 99 names of God, the most famous and most frequent of these names are "the Merciful" (''[[Rahman (name)|al-Raḥmān]]'') and "the Compassionate" (''{{transl|ar|ALA|al-Raḥīm}}'').<ref name="EncMMENA"/><ref name="Ben"/> Most Muslims use the untranslated Arabic phrase ''[[Insha'Allah|{{transl|ar|ALA|in shā’ Allāh}}]]'' (meaning 'if God wills') after references to future events.<ref>Gary S. Gregg, ''The Middle East: A Cultural Psychology'', Oxford University Press, p.30</ref> Muslim discursive piety encourages beginning things with the invocation of ''[[Basmala|{{transl|ar|ALA|bismillāh}}]]'' (meaning 'in the name of God').<ref>Carolyn Fluehr-Lobban, ''Islamic Society in Practice'', University Press of Florida, p. 24</ref> There are certain phrases in praise of God that are favored by Muslims, including "[[subhan'allah|Subḥān Allāh]]" (Holiness be to God), "[[Alhamdulillah|al-ḥamdu lillāh]]" (Praise be to God), "[[Shahada|{{transl|ar|ALA|lā ilāha illā Allāh}}]]" (There is no deity but God) and "[[Takbir|Allāhu akbar]]" (God is greater) as a devotional exercise of remembering God ([[dhikr]]).<ref>M. Mukarram Ahmed, Muzaffar Husain Syed, ''Encyclopaedia of Islam'', Anmol Publications PVT. LTD, p. 144</ref> In a [[Sufi]] practice known as ''dhikr Allah'' (lit. remembrance of God), the Sufi repeats and contemplates on the name ''Allah'' or other divine names while controlling his or her breath.<ref>Carl W. Ernst, Bruce B. Lawrence, ''Sufi Martyrs of Love: The Chishti Order in South Asia and Beyond'', Macmillan, p. 29</ref> Some scholars{{Who|date=December 2008}} have suggested that Muḥammad used the term ''Allah'' in addressing both pagan Arabs and Jews or Christians in order to establish a common ground for the understanding of the name for God, a claim Gerhard Böwering says is doubtful.<ref name="EoQ"/> According to Böwering, in contrast with pre-Islamic Arabian [[polytheism]], God in Islam does not have associates and companions, nor is there any kinship between God and [[jinn]].<ref name="EoQ"/> Pre-Islamic pagan Arabs believed in a blind, powerful, inexorable and insensible fate over which man had no control. This was replaced with the Islamic notion of a powerful but provident and merciful God.<ref name="Britannica"/> According to [[Francis Edwards Peters]], "The [[Qur'an|Qur’ān]] insists, Muslims believe, and historians affirm that [[Muhammad]] and his followers worship the same God as the Jews ({{cite quran|29|46|style=nosup|expand=no}}). The Qur’an's Allah is the same Creator God who covenanted with [[Abraham]]". Peters states that the Qur'an portrays Allah as both more powerful and more remote than Yahweh, and as a universal deity, unlike Yahweh who closely follows [[Israel]]ites.<ref name="Peters1">F.E. Peters, ''Islam'', p.4, Princeton University Press, 2003</ref> ==As a loanword== ===English and other European languages=== The history of the name ''Allāh'' in English was probably influenced by the study of [[comparative religion]] in the 19th century; for example, [[Thomas Carlyle]] (1840) sometimes used the term Allah but without any implication that Allah was anything different from God. However, in his biography of Muḥammad (1934), [[Tor Andræ]] always used the term ''Allah'', though he allows that this "conception of God" seems to imply that it is different from that of the Jewish and Christian theologies.<ref name="Watt45">William Montgomery Watt, ''Islam and Christianity today: A Contribution to Dialogue'', [[Routledge]], 1983, p.45</ref> Languages which may not commonly use the term ''Allah'' to denote God may still contain popular expressions which use the word. For example, because of the centuries long [[Al-Andalus|Muslim presence in the Iberian Peninsula]], the word ''ojalá'' in the Spanish language and ''oxalá'' in the [[Portuguese language]] exist today, borrowed from [[Arabic]] (Arabic: إن شاء الله). This phrase literally means 'if God wills' (in the sense of "I hope so").<ref>Islam in Luce López Baralt, ''Spanish Literature: From the Middle Ages to the Present'', Brill, 1992, p.25</ref> The German poet [[Siegfried August Mahlmann|Mahlmann]] used the form "Allah" as the title of a poem about the ultimate deity, though it is unclear how much Islamic thought he intended to convey. Some Muslims leave the name "Allāh" untranslated in English.<ref>F. E. Peters, ''The Monotheists: Jews, Christians, and Muslims in Conflict and Competition'', [[Princeton University Press]], p.12</ref> The word has also been applied to certain living human beings as personifications of the term and concept.<ref>[http://www.bible.ca/islam/islam-nation-of-islam.htm Nation of Islam – personification of Allah as Detroit peddler W D Fard] {{Wayback|df=yes|url=http://www.bible.ca/islam/islam-nation-of-islam.htm|date =20130813190129}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.finalcall.com/artman/publish/article_3290.shtml |title=A history of Clarence 13X and the Five Percenters, referring to Clarence Smith as Allah |publisher=Finalcall.com |date= |accessdate=2014-01-14|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20131022034331/http://www.finalcall.com/artman/publish/article_3290.shtml|archivedate=2013-10-22}}</ref> ===Malaysian and Indonesian language=== [[File:Vocabulariumoft00dancgoog.djvu|page=78|thumb|left|The first dictionary of Dutch-Malay by [[Albert Cornelius Ruyl|A.C. Ruyl]], Justus Heurnius, and Caspar Wiltens in 1650 recorded "Allah" as the translation of the Dutch word "[[God]]t".]] {{main|Titular Roman Catholic Archbishop of Kuala Lumpur v. Menteri Dalam Negeri|2010 attacks against places of worship in Malaysia}} Christians in Malaysia and Indonesia use ''Allah'' to refer to God in the [[Malaysian language|Malaysian]] and [[Indonesian language]]s (both of which are standardized forms of the [[Malay language]].) Mainstream Bible translations in the language use ''Allah'' as the translation of Hebrew [[Elohim]] (translated in English Bibles as "God").<ref>Example: [http://alkitab.sabda.org/verse.php?book=Mat&chapter=22&verse=32&search=allah&scope=all&exact=off Usage of the word "Allah" from Matthew 22:32 in Indonesian bible versions (parallel view) as old as 1733] {{Wayback|df=yes|url=http://alkitab.sabda.org/verse.php?book=Mat&chapter=22&verse=32&search=allah&scope=all&exact=off|date =20131019125828}}</ref> This goes back to early translation work by [[Francis Xavier]] in the 16th century.<ref>The Indonesian Language: Its History and Role in Modern Society Sneddon, James M.; University of New South Wales Press; 2004</ref><ref>The History of Christianity in India from the Commencement of the Christian Era: Hough, James; Adamant Media Corporation; 2001</ref> The first dictionary of Dutch-Malay by Albert Cornelius Ruyl, Justus Heurnius, and Caspar Wiltens in 1650 (revised edition from 1623 edition and 1631 Latin-edition) recorded "Allah" as the translation of the Dutch word "[[:en:God|Godt]]".<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3GcTAAAAQAAJ&v=onepage&q=allah&f=false |title=Justus Heurnius, Albert Ruyl, Caspar Wiltens. "Vocabularium ofte Woordenboeck nae ordre van den alphabeth, in 't Duytsch en Maleys". 1650:65 |publisher=Books.google.co.id |date= |accessdate=2014-01-14|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20131022172808/https://books.google.com/books?id=3GcTAAAAQAAJ&v=onepage&q=allah&f=false|archivedate=2013-10-22}}</ref> Ruyl also translated [[Gospel of Matthew|Matthew]] in 1612 to Malay language (first Bible translation to non-European language, only a year after [[King James Version]] was published<ref>Barton, John (2002–12). The Biblical World, Oxford, UK: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-27574-3.</ref><ref>North, Eric McCoy; Eugene Albert Nida ((2nd Edition) 1972). The Book of a Thousand Tongues, London: United Bible Societies.</ref>), which was printed in the Netherlands in 1629. Then he translated [[Gospel of Mark|Mark]] which was published in 1638.<ref>{{Id icon}} [http://sejarah.sabda.org/sejarah/bio_ruyl.htm Biography of Ruyl]</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/514364/Albert-Cornelius-Ruyl |title=Encyclopædia Britannica: Albert Cornelius Ruyl |publisher=Britannica.com |date= |accessdate=2014-01-14|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20131019171117/http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/514364/Albert-Cornelius-Ruyl|archivedate=2013-10-19}}</ref> The [[government of Malaysia]] in 2007 outlawed usage of the term ''Allah'' in any other but Muslim contexts, but the [[High Court of Malaya|Malayan High Court]] in 2009 revoked the law, ruling that it was unconstitutional. While ''Allah'' had been used for the Christian God in Malay for more than four centuries, the contemporary controversy was triggered by usage of ''Allah'' by the Roman Catholic newspaper ''[[The Herald (Malaysian Catholic Weekly)|The Herald]]''. The government appealed the court ruling, and the High Court suspended implementation of its verdict until the appeal was heard. In October 2013, the court ruled in favor of the government's ban.<ref>{{cite news |title=No more 'Allah' for Christians, Malaysian court says |first=Simon |last=Roughneen |url=http://www.csmonitor.com/World/Asia-Pacific/2013/1014/No-more-Allah-for-Christians-Malaysian-court-says |newspaper=[[The Christian Science Monitor]] |date=14 October 2013 |accessdate=14 October 2013}}</ref> In early 2014, the Malaysian government confiscated more than 300 bibles for using the word to refer to the Christian God in Peninsular Malaysia.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-25578348|title=BBC News - More than 300 Bibles are confiscated in Malaysia|publisher=BBC|date=2 January 2014|accessdate=14 January 2014|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140125052310/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-25578348|archivedate=25 January 2014|deadurl=no}}</ref> However, the use of Allah is not prohibited in the two Malaysian state of [[Sabah]] and [[Sarawak]].<ref name="settle">{{cite web|url=http://www.dailyexpress.com.my/news.cfm?NewsID=87900|title=Catholic priest should respect court: Mahathir|publisher=[[Daily Express (Sabah)|Daily Express]]|date=9 January 2014|accessdate=10 January 2014|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140110085352/http://www.dailyexpress.com.my/news.cfm?NewsID=87900|archivedate=10 January 2014|deadurl=no}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.theborneopost.com/2014/03/29/worship-without-hindrance/|title=Worship without hindrance|author=Jane Moh and Peter Sibon|publisher=[[The Borneo Post]]|date=29 March 2014|accessdate=29 March 2014|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140329094134/http://www.theborneopost.com/2014/03/29/worship-without-hindrance/|archivedate=29 March 2014|deadurl=no}}</ref> The main reason it is not prohibited in these two states is that usage has been long-established and local Alkitab ([[Bibles]]) have been widely distributed freely in East Malaysia without restrictions for years.<ref name="settle"/> Both states also do not have similar Islamic state laws as those in West Malaysia.<ref name="10 point"/> As a reaction to some media criticism, the Malaysian government has introduced a "10-point solution" to avoid confusion and misleading information.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://aliran.com/web-specials/bahasa-malaysia-bibles-10-point-solution/|title=Bahasa Malaysia Bibles: The Cabinet's 10-point solution}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.thestar.com.my/News/Nation/2014/01/24/Najib-Kalimah-Allah/|title=Najib: 10-point resolution on Allah issue subject to Federal, state laws|publisher=[[The Star (Malaysia)|The Star]]|date=24 January 2014|accessdate=25 June 2014|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140625114620/http://www.thestar.com.my/News/Nation/2014/01/24/Najib-Kalimah-Allah/|archivedate=25 June 2014|deadurl=no}}</ref> The 10-point solution is in line with the spirit of the [[18-point agreement|18]]- and [[20-point agreement]]s of Sarawak and Sabah.<ref name="10 point">{{cite web|url=http://www.thestar.com.my/Business/Business-News/2014/02/24/My-take-on-the-Allah-issue-10point-solution-is-key-to-managing-the-polarity/|title=The 'Allah'/Bible issue, 10-point solution is key to managing the polarity|author=[[Idris Jala]]|publisher=The Star|date=24 February 2014|accessdate=25 June 2014|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140625115836/http://www.thestar.com.my/Business/Business-News/2014/02/24/My-take-on-the-Allah-issue-10point-solution-is-key-to-managing-the-polarity/|archivedate=25 June 2014|deadurl=no}}</ref> {{clear}} ===In other scripts and languages=== ''{{transl|ar|ALA|Allāh}}'' in other languages that use Arabic script is spelled in the same way. This includes [[Urdu]], [[Persian language|Persian]]/[[Dari (Eastern Persian)|Dari]], [[Uyghur language|Uyghur]] among others. * [[Assamese language|Assamese]], {{lang-bn|আল্লাহ}} ''Allah'' * {{lang-bs|Allah}} * [[Chinese language|Chinese]] ([[Mandarin (late imperial lingua franca)|Mandarin]]): 阿拉 ''Ālā'', {{lang|zh|安拉}} ''Ānlā''; {{lang|zh|真主}} ''Zhēnzhǔ'' (semantic translation as "the true master"),<ref name="VersteeghEid2005">{{cite book|author1=Kees Versteegh|author2=Mushira Eid|title=Encyclopedia of Arabic Language and Linguistics: A-Ed|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SuNiAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA379|year=2005|publisher=Brill|isbn=978-90-04-14473-6|pages=379–}}</ref> {{lang|zh|胡大}} ''Huda'' (''Khoda'', from [[Persian language]]) * [[Czech language|Czech]], {{lang-sk|Alláh}} * {{lang-el|Αλλάχ}} ''Allách'' *[[Filipino Language|Filipino]]: Alā or ''Allah'' * {{lang-he|אללה}} ''Allah'' * {{lang-hi|अल्लाह}} ''Allāh'' * {{lang-ml|അള്ളാഹ്}} ''Aḷḷāh'' * {{lang-ja|アラー}} ''Arā'', {{lang|ja|アッラー}} ''Arrā'', {{lang|ja|アッラーフ}} ''Arrāfu'' * {{lang-lv|Allāhs}} * {{lang-mt|Alla}} * {{lang-ko|알라}} ''Alla'' * {{lang-pl|Allah}}, also archaic ''{{lang|pl|Allach}}'' or ''{{lang|pl|Ałłach}}'' * [[Russian language|Russian]], [[Ukrainian language|Ukrainian]], {{lang-bg|Алла́х}} ''Allakh'' * [[Serbian language|Serbian]], [[Belarusian language|Belarusian]], {{lang-mk|Алах}} ''Alah'' * [[Spanish language|Spanish]], {{lang-pt|Alá}} * {{lang-th|อัลลอฮ์}} ''Anláw'' * Punjabi ([[Gurmukhi script|Gurmukhi]]): ਅੱਲਾਹ ''Allāh'', archaic ਅਲਹੁ ''Alahu'' (in [[Sikh scriptures]]) * [[Turkish language|Turkish]]: Allah ==Typography== [[File:Allahnameindifferentlanguages.png|280px|thumbnail|The word ''Allah'' written in different [[writing system]]s.]] The word ''{{transl|ar|ALA|Allāh}}'' is always written without an [[aleph|{{transl|ar|ALA|alif}}]] to spell the ''{{transl|ar|ALA|ā}}'' vowel. This is because the spelling was settled before Arabic spelling started habitually using ''{{transl|ar|ALA|alif}}'' to spell ''{{transl|ar|ALA|ā}}''. However, in vocalized spelling, a small diacritic ''{{transl|ar|ALA|alif}}'' is added on top of the ''[[shadda|{{transl|ar|ALA|shaddah}}]]'' to indicate the pronunciation. One exception may be in the pre-Islamic [[History of the Arabic alphabet#Pre-Islamic Arabic inscriptions|Zabad inscription]],<ref>{{cite web | title=Zebed Inscription: A Pre-Islamic Trilingual Inscription In Greek, Syriac & Arabic From 512 CE | url=http://www.islamic-awareness.org/History/Islam/Inscriptions/zebed.html | publisher=Islamic Awareness | date=17 March 2005 | archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20131013005808/http://www.islamic-awareness.org:80/History/Islam/Inscriptions/zebed.html | archivedate=2013-10-13 }} </ref> where it ends with an ambiguous sign that may be a lone-standing ''h'' with a lengthened start, or may be a non-standard conjoined ''{{transl|ar|ALA|l-h}}'':- * {{lang|ar| الاه }}: This reading would be ''{{transl|ar|ALA|Allāh}}'' spelled phonetically with ''{{transl|ar|ALA|alif}}'' for the ''{{transl|ar|ALA|ā}}''. * {{lang|ar| الإله }}: This reading would be ''{{transl|ar|ALA|al-Ilāh}}'' = 'the god' (an older form, without contraction), by older spelling practice without ''{{transl|ar|ALA|alif}}'' for ''{{transl|ar|ALA|ā}}''. Many Arabic type fonts feature special [[typographic ligature|ligatures]] for Allah.<ref name="Typ1"> * [http://www.smi.uib.no/ksv/ArabicFonts.html Arabic fonts and Mac OS X] * [http://www.smi.uib.no/ksv/ArabicProgsx.html Programs for Arabic in Mac OS X] {{Wayback|df=yes|url=http://www.smi.uib.no/ksv/ArabicProgsx.html|date =20131006005022}}</ref> ===Unicode=== [[Unicode]] has a codepoint reserved for ''{{transl|ar|ALA|Allāh}}'', {{script/Arabic|ﷲ}} = U+FDF2, in the [[Arabic Presentation Forms-A]] block, which exists solely for "compatibility with some older, legacy character sets that encoded presentation forms directly",<ref>The Unicode Consortium. [http://www.unicode.org/faq/middleeast.html#5 FAQ - Middle East Scripts] {{Wayback|df=yes|url=http://www.unicode.org/faq/middleeast.html#5|date =20131001110649}}</ref><ref name="Uni">{{cite web|url=http://www.unicode.org/charts/PDF/UFB50.pdf |title='&#39;Unicode Standard 5.0'&#39;, p.479, 492 |format=PDF |date= |accessdate=2014-01-14|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140428184606/http://unicode.org/charts/PDF/UFB50.pdf|archivedate=2014-04-28}}</ref> which is discouraged for new text. Instead, the word ''{{transl|ar|ALA|Allāh}}'' should be represented by its individual Arabic letters, while modern font technologies will render the desired ligature. The calligraphic variant of the word used as the [[Coat of arms of Iran]] is encoded in Unicode, in the [[Miscellaneous Symbols]] range, at codepoint U+262B (☫). ==See also== * [[Abdullah (name)]] * [[Ilah|{{transl|ar|ALA|Ilāh}}]] * [[Names of God]] ==Notes== {{reflist|30em}} ==References== * The Unicode Consortium, ''Unicode Standard 5.0'', Addison-Wesley, 2006, ISBN 978-0-321-48091-0, [http://unicode.org/book/aboutbook.html About the Unicode Standard Version 5.0 Book] ==External links== {{Wikisource}} {{wikiquote}} {{Commons and category|Allah}} * [http://www.searchtruth.com/Allah/99Names.php Names of Allah with Meaning on Website, Flash, and Mobile Phone Software] * [http://www.sultan.org/articles/god.html Concept of God (Allah) in Islam] * [http://www.islam-info.ch/en/Who_is_Allah.htm The Concept of Allāh According to the Qur'an] by Abdul Mannan Omar * [http://www.muslim.org/islam/allah.htm Allah, the Unique Name of God] ; Typography * [http://www.smi.uib.no/ksv/ArabicFonts.html Arabic Fonts and Mac OS X] * [http://www.smi.uib.no/ksv/ArabicProgsx.html Programs for Arabic in Mac OS X] {{Islam topics|state=collapsed}} {{Names of God}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Allah| ]] [[Category:God]] [[te:అల్లాహ్]] ss5co3c8k707jkbo0bwpjta91givop4 0 742 696657918 695905079 2015-12-24T18:40:56Z 73.214.30.202 fix link wikitext text/x-wiki {{Use dmy dates|date=June 2013}} {{Infobox journal | title = Algorithms | editor = Kazuo Iwama | discipline = [[Algorithms]] | abbreviation = Algorithms | publisher = [[MDPI]] | country = | frequency = Quarterly | history = 2008-present | openaccess = Yes | website = http://www.mdpi.com/journal/algorithms | ISSN = 1999-4893 | OCLC = 405716627 }} '''''Algorithms''''' is a [[Peer review|peer-reviewed]] [[open access]] [[mathematics journal]] concerning design, analysis, and experiments on [[algorithm]]s.<ref name=about> {{cite web | last = | first = | authorlink = | coauthors = | title = About Algorithms | work = Algorithms | publisher =[[MDPI]] | date = 2013 | url = http://www.mdpi.com/journal/algorithms/about | format = | doi = | accessdate =2013-07-18}}</ref> The journal is published by [[MDPI]] and was established in 2008. Its [[editor-in-chief]] is Kazuo Iwama ([[Kyoto University]]). == Abstracting and indexing == The journal is abstracted and indexed in [[Chemical Abstracts Service]], [[Compendex]], [[DBLP Computer Science Bibliography]], [[Inspec]], [[MathSciNet]], [[Scopus]], and [[Zentralblatt MATH]]. == See also == * ''[[Algorithmica]]'', another journal with similar subject matter == References == {{Reflist}} == External links == * {{Official website|http://www.mdpi.com/journal/algorithms}} [[Category:Computer science journals]] [[Category:Paid-inclusion open access journals]] [[Category:Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute academic journals]] [[Category:Quarterly journals]] [[Category:English-language journals]] [[Category:Publications established in 2008]] [[Category:Mathematics journals]] 32hudldsb4pen4z5uzku6p5g91ihuit 0 743 290580318 289168261 2009-05-17T20:43:53Z Erik9bot 8889502 [[WP:RBK|Reverted]] edits by [[Special:Contributions/Erik9bot|Erik9bot]] ([[User talk:Erik9bot|talk]]) to last version by Closedmouth wikitext text/x-wiki #REDIRECT [[Antigua and Barbuda]]{{R from other capitalisation}} ax2hjn9cb82jbqrz8stjj6sgwupd3hb 0 746 717926589 717908339 2016-04-30T15:12:55Z 117.214.246.37 wikitext text/x-wiki {{about|the country in Eurasia}} {{pp-pc1}} {{pp-move-indef}} {{Use dmy dates|date=February 2015}} {{good article}} {{Infobox country | conventional_long_name = Republic of Azerbaijan | native_name = {{native name|az|Azərbaycan Respublikası}} | common_name = Azerbaijan | national_motto = <!-- The Republic of Azerbaijan has no official, constitutionally fixed motto --> | national_anthem = {{vunblist |''[[Azərbaycan marşı]]'' |{{small|"March of Azerbaijan"}}|<center>[[File:National Anthem of the Republic of Azerbaijan instrumental.ogg]]</center>}} | image_flag = Flag of Azerbaijan.svg | alt_flag = Three equally sized horizontal bands of blue, red, and green, with a white crescent and an eight-pointed star centered in the red band | image_coat = Coat of arms of Azerbaijan.svg | symbol_type = Emblem | image_map = Azerbaijan (orthographic projection).png | map_caption = Location of Azerbaijan. | capital = [[Baku]] | latd=40 |latm=25 |latNS=N |longd=49 |longm=50 |longEW=E | official_languages = [[Azerbaijani language|Azerbaijani]] | largest cities = [[Baku]] [[Ganja]] |demonym = Azerbaijani | government_type = {{nowrap|[[Unitary state|Unitary]] [[Dominant-party system|dominant-party]]}} {{nowrap|[[Semi-presidential system|semi-presidential]] [[republic]]}} | leader_title1 = [[President of Azerbaijan|President]] | leader_name1 = [[Ilham Aliyev]] | leader_title2 = [[Prime Minister of Azerbaijan|Prime Minister]] | leader_name2 = [[Artur Rasizade]] | legislature = [[National Assembly of Azerbaijan|National Assembly]] | sovereignty_type = [[History of Azerbaijan|Formation]] | established_event1 = [[Azerbaijan Democratic Republic|Democratic Republic]] | established_date1 = 28 May 1918 | established_event2 = [[Azerbaijan Soviet Socialist Republic|Soviet Socialist Republic]] | established_date2 = 28 April 1920 | established_event3 = {{nowrap|Independence from<br />the [[Soviet Union]]}} | established_date3 = 30 August 1991 (declared)<br />18 October 1991 (independence) | established_event4 = {{nowrap|[[Constitution of Azerbaijan|Constitution]] adopted}} | established_date4 = 12 November 1995 | area_km2 = 86600 | area_sq_mi = 33436 <!--Do not remove [[WP:MOSNUM]]--> | area_rank = 114th | percent_water = 1.6 | population_estimate = 9,574,000<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.azadliq.az/xeber/20667/azerbaycan-ehalisinin-sayi-aciqlanib-statistika/Azərbaycanda |title=Azərbaycanda Əhalinin Sayı Açıqlandı |trans-title=Population of Azerbaijan Announced |language=Azerbaijani |date=December 15, 2014}}</ref> | population_estimate_year = 2014 | population_estimate_rank = 89th | population_density_km2 = 110.6 | population_density_sq_mi = 274.1 <!--Do not remove [[WP:MOSNUM]]--> | population_density_rank = 103rd | GDP_PPP_year = 2015 | GDP_PPP = $168.4 billion<ref name="imf2">{{cite web |url=http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2015/02/weodata/weorept.aspx?pr.x=90&pr.y=6&sy=2015&ey=2020&scsm=1&ssd=1&sort=country&ds=.&br=1&c=912&s=NGDPD%2CNGDPDPC%2CPPPGDP%2CPPPPC&grp=0&a=|title=Azerbaijan |publisher=International Monetary Fund |accessdate= October 2015}}</ref> | GDP_PPP_rank = | GDP_PPP_per_capita = $17,500<ref name=imf2/> | GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = | GDP_nominal = $63.983 billion<ref name=imf2/> | GDP_nominal_rank = | GDP_nominal_year = 2015 | GDP_nominal_per_capita = $6,794<ref name=imf2/> | GDP_nominal_per_capita_rank = | Gini_year = 2008 | Gini_change = <!--increase/decrease/steady--> | Gini = 33.7 <!--number only--> | Gini_ref =<ref name="wb-gini">{{cite web |url=http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SI.POV.GINI/ |title=Gini Index|publisher=World Bank |accessdate=2 March 2011}}</ref> | Gini_rank = | HDI_year = 2013<!-- Please use the year to which the data refers, not the publication year--> | HDI_change = decease<!--increase/decrease/steady--> | HDI = 0.751 <!--number only--> | HDI_ref =<ref name="HDI">{{cite web|url=http://hdrstats.undp.org/en/countries/profiles/AZE.html|title=Human Development Index, 2012 Update|year=2011|publisher=United Nations|accessdate=15 June 2012}}</ref> | HDI_rank = 76th | currency = [[Azerbaijani manat|Manat]] (₼) | currency_code = AZN | time_zone = [[Azerbaijan Time|AZT]] ([[UTC+04]]) | utc_offset_DST = | drives_on = [[Right- and left-hand traffic|right]] | calling_code = [[Telephone numbers in Azerbaijan|994]] | cctld = [[.az]] |footnote_a = The [[Nagorno-Karabakh Republic]] is an [[Diplomatic recognition|unrecognised]] ''[[De facto#Politics|de facto]]'' sovereign state, widely considered ''[[de jure]]'' part of Azerbaijan. }} '''Azerbaijan''' ({{IPAc-en|audio=en-us-Azerbaijan.ogg|ˌ|æ|z|ər|b|aɪ|ˈ|dʒ|ɑː|n}} {{respell|AZ|ər-by|JAHN|'}}; {{lang-az|Azərbaycan}} {{IPA-tu|ɑzærbɑjdʒɑn|}}), officially the '''Republic of Azerbaijan''' ({{lang-az|Azərbaycan Respublikası}}), is a country in the [[Transcaucasia]]n region, situated at the crossroads of [[Southwest Asia]] and [[Southeastern Europe]].<ref>While often politically aligned with Europe, Azerbaijan is generally considered to be at least mostly in Southwest Asia geographically with its northern part bisected by the [[Boundaries between continents|standard Asia-Europe divide]], the [[Greater Caucasus]]. The United Nations [http://unstats.un.org/unsd/methods/m49/m49regin.htm classification of world regions] places Azerbaijan in Western Asia; the [[CIA World Factbook]] places it mostly in Southwest Asia [https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/aj.html] and ''[http://www.m-w.com/dictionary/Azerbaijan Merriam-Webster's Collegiate Dictionary]'' places it in both; [http://www.nationalgeographic.com/xpeditions/atlas/index.html?Parent=asia&Rootmap=azerba&Mode=d&SubMode=w NationalGeographic.com], and ''[http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/46781/Azerbaijan Encyclopædia Britannica]'' also place Georgia in Asia. Conversely, some sources place Azerbaijan in Europe such as [http://worldatlas.com/webimage/countrys/eu.htm Worldatlas.com].</ref> It is bounded by the [[Caspian Sea]] to the east, Russia to the north, [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]] to the northwest, [[Armenia]] to the west and [[Iran]] to the south. The [[exclave]] of [[Nakhchivan Autonomous Republic|Nakhchivan]] is bounded by Armenia to the north and east, Iran to the south and west, while having a short border with [[Turkey]] in the north west. The [[Azerbaijan Democratic Republic]] proclaimed its independence in 1918 and became the first Muslim-majority democratic and secular republic.<ref>Tadeusz Swietochowski. Russia and Azerbaijan: A Borderland in Transition. Columbia University Press, 1995. ISBN 0-231-07068-3, ISBN 978-0-231-07068-3 and Reinhard Schulze. A Modern History of the Islamic World. I.B.Tauris, 2000. ISBN 1-86064-822-3, ISBN 978-1-86064-822-9.</ref> It was also the first Muslim-majority country to have operas, theaters and modern universities.<ref name="E.Cornell">{{cite book | last = E. Cornell | first = Svante | title = The Politicization of Islam in Azerbaijan | publisher = Silk Road Paper | year = 2006 | pages = 124, 222, 229, 269–270}}</ref> The country was incorporated into the Soviet Union in 1920 as the [[Azerbaijan Soviet Socialist Republic]].<ref name="Swietochowski Borderland" /><ref>{{cite book |last=Pipes|first=Richard |authorlink=Richard Pipes|year=1997|location=Cambridge, Massachusetts|title=The Formation of the Soviet Union: Communism and Nationalism 1917–1923|pages= 218–220, 229 |edition=2nd |publisher=Harvard University Press |isbn=978-0-674-30951-7}}</ref> Azerbaijan proclaimed its independence on 30 August 1991,<ref>{{cite book|last=King|first=David C.|title=Azerbaijan|date=2006|publisher=Marshall Cavendish|page=27|isbn =978-0761420118}}</ref> before the official [[Dissolution of the Soviet Union|dissolution of the USSR]]. In September 1991, the disputed Armenian-majority [[Nagorno-Karabakh]] region re-affirmed its willingness to create a separate state as the [[Nagorno-Karabakh Republic]].<ref>Zürcher, Christoph (2007). The Post-Soviet Wars: Rebellion, Ethnic Conflict, and Nationhood in the Caucasus ([Online-Ausg.]. ed.). New York: New York University Press. p. 168. ISBN 978-0814797099.</ref> The region, effectively independent since the beginning of the [[Nagorno-Karabakh War]] in 1991, is internationally recognized as part of Azerbaijan until a final solution to its status is found through negotiations facilitated by the [[OSCE]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.un.org/russian/documen/scresol/res1993/res822.htm |script-title=ru:Резолюция СБ ООН № 822 от 30 апреля 1993 года |publisher=United Nations |accessdate=4 January 2011|language=ru}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.un.org/russian/documen/scresol/res1993/res853.htm |script-title=ru:Резолюция СБ ООН № 853 от 29 июля 1993 года |publisher=United Nations |accessdate=4 January 2011|language=ru}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.un.org/russian/documen/scresol/res1993/res874.htm |script-title=ru:Резолюция СБ ООН № 874 14 октября 1993 года |publisher=United Nations |accessdate=4 January 2011|language=ru}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.un.org/russian/documen/scresol/res1993/res884.htm |script-title=ru:Резолюция СБ ООН № 884 от 12 ноября 1993 года |publisher=United Nations |accessdate=4 January 2011|language=ru}}</ref> Azerbaijan is a unitary [[Semi-presidential system|semi-presidential]] [[republic]]. The country is a member state of the [[Council of Europe]], the [[Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe|OSCE]] and the [[NATO]] [[Partnership for Peace]] (PfP) program. It is one of the six independent [[List of Turkic states and empires#Current states|Turkic states]], being an active member of the [[Turkic Council]] and the [[Joint Administration of Turkic Arts and Culture|TÜRKSOY]] community. Azerbaijan has diplomatic relations with 158 countries and holds membership in 38 international organizations.<ref name="FCO">{{cite web| title =Azerbaijan: Membership of international groupings/organisations: | publisher = British Foreign & Commonwealth Office| url = http://www.fco.gov.uk/servlet/Front?pagename=OpenMarket/Xcelerate/ShowPage&c=Page&cid=1007029394365&a=KCountryProfile&aid=1019233781986| accessdate = 26 May 2007| archiveurl= //web.archive.org/web/20070609103711/http://www.fco.gov.uk/servlet/Front?pagename=OpenMarket/Xcelerate/ShowPage&c=Page&cid=1007029394365&a=KCountryProfile&aid=1019233781986| archivedate= 9 June 2007 | deadurl= no}}</ref> It is one of the founding members of [[GUAM Organization for Democracy and Economic Development|GUAM]], the [[Commonwealth of Independent States]] (CIS)<ref>{{cite book |last=Europa Publications Limited|year=1998|title=Eastern Europe and the Commonwealth of Independent States|page= 154|edition= |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-85743-058-5}}</ref> and [[Organization for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons]]. A member of the United Nations since 1992, Azerbaijan was elected to membership in the newly established [[Human Rights Council]] by the [[United Nations General Assembly]] on 9 May 2006 (the term of office began on 19 June 2006).<ref name="Un.org">{{cite web|url=http://www.un.org/ga/60/elect/hrc/ |title=Elections & Appointments – Human Rights Council |publisher=United Nations|accessdate=3 January 2009| archiveurl= //web.archive.org/web/20081220224503/http://www.un.org/ga/60/elect/hrc/| archivedate= 20 December 2008 | deadurl= no}}</ref> Azerbaijan is also a member state of the [[Non-Aligned Movement]], holds observer status in [[World Trade Organization]] and is a correspondent at the [[International Telecommunication Union]].<ref name="FCO"/><ref>{{cite news |title=The non-aligned engagement|url=http://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2011/05/24/the-non-aligned-engagement.html|work=[[The Jakarta Post]]|accessdate=26 May 2011}}</ref> The [[Constitution of Azerbaijan]] does not declare an official religion, and all major political forces in the country are [[secularism|secularist]], but the majority of people and some opposition movements adhere to [[Shia Islam]].<ref>{{Cite book|title=Azerbaijan Since Independence|first=Svante E.|last=Cornell|publisher=M.E. Sharpe|year=2010|pages=165, 284|quote=Indicative of general regional trends and a natural reemergence of previously oppressed religious identity, an increasingly popular ideological basis for the pursuit of political objectives has been Islam.... The government, for its part, has shown an official commitment to Islam by building mosques and respecting Islamic values... Unofficial Islamic groups sought to use aspects of Islam to mobilize the population and establish the foundations for a future political struggle.... Unlike Turkey, Azerbaijan does not have the powerful ideological legacy of secularism... the conflict with Armenia has bred frustration that is increasingly being answered by a combined Islamic and nationalist sentiment, especially among younger people... All major political forces are committed to secularism and are based, if anything, on a nationalist agenda.}}</ref> Azerbaijan has a high level of [[Human Development Index|human development]] which ranks on par with most Eastern European countries.<ref>{{cite web| title =Human Development Index and its components| publisher = United Nations Development Programme| url = http://hdr.undp.org/en/media/HDR_2010_EN_Table1.pdf|format=PDF }}</ref> It has a high rate of [[economic development]]<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.newsweek.com/2010/08/15/interactive-infographic-of-the-worlds-best-countries.html |title=Interactive Infographic of the World's Best Countries|work=Newsweek |date=15 August 2010 |accessdate=24 July 2011| archiveurl= //web.archive.org/web/20110722070231/http://www.newsweek.com/2010/08/15/interactive-infographic-of-the-worlds-best-countries.html| archivedate= 22 July 2011 | deadurl= no}}</ref> and [[literacy rate|literacy]],<ref>[http://www.news.az/articles/society/47727 Literacy rate among schoolchildren in Azerbaijan is 100% – UN report] – News.Az – Published 28 October 2011.</ref> as well as a low rate of [[List of countries by unemployment rate|unemployment]].<ref>{{cite web| title = Employment statistics in Azerbaijan | publisher = The State Statistical Committee of the Republic of Azerbaijan| url = http://www.azstat.org/publications/azfigures/2010/en/005.shtml| accessdate = 2007-05-26}}</ref> However, corruption in Azerbaijan is widespread, especially in the [[public service]].<ref>[http://www.parliament.uk/briefing-papers/sn06650.pdf ''Azerbaijan and the 2013 presidential election'' UK Parliament briefing paper, 25 October 2013]</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.transparency.org/cpi2012/results|title=2012 Corruption Perceptions Index -- Results|publisher=Transparency International |accessdate=4 July 2015}}</ref> The ruling party, [[New Azerbaijan Party]], has been accused of authoritarianism and human rights abuses.<ref>{{cite web| title = Introduction: Azerbaijan |publisher = CIA World Factbook |url = https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/aj.html| accessdate = 2014-03-06}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title = Human Rights Watch: Azerbaijan |publisher = Human Rights Watch|url = http://www.hrw.org/europecentral-asia/azerbaijan|accessdate = 2014-03-06}}</ref> ==Etymology== [[File:Azerbaijan Republic map.png|thumb|Azerbaijan and its main cities]] According to a modern etymology, the name of Azerbaijan derives from that of ''[[Atropates]]'',<ref>{{cite book |last=Houtsma|first=M. Th. |authorlink=Martijn Theodoor Houtsma |year= 1993|location= |title= First Encyclopaedia of Islam 1913–1936 |volume= |edition= reprint |publisher= BRILL |doi= |isbn=978-90-04-09796-4}}</ref><ref name="Schippmann">{{cite book |last=Schippmann|first=Klaus |authorlink= |year=1989 |location= |title=Azerbaijan: Pre-Islamic History|pages= 221–224|edition= |publisher=Encyclopædia Iranica |doi= |isbn=978-0-933273-95-5}}</ref> a [[Persian people|Persian]]<ref>{{cite book |last=Minahan|first=James |authorlink= |year=1998|location= |title=Miniature Empires: A Historical Dictionary of the Newly Independent States|page= 20|edition= |publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group |doi= |isbn=978-0-313-30610-5}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Chamoux|first=François |authorlink= |year=2003|location= |title=Hellenistic Civilization|page= 26|edition= |publisher=John Wiley and Sons |doi= |isbn=978-0-631-22241-5}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last= Bosworth A.B.|first=Baynham E.J.|authorlink= |year=2002|location= |title=Alexander the Great in Fact and fiction|page= 92|edition= |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |doi= |isbn=978-0-19-925275-6}}</ref> [[satrap]] under the Achaemenid Empire, who was later reinstated as the satrap of [[Medes|Media]] under [[Alexander the Great]].<ref name="Chaumont"/><ref name="dictionary">{{cite book |last=Swietochowski|first=Tadeusz |authorlink= Tadeusz Swietochowski|year=1999|location= Lanham, Maryland|title=Historical Dictionary of Azerbaijan|volume= |edition= |publisher=The Scarecrow Press |doi= |isbn=978-0-8108-3550-4}}</ref> The original etymology of this name is thought to have its roots in the once-dominant Zoroastrian religion. In the [[Avesta]], Frawardin [[Yasht]] ("Hymn to the Guardian Angels"), there is a mention of ''âterepâtahe ashaonô fravashîm ýazamaide'', which literally translates from [[Avestan language|Avestan]] as "we worship the [[Fravashi]] of the holy Atropatene."<ref>{{cite book |last=Darmesteter|first=James|authorlink= James Darmesteter|year=2004|location= |title=Avesta Khorda Avesta: Book Of Common Prayer|page= 93|edition= reprint |chapter=Frawardin Yasht|chapter-url=http://www.avesta.org/ka/yt13sbe.htm|publisher=Kessinger Publishing |doi= |isbn=978-1-4191-0852-5}}</ref> Atropates ruled over the region of [[Atropatene]] (present [[Iranian Azerbaijan]]). The name "Atropates" itself is the Greek transliteration of an Old Iranian, probably [[Median language|Median]], compounded name with the meaning "Protected by the (Holy) Fire" or "The Land of the (Holy) Fire."<ref name="Library of Congres">{{cite web| title =Azerbaijan: Early History: Persian and Greek Influences | publisher = U.S. Library of Congress| url = http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd/cstdy:@field(DOCID+az0014)| accessdate = 7 June 2006 }}</ref> The Greek name is mentioned by [[Diodorus Siculus]] and [[Strabo]]. Over the span of millennia the name evolved to ''Āturpātākān'' (Middle Iranian) then to ''Ādharbādhagān'', ''Ādharbāyagān'', ''Āzarbāydjān'' (New Persian) and present-day ''Azerbaijan'' (in Armenia, the country is called ''Adrbejan'', yet another archaic form). Ultimately, the name ''Azerbaijan'' comes from ''Azar-Payegan''. This word is translatable as ''Guardian of Fire'', "The Treasury" and "The Treasurer" of [[wikt:آذر#Persian|fire]] or "[[The Land of Fire]]"<ref name="Library of Congres"/> in [[Persian language|Modern Persian]].<ref>In dictionaries: [[F. Steingass]]: [http://dsal.uchicago.edu/cgi-bin/philologic/getobject.pl?c.0:1:1321.steingass āẕar-bād-gān],[http://dsal.uchicago.edu/cgi-bin/philologic/getobject.pl?c.0:1:1315.steingass āẕar-abād-gūn],[http://dsal.uchicago.edu/cgi-bin/philologic/getobject.pl?c.0:1:1312.steingass āẕar, āẕur],[http://dsal.uchicago.edu/cgi-bin/philologic/getobject.pl?c.0:1:1202.steingass ādar],[http://dsal.uchicago.edu/cgi-bin/philologic/getobject.pl?c.0:1:7577.steingass bāygān],[http://dsal.uchicago.edu/cgi-bin/philologic/getobject.pl?c.1:1:2643.steingass pāy]. [[Ali-Akbar Dehkhoda|Dehkhoda]]: [http://loghatnaameh.com/dehkhodaworddetail-ea9b24bb1e294fa2bf5d069cf7a7d4ca-fa.html آذربایجان/Âzarbâyjân],[http://loghatnaameh.com/dehkhodaworddetail-6c8f74978f37438caf268a1895f12ec4-fa.html آذربایگان/Âzarbâygân],[http://loghatnaameh.com/dehkhodaworddetail-f820e15bdb8a4feb92ac56b0d47527e9-fa.html آذربادگان/Âzarbâdegân],[http://loghatnaameh.com/dehkhodaworddetail-df5c38b8d0364700b4e5c292ddd147d4-fa.html آذر/Âzar],[http://loghatnaameh.com/dehkhodaworddetail-b386326aeeb846bfa47c3d17e5e9958e-fa.html آدر/Âdar],[http://loghatnaameh.com/dehkhodaworddetail-9552506dec3e4f44bf6636ac4afcc054-fa.html بایگان/Bâygân],[http://loghatnaameh.com/dehkhodaworddetail-3f775b25b8c242059a134d9ef9dcdc92-fa.html بادگان/Bâdegân],[http://loghatnaameh.com/dehkhodaworddetail-ef1a1a99fee24ccfa3fbdaf27941fd7a-fa.html -پای/pây-],[http://loghatnaameh.com/dehkhodaworddetail-ecf72f69d1044bb4a2c8fc65dff0be8d-fa.html گان-/-gân]([http://loghatnaameh.com/dehkhodaworddetail-7b6cfc76664a48ba9506295b2bf49bb3-fa.html جان-/-jân]) {{fa icon}}</ref> The name was changed to ''Azerbaijan'' following Arab conquest in the 7th century AD, where [[Arabic]] lacked the letters of ''G'' and ''P'', thus the spelling of ''Azer-payegan'' was modified to reflect this. ==History== {{Main|History of Azerbaijan}} ===Antiquity=== {{further|Atropatene|Caucasian Albania}} [[File:Ancient Azerbaijan 4.jpg|thumb|[[Petroglyphs]] in [[Gobustan State Reserve|Gobustan]] dating back to 10,000&nbsp;BC indicating a thriving culture. It is a UNESCO [[World Heritage Site]] considered to be of "outstanding universal value"]] The earliest evidence of human settlement in the territory of Azerbaijan dates back to the late [[Stone Age]] and is related to the [[Guruchay culture]] of the [[Azykh Cave]].<ref>{{cite web| last =Azakov | first =Siyavush | title =National report on institutional landscape and research policy Social Sciences and Humanities in Azerbaijan | work = Institute of Physics| publisher = [[Azerbaijan National Academy of Sciences]]| url = http://www.globalsocialscience.org/uploads/c_GlobalSSH%20-%20Azerbaijan%20institutional%20report%20FINAL.pdf| accessdate = 2007-05-27}}</ref> The [[Upper Paleolithic]] and late [[Bronze Age]] cultures are attested in the caves of [[Tağılar]], [[Damcılı]], [[Zar, Azerbaijan|Zar]], Yataq-yeri and in the [[necropolis]]es of Leylatepe and Saraytepe. Early settlements included the [[Scythia]]ns in the 9th century BC.<ref name="Library of Congres" /> Following the Scythians, Iranian [[Medes]] came to dominate the area to the south of the [[Aras River|Aras]].<ref name="dictionary" /> The Medes forged a vast empire between 900–700&nbsp;BC, which was integrated into the [[Achaemenids]] Empire around 550&nbsp;BC. The area was conquered by the Achaemenids leading to the spread of [[Zoroastrianism]].<ref>{{Cite book|last=Chaumont|first=M. L.|chapter=Albania|title=Encyclopædia Iranica|year=1984|chapter-url=http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/albania-iranian-aran-arm}}</ref> Later it became part of [[Alexander the Great]]'s [[Macedon|Empire]] and its successor, the [[Seleucid Empire]]. During this period, Zoroastrianism spread in the Caucasus and Atropatene. [[Caucasian Albania]]ns, the original inhabitants of northeastern Azerbaijan, ruled that area from around the 4th century BC, and established an independent kingdom that came under the cultural influence of the [[Armenians]].<ref>Encyclopædia Britannica. Azerbaijan. [http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/46823/history-of-Azerbaijan Chapter History]</ref> In the 4th and 3rd centuries BC, following the overthrow of the Achaemenid Empire, the southwestern part of modern Azerbaijan was part of the Kingdom of Armenia ruled by the [[Orontid Dynasty]]; between the years 189 BC and 428 AD the western half of modern Azerbaijan, including the exclave of [[Nakhchivan Autonomous Republic|Nakhchivan]], were included into the [[Kingdom of Armenia (antiquity)|Kingdom of Greater Armenia]] ruled by Armenia's [[Artaxiad]] and [[Arsacid dynasty of Armenia|Arsacid]] dynasties,<ref>Maps and accompanying commentary in Hewsen, Robert H. ''Armenia: a Historical Atlas''. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2001: map 19 (Orontid Armenia, p. 33), map 20 (Empire of [[Tigranes the Great]], p. 34, map 21 (Artaxiad Armenia, p. 35), map 27 (Arsakid Armenia, p. 45</ref><ref>A. E. Redgate. The Armenians. Blackwell Publishers. Oxford. Maps 2.1, 7.2, 8.2</ref> the latter itself a branch of the eponymous [[Parthian Empire|Arsacid dynasty of Parthia]]. After the partition of the [[Kingdom of Armenia (antiquity)|Kingdom of Armenia]] by [[Persia]] and [[Byzantium]] in 387 AD, the provinces of [[Artsakh]] and [[Utik]], which had an ethnically mixed population, passed to [[Caucasian Albania]].<ref>Hewsen, Robert H. ''Armenia: a Historical Atlas''. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2001, p. 102.</ref><ref>Robert H. Hewsen. Ethno-history and the Armenian influence upon the Caucasian Albanians. Classical Armenian culture: Influence and creativity, Scholars press, Philadelphia, 1982, p.33.</ref> ===Feudal era=== [[File:Baku Maiden Tower 2010.jpg|thumb|The [[Maiden Tower (Baku)|Maiden Tower]] in [[Old Baku]] is a UNESCO World Heritage Site built in the 11th–12th century.]] The Persian [[Sassanid Empire|Sassanids]] turned Caucasian Albania into a [[vassal state]] in AD 252, while King Urnayr officially adopted Christianity as the state religion in the 4th century. Despite Sassanid rule, Albania remained an entity in the region until the 9th century, while fully subordinate to Sassanid Persia, and retained its [[monarchy]].<ref name="Chaumont">Nevertheless, "despite being one of the chief vassals of Sasanian ''[[Shahanshah]]'', the Albanian king had only a semblance of authority, and the Sassanid [[marzban]] (military governor) held most civil, religious, and military authority.</ref> In the first half of the 7th century AD, the Islamic [[Umayyad Caliphate]] repulsed both the Sassanids and Byzantines from the Caucasus region and turned Caucasian Albania into a vassal state after the Christian resistance, led by King [[Javanshir]], was suppressed in 667. Caucasian Albania however, came already under nominal Muslim rule through the [[Muslim conquest of Persia]], as it made up part of the Sassanid territory upon advent of the Muslim conquest. The power vacuum left by the decline of the [[Abbasid Caliphate]] was filled by numerous local dynasties such as the [[Sallarid]]s, [[Sajids]], [[Shaddadid]]s, [[Rawadid]]s and [[Buyid dynasty|Buyids]]. At the beginning of the 11th century, the territory was gradually seized by waves of [[Turkic peoples|Turkic]] [[Oghuz Turks|Oghuz]] tribes from Central Asia. The first of these Turkic dynasties established was the [[Seljuq Empire|Seljuqs]], which entered the area now known as Azerbaijan by 1067. The pre-Turkic population that lived on the territory of modern Azerbaijani Republic spoke several Indo-European and Caucasian languages, among them – [[Armenian language|Armenian]]<ref>Hewsen, Robert H. ''Armenia: a Historical Atlas''. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2001, map Caucasian Albania.</ref><ref>Robert H. Hewsen, "Ethno-History and the Armenian Influence upon the Caucasian Albanians," in Classical Armenian Culture: Influences and Creativity, ed. Thomas J. Samuelian (Philadelphia: Scholars Press, 1982), p. 45</ref><ref>Hewsen, Robert H. ''Armenia: a Historical Atlas''. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2001, pp. 32–33, map 19 (shows the territory of modern Nagorno-Karabakh as part of the [[Orontids]]' Kingdom of Armenia)</ref><ref name="VII в 1877">Моисей Хоренский. Армянская География VII в. Перевод Патканова К.П. СПб., 1877. стр. 40,17</ref><ref>Hewsen, Robert H. "The Kingdom of Artsakh," in T. Samuelian & M. Stone, eds. ''Medieval Armenian Culture''. Chico, CA, 1983</ref> and an [[Iranian language]] called the [[Old Azari language]], which was gradually replaced by a [[Turkic language]], the early precursor of the [[Azerbaijani language]] of today.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Yarshater|first=E.|chapter=The Iranian Language of Azerbaijan|title=Encyclopædia Iranica|volume=III/2|year=1987|chapter-url=http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/azerbaijan-vii}}</ref> To distinguish it from the Turkic Azerbaijani or Azeri language, this Iranian language, is designated as the Azari language (or Old Azari language), because the Turkic language and people are also designated as "Azarbaijani" or "Azari" in the [[Persian language]]. However some linguists have also designated the [[Tat language (Caucasus)|Tati dialects]] of [[Azerbaijan (Iran)|Iranian Azerbaijan]] and the Republic of Azerbaijan, like those spoken by the [[Tat people (Caucasus)|Tats]], as a remnant of Azari.<ref>{{cite book |last=Ludwig |first=Paul|year=1998|location= Cambridge|title=Proceedings of the Third European Conference of Iranian Studies|volume= 1 |edition= Nicholas Sims-Williams (ed.) |publisher= Wiesbaden: Reichert |isbn=978-3-89500-070-6}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Roy |first=Olivier |year=2007|title=The new Central Asia: geopolitics and the birth of nations|page= 6 |edition= reprint |publisher=I.B. Tauris |url=https://books.google.com/?id=-eMcn6Ik1v0C&pg=PA7 |isbn=978-1-84511-552-4}}</ref> Locally, the possessions of the subsequent [[Great Seljuq Empire|Seljuq Empire]] were ruled by [[Eldiguzids|Atabegs]], who were technically vassals of the Seljuq sultans, being sometimes ''de facto'' rulers themselves. Under the [[Seljuq dynasty|Seljuq Turks]], local poets such as [[Nizami Ganjavi]] and [[Khaqani|Khagani Shirvani]] gave rise to a blossoming of [[Persian literature]] on the territory of present-day Azerbaijan. The next ruling state of the [[Jalayirids]] was short-lived and fell under the conquests of [[Timur]]. The local dynasty of the [[Shirvanshah]]s became a [[vassal]] state of [[Timurid dynasty|Timur's Empire]], and assisted him in his war with the ruler of the [[Golden Horde]] [[Tokhtamysh]]. Following Timur's death, two independent and rival states emerged: [[Kara Koyunlu]] and [[Ak Koyunlu]]. The Shirvanshahs returned, maintaining a high degree of autonomy as local rulers and vassals from 861 until 1539. During their conquest and persecution by the Iranian [[Safavid dynasty|Safavids]] in 1501, the last dynasty imposed [[Shia Islam]] upon the formerly [[Sunni]] population,<ref>{{cite book |last=R. Ward|first=Steven |year=2009|title=Immortal: a military history of Iran and its armed forces|page= 43 |edition= |publisher=[[Georgetown University Press]] |isbn=978-1-58901-258-5}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Malcolm Wagstaff|first=John |year=1985|title=The evolution of middle eastern landscapes: an outline to A.D. 1840, Part 1840|page= 205 |edition= |publisher=Rowman & Littlefield | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tcPWhU10mGMC&pg=PA205&dq=safavid+persia+conversion&cd=116#v=onepage&q=safavid%20persia%20conversion&f=false|isbn=978-0-389-20577-7}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=L. Altstadt|first=Audrey |year=1992|title=The Azerbaijani Turks: power and identity under Russian rule|page= 5 |edition= |publisher=Hoover Press |url=https://books.google.com/?id=sZVN2MwWZVAC&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false | isbn=978-0-8179-9182-1}}</ref> as it did over its territories in modern-day Iran, as it was battling against the Sunni [[Ottoman Empire]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Akiner|first=Shirin |authorlink= Shirin Akiner |year=2004|title=The Caspian: politics, energy and security|page= 158 |edition= |publisher=RoutledgeCurzon |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=N8IKR0oqdRkC&pg=PA158&dq=safavid+persia+conversion&cd=201#v=onepage&q=&f=false |isbn=978-0-7007-0501-6}}</ref> This, in combination with another [[Safavid conversion of Iran to Shia Islam|series of events]], the Safavids laid the foundation for the fact that both the contemporary Republic of Azerbaijan and Iran are the only Shia majority countries ever since.<ref name="books.google.com.au">{{cite book |author=Shirin Akiner |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=N8IKR0oqdRkC&pg=PA158&dq=safavid+persia+conversion&lr=&as_brr=3&cd=201#v=onepage&q=&f=false|title=The Caspian |publisher=Taylor & Francis |year=2004 |isbn=9780203641675 |accessdate=4 July 2015}}</ref> Despite efforts of the Safavids, the Ottomans briefly managed to occupy swaths of present-day Azerbaijan twice over the centuries. Also, Baku and its environs were briefly managed by the Russians in the early 18th century through the consequences of the [[Russo-Persian War (1722-1723)]]. Despite these very brief intermissions by Safavid Iran's neighboring rivals, the land of what is nowadays Azerbaijan remained under [[intermittent]] [[History of Iran|Iranian]] rule from the earliest advent of the Safavids up to the course of the 19th century. ===Modern era=== {{main|Russo-Persian Wars|Treaty of Gulistan|Treaty of Turkmenchay}} {{see also|Azerbaijan Democratic Republic|Azerbaijan SSR|Operation Edelweiss}} [[File:Azerbaijan khanates all XVIII-XIX.png|thumb|220px|left|Territories of the Northern and Southern Khanates (and Sultanates) within Iran in the 18th–19th centuries.<ref>"In Safavi times, Azerbaijan was applied to all the muslim-ruled khanates of the eastern Caucasian as well as to the area south of the Araz River as fas as the Qezel Uzan River, the latter region being approximately the same as the modern Iranian ostans of East and West Azerbaijan." {{cite book |last=Atkin|first=Muriel |year=1980|title=Russia and Iran, 1780–1828|page=xi |edition= |publisher=University of Minnesota Press |url=https://books.google.com/?id=swXiVZjonCQC&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false|isbn=978-0-8166-5697-4}}</ref>]] After the Safavids, the area was ruled by the Iranian dynasties of [[Afsharid dynasty|Afshar]] and [[Zand dynasty|Zand]] and briefly by the [[Qajar dynasty|Qajars]], until the latters forced ceding to Russia in the course of the 19th century. However ''de facto'' self-ruling [[Khanates of the Caucasus|khanate]]s<ref name="bertsch297">{{Cite book | last = Bertsch | first = Gary Kenneth | title = Crossroads and Conflict: Security and Foreign Policy in the Caucasus and Central Asia | publisher = Routledge | year = 2000 | page = 297 | url = https://books.google.com/?id=tIvJ9X4ankgC&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false | quote = Shusha became the capital of an independent "Azeri" khanate in 1752 (Azeri in the sense of Muslims who spoke a version of the Turkic language we call Azeri today) | isbn = 978-0-415-92273-9}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book | author1=Nafziger, E. Wayne |author2=Stewart, Frances |author3=Väyrynen, Raimo | title = War, Hunger, and Displacement: Analysis | publisher = Oxford University press | year = 2000 | page = 406 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=Vv6Q3NIKFP4C | isbn = 978-0-19-829739-0}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Kashani-Sabet |first=Firoozeh |date=May 1997 |title=Fragile Frontiers: The Diminishing Domains of Qajar Iran |journal=International Journal of Middle East Studies |volume=29 |issue=2 |page=210 |url= |quote=In 1795, Ibrahim Khalil Khan, the wali of Qarabagh, warned Sultan Selim III of Aqa Muhammad Khan's ambitions. Fearing for his independence, he informed the Sultan of Aqa Muhammad Khan's ability to subdue Azerbaijan and later Qarabagh, Erivan, and Georgia. |doi=10.1017/s0020743800064473}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Baddeley |first=John Frederick |editor= |others= |title=The Russian Conquest of the Caucasus |origyear= |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=vRyN9YK21v4C&printsec=frontcover&dq=The+Russian+Conquest+of+the+Caucasus#v=onepage&q=Pagina%2071&f=false|edition= |series= |year=1908 |publisher=Routledge |location=Harvard University |isbn=978-0-7007-0634-1|oclc= |page=71 |chapter= |chapterurl= |quote=[[Vasily Potto]] sums up Tsitsianoff's achievements and character as follows: "In the short time he passed there (in Transcaucasia) he managed to completely alter the map of the country. He found it composed of minutely divided, de facto independent Muhammadan States leaning upon Persia, namely, the khanates of Baku, Shirvan, Shekeen, Karabagh, Gandja, and Erivan"}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Avery |first=Peter |author2=Hambly, Gavin |editor= |others= |title=The Cambridge History of Iran |origyear= |url= |edition= |series= |year=1991 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-20095-0 |oclc= |page=126 |chapter= |chapterurl= |quote=Agha Muhammad Khan could now turn to the restoration of the outlying provinces of the Safavid kingdom. Returning to Tehran in the spring of 1795, he assembled a force of some 60,000 cavalry and infantry and in Shawwal Dhul-Qa'da/May, set off for Azarbaijan, intending to conquer the country between the rivers Aras and Kura, formerly under Safavid control. This region comprised a number of khanates of which the most important was ''Qarabagh'', with its capital at Shusha; Ganja, with its capital of the same name; Shirvan across the Kura, with its capital at Shamakhi; and to the north-west, on both banks of the Kura, Christian Georgia (Gurjistan), with its capital at Tiflis.}}</ref> emerged in the area, especially following the collapse of the Zand dynasty and in the early Qajar era. These khanates, though often self-ruling, were [[vassals]] and [[Commoners|subjects]] of the Iranian shah (King).<ref>Encyclopedia of Soviet law By Ferdinand Joseph Maria Feldbrugge, Gerard Pieter van den Berg, William B. Simons, Page 457</ref> The khanates exercised control over their affairs via international trade routes between Central Asia and the West.<ref>{{cite book |last = King|first = Charles|authorlink = Charles King (professor of international affairs)|year = 2008|title = The ghost of freedom: a history of the Caucasus|page = 10|edition = |publisher = University of Michigan|url = https://books.google.com/books?id=HyJpAAAAMAAJ&q=The+ghost+of+freedom:+a+history+of+the+Caucasus&dq=The+ghost+of+freedom:+a+history+of+the+Caucasus|isbn = 978-0-19-517775-6}}</ref> From the late 18th century and on, Imperial Russia changed to a more aggressive geo-political stance towards its two neighbors (and rivals) to the south, namely Iran and Turkey.<ref>Ga ́bor A ́goston,Bruce Alan Masters. [https://books.google.nl/books?id=QjzYdCxumFcC&pg=PA125&dq=russia+tries+conquer+caucasus+from+iran+19th+century&hl=nl&sa=X&ved=0CCAQ6AEwAGoVChMIofudgoCJxgIVK53bCh0quwCt#v=onepage&q=russia%20tries%20conquer%20caucasus%20from%20iran%2019th%20century&f=false ''Encyclopedia of the Ottoman Empire''] Infobase Publishing, 1 jan. 2009 ISBN 1438110251 p 125</ref> Following a chain of events that started with the [[Battle of Krtsanisi|re-subjugation of Georgia into Iran in 1795]], Russia would now actively contest and battle with the latter over possession of the Caucasus region which was, for most of its part, in the hands of Iran.<ref name=CAUCAIRANICA>{{cite encyclopedia |last=Multiple Authors |first=| title= Caucasus and Iran | encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Iranica | accessdate=2012-09-03|url=http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/caucasus-index}}</ref> The successful Russian campaigns in the later stages of the [[Russo-Persian War (1804–13)]] were concluded with the [[Treaty of Gulistan]], in which the shah's claims to some of the Khanates of the Caucasus were dismissed by Russia on the ground that they had been ''de facto'' independent long before their Russian occupation.<ref>{{cite book |last=Swietochowski|first=Tadeusz |authorlink= Tadeusz Swietochowski |year=2004|title=Russian Azerbaijan, 1905–1920: The Shaping of a National Identity in a Muslim Community|page= 5 |edition= |publisher=Cambridge University Press | url= https://books.google.com/?id=cozSOSsv7ZsC&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false|isbn=978-0-521-52245-8}}</ref> [[File:Взятии штурмом крепости Гянджи.jpg|thumb|200px|right|[[Battle of Ganja (1804)|The siege of Ganja Fortress in 1804]] during the [[Russo-Persian War (1804-1813)]] by the Russian forces under leadership of general [[Pavel Tsitsianov]].]] Following Qajar Iran's loss in the 1804-1813 war, it was forced to concede suzerainty over most of the khanates (alongside Georgia and Dagestan) to the [[Russian Empire]] per the Gulistan treaty.<ref name="books.google.nl">Timothy C. Dowling [https://books.google.nl/books?id=KTq2BQAAQBAJ&pg=PA728&dq=russo+persian+war+1804-1813&hl=nl&sa=X&ei=QnOXVJXpCcz7UPevhPAK&ved=0CCcQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q=russo%20persian%20war%201804-1813&f=false ''Russia at War: From the Mongol Conquest to Afghanistan, Chechnya, and Beyond''] pp 728-729 ABC-CLIO, 2 dec. 2014 ISBN 1598849484</ref> The area to the north of the river [[Aras River|Aras]], amongst which the territory of the contemporary Republic of Azerbaijan, was [[Iran]]ian territory until it was occupied by Russia in the course of the 19th century.<ref name="Swietochowski Borderland">{{cite book |last=Swietochowski|first=Tadeusz |authorlink= Tadeusz Swietochowski |year=1995|title=Russia and Azerbaijan: A Borderland in Transition|pages= 69, 133 |edition= |publisher=[[Columbia University Press]] |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=FfRYRwAACAAJ&dq=Russia+and+Iran+in+the+great+game:+travelogues+and+orientalism|isbn=978-0-231-07068-3}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=L. Batalden|first=Sandra |year=1997|title=The newly independent states of Eurasia: handbook of former Soviet republics|page= 98|edition= |publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=WFjPAxhBEaEC&dq=The+newly+independent+states+of+Eurasia:+handbook+of+former+Soviet+republics|isbn=978-0-89774-940-4}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=E. Ebel, Robert|first=Menon, Rajan |year=2000|title=Energy and conflict in Central Asia and the Caucasus|page= 181 |edition= |publisher=Rowman & Littlefield |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=-sCpf26vBZ0C&dq=Energy+and+conflict+in+Central+Asia+and+the+Caucasus|isbn=978-0-7425-0063-1}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Andreeva|first=Elena |year=2010|title=Russia and Iran in the great game: travelogues and orientalism|page= 6 |edition= reprint |publisher=Taylor & Francis | url= https://books.google.com/books?id=FfRYRwAACAAJ&dq=%3DRussia+and+Iran+in+the+great+game:+travelogues+and+orientalism|isbn=978-0-415-78153-4}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Çiçek, Kemal|first=Kuran, Ercüment |year=2000|title=The Great Ottoman-Turkish Civilisation|edition= |publisher=University of Michigan |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=c5VpAAAAMAAJ&q=The+Great+Ottoman-Turkish+Civilisation&dq=The+Great+Ottoman-Turkish+Civilisation|isbn=978-975-6782-18-7}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Ernest Meyer, Karl |first=Blair Brysac, Shareen |year=2006|title=Tournament of Shadows: The Great Game and the Race for Empire in Central Asia|page= 66 |edition= |publisher=Basic Books |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ssv-GONnxTsC&dq=Tournament+of+Shadows:+The+Great+Game+and+the+Race+for+Empire+in+Central+Asia|isbn=978-0-465-04576-1}}</ref> Under the [[Treaty of Turkmenchay]] which finalised the [[Russo-Persian War (1826-1828)]], [[Qajar dynasty|Qajar Iran]] was forced to recognize Russian sovereignty over the [[Erivan Khanate]], the [[Nakhchivan Khanate]] and the remainder of the [[Lankaran Khanate]],<ref name="books.google.nl"/> comprising the last parts of the soil of the contemporary Azerbaijani Republic that were still in Iranian hands. After incorporation of all Caucasian territories from Iran into Russia, the new border between the two was set at the [[Aras River]], which, upon the Soviet Union's disintegration, subsequently became part of the border between Iran and the Azerbaijan Republic. Qajar Iran was forced to cede its Caucasian territories to Russia in the 19th century, which thus included the territory of the modern-day Azerbaijan Republic, while as a result of that cession, the [[Azerbaijanis|Azerbaijani ethnic group]] is nowadays parted between two nations: [[Iran]] and Azerbaijan.<ref>Swietochowski, Tadeusz. [https://books.google.nl/books?id=EPP3ti4hysUC&pg=PA104&dq=russo-persian+wars+parted+the+azerbaijanis&hl=nl&sa=X&ved=0CCAQ6AEwAGoVChMI07TdyuWVxgIV5EvbCh2SvQDLP#v=onepage&q=russo-persian%20wars%20parted%20the%20azerbaijanis&f=false ''Eastern Europe, Russia and Central Asia 2003''] Taylor and Francis, 2003. ISBN 1857431375 p 104</ref> Furthermore, the number of ethnic Azerbaijanis in Iran far outnumber those in neighbouring Azerbaijan. After the collapse of the Russian Empire during [[World War I]], Azerbaijan, together with [[Armenia]] and [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]] became part of the short-lived [[Transcaucasian Democratic Federative Republic]]. It was followed by the [[March Days]] massacres<ref>Russia and a Divided Azerbaijan: A Borderland in Transition, by Tadeusz Świętochowski, Columbia University Press, 1995, p. 66</ref><ref name="smithmusavat">{{cite journal |last1=Smith |first1=Michael |last2= |first2= |date=April 2001 |title=Anatomy of Rumor: Murder Scandal, the Musavat Party and Narrative of the Russian Revolution in Baku, 1917–1920 |journal=Journal of Contemporary History |publisher= |volume=36 |issue=2 |page=228 |url= |doi= 10.1177/002200940103600202|quote=''The results of the March events were immediate and total for the Musavat. Several hundreds of its members were killed in the fighting; up to 12,000 Muslim civilians perished; thousands of others fled Baku in a mass exodus''}}</ref><ref name="minahan">{{cite book |title=Miniature Empires: A Historical Dictionary of the Newly Independent States |last=Minahan |first=James B. |authorlink= |author2= |publisher= |location= |isbn=0-313-30610-9 |page=22 |pages= |url= |accessdate= |quote=''The tensions and fighting between the Azeris and the Armenians in the federation culminated in the massacre of some 12,000 Azeris in Baku by radical Armenians and Bolshevik troops in March 1918''}}</ref> that took place between 30 March and 2 April 1918 in the city of [[Baku]] and adjacent areas of the [[Baku Governorate]] of the [[Russian Empire]].<ref name="Smith">{{cite web |url=http://old.sakharov-center.ru/publications/azrus/az_004.htm |title=Pamiat' ob utratakh i Azerbaidzhanskoe obshchestvo/Traumatic Loss and Azerbaijani. National Memory |author=Michael Smith |work=Azerbaidzhan i Rossiia: obshchestva i gosudarstva (Azerbaijan and Russia: Societies and States) |publisher=Sakharov Center |accessdate=21 August 2011|language=ru}}</ref> When the republic dissolved in May 1918, Azerbaijan declared independence as the [[Azerbaijan Democratic Republic]] (ADR). The ADR was the first modern [[parliamentary republic]] in the Muslim world.<ref name="Swietochowski Borderland"/><ref name="kazemzadeh"/><ref>Schulze, Reinhard. A Modern History of the Islamic World. I.B.Tauris, 2000. ISBN 978-1-86064-822-9.</ref> Among the important accomplishments of the Parliament was the extension of suffrage to women, making Azerbaijan the first Muslim nation to grant women equal political rights with men.<ref name="kazemzadeh"/> Another important accomplishment of ADR was the establishment of [[Baku State University]], which was the first modern-type university founded in Muslim East.<ref name="kazemzadeh">{{Cite book| last = Kazemzadeh | first = Firuz | title = The Struggle for Transcaucasia: 1917–1921 | publisher = The New York Philosophical Library | year= 1951 | isbn = 978-0-8305-0076-5 | pages = 124, 222, 229, 269–270 }}</ref> [[File:1ST AZ REP.GIF|thumb|222px|left|Map presented by delegation from Azerbaijan to [[Paris Peace Conference, 1919|Paris Peace Conference]] in 1919.]] By March 1920, it was obvious that Soviet Russia would attack the much-needed Baku. [[Vladimir Lenin]] said that the invasion was justified as [[Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic|Soviet Russia]] could not survive without Baku's [[Petroleum industry in Azerbaijan|oil]].<ref>{{cite web| last =Горянин | first = Александр | script-title=ru:Очень черное золото| publisher = GlobalRus| date = 28 August 2003| url = http://www.globalrus.ru/print_this/134413/| accessdate = 28 August 2003| archiveurl= //web.archive.org/web/20030906163920/http://www.globalrus.ru/print_this/134413/| archivedate= 6 September 2003 | deadurl= no|language=ru}}</ref><ref>{{cite web| last =Горянин | first = Александр | script-title=ru:История города Баку. Часть 3.| publisher = Window2Baku| url = http://www.window2baku.com/001history_3.htm|language=ru}}</ref> Independent Azerbaijan lasted only 23 months until the [[Bolshevik]] [[11th Soviet Red Army]] invaded it, establishing the [[Azerbaijan Soviet Socialist Republic|Azerbaijan SSR]] on 28 April 1920. Although the bulk of the newly formed Azerbaijani army was engaged in putting down an Armenian revolt that had just broken out in [[Karabakh]], Azeris did not surrender their brief independence of 1918–20 quickly or easily. As many as 20,000 Azerbaijani soldiers died resisting what was effectively a Russian reconquest.<ref>{{cite book |last=Pope|first=Hugh |year=2006|title=Sons of the conquerors: the rise of the Turkic world|page= 116 |edition= |location=New York |publisher=The Overlook Press |isbn=978-1-58567-804-4}}</ref> On 13 October 1921, the Soviet republics of Russia, Armenia, Azerbaijan, and Georgia signed an agreement with Turkey known as the [[Treaty of Kars]]. The previously independent Naxicivan SSR would also become an autonomous ASSR within the Azerbaijan SSR by the treaty of Kars. On the other hand, Armenia was awarded the region of [[Syunik Province|Zangezur]] and Turkey agreed to return [[Gyumri]] (then known as Alexandropol). During [[World War II]], Azerbaijan played a crucial role in the strategic energy policy of Soviet Union, with most of the Soviet Union's oil on the [[Eastern Front (World War II)|Eastern Front]] being supplied by Baku. By the Decree of the [[Supreme Soviet of the USSR]] in February 1942, the commitment of more than 500 workers and employees of the [[petroleum industry|oil industry]] of Azerbaijan was awarded orders and medals. [[Operation Edelweiss]] carried out by the German [[Wehrmacht]] targeted Baku because of its importance as the energy (petroleum) dynamo of the USSR.<ref name="Swietochowski Borderland"/> A fifth of all Azerbaijanis fought in the Second World War from 1941 to 1945. Approximately 681,000 people with over 100,000 of them women went to the front, while the total population of Azerbaijan was 3.4 million at the time.<ref>{{cite news |url= http://www.contact.az/topics_en.asp?id=4902&pb=2&vr=en&yr=2011&mdn=1 | title = Azerbaijan celebrates day of victory over fascism|date=9 May 2011|publisher="Contact.az" | accessdate = 9 May 2011}}</ref> Some 250,000 people from Azerbaijan were killed on the front. More than 130 Azerbaijanis were named [[Hero of the Soviet Union|Heroes of the Soviet Union]]. Azerbaijani Major-General [[Azi Aslanov]] was twice awarded the Hero of the Soviet Union.<ref>{{cite news |url= http://www.azernews.az/en/Nation/20409-Victory_over_Nazis_%E2%80%98was_impossible_without_Baku_oil%E2%80%99 | title = Victory over Nazis 'was impossible without Baku oil'|date=8 May 2010|publisher="AzerNEWS"|accessdate=8 May 2010}}</ref> ===Republic era=== [[File:RedArmy Paratroops Baku 1990.jpg|thumbnail|[[Red Army]] [[paratroops]] during the [[Black January]] tragedy in 1990.]] Following the politics of ''[[glasnost]]'', initiated by [[Mikhail Gorbachev]], civil unrest and ethnic strife grew in various regions of the Soviet Union, including [[Nagorno-Karabakh Autonomous Oblast|Nagorno-Karabakh]],<ref name=Croissant>{{Cite book | first = Croissant | last = Michael P. | author-link = | title = The Armenia-Azerbaijan Conflict: causes and implications | place = United States of America | publisher = Praeger Publishers | year = 1998 | pages = 36, 37 | url= https://books.google.com/?id=ZeP7OZZswtcC&pg=PP1&dq=Michael+P.+Croissant&cd=3#v=onepage&q=17000 | isbn = 0-275-96241-5 }}</ref> an autonomous region of the Azerbaijan SSR. The disturbances in Azerbaijan, in response to Moscow's indifference to already heated conflict, resulted in calls for independence and secession, which culminated in [[Black January]] in Baku.<ref>{{cite news |url= http://hrw.org/reports/1995/communal|title=Human Rights Watch. "Playing the "Communal Card": Communal Violence and Human Rights"|publisher=[[Human Rights Watch]]}}</ref> Later in 1990, the [[Supreme Soviet of Azerbaijan SSR|Supreme Council of the Azerbaijan SSR]] dropped the words "Soviet Socialist" from the title, adopted the Declaration of Sovereignty of the Azerbaijan Republic and restored flag of the Azerbaijan Democratic Republic as the state flag.<ref name="Meclis">{{cite web| url=http://www.meclis.gov.az/?/az/content/70 |title= Milli Məclisin tarixi. Azərbaycan SSR Ali Soveti (1920–1991-ci illər) |trans_title= The history of Milli Majlis. Supreme Soviet of Azerbaijan SSR (1920–1991) |accessdate=1 December 2010}}</ref> On 18 October 1991, the Supreme Council of Azerbaijan adopted a Declaration of Independence which was affirmed by a nationwide referendum in December 1991, when the Soviet Union was officially dissolved.<ref name="Meclis"/> The early years of independence were overshadowed by the [[Nagorno-Karabakh War]] with the ethnic Armenian majority of Nagorno-Karabakh backed by [[Armenia]].<ref>Full text of the Bishkek Protocol with signatures of representatives of Azerbaijan, Nagorno-Karabakh, and Armenia. http://peacemaker.un.org/armeniaazerbaijan-bishkekprotocol94</ref> By the end of hostilities in 1994, Armenians controlled up to 14–16 percent of Azerbaijani territory, including Nagorno-Karabakh itself.<ref name="cia">{{cite web| title=Azerbaijan | url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/aj.html | work=World Factbook | publisher=CIA | year=2009 | accessdate= 4 June 2009| archiveurl= //web.archive.org/web/20090610081951/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/AJ.html| archivedate= 10 June 2009 | deadurl= no}}</ref><ref name="DeWaal">Thomas De Waal. ''Black Garden: Armenia And Azerbaijan Through Peace and War''. New York: New York University Press, p. 286. ISBN 978-0-8147-1945-9.</ref> During the war many atrocities were committed including the [[massacre]] at [[Malibeyli and Gushchular Massacre|Malibeyli and Gushchular]], the [[Garadaghly massacre|Garadaghly]], [[Agdaban massacre|Agdaban]] and the [[Khojaly massacre]]s.<ref>{{cite news|author=|url=http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F10611FF3C5D0C708CDDAA0894DA494D81 |title=Massacre by Armenians Being Reported |work=New York Times |date=3 March 1992 |accessdate=2013-09-09}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|last=Smolowe |first=Jill |url=http://www.time.com/time/archive/preview/0,10987,975096,00.html |work=Time |title=Tragedy Massacre in Khojaly |date=16 March 1992 |accessdate=2013-09-09}}</ref> Furthermore, an estimated 30,000 people had been killed and more than a million people had been displaced.<ref>[http://belfercenter.ksg.harvard.edu/publication/1283/conflict_that_can_be_resolved_in_time.html A Conflict That Can Be Resolved in Time: Nagorno-Karabakh]. ''International Herald Tribune.'' 29 November 2003.</ref> Four [[United Nations Security Council]] Resolutions ([[United Nations Security Council Resolution 822|822]], [[United Nations Security Council Resolution 853|853]], [[United Nations Security Council Resolution 874|874]], and [[United Nations Security Council Resolution 884|884]]) demand for "the immediate withdrawal of all Armenian forces from all occupied territories of Azerbaijan."<ref>{{cite web| title =General Assembly adopts resolution reaffirming territorial integrity of Azerbaijan, demanding withdrawal of all Armenian forces | publisher = United Nations General Assembly | date = 14 March 2008 | url = http://www.un.org/News/Press/docs/2008/ga10693.doc.htm| accessdate = 14 March 2008 }}</ref> Many Russians and Armenians left Azerbaijan during the 1990s.<ref>[http://www.eurasianet.org/departments/insight/articles/pp083003.shtml Southern Caucasus: Facing Integration Problems, Ethnic Russians Long For Better Life]. EurasiaNet.org. 30 August 2003.</ref> According to the 1970 census, there were 510,000 ethnic [[Russian diaspora|Russians]] and 484,000 Armenians in Azerbaijan.<ref>"[http://encyclopedia2.thefreedictionary.com/Azerbaijan+Soviet+Socialist+Republic Azerbaijan Soviet Socialist Republic]". The Great Soviet Encyclopedia (1979).</ref> In 1993, democratically elected president [[Abulfaz Elchibey]] was overthrown by a military insurrection led by Colonel [[Surat Huseynov]], which resulted in the rise to power of the former leader of [[Azerbaijan Soviet Socialist Republic|Soviet Azerbaijan]], [[Heydar Aliyev]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nationsencyclopedia.com/World-Leaders-2003/Azerbaijan-RISE-TO-POWER.html |title=Azerbaijan: Rise to power |publisher=Encyclopedia of the Nations |date= 3 October 1993 |accessdate= 22 May 2011| archiveurl= //web.archive.org/web/20110610034017/http://www.nationsencyclopedia.com/World-Leaders-2003/Azerbaijan-RISE-TO-POWER.html| archivedate= 10 June 2011 | deadurl= no}}</ref> In 1994, Surat Huseynov, by that time a prime minister, attempted another military coup against Heydar Aliyev, but Huseynov was arrested and charged with treason.<ref>{{cite news| title = Timeline: Azerbaijan A chronology of key events: |publisher=BBC News | date = 31 March 2011| url = http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/mobile/europe/country_profiles/1235740.stm}}</ref> A year later, in 1995, another [[1995 Azerbaijani coup d'état attempt|coup]] was attempted against Aliyev, this time by the commander of the [[OMON]] special unit, [[Rovshan Javadov]]. The coup was averted, resulting in the killing of the latter and disbanding of Azerbaijan's OMON units.<ref name="bbc">{{cite news|url=http://nl.newsbank.com/nl-search/we/Archives?p_product=NewsLibrary&p_multi=BBAB&d_place=BBAB&p_theme=newslibrary2&p_action=search&p_maxdocs=200&p_topdoc=1&p_text_direct-0=0F97DB500B7A486B&p_field_direct-0=document_id&p_perpage=10&p_sort=YMD_date:D&s_trackval=GooglePM|title=Azeri rights activist says 35 imprisoned special police unit members very sick|date=2 June 2000 |publisher=BBC Archive|accessdate= 15 August 2009}}</ref><ref name="lt">{{cite news|url=http://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/latimes/access/22723287.html?dids=22723287:22723287&FMT=ABS&FMTS=ABS:FT&type=current&date=Mar+18,+1995&author=SONNI+EFRON&pub=Los+Angeles+Times+(pre-1997+Fulltext)&desc=Azerbaijan+Coup+Attempt+Crushed+Caucasus:+Loyal+forces+storm+a+building+and+overcome+mutinous+police+units,+president+reports.&pqatl=google|title=Azerbaijan Coup Attempt Crushed Caucasus: Loyal forces storm a building and overcome mutinous police units, president reports.|date=18 March 1995|work=Los Angeles Times|accessdate=15 August 2009 | first=Sonni | last=Efron}}</ref> At the same time, the country was tainted by rampant corruption in the governing bureaucracy.<ref>{{cite news |url= http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/3191598.stm|title=Aliyev and son keep it in the family |date=14 October 2003|publisher=[[BBC News]]|accessdate=14 October 2003|first=Stephen|last=Mulvey}}</ref> In October 1998, Aliyev was reelected for a second term. Despite the much improved economy, particularly with the exploitations of [[Azeri-Chirag-Guneshli|Azeri-Chirag-Guneshli oil field]] and [[Shah Deniz gas field]], Aliyev's presidency was criticized due to suspected vote fraud and corruption.<ref>{{cite news |url= http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/en/doc/2003-12/16/content_290650.htm|title= Azerbaijan's Geidar Aliev dies at 80|date=16 December 2003|publisher=ChinaDaily|accessdate=13 December 2003| archiveurl= //web.archive.org/web/20031217005135/http://www1.chinadaily.com.cn/en/doc/2003-12/16/content_290650.htm| archivedate= 17 December 2003 | deadurl= no}}</ref> [[Ilham Aliyev]], the son of Heydar Aliyev, assumed as the chairmen of the [[New Azerbaijan Party]] as well as the office of presidency when his father died in 2003. He was [[Azerbaijani presidential election, 2013|reelected to a third term]] as president in October 2013. He then launched a crackdown on opposition elements. In November, he put two prominent opponents on trial for inciting riots ten months earlier: Ilgar Mammadov, the chairman of the opposition Republican Alternative (REAL); and Ilgar Mammadov, the deputy chairman of the New Equality Party (Musavat). In addition the dissident Islamic theologian Taleh Bagirzada was sentenced to two years’ imprisonment. The opposition newspaper ''Azadiq'' was closed down. Three men were sentenced to life in prison on charges of plotting attacks in Baku in a conspiracy with Iran.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.keesings.com/search?kssp_search_phrase=azerbaijan&x=0&y=0&kssp_a_id=53026n01aze&kssp_selected_tab=article |title=Nov 2013 – Action against opposition |work=Keesing's Record of World Events |volume=59 |date=November 2013 |page=53026}}</ref> ==Geography== [[File:Azerbaijan map of Köppen climate classification.svg|thumb|300px|Azerbaijan map of Köppen climate classification.]] {{Main|Geography of Azerbaijan|Environment of Azerbaijan|State reserves of Azerbaijan|National parks of Azerbaijan}} {{See also|Extreme points of Azerbaijan}} [[File:Budug Azerbaijan16.jpg|thumb|230px|[[Caucasus Mountains]] in northern Azerbaijan.]] Azerbaijan is in the [[South Caucasus]] region of [[Eurasia]], straddling [[Southwest Asia|Western Asia]] and Eastern Europe. It lies between latitudes [[38th parallel north|38°]] and [[42nd parallel north|42° N]], and longitudes [[44th meridian east|44°]] and [[51st meridian east|51° E]]. The total length of Azerbaijan's [[List of land border lengths|land borders]] is {{convert|2648|km|0|abbr=on}}, of which 1007&nbsp;kilometers are with Armenia, 756&nbsp;kilometers with Iran, 480&nbsp;kilometers with Georgia, 390&nbsp;kilometers with Russia and 15&nbsp;kilometers with Turkey.<ref name="STA">{{cite web| last = | first = | authorlink = | title =Geographical data | work = | publisher = The State Statistical Committee of the Republic of Azerbaijan| url = http://www.azstat.org/publications/azfigures/2007/en/001.shtml#t1_2| format =| doi = | accessdate = 2007-05-26| archiveurl= //web.archive.org/web/20070525040712/http://www.azstat.org/publications/azfigures/2007/en/001.shtml#t1_5| archivedate= 25 May 2007 | deadurl= no}}</ref> The [[coast]]line stretches for {{convert|800|km|0|abbr=on}}, and the length of the widest area of the Azerbaijani section of the Caspian Sea is {{convert|456|km|0|abbr=on}}.<ref name="STA"/> The territory of Azerbaijan extends {{convert|400|km|0|abbr=on}} from north to south, and {{convert|500|km|0|abbr=on}} from west to east. Three physical features dominate Azerbaijan: the Caspian Sea, whose shoreline forms a natural boundary to the east; the [[Greater Caucasus]] mountain range to the north; and the extensive flatlands at the country's center. There are also three mountain ranges, the Greater and [[Lesser Caucasus]], and the [[Talysh Mountains]], together covering approximately 40 percent of the country.<ref name="GEO">{{cite web| last = | first = | authorlink = | title =Azerbaijan: Biodiversity| work = | publisher = Central Asia and Caucasus Institute| url = http://www.cac-biodiversity.org/aze/aze_biodiversity.htm| doi = | accessdate = 2007-05-26}}</ref> The highest peak of Azerbaijan is mount [[Bazardüzü]] (4,466&nbsp;m), while the lowest point lies in the Caspian Sea (−28&nbsp;m). Nearly half of all the [[mud volcano]]es on Earth are concentrated in Azerbaijan, [[mud volcanoes in Azerbaijan|these volcanoes]] were also among nominees for the [[New7Wonders of Nature]].<ref>{{cite news | last = | first = | authorlink = | title =Azerbaijan's mud volcanoes on Seven Wonders of Nature shortlist | work = | publisher = News.Az| url = http://www.news.az/articles/8581| doi = | accessdate = 8 February 2010 | archiveurl= //web.archive.org/web/20100210062717/http://www.news.az/articles/8581| archivedate= 10 February 2010 | deadurl= no}}</ref> The main water sources are surface waters. However, only 24 of the 8,350 rivers are greater than {{convert|100|km|0|abbr=on}} in length.<ref name="GEO"/> All the rivers drain into the Caspian Sea in the east of the country.<ref name="GEO"/> The largest lake is [[Lake Sarysu|Sarysu]] (67&nbsp;km²), and the longest river is [[Kura River|Kur]] (1,515&nbsp;km), which is transboundary. Azerbaijan's four main islands in the Caspian Sea have a combined area of over thirty square kilometers. Since the independence of Azerbaijan in 1991, the [[Politics of Azerbaijan|Azerbaijani government]] has taken drastic measures to preserve the environment of Azerbaijan. But national protection of the environment started to truly improve after 2001 when the state budget increased due to new revenues provided by the [[Baku-Tbilisi-Ceyhan pipeline]]. Within four years protected areas doubled and now make up eight percent of the country's territory. Since 2001 the government has set up seven large reserves and almost doubled the sector of the budget earmarked for environmental protection.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://enrin.grida.no/htmls/azer/soe/ecology/html/ecology.html |title=Ecological problems in Azerbaijan |publisher=Enrin.grida.no |accessdate=2010-06-30}}</ref> ===Landscape=== {{Main|Orography of Azerbaijan|Climate of Azerbaijan|Water bodies of Azerbaijan}} [[File:Bazarduzu detail.JPG|thumb|[[Mount Bazardüzü|Mount Bazarduzu]], the highest peak of Azerbaijan, as seen from [[Mount Shahdagh]]]] [[File:Azerbajiani landscape - Another version.jpg|thumb|The landscape of Khinalug valley.]] Azerbaijan is home to a vast variety of landscapes. Over half of Azerbaijan's land mass consists of mountain ridges, crests, [[yaila]]s, and plateaus which rise up to hypsometric levels of 400–1000&nbsp;meters (including the Middle and Lower lowlands), in some places (Talis, Jeyranchol-Ajinohur and Langabiz-Alat foreranges) up to 100–120&nbsp;meters, and others from 0–50&nbsp;meters and up ([[Qobustan, Absheron]]). The rest of Azerbaijan's terrain consist of plains and lowlands. Hypsometric marks within the Caucasus region vary from about −28&nbsp;meters at the Caspian Sea shoreline up to 4,466&nbsp;meters (Bazardüzü peak).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://enrin.grida.no/htmls/azer/soe/ecology/html/ecologicalzones.html |title=Orography of Azerbaijan |publisher= United Nations Environment Programme |accessdate=2010-06-30}}</ref> The formation of climate in Azerbaijan is influenced particularly by cold [[arctic]] [[air mass]]es of [[Scandinavia]]n [[anticyclone]], temperate of [[Siberia]]n anticyclone, and Central Asian anticyclone.<ref name="CLIM">{{cite web| title =Azerbaijan – Climate| publisher = Heydar Aliyev Foundation| url = http://www.azerbaijan.az/_Geography/_Climate/_climate_e.html| accessdate = 2007-05-26}}</ref> Azerbaijan's diverse landscape affects the ways air masses enter the country.<ref name="CLIM"/> The Greater Caucasus protects the country from direct influences of cold air masses coming from the north. That leads to the formation of [[Subtropics|subtropical climate]] on most foothills and plains of the country. Meanwhile, plains and foothills are characterized by high [[Sunlight|solar radiation]] rates. 9 out of 11 existing [[Köppen climate classification|climate zones]] are present in Azerbaijan.<ref name="KL">{{cite web| title =Climate| work = Water Resources of the Azerbaijan Republic| publisher = Institute of Hydrometeorology, Ministry of Ecology and Natural Resources | url = http://www.azhydromet.com/SRIH/Water%20Resurs.html| accessdate = 2007-05-26| archiveurl= //web.archive.org/web/20070524005453/http://www.azhydromet.com/SRIH/Water%20Resurs.html| archivedate= 24 May 2007 | deadurl= no}}</ref> Both the absolute minimum temperature (<span style="white-space:nowrap"> {{convert|-33|°C|°F|1|disp=or}} </span>) and the absolute maximum temperature (<span style="white-space:nowrap"> {{convert|46|°C|°F|1|disp=or}} </span>) were observed in [[Julfa Rayon|Julfa]] and [[Ordubad Rayon|Ordubad]].<ref name="KL"/> The maximum annual [[Precipitation (meteorology)|precipitation]] falls in [[Lankaran]] ({{convert|1600|to|1800|mm|abbr=on|disp=or}}) and the minimum in Absheron ({{convert|200|to|350|mm|abbr=on|disp=or}}).<ref name="KL"/> [[File:Murov mountain in Azerbaijan-Caucasus3.jpg|thumb|left|[[Murovdag]] is the highest [[mountain range]] in the [[Lesser Caucasus]].]] Rivers and lakes form the principal part of the water systems of Azerbaijan, they were formed over a long geological timeframe and changed significantly throughout that period. This is particularly evidenced by remnants of ancient rivers found throughout the country. The country's water systems are continually changing under the influence of natural forces and human introduced industrial activities. Artificial rivers (canals) and ponds are a part of Azerbaijan's water systems. In terms of water supply, Azerbaijan is below the average in the world with approximately {{convert|100000|m3|0|abbr=off}} per year of water per square kilometer.<ref name="KL"/> All big [[Reservoir|water reservoirs]] are built on Kur. The hydrography of Azerbaijan basically belongs to the [[Caspian Sea basin]]. There are 8,350 rivers of various lengths within Azerbaijan. Only 24 rivers are over 100&nbsp;kilometers long.<ref>{{cite web| title =Azerbaijan: Geography| publisher = Central Asia and Caucasus Institute| url = http://www.cac-biodiversity.org/aze/aze_geography.htm}}</ref> The [[Kura River|Kura]] and [[Aras River|Aras]] are the most popular rivers in Azerbaijan, they run through the [[Kura-Aras Lowland]]. The rivers that directly flow into the Caspian Sea, originate mainly from the north-eastern slope of the Major Caucasus and [[Talysh Mountains]] and run along the Samur–Devechi and Lankaran lowlands. [[Yanar Dag]], translated as "burning mountain", is a natural gas fire which blazes continuously on a hillside on the [[Absheron Peninsula]] on the [[Caspian Sea]] near [[Baku]], which itself is known as the "land of fire." Flames jet out into the air from a thin, porous sandstone layer. It is a tourist attraction to visitors to the Baku area. ===Biodiversity=== {{Main|Wildlife of Azerbaijan}} {{Further|Fauna of Azerbaijan|Flora of Azerbaijan}} [[File:Stamp of Azerbaijan 750.jpg|thumb|The [[Karabakh horse]] is the national animal of Azerbaijan.]] The first reports on the richness and diversity of animal life in Azerbaijan can be found in travel notes of Eastern travelers. Animal carvings on architectural monuments, ancient rocks and stones survived up to the present times. The first information on the animal kingdom of Azerbaijan was collected during the visits of naturalists to Azerbaijan in the 17th century.<ref name="GEO"/> Unlike fauna, the concept of animal kingdom covers not only the types of animals, but also the number of individual species. There are 106 species of mammals, 97 species of fish, 363 species of birds, 10 species of amphibians and 52 species of reptiles which have been recorded and classified in Azerbaijan.<ref name="GEO"/> The national animal of Azerbaijan is the [[Karabakh horse]], a mountain-steppe racing and riding horse endemic to Azerbaijan. The Karabakh horse has a reputation for its good temper, speed, elegance and intelligence. It is one of the oldest breeds, with ancestry dating to the ancient world. However today the horse is an endangered species.<ref>{{cite web| title =The Karabakh Horse | publisher = Karabakh Foundation| url = http://www.karabakhfoundation.org/pages/history-and-culture/karabakh-region/the-karabakh-horse/}}</ref> Azerbaijan's flora consists of more than 4,500 species of [[higher plants]]. Due the unique climate in Azerbaijan, the flora is much richer in the number of species than the flora of the other republics of the South Caucasus.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.azerbaijan.az/_Geography/_Planting/_planting_e.html |title=Azerbaijan – Flora |publisher=Heydar Aliyev Foundation|accessdate=2010-03-05 }}</ref> About 67 percent of the species growing in the whole [[Caucasus]] can be found in Azerbaijan. ==Politics== {{Main|Politics of Azerbaijan}} {{See also|Elections in Azerbaijan|Human rights in Azerbaijan}} [[File:Munich Security Conference 2010 - dett aliyew 0014.jpg|upright|thumb|The son of former [[President of Azerbaijan|President]] [[Heydar Aliyev]], [[Ilham Aliyev]] succeeded his father and has remained in power since 2003.]] The structural formation of Azerbaijan's political system was completed by the adoption of the new [[Constitution of Azerbaijan|Constitution]] on 12 November 1995. According to the Article 23 of Constitution, the [[National symbol|state symbols]] of the Azerbaijan Republic are the [[Flag of Azerbaijan|flag]], the [[Coat of arms of Azerbaijan|coat of arms]] and the [[National Anthem of the Republic of Azerbaijan|national anthem]]. The state power in Azerbaijan is limited only by law for internal issues, but for international affairs is additionally limited by the provisions of international agreements. The government of Azerbaijan is based on the [[separation of powers]] among the [[Legislature|legislative]], executive and [[Judiciary|judicial]] branches. The legislative power is held by the [[Unicameralism|unicameral]] [[National Assembly of Azerbaijan|National Assembly]] and the Supreme National Assembly in the Nakhchivan Autonomous Republic. Parliamentary elections are held every five years, on the first Sunday of November. The [[New Azerbaijan Party|Yeni Azerbaijan Party]], and independents loyal to the ruling government, currently hold almost all of the Parliament's 125 seats. During the [[Azerbaijani parliamentary election, 2010|2010 Parliamentary election]], the opposition parties, [[Musavat]] and [[Azerbaijani Popular Front Party]], failed to win a single seat. European observers [[Azerbaijani parliamentary election, 2010#Campaign irregularities|found numerous irregularities]] in the run-up to the election and [[Azerbaijani parliamentary election, 2010#Election|on election day]].<ref>{{cite news |title =Monitors criticize Azeri elections | publisher = [[Al Jazeera]]| url = http://english.aljazeera.net/news/europe/2010/11/2010118152810836488.html| accessdate = 8 November 2010| archiveurl= //web.archive.org/web/20101111072636/http://english.aljazeera.net/news/europe/2010/11/2010118152810836488.html| archivedate= 11 November 2010 | deadurl= no}}</ref> The executive power is held by the [[President of Azerbaijan|President]], who is elected for a 5-year term by [[direct election]]s, and the [[Prime Minister of Azerbaijan]]. The president is authorized to form the Cabinet, a collective executive body, accountable to both the President and the National Assembly. The Cabinet of Azerbaijan consists primarily of the [[Prime Minister of Azerbaijan|Prime Minister]], his Deputies and Ministers. The president does not have the right to dissolve the National Assembly, but he has the right to [[veto]] its decisions. To override the presidential veto, the parliament must have a majority of 95 votes. The judicial power is vested in the [[Constitutional Court of Azerbaijan|Constitutional Court]], [[Supreme Court of Azerbaijan|Supreme Court]] and the [[Economic Court of Azerbaijan|Economic Court]]. The President nominates the judges in these courts. The Security Council is the deliberative body under the president, and he organizes it according to the Constitution. It was established on 10 April 1997. The administrative department is not a part of the president's office but manages the financial, technical and pecuniary activities of both the president and his office. Although Azerbaijan has held several elections since regaining its independence and it has many of the formal institutions of democracy, it remains classified as "not free" (on border with "partly free") by [[Freedom House]].<ref>{{cite web| title =Azerbaijan – Freedom House | publisher = FreedomHouse.org | url =http://www.freedomhouse.org/country/azerbaijan| accessdate = 4 August 2013}}</ref><ref name="frh">{{cite web| title =Combined Average Ratings: Independent Countries 2009 | publisher = FreedomHouse.org| year =2009 | url = http://old.freedomhouse.org/template.cfm?page=475&year=2009| accessdate = 2012-07-10}}</ref> In recent years, large numbers of Azerbaijani journalists, bloggers, lawyers, human rights activists have been rounded up and jailed for their criticism of President Aliyev and government authorities.<ref>"[https://www.washingtonpost.com/opinions/jailed-without-trial-in-azerbaijan/2015/03/01/34a1d342-bea1-11e4-bdfa-b8e8f594e6ee_story.html Jailed without trial in Azerbaijan]," ''[[The Washington Post]]''. March 1, 2015. Retrieved September 26, 2015.</ref> A resolution adopted by the European Parliament in September 2015 described Azerbaijan as "having suffered the greatest decline in democratic governance in all of Eurasia over the past ten years," noting as well that its dialogue with the country on human rights has "not made any substantial progress."<ref>"[https://www.washingtonpost.com/opinions/no-this-is-the-truth-about-azerbaijan/2015/09/25/d68a6fd0-608f-11e5-b38e-06883aacba64_story.html No, this is the truth about Azerbaijan’s repression]." ''The Washington Post''. September 25, 2015. Retrieved September 26, 2015.</ref> Azerbaijan has been harshly criticized for bribing foreign officials and diplomats for promoting its causes abroad and legitimizing its elections at home, a practice which has been termed as 'caviar diplomacy'.<ref>[http://www.esiweb.org/pdf/esi_document_id_145.pdf DISGRACED AZERBAIJAN AND THE END OF ELECTION MONITORING AS WE KNOW IT]</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.theguardian.com/world/2013/nov/24/azerbaijan-caviar-diplomacy-for-mps|title=Plush hotels and caviar diplomacy: how Azerbaijan's elite wooed MPs|author=Jamie Doward|work=the Guardian|accessdate=4 July 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=http://euobserver.com/opinion/118320|title=Europe's caviar diplomacy with Azerbaijan must end|publisher=|accessdate=4 July 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.rferl.org/content/azerbaijan-baku-caviar-oil/25162410.html|title=Baku Smooths Over Its Rights Record With A Thick Layer Of Caviar|work=RadioFreeEurope/RadioLiberty|accessdate=4 July 2015}}</ref> ===Foreign relations=== {{Main|Foreign relations of Azerbaijan}} {{See also|Azerbaijan and the European Union}} [[File:Vladimir Putin in Azerbaijan 13 August 2013-6.jpg|thumb|left|[[Vladimir Putin]] in Azerbaijan in August 2013]] The short-lived Azerbaijan Democratic Republic succeeded in establishing diplomatic relations with six countries, sending diplomatic representatives to Germany and [[Finland]].<ref name="CSUS">{{cite web| title =Azerbaijan – Foreign Relations | publisher = Country Studies| url = http://countrystudies.us/azerbaijan/36.htm| accessdate = 31 May 2007}}</ref> The process of international recognition of Azerbaijan's independence from the collapsing Soviet Union lasted roughly one year. The most recent country to recognize Azerbaijan was [[Bahrain]], on 6 November 1996.<ref>{{cite web| title =Bilateral relations | publisher = Ministry of Foreign Affairs| url = http://www.mfa.gov.az/eng/foreign_policy/bilat.shtml| accessdate = 27 May 2007|archiveurl = //web.archive.org/web/20070504074309/http://www.mfa.gov.az/eng/foreign_policy/bilat.shtml |archivedate = 4 May 2007}}</ref> Full diplomatic relations, including mutual exchanges of missions, were first established with [[Turkey]], [[Pakistan]], the [[United States]], Iran<ref name="CSUS"/> and [[Israel]].<ref name="israelmfa">{{cite web|url=http://baku.mfa.gov.il/mfm/Data/113213.pdf |title=15th Anniversary of Israel-Azebraijan Diplomatic Relations |accessdate=21 March 2008 |last=Lenk |first=Arthur |date=7 March 2007 |publisher=Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Israel}}</ref> Azerbaijan has placed a particular emphasis on its "[[Special relationship (international relations)|Special Relationship]]" with Turkey.<ref>{{cite news |last=Kardas|first=Saban|title=Turkey Develops Special Relationship with Azerbaijan|url=http://www.jamestown.org/single/?no_cache=1&tx_ttnews%5Btt_news%5D=34116|publisher=Eurasia Daily Monitor Volume|accessdate=23 December 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last=Katik|first=Mevlut|title=Azerbaijan and Turkey Coordinate Nagorno-Karabakh Negotiation Position|url=http://www.eurasianet.org/departments/insight/articles/eav042304.shtml|publisher=EurasiaNet|accessdate=23 December 2010}}</ref> Azerbaijan has diplomatic relations with 158 countries so far and holds membership in 38 international organizations.<ref name="FCO" /> It holds observer status in the [[Non-Aligned Movement]] and [[World Trade Organization]] and is a correspondent at the [[International Telecommunication Union]].<ref name="FCO"/> On 9 May 2006 Azerbaijan was elected to membership in the newly established [[Human Rights Council]] by the [[United Nations General Assembly]]. The term of office began on 19 June 2006.<ref name="Un.org" /> [[File:IV Каспийский саммит - 26.jpeg|thumb|[[Ilham Aliyev]] attends the Caspian Sea Summit in [[Astrakhan]], Russia, 29 September 2014]] Foreign policy priorities of Azerbaijan include, first of all, the restoration of its territorial integrity; elimination of the consequences of the loss of Nagorno-Karabakh and [[Armenian-controlled territories surrounding Nagorno-Karabakh|seven other regions of Azerbaijan]];<ref name="NSC AZ"/><ref>{{cite news | last = Selim Özertem | first = Hasan | title =Independence of Kosovo and the Nagorno-Karabakh Issue | publisher = TurkishWeekly | url = http://www.turkishweekly.net/columnist/2886/independence-of-kosovo-and-the-nagorno-karabakh-issue.html| accessdate = 24 April 2008}}</ref> integration into European and Euro-Atlantic structure; contribution to international security; cooperation with international organizations; regional cooperation and bilateral relations; strengthening of defense capability; promotion of security by domestic policy means; strengthening of democracy; preservation of the ethnic and religious tolerance; scientific, educational, and cultural policy and preservation of moral values; economic and social development; enhancing internal and border security; and migration, energy, and transportation security policy.<ref name="NSC AZ">{{cite web| title =National Security Concept of the Republic of Azerbaijan | publisher = United Nations| date = 23 May 2007| url = http://www.un.int/azerbaijan/pdf/National_security.pdf| accessdate = 23 May 2007}}</ref> The Azerbaijani government, in late 2007, stated that the long-standing dispute over the Armenian-occupied territory of Nagorno-Karabakh is almost certain to spark a new war if it remains unresolved.<ref name="NSC AZ"/> The Government is in the process of increasing its military budget. Furthermore, economic sanctions by Turkey to the west and by Azerbaijan itself to the east have combined to greatly erode Armenia's economy, leading to steep increases in prices for basic commodities and a great decline in the Armenian state revenues. A recent attack by Azeri military on Armenian villages in Nogorno-Karabagh has caused physical damage and raised controversy over the future of peaceful relations between Azerbaijan and its neighbor, Armenia. <ref>http://www.cnn.com/2016/04/02/asia/azerbaijan-armenia-violence/index.html</ref> Azerbaijan is an active member of international coalitions fighting international terrorism. The country is contributing to peacekeeping efforts in Kosovo, Afghanistan and Iraq. Azerbaijan is an active member of [[NATO]]'s [[Partnership for Peace]] program. It also maintains good relations with the [[European Union]] and could potentially one day apply for membership.<ref name="NSC AZ"/> ===Administrative divisions=== {{Main|Administrative divisions of Azerbaijan}} Azerbaijan is divided into 10 economic regions; 66 [[Raion|rayons]] (''rayonlar'', singular ''rayon'') and 77 cities (''şəhərlər'', singular ''şəhər'') of which 12 are under the direct authority of the republic.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.azstat.org/statinfo/demoqraphic/en/001_1.shtml |title=The State Statistical Committee of the Republic of Azerbaijan, Administrative and territorial units of Azerbaijan Republic |publisher=Azstat.org |accessdate=2011-05-22| archiveurl= //web.archive.org/web/20110512043157/http://www.azstat.org/statinfo/demoqraphic/en/001_1.shtml| archivedate= 12 May 2011 | deadurl= no}}</ref> Moreover, Azerbaijan includes the [[Autonomous Republic]] (''muxtar respublika'') of [[Nakhchivan Autonomous Republic|Nakhchivan]].<ref name="cia"/> The [[President of Azerbaijan]] appoints the governors of these units, while the government of Nakhchivan is elected and approved by the parliament of Nakhchivan Autonomous Republic. {{col-begin-small}} {{col-5}} ;Absheron Economic Region * [[Absheron Rayon|Absheron]] (Abşeron) * [[Khizi Rayon|Khizi]] (Xızı) * ''[[Baku]]'' (Bakı) * ''[[Sumqayit]]'' (Sumqayıt) ;Aran Economic Region * [[Aghjabadi Rayon|Aghjabadi]] (Ağcabədi) * [[Agdash Rayon|Aghdash]] (Ağdaş) * [[Barda Rayon|Barda]] (Bərdə) * [[Beylagan Rayon|Beylagan]] (Beyləqan) * [[Bilasuvar Rayon|Bilasuvar]] (Biləsuvar) * [[Goychay Rayon|Goychay]] (Göyçay) * [[Hajigabul Rayon|Hajigabul]] (Hacıqabul) * [[Imishli Rayon|Imishli]] (İmişli) * [[Kurdamir Rayon|Kurdamir]] (Kürdəmir) * [[Neftchala Rayon|Neftchala]] (Neftçala) * [[Saatly Rayon|Saatly]] (Saatlı) * [[Sabirabad Rayon|Sabirabad]] (Sabirabad) * [[Salyan Rayon|Salyan]] (Salyan) * [[Ujar Rayon|Ujar]] (Ucar) * [[Yevlakh Rayon|Yevlakh]] (Yevlax) * [[Zardab Rayon|Zardab]] (Zərdab) * ''[[Mingachevir]]'' (Mingəçevir) * ''[[Shirvan (city)|Shirvan]]'' (Şirvan) * ''[[Yevlakh]]'' (Yevlax) ;Daghlig Shirvan * [[Agsu Rayon|Aghsu]] (Ağsu) * [[Gobustan Rayon|Gobustan]] (Qobustan) * [[Ismailli Rayon|Ismailly]] (İsmayıllı) * [[Shamakhi Rayon|Shamakhy]] (Şamaxı) {{col-5}} ;Ganja-Gazakh * [[Agstafa Rayon|Aghstafa]] (Ağstafa) * [[Dashkasan Rayon|Dashkasan]] (Daşkəsən) * [[Gadabay Rayon|Gadabay]] (Gədəbəy) * [[Qazakh Rayon|Gazakh]] (Qazax) * [[Goygol Rayon|Goygol]] (Göygöl) * [[Goranboy Rayon|Goranboy]] (Goranboy) * [[Samukh Rayon|Samukh]] (Samux) * [[Shamkir Rayon|Shamkir]] (Şəmkir) * [[Tovuz Rayon|Tovuz]] (Tovuz) * ''[[Ganja, Azerbaijan|Ganja]]'' (Gəncə) * ''[[Naftalan, Azerbaijan|Naftalan]]'' (Naftalan) ;Guba-Khachmaz * [[Quba Rayon|Guba]] (Quba) * [[Qusar Rayon|Gusar]] (Qusar) * [[Khachmaz Rayon|Khachmaz]] (Xaçmaz) * [[Shabran Rayon|Shabran]] (Şabran) * [[Siazan Rayon|Siyazan]] (Siyəzən) ;Kalbajar-Lachin * [[Qubadli District|Gubadly]] (Qubadlı) * [[Kalbajar District|Kalbajar]] (Kəlbəcər) * [[Lachin District|Lachin]] (Laçın) * [[Zangilan District|Zangilan]] (Zəngilan) ;Lankaran * [[Astara Rayon|Astara]] (Astara) * [[Jalilabad Rayon|Jalilabad]] (Cəlilabad) * [[Lankaran Rayon|Lankaran]] (Lənkəran) * [[Lerik Rayon|Lerik]] (Lerik) * [[Masally Rayon|Masally]] (Masallı) {{col-5}} * [[Yardymli Rayon|Yardimly]] (Yardımlı) * ''[[Lankaran]]'' (Lənkəran) ;Nakhchivan * [[Babek Rayon|Babek]] (Babək) * [[Julfa Rayon|Julfa]] (Culfa) * [[Kangarli Rayon|Kangarli]] (Kəngərli) * [[Ordubad Rayon|Ordubad]] (Ordubad) * [[Sadarak Rayon|Sadarak]] (Sədərək) * [[Shahbuz District|Shahbuz]] (Şahbuz) * [[Sharur Rayon|Sharur]] (Şərur) * ''[[Nakhchivan City|Nakhchivan]]'' (Naxçıvan) ;Shaki-Zaqatala * [[Balakan Rayon|Balakan]] (Balakən) * [[Qabala Rayon|Gabala]] (Qəbələ) * [[Qakh Rayon|Gakh]] (Qax) * [[Oghuz Rayon|Oghuz]] (Oğuz) * [[Shaki Rayon|Shaki]] (Şəki) * [[Zaqatala Rayon|Zaqatala]] (Zaqatala) * ''[[Shaki, Azerbaijan|Shaki]]'' (Şəki) ;Yukhari Garabakh * [[Agdam Rayon|Aghdam]] (Ağdam) * [[Fizuli Rayon|Fuzuli]] (Füzuli) * [[Jabrayil Rayon|Jabrayil]] (Cəbrayıl) * [[Khojali Rayon|Khojaly]] (Xocalı) * [[Khojavend Rayon|Khojavend]] (Xocavənd) * [[Shusha Rayon|Shusha]] (Şuşa) * [[Tartar Rayon|Tartar]] (Tərtər) * ''[[Stepanakert|Khankendi]]'' (Xankəndi) * ''[[Shusha]]'' (Şuşa) {{col-5}} [[File:Azerbaijan economic regions.png|thumb|400px|right| Azerbaijan is divided into 10 economic regions]] {{col-end}} ''Note: The cities under the direct authority of the republic in italics''. ==Military== {{Main|Azerbaijani Armed Forces}} [[File:Azeri navy in port.jpg|left|thumb|[[Azerbaijani Navy]] fleet during the 2011 military parade in Baku.]] [[File:Special forces azerbaijan.png|thumb|Azerbaijani Special Forces during military parade.]] The history of the modern Azerbaijan army dates back to [[Azerbaijan Democratic Republic]] in 1918, when the National Army of the newly formed Azerbaijan Democratic Republic was created on 26 June 1918.<ref>[http://www.azembassy.com.pk/en/book/?get=c3 ''Azerbaijan: Short History of Statehood''], Embassy of Republic of Azerbaijan in Pakistan, 2005, Chapter 3.</ref><ref>[http://www.calend.ru/holidays/0/0/1393/ Creation of National Army in 1918] {{ru icon}}.</ref> When Azerbaijan gained independence after the [[dissolution of the Soviet Union]], the Armed Forces of the Republic of Azerbaijan were created according to the Law on the Armed Forces of 9 October 1991.<ref>[http://www.base.spinform.ru/show_doc.fwx?Regnom=2893 Law of the Republic of Azerbaijan on Armed Forces], No. 210-XII, 9 October 1991 {{ru icon}}.</ref> The original date of the establishment of the short-lived National Army is celebrated as Army Day (26 June) in today's Azerbaijan.<ref>[http://news.trend.az/index.shtml?show=news&newsid=1232458&lang=EN Azerbaijan's Army Day (26 June)] declared by Presidential Decree of 22 May 1998.</ref> As of 2002, Azerbaijan had 95,000 active personnel in its armed forces. There are also 17,000 paramilitary troops.<ref name=Blandy12>C. W. Blandy [http://www.da.mod.uk/colleges/arag/document-listings/caucasus/08(17)CWB.pdf Azerbaijan: Is War Over Nagornyy Karabakh a Realistic Option? Advanced Research and Assessment Group. Caucasus Series 08/17. – Defense Academy of the United Kingdom, 2008, p.12]</ref> The armed forces have three branches: the [[Army of Azerbaijan|Land Forces]], the [[Azerbaijani Air Forces|Air Forces]] and the [[Azerbaijan Navy|Navy]]. Additionally the armed forces embrace several military sub-groups that can be involved in state defense when needed. These are the [[Internal Troops (Azerbaijan)|Internal Troops]] of the Ministry of Internal Affairs and the [[Azerbaijan Border Guard|State Border Service]], which includes the [[Azerbaijan Coast Guard|Coast Guard]] as well.<ref name="cia"/> The [[Azerbaijan National Guard]] is a further paramilitary force. It operates as a semi-independent entity of the Special State Protection Service, an agency subordinate to the President.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://library.aliyev-heritage.org/ru/652072.html |script-title=ru:Выступление Президента Азербайджанской Республики, Верховного Главнокомандующего Гейдара Алиева на церемонии, посвященной 5-й годовщине образования Национальной гвардии – Штаб Национальной гвардии Азербайджана|publisher=Heydar Aliyev Heritage Research Center |date= 25 December 1996 |language=ru}}</ref> [[File:Парад в честь 70-летия Великой Победы - 33.jpg|thumb|Contingent from the Azerbaijani military during the [[2015 Moscow Victory Day Parade|Moscow Victory Day Parade]], 9 May 2015]] Azerbaijan adheres to the [[Treaty on Conventional Armed Forces in Europe]] and has signed all major international arms and weapons treaties. Azerbaijan closely cooperates with [[NATO]] in programs such as [[Partnership for Peace]] and [[Individual Partnership Action Plan]]. Azerbaijan has deployed 151 of its Peacekeeping Forces in [[Iraq]] and another 184 in [[Afghanistan]].<ref>{{cite web| last =Abbasov | first =Shahin | title =Azerbaijan: Baku Can Leapfrog over Ukraine, Georgia for NATO Membership | publisher = EurasiaNet | url = http://www.eurasianet.org/departments/insightb/articles/eav060409.shtml| accessdate = 3 June 2009| archiveurl= //web.archive.org/web/20090606053322/http://www.eurasianet.org/departments/insightb/articles/eav060409.shtml| archivedate= 6 June 2009 | deadurl= no}}</ref> The defense budget of Azerbaijan for 2011 was set at US$3.1 billion.<ref name="ng.ru">{{cite news |author=Владимир Мухин |url=http://www.ng.ru/politics/2011-01-24/1_karabah.html |title=Карабахский детонатор на взводе – В Баку и Ереване все четче звучит воинственная риторика |publisher=Nezavisimaya Gazeta |date=24 January 2011 |accessdate=22 May 2011| archiveurl= //web.archive.org/web/20110514041854/http://www.ng.ru/politics/2011-01-24/1_karabah.html| archivedate= 14 May 2011 | deadurl= no}}</ref> In addition to that, $1.36 billion was planned to be used for the needs of the [[Ministry of Defence Industry of Azerbaijan|defense industry]], which bring up the total military spending to billion.<ref name="ng.ru"/><ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.gruzianews.ru/en/4482.html |title=Russia's neighbors are preparing for war (CIS countries and Georgia has surprised the world of increasing military expenditures) |publisher=Gruzianews.ru |date=22 February 2011 |accessdate=2013-10-15}}</ref> Azerbaijani President Ilham Aliyev said on 26 June 2011 that the defence spending reached $3.3 billion that year.<ref name="AFP">{{cite web|url=https://www.google.com/hostednews/afp/article/ALeqM5iHTBXqdc6cRoA37v9iJO8qg5hwhw?docId=CNG.0ceb4228ea87d70e3bcda085beb7a76b.3d1&hl=en |title=AFP: Azerbaijan warns Armenia with show of military might |publisher=Google.com |date=26 June 2011 |accessdate=2013-10-15}}</ref> Azerbaijan's defense budget for 2013 is $3.7 billion.<ref name="Economist">{{cite news|author=Eastern approaches Ex-communist Europe |url=http://www.economist.com/blogs/easternapproaches/2013/10/nagorno-karabakh-conflict |title=The Nagorno-Karabakh conflict: A festering sore |publisher=The Economist |date=3 October 2013 |accessdate=2013-10-15}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |author=|url=http://www.news.az/articles/karabakh/81188 |title=Baku says Armenian president still hypocrite before world community |publisher=News.Az |accessdate=2013-10-15}}</ref> Azerbaijani defense industry manufactures small arms, artillery systems, tanks, armors and noctovision devices, aviation bombs, pilotless vehicles, various military vehicles and military planes and helicopters.<ref>{{cite web| title =Azerbaijan to start manufacturing arms, military hardware in 2008 | publisher = BBC Monitoring Service | url = http://www.un-az.org/undp/bulnews55/en3.php| accessdate = 26 January 2008}}</ref><ref>{{cite news | title =Azerbaijan to produce tanks, aviation bombs and pilotless vehicles in 2009 | publisher = panarmenian | url = http://www.panarmenian.net/news/eng/?nid=28123| accessdate = 24 December 2008| archiveurl= //web.archive.org/web/20090109213303/http://www.panarmenian.net/news/eng/?nid=28123| archivedate= 9 January 2009 | deadurl= no}}</ref><ref>{{cite news | title =Uzeir Jafarov: "Azerbaijan will be unable to produce competitive military technique in the next five years" | publisher = Today.Az | url = http://www.today.az/news/business/47845.html| accessdate = 26 September 2008}}</ref><ref>{{cite news | title =President Ilham Aliyev attends the openings of several defense-related facilities | publisher = Today.Az | url = http://www.today.az/news/politics/81912.html| accessdate = 4 March 2011}}</ref> ==Economy== {{Main|Economy of Azerbaijan}} After gaining independence in 1991, Azerbaijan became a member of the [[International Monetary Fund]], the [[World Bank]], the [[European Bank for Reconstruction and Development]], the [[Islamic Development Bank]] and the [[Asian Development Bank]].<ref name="AZE">{{cite web| title =Azerbaijan – General Information | publisher = Heydar Aliyev Foundation| url = http://www.azerbaijan.az/_Economy/_GeneralInfo/_generalInfo_e.html| accessdate = 2007-05-22| archiveurl= //web.archive.org/web/20070505020428/http://www.azerbaijan.az/_Economy/_GeneralInfo/_generalInfo_e.html| archivedate= 5 May 2007 | deadurl= no}}</ref> The banking system of Azerbaijan consists of the [[Central Bank of Azerbaijan]], [[commercial bank]]s and non-banking credit organizations. The National (now Central) Bank was created in 1992 based on the Azerbaijan State Savings Bank, an affiliate of the former State Savings Bank of the USSR. The Central Bank serves as Azerbaijan's central bank, empowered to issue the national currency, the [[Azerbaijani manat]], and to supervise all commercial banks. Two major commercial banks are UniBank and the state-owned [[International Bank of Azerbaijan]], run by [[Jahangir Hajiyev|Dr. Jahangir Hajiyev]]. Pushed up by spending and demand growth, the 2007 [[First quarter of a calendar year|Q1]] inflation rate reached 16.6%.<ref name="INF">{{cite web| title =Azerbaijan's Q1 inflation rate 16.6%, National Bank Chief says | publisher = Today.Az| url = http://www.un-az.org/undp/bulnews48/e3.php| accessdate = 29 May 2007}}</ref> Nominal incomes and monthly wages climbed 29% and 25% respectively against this figure, but price increases in non-oil industry encouraged inflation in the country.<ref name="INF"/> Azerbaijan shows some signs of the so-called "[[Dutch disease]]" because of the fast-growing energy sector, which causes inflation and makes non-energy exports more expensive. In the early years of this century the chronically high inflation was brought under control and this led to the launch of a new currency, the new Azerbaijani manat, on 1 January 2006, to cement the acquisition of the economic reforms and erase the vestiges of an unstable economy.<ref>{{cite web| last =Mehdizade| first = Sevinj| title =Azerbaijan's New Manats: Design and Transition to a New Currency | publisher = Azerbaijan International| url = http://azer.com/aiweb/categories/magazine/ai143_folder/143_articles/143_manat.html}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last=Ismayilov|first=Rovshan|title=Azerbaijan's Manat Makeover: Good Times Ahead?|url=http://www.eurasianet.org/departments/business/articles/eav030106.shtml|publisher=EurasiaNet|accessdate=7 December 2010}}</ref> In 2008, Azerbaijan was cited as one of the top 10 reformers by the World Bank's [[Doing Business Report]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.doingbusiness.org/Features/Feature-2008-21.aspx |title=Top 10 reformers from Doing Business 2009 |accessdate=28 September 2008 |work= World Bank Group |publisher= Doing Business| archiveurl= //web.archive.org/web/20080912213246/http://www.doingbusiness.org/Features/Feature-2008-21.aspx| archivedate= 12 September 2008 | deadurl= no}}</ref> {{quote|Azerbaijan led the world as the top reformer in 2007/08, with improvements on seven out of 10 indicators of regulatory reform. Azerbaijan started operating a one-stop shop in January 2008 that halved the time, cost and number of procedures to start a business. Business registrations increased by 40% in the first six months. Azerbaijan also eliminated the minimum loan cutoff of $1,100, more than doubling the number of borrowers covered by the credit registry. Also, taxpayers can now file forms and pay their taxes online. Azerbaijan's extensive reforms moved it far up the ranks, from 97 to 33 in the overall ease of doing business.}} Azerbaijan is also ranked 57th in the [[Global Competitiveness Report]] for 2010–2011, which is above other CIS countries.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www3.weforum.org/docs/WEF_GlobalCompetitivenessReport_2010-11.pdf |title=World Economic Forum – The Global Competitiveness Report 2010-2011 |format=PDF |accessdate=2011-01-04| archiveurl= //web.archive.org/web/20101206104835/http://www3.weforum.org//docs//WEF_GlobalCompetitivenessReport_2010-11.pdf| archivedate= 6 December 2010 | deadurl= no}}</ref> By 2012 the GDP of Azerbaijan increased 20-fold relative to its 1995 level.<ref>Bibliothek der Friedrich-Ebert-Stiftung, http://library.fes.de/pdf-files/id-moe/09454.pdf</ref> ===Energy=== {{main|Energy in Azerbaijan}} {{further|Petroleum industry in Azerbaijan}} [[File:Oil pump in Baku.jpg|thumb|A [[Pumpjack|pumping unit]] for the mechanical extraction of oil on the outskirts of Baku.]] Two-thirds of Azerbaijan is rich in oil and natural gas.<ref name="AZ">{{cite web| title =Azerbaijan – General Information | publisher = Heydar Aliyev Foundation| url = http://www.azerbaijan.az/_Geography/_GeneralInfo/_generalInfo_e.html| accessdate = 2007-05-22| archiveurl= //web.archive.org/web/20070528033940/http://www.azerbaijan.az/_Geography/_GeneralInfo/_generalInfo_e.html| archivedate= 28 May 2007 | deadurl= no}}</ref> The region of the [[Lesser Caucasus]] accounts for most of the country's gold, silver, iron, copper, [[titanium]], [[chromium]], [[manganese]], [[cobalt]], [[molybdenum]], complex [[ore]] and [[antimony]].<ref name="AZ"/> In September 1994, a 30-year contract was signed between the [[State Oil Company of Azerbaijan Republic]] (SOCAR) and 13&nbsp;oil companies, among them [[Amoco]], [[BP]], [[ExxonMobil]], [[Lukoil]] and [[Statoil]].<ref name="AZE"/> As Western oil companies are able to tap deepwater [[oil field|oilfields]] untouched by the Soviet exploitation, Azerbaijan is considered one of the most important spots in the world for [[Hydrocarbon exploration|oil exploration]] and development.<ref>{{cite web| title =Azerbaijan: Economy| publisher = globalEDGE| url = http://globaledge.msu.edu/countryInsights/economy.asp?countryID=11&regionID=3| accessdate = 29 May 2007}} {{Dead link|date=April 2012|bot=H3llBot}}</ref> Meanwhile, the [[State Oil Fund of Azerbaijan]] was established as an extra-budgetary fund to ensure the [[macroeconomy|macroeconomic]] stability, transparency in the management of oil revenue, and the safeguarding of resources for future generations. Azeriqaz, a sub-company of SOCAR, intends to ensure full gasification of the country by 2021.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://abc.az/eng/news_13_02_2010_42618.html |title=SOCAR plans to completed full gasification of Azerbaijan only by 2021 |publisher=Azerbaijan Business Center |accessdate=6 June 2010}}</ref> ===Agriculture=== {{main|Agriculture in Azerbaijan}} Azerbaijan has the largest agricultural basin in the region. About 54.9 percent of Azerbaijan is agricultural lands.<ref name="STA"/> At the beginning of 2007 there were 4,755,100&nbsp;hectares of utilized agricultural area.<ref name="AG">{{cite web| title =Natural resources | publisher = The State Statistical Committee of the Republic of Azerbaijan| url = http://www.azstat.org/publications/azfigures/2007/en/003.shtml| accessdate = 2007-05-26| archiveurl= //web.archive.org/web/20070610085820/http://www.azstat.org/publications/azfigures/2007/en/003.shtml| archivedate= 10 June 2007 | deadurl= no}}</ref> In the same year the total wood resources counted 136 million m³.<ref name="AG"/> Azerbaijan's agricultural scientific research institutes are focused on meadows and pastures, horticulture and [[subtropical]] crops, green vegetables, [[viticulture]] and [[Azerbaijani wine|wine-making]], cotton growing and [[medicinal plants]].<ref>{{cite web| title =Azerbaijan: Status of Database | publisher = Central Asia and Caucasus Institute| url = http://www.cac-biodiversity.org/aze/aze_database.htm| accessdate = 28 May 2007}}</ref> In some lands it is profitable to grow grain, potatoes, [[sugar beet]]s, cotton<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.dol.gov/ilab/reports/child-labor/azerbaijan.htm|title=Findings on the Worst Forms of Child Labor - Azerbaijan|publisher=|accessdate=4 July 2015}}</ref> and tobacco. Livestock, dairy products, and wine and [[spirits]] are also important farm products. The Caspian [[fishing industry]] is concentrated on the dwindling stocks of [[sturgeon]] and [[Beluga (sturgeon)|beluga]]. In 2002 the Azerbaijani [[merchant marine]] had 54 ships.<ref>{{cite web| title =Azerbaijan: Transportation | publisher = Encyclopedia of the Nations| url = http://www.nationsencyclopedia.com/Asia-and-Oceania/Azerbaijan-TRANSPORTATION.html| accessdate = 24 May 2007| archiveurl= //web.archive.org/web/20070418210415/http://www.nationsencyclopedia.com/Asia-and-Oceania/Azerbaijan-TRANSPORTATION.html| archivedate= 18 April 2007 | deadurl= no}}</ref> Some portions of most products that were previously imported from abroad have begun to be produced locally (among them are Coca Cola by Coca Cola Bottlers LTD, beer by Baki-Kastel, parquet by Nehir and oil pipes by EUPEC Pipe Coating Azerbaijan).<ref>{{cite web| title =Industry | publisher = Statistical Yearbook of Azerbaijan 2004| url = http://www.azstat.org/publications/yearbook/SYA2004/Pdf/18en.pdf| accessdate = 2007-05-26|format=PDF |archiveurl = //web.archive.org/web/20070202100114/http://www.azstat.org/publications/yearbook/SYA2004/Pdf/18en.pdf |archivedate = 2 February 2007}}</ref> ===Tourism=== {{Main|Tourism in Azerbaijan}} [[File:Shahdag01.jpg|thumb|[[Shahdag Mountain Resort]] is the country's largest winter resort.]] Tourism is an important part of the [[economy of Azerbaijan]]. The country was a well-known tourist spot in the 1980s. However, the fall of the Soviet Union, and the Nagorno-Karabakh War during the 1990s, damaged the tourist industry and the image of Azerbaijan as a tourist destination.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.osce.org/baku/27857 |title=Rapid Tourism Assessment for the Azerbaijan Tourism Sector Development Program – Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE) |accessdate=2013-09-09}}</ref> It was not until the 2000s that the tourism industry began to recover, and the country has since experienced a high rate of growth in the number of tourist visits and overnight stays.<ref>[http://www.azadliq.org/content/article/388501.html Azərbaycan Qarabağın turizm imkanlarını təbliğ edir] {{az icon}}</ref> In the recent years, Azerbaijan has also becoming a popular destination for religious, spa, and health care tourism.<ref name="Baku Boom Has Yet to Hit Regions">{{cite web| last = Ismayilov| first = Rovshan | authorlink = | title =Azerbaijan: Baku Boom Has Yet to Hit Regions| work = | publisher = EurasiaNet| url = http://www.eurasianet.org/departments/insight/articles/eav081307.shtml| doi = | accessdate = 12 August 2007| archiveurl= //web.archive.org/web/20070819211953/http://www.eurasianet.org/departments/insight/articles/eav081307.shtml| archivedate= 19 August 2007 | deadurl= no}}</ref> During winter, the [[Shahdag Mountain Resort]] offers skiing with state of the art facilities. The [[government of Azerbaijan]] has set the development of Azerbaijan as an elite tourist destination as a top priority. It is a national strategy to make tourism a major, if not the single largest, contributor to the Azerbaijani economy.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.tourism.az/?menu=1&submenu=12&lang=eng |title=Ministry of Culture and Tourism of Azerbaijan: Goals |publisher=Tourism.az |date=6 February 2004 |accessdate=4 January 2011| archiveurl= //web.archive.org/web/20101128233315/http://tourism.az/?menu=1&submenu=12&lang=eng| archivedate= 28 November 2010 | deadurl= no}}</ref> These activities are regulated by the [[Ministry of Culture and Tourism (Azerbaijan)|Ministry of Culture and Tourism of Azerbaijan]]. ===Transportation=== {{Main|Transportation in Azerbaijan|Rail transport in Azerbaijan}} The convenient location of Azerbaijan on the crossroad of major international traffic arteries, such as the [[Silk Road]] and the south–north corridor, highlights the strategic importance of transportation sector for the country's economy.<ref>{{cite web| last =Ziyadov | first =Taleh | title= The New Silk Roads| publisher = Central Asia-Caucasus Institute Silk Road Studies Program| url = http://www.silkroadstudies.org/new/docs/publications/GCA/GCAPUB-10.pdf}}</ref> The transport sector in the country includes roads, railways, aviation, and maritime transport. Azerbaijan is also an important economic hub in the transportation of raw materials. The [[Baku–Tbilisi–Ceyhan pipeline]] (BTC) became operational in May 2006 and extends more than 1,774&nbsp;kilometers through the territories of Azerbaijan, Georgia and Turkey. The BTC is designed to transport up to 50&nbsp;million tons of crude oil annually and carries oil from the Caspian Sea oilfields to global markets.<ref>{{cite journal | publisher= The Central Asia-Caucasus Institute, Silk Road Studies Program | author= [[Zeyno Baran]] | title = The Baku-Tbilisi-Ceyhan Pipeline: Implications for Turkey | url= http://www.silkroadstudies.org/BTC_6.pdf | journal= The Baku-Tbilisi-Ceyhan Pipeline: Oil Window to the West | pages=103–118 | format=PDF | year=2005 | accessdate=30 December 2007}}</ref> The [[South Caucasus Pipeline]], also stretching through the territory of Azerbaijan, Georgia and Turkey, became operational at the end of 2006 and offers additional gas supplies to the European market from the [[Shah Deniz gas field]]. Shah Deniz is expected to produce up to 296&nbsp;billion cubic meters of natural gas per year.<ref>{{cite press release | title = SCP Commissioning Commences | publisher = [[BP]] | url = http://www.bp.com/genericarticle.do?categoryId=9006615&contentId=7018471 | date = 1 June 2006 | accessdate = 4 June 2008}}</ref> Azerbaijan also plays a major role in the EU-sponsored Silk Road Project. In 2002, the Azerbaijani government established the Ministry of Transport with a broad range of policy and regulatory functions. In the same year, the country became a member of the [[Vienna Convention on Road Traffic]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://cracowrent.pl/uploads/pliki/CP_Vienna_convention.pdf|title= List of Contracting Parties to the Convention on Road Traffic |publisher = UN Economic Commission for Europe |accessdate=2010-01-23}}</ref> The highest priority being; upgrading the transport network and transforming transportation services into one of the key comparative advantages of the country, as this would be highly conducive to the development of other sectors of the economy. In 2012, the construction of [[Kars–Tbilisi–Baku railway]] expected to provide transportation between Asia and Europe through connecting the railways of China and [[Kazakhstan]] in the east with Turkey's [[Marmaray]] to the European railway system in the west. [[Russian gauge|Broad-gauge]] railways in 2010 stretched for {{convert|2918|km|0|abbr=on}} and electrified railways numbered {{convert|1278|km|0|abbr=on}}. By 2010, there were 35 airports and one [[heliport]].<ref name="cia"/> ===Science and technology=== {{main|Communications in Azerbaijan|Azerbaijan National Aerospace Agency|List of Azerbaijani inventions and discoveries}} [[File:Shamakhi observatory.jpg|thumbnail|[[Shamakhi Astrophysical Observatory]]]] In the 21st century, a new oil and gas boom helped to improve the situation in Azerbaijan's science and technology sectors, and the government launched a campaign aimed at modernization and [[List of Azerbaijani inventions and discoveries|innovation]]. The government estimates that profits from the information technology and communication industry will grow and become comparable with those from oil production.<ref>{{cite news |title=Azerbaijan aims for hi-tech state|url=http://www.euronews.net/2010/11/26/azerbaijan-aims-for-hi-tech-state/|publisher=[[Euronews]]|accessdate=19 December 2010}}</ref> Azerbaijan has a large and steadily growing Internet sector, mostly uninfluenced by the [[2007–2012 global financial crisis|global financial crisis]]; rapid growth is forecast for at least five more years.<ref>{{cite web|title=Azerbaijan is in TOP 10 of countries showing dynamic growth in Internet and mobile communications penetration|url=http://www.bakutel.az/2012/?p=news__read&t=top&q=55&l=en|work=bakutel.az|accessdate=15 April 2013}}</ref> The country has also been making progress in developing its telecoms sector. The Ministry of Communications & Information Technologies (MCIT), as well as being an operator through its role in Aztelekom, is both a policy-maker and regulator. Public pay phones are available for local calls and require the purchase of a token from the telephone exchange or some shops and kiosks. Tokens allow a call of indefinite duration. {{As of|2009}}, there were 1,397,000 main telephone lines<ref>[https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/rankorder/2150rank.html CIA.gov], CIA World Factbook Telephones – main lines in use, Azerbaijan 1,397,000 main lines</ref> and 1,485,000 internet users.<ref>[https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/rankorder/2153rank.html CIA.gov], CIA World Factbook Internet users, Azerbaijan Internet users: 1,485,000.</ref> There are four [[GSM]] providers: [[Azercell]], [[Bakcell]], Azerfon ([[Nar Mobile]]), [[Nakhtel]] mobile network operators and one [[CDMA]]. In the 21st century a number of prominent Azerbaijani [[geodynamics]] and [[geotectonics]] scientists, inspired by the fundamental works of [[Elchin Khalilov]] and others, designed hundreds of earthquake prediction stations and earthquake-resistant buildings that now constitute the bulk of The Republican Center of Seismic Service.<ref>{{cite news | title =Azerbaijani scientist invents earthquake-resistant building| publisher = News.Az| url = http://www.news.az/articles/society/33169| accessdate = 18 March 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite web| title =International Station for the Forecasting of Earthquakes Atropatena-AZ3, Baku, Azerbaijan | publisher = Global Network for the Forecasting of Earthquakes| url = http://seismonet.org/page.html?id_node=190}}</ref><ref>{{cite news | script-title=ru:Азербайджанский ученый изобрел метод оповещения о землетрясении | publisher = BlackSea News| url = http://www.blackseanews.net/read/14548| accessdate = 29 March 2011|language=ru}}</ref> The [[Azerbaijan National Aerospace Agency]] launched its first satellite [[AzerSat 1]] into orbit on 7 February 2013 from [[Guiana Space Centre]] in French Guiana at orbital positions 46° East.<ref>{{cite news |title=Arianespace signs deal to launch Azerbaijani satellite|url=http://www.news.az/articles/tech/26038|publisher=News.Az|accessdate=5 November 2010| archiveurl= //web.archive.org/web/20101108155851/http://www.news.az/articles/tech/26038| archivedate= 8 November 2010 | deadurl= no}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Azerbaijan signs deal with Arianespace to launch satellite|url=http://www.space-travel.com/reports/Azerbaijan_signs_deal_with_Arianespace_to_launch_satellite_999.html|publisher=Space Travel|accessdate=5 November 2010| archiveurl= //web.archive.org/web/20101106142156/http://www.space-travel.com/reports/Azerbaijan_signs_deal_with_Arianespace_to_launch_satellite_999.html| archivedate= 6 November 2010 | deadurl= no}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.satellitetoday.com/st/headlines/Orbital-Contracted-to-Build-Azerbaijans-First-Satellite_34220.html |title=Orbital Contracted to Build Azerbaijan's First Satellite |publisher=SatelliteToday |date=28 November 2010|accessdate=1 April 2011| archiveurl= //web.archive.org/web/20110510101859/http://www.satellitetoday.com/st/headlines/Orbital-Contracted-to-Build-Azerbaijans-First-Satellite_34220.html| archivedate= 10 May 2011 | deadurl= no}}</ref> The satellite will cover Europe and significant part of Asian countries and Africa and will have transmission for TV, radio broadcasting and the internet.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.hurriyetdailynews.com/n.php?n=baku-developing-satellite-to-kick-off-national-space-program-2009-12-03 |title=Baku developing satellite to kick off national space program |publisher=Hurriyet Daily News and Economic Review |date=3 December 2009 |accessdate=4 January 2011}}</ref> The launch of its own satellite on orbit is Azerbaijan's first action in realizing prospective projects to turn itself into a country with a space industry.<ref>{{cite news |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110511074234/http://www.news.az/articles/2595 |archivedate=11 May 2011|url=http://www.news.az/articles/2595 |title=Meeting held to coordinate orbital slots for Azersat |publisher=News.Az |date=16 November 2009 |accessdate= 18 March 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite news | title =Азербайджан рассчитывает запустить спутник связи AzerSat | publisher = ComNews| url = http://www.comnews.ru/index.cfm?id=46893&tempo=150| accessdate = 29 July 2009|language=ru}}</ref> ==Demographics== {{main|Demographics of Azerbaijan}} {{further|Ethnic minorities in Azerbaijan}} {| class="wikitable infobox" style="float:right; margin-left:1em;" |- ! style="background:#f99;" colspan="2"|Ethnic composition (2009)<ref>[http://www.azstat.org/statinfo/demoqraphic/az/AP_/AZ_1.shtml The State Statistical Committee of the Azerbaijan Republic, The ethnic composition of the population according to the 2009 census.]</ref> |- |[[Azerbaijani people|Azerbaijani]]||91.60% |- |[[Lezgian people|Lezgian]]||2.02% |- |[[Armenians in Azerbaijan|Armenian]]||1.35% |- |[[Russians in Azerbaijan|Russian]]||1.34% |- |[[Talysh people|Talysh]]||1.26% |- |Other nations||2.43% |} From the total population of 9,165,000 people as of July 2011, nearly 52% was urban population, the remaining 48% was the rural population.<ref name="SEX">{{cite web| last = | first = | authorlink = | title =Population | work = | publisher = Azerbaijan Gender Information Center| url = http://www.gender-az.org/shablon_en.shtml?doc/en/about/country| format =| doi = | accessdate = 2007-05-27 |archiveurl = //web.archive.org/web/20070510154101/http://gender-az.org/shablon_en.shtml?doc/en/about/country |archivedate = 10 May 2007}}</ref> 51% of the total population were female.<ref name="SEX"/> The [[sex ratio]] for total population in that year was therefore 0.97 males per female.<ref name="cia"/> The 2011 population growth-rate was 0.85%, compared to 1.09% worldwide.<ref name="cia"/> A significant factor restricting the population growth is rather a high level of migration. In 2011 Azerbaijan saw migration of −1.14/1,000 people.<ref name="cia"/> The [[Azerbaijani diaspora]] is found in 42 countries<ref>{{cite web| title =Xaricdəki təşkilatlar | publisher =State Committee on Work with Diaspora| url = http://www.diaspora.gov.az/index.php?options=content&id=87| accessdate = 25 May 2007|language=Az}}</ref> and in turn there are many centers for ethnic minorities inside Azerbaijan, including the German cultural society "Karelhaus", [[Slavic peoples|Slavic]] cultural center, Azerbaijani-Israeli community, [[Kurdish people|Kurdish]] cultural center, International [[Talysh people|Talysh]] Association, [[Lezgins|Lezgin]] national center "Samur", Azerbaijani-[[Tatarstan|Tatar]] community, [[Crimean Tatars]] society, etc.<ref name="MIN">{{cite web| title =Ethnic minorities | publisher =Ministry of Foreign Affairs| url = http://www.mfa.gov.az/eng/foreign_policy/inter_affairs/human/ethnic.shtml| accessdate = 27 May 2007 |archiveurl = //web.archive.org/web/20070417093650/http://www.mfa.gov.az/eng/foreign_policy/inter_affairs/human/ethnic.shtml |archivedate = 17 April 2007}}</ref> The ethnic composition of the population according to the 2009 population census: 91.60% [[Azerbaijani people|Azerbaijanis]], 2.02% [[Lezgians]], 1.35% [[Armenians]] (almost all Armenians live in the break-away region of [[Republic of Nagorno-Karabakh|Nagorno-Karabakh]]), 1.34% [[Russians]], 1.26% [[Talysh people|Talysh]], 0.56% [[Caucasian Avars|Avars]], 0.43% [[Turkish people|Turks]], 0.29% [[Tatars]], 0.28% [[Tat people (Caucasus)|Tats]], 0.24% [[Ukrainians]], 0.14% [[Tsakhur people|Tsakhurs]], 0.11% [[Georgians]], 0.10% [[Jew]]s, 0.07% [[Kurdish people|Kurds]], other 0.21%. [[Iranian Azerbaijanis]] are by far the largest minority in [[Iran]]. The number of ethnic Azerbaijanis in Iran furthermore far outnumber those in neighboring Azerbaijan. The CIA World Factbook estimates Iranian Azerbaijanis as comprising 16% of Iran's population.<ref>CIA – The World Factbook. [https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/ir.html CIA.gov] "Iran".</ref> ===Urbanization=== {{Main|List of cities in Azerbaijan}} In total, Azerbaijan has 77 cities, 64 smaller {{lang|az-Latn|''[[Administrative divisions of Azerbaijan|rayon]]''}}-class cities, and one special legal status city. These are followed by 257 urban-type settlements and 4,620 villages.<ref>{{cite web|title=Demoqrafik göstəricilər|url=http://www.gender-az.org/index_az.shtml?id_doc=1824|work=Gender.az|accessdate=15 April 2013|language=Azerbaijani}}</ref> ===Language=== {{Main|Languages of Azerbaijan}} The official language is [[Azerbaijani language|Azerbaijani]], which is spoken by approximately 92% of the population as a [[mother tongue]]. It belongs to the [[Turkic languages|Turkic]] [[language family]]. Russian and English play significant roles as second or third languages of education and communication. There are a dozen other languages spoken natively in the country.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ethnologue.com/show_country.asp?name=AZ |title=Ethnologue report for Azerbaijan |publisher=Ethnologue: Languages of the World |accessdate=2009-01-03| archiveurl= //web.archive.org/web/20081218031424/http://www.ethnologue.com/show_country.asp?name=AZ| archivedate= 18 December 2008 | deadurl= no}}</ref> [[Armenian language|Armenian]], [[Avar language|Avar]], [[Budukh language|Budukh]],<ref name="Encyclopedia of the World's Endangered Languages">{{cite web|url=http://www.helsinki.fi/~tasalmin/chris.html|title=Endangered languages in Europe and North Asia|publisher=|accessdate=4 July 2015}}</ref> [[Georgian language|Georgian]], [[Juhuri language|Juhuri]],<ref name="Encyclopedia of the World's Endangered Languages"/> [[Khinalug language|Khinalug]],<ref name="Encyclopedia of the World's Endangered Languages"/> [[Kryts language|Kryts]],<ref name="Encyclopedia of the World's Endangered Languages"/> [[Lezgian language|Lezgian]], [[Rutul language|Rutul]],<ref name="Encyclopedia of the World's Endangered Languages"/> [[Talysh language|Talysh]], [[Tat language (Caucasus)|Tat]],<ref name="Encyclopedia of the World's Endangered Languages"/> [[Tsakhur language|Tsakhur]],<ref name="Encyclopedia of the World's Endangered Languages"/> and [[Udi language|Udi]]<ref name="Encyclopedia of the World's Endangered Languages"/> are all spoken by minorities. Some of these language communities are very small and their numbers are decreasing.<ref>Clifton, John M., editor. 2002 (vol 1.), 2003 (vol. 2). ''Studies in languages of Azerbaijan''. Baku, Azerbaijan and Saint Petersburg, Russia: Institute of International Relations, Academy of Sciences of Azerbaijan and North Eurasian Group, SIL International.</ref> Armenian is almost exclusively spoken in the break-away Nagorno-Karabakh region. ===Religion=== {{Bar box | title=Azerbaijan Religions<ref name=BCRPWA>{{cite web|title=Berkley Center for Religion Peace and World Affairs|url=http://berkleycenter.georgetown.edu/resources/azerbaijan|publisher=Georgetown University|accessdate=23 May 2015|date=July 2012}}</ref> | titlebar=#ddd | float=right | bars= {{Bar percent|Islam|green|93.4}} {{Bar percent|Christianity|blue|3.1}} {{Bar percent|None|yellow|3.0}} {{Bar percent|Others|grey|0.5}} }} {{Main|Religion in Azerbaijan|Freedom of religion in Azerbaijan}} [[File:Bibi Eybat Mosque.jpg|thumb|The [[Bibi-Heybat Mosque]] before its destruction by the [[Bolsheviks]] in 1936. The mosque was built over the tomb of a descendant of [[Muhammad]].<ref name="Bibi">{{cite web|last=Sharifov|first=Azad|title=Legend of the Bibi-Heybat Mosque|url=http://azer.com/aiweb/categories/magazine/63_folder/63_articles/63_bibiheybat.html|publisher=Azerbaijan International|accessdate= 11 July 2010}}</ref>]] Around 95% of the population are Muslims.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://pewforum.org/uploadedfiles/Topics/Demographics/Muslimpopulation.pdf |title=Mapping The Global Muslim Population|format=PDF |accessdate=22 May 2011| archiveurl= //web.archive.org/web/20110519092435/http://pewforum.org/uploadedfiles/Topics/Demographics/Muslimpopulation.pdf| archivedate= 19 May 2011 | deadurl= no}}</ref> 85% of the Muslims are [[Shia Islam|Shia Muslims]] and 15% [[Sunni Muslim]]s,<ref>[http://files.preslib.az/projects/remz/pdf_en/atr_din.pdf Administrative Department of the President of the Republic of Azerbaijan – Presidential Library – Religion]</ref> and the Republic of Azerbaijan has the second highest Shia population percentage after [[Iran]].<ref>Juan Eduardo Campo,''Encyclopedia of Islam'', p.625</ref> Other faiths are practised by the country's various ethnic groups. Under article 48 of its [[Constitution of Azerbaijan|Constitution]], Azerbaijan is a [[secular state]] and ensures religious freedom. In a 2006–2008 [[Gallup (company)|Gallup]] poll, only 21% of respondents from Azerbaijan stated that religion is an important part of their daily lives.<ref>[http://www.gallup.com/poll/114211/Alabamians-Iranians-Common.aspx GALLUP – What Alabamians and Iranians Have in Common] – data accessed on 19 August 2014</ref> Of the nation's religious minorities, [[Christian]]s who estimated 280,000 (3.1%)<ref>{{cite web|url=http://features.pewforum.org/global-christianity/map.php#/Azerbaijan,ALL|title=Global Christianity|date=1 December 2014|work=Pew Research Center's Religion & Public Life Project|accessdate=4 July 2015}}</ref> are mostly [[Russian Orthodox Church|Russian]] and [[Georgian Orthodox Church|Georgian]] [[Eastern Orthodox Church|Orthodox]] and [[Armenian Apostolic Church|Armenian Apostolic]] (almost all Armenians live in the break-away region of Nagorno-Karabakh).<ref name="cia"/> In 2003, there were 250 [[Roman Catholics]].<ref>{{cite web| title =Catholic Church in Azerbaijan | publisher = Catholic-Hierarchy| url = http://www.catholic-hierarchy.org/country/az.html| accessdate = May 27, 2007| archiveurl= //web.archive.org/web/20070429114809/http://www.catholic-hierarchy.org/country/az.html| archivedate= 29 April 2007 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}</ref> Other Christian denominations as of 2002 include [[Lutheranism|Lutherans]], [[Baptists]] and [[Molokan]]s.<ref name="AZR">{{cite web| last = Corley | first = Felix| title =Azerbaijan: 125 religious groups re-registered | publisher = Keston News Service | date = March 9, 2002| url = http://www.keston.org.uk/kns/2002/020409AZ.htm| accessdate = April 9, 2002 }}</ref> There is also a small [[Azerbaijani people|ethnic Azerbaijani]] [[Protestant]] community.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://news.day.az/society/85160.html|title=5,000 Azerbaijanis adopted Christianity|publisher=Day.az|date=7 July 2007|language=Russian|accessdate=30 January 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=http://azeri.irib.ir/tehliller/item/148029-xristian-missioner-t%C9%99riq%C9%99tl%C9%99r-ar-da-aktivl%C9%99sir?tmpl=component&print=1|title=Christian Missionaries Becoming Active in Azerbaijan|publisher=Tehran Radio|date=19 June 2011|language=Azerbaijani|accessdate=12 August 2012}}</ref> Azerbaijan also has an ancient [[Jewish]] population that has a 2,500 year history in Azerbaijan, it is estimated that 10,000-20,000 Jews remain in Azerbaijan according to Jewish organizations.<ref>http://www.breakingisraelnews.com/54248/jewish-life-azerbaijan-embodies-muslim-majority-nations-culture-tolerance-jewish-world/#a08g46IpEt2Bcxbr.97</ref><ref>http://www.jta.org/2013/12/11/news-opinion/israel-middle-east/jews-in-azerbaijani-capital-to-get-first-kosher-restaurant</ref><ref>http://foreignpolicy.com/2016/04/01/how-i-accidentally-became-a-lobbyist-for-azerbaijan-human-rights-religion-israel/</ref><ref>https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/vjw/Azerbaijan.html</ref> Azerbaijan also is home to members of the [[Bahá'í Faith|Bahá'í]], [[International Society for Krishna Consciousness|Hare Krishna]] and [[Jehovah's Witnesses]] communities, as well as adherents of the other religious communities.<ref name="AZR"/> Some religious communities have been [[Freedom of religion in Azerbaijan#Restrictions on religious freedom|unofficially restricted from religious freedom]]. A [[U.S. State Department]] report on the matter mentions detention of members of certain Muslim and Christian groups, and many groups have difficulty registering with the SCWRA.<ref>http://www.state.gov/documents/organization/192997.pdf</ref> ===Education=== {{Main|Education in Azerbaijan}} A relatively high percentage of Azerbaijanis have obtained some form of higher education, most notably in scientific and technical subjects.<ref name="AZ study">{{cite web| title =Azerbaijan: A Country Study, Education, Health, and Welfare | publisher = Country Studies| url = http://countrystudies.us/azerbaijan/23.htm}}</ref> In the Soviet era, literacy and average education levels rose dramatically from their very low starting point, despite two changes in the standard alphabet, from [[Perso-Arabic script]] to [[Latin script|Latin]] in the 1920s and from Roman to [[Cyrillic]] in the 1930s. According to Soviet data, 100 percent of males and females (ages nine to forty-nine) were literate in 1970.<ref name="AZ study"/> According to the [[United Nations Development Program]] Report 2009, the literacy rate in Azerbaijan is 99.5 percent.<ref>{{cite web| title = Human Development Report 2009 | publisher = United Nations Development Program 2009| url = http://hdr.undp.org/en/media/HDR_2009_EN_Complete.pdf| accessdate = 2009|format=PDF }}</ref> Since independence, one of the first laws that Azerbaijan's Parliament passed to disassociate itself from the Soviet Union was to adopt a [[Azerbaijani alphabet|modified-Latin alphabet]] to replace Cyrillic.<ref>{{cite web|title= Education in Azerbaijan, The Challenges of Transition | publisher = Azerbaijan International|url = http://azer.com/aiweb/categories/magazine/44_folder/44_articles/44_education.html| accessdate =12 March 2016}}</ref> Other than that the Azerbaijani system has undergone little structural change. Initial alterations have included the reestablishment of religious education (banned during the Soviet period) and curriculum changes that have reemphasized the use of the Azerbaijani language and have eliminated ideological content. In addition to elementary schools, the education institutions include thousands of preschools, general secondary schools, and [[vocational schools]], including specialized secondary schools and technical schools. Education through the eighth grade is compulsory. ==Culture== {{Main|Culture of Azerbaijan|Literature of Azerbaijan}} [[File:Azeri carpet (Sirvan group).jpg|thumb|The [[Azerbaijani rug|Azerbaijani carpet]], a [[UNESCO]] [[Masterpieces of the Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity|Masterpiece of Intangible Heritage of Humanity]].]] The culture of Azerbaijan has developed as a result of many influences. Today, national traditions are well preserved in the country despite Western influences, including [[globalization|globalized]] on consumer culture. Some of the main elements of the Azerbaijani culture are: music, literature, folk dances and art, cuisine, architecture, cinematography and [[Novruz in Azerbaijan|Novruz Bayram]]. The latter is derived from the traditional celebration of the New Year in the ancient Persian religion of [[Zoroastrianism]]. Novruz is a family holiday.<ref>{{cite web| last = Waters| first = Zena| title =What exactly is Novruz Bayram | publisher = Azerbaijan Today| url = http://www.azerbaijantoday.az/ARCHIVE/12/life1.html| accessdate = 22 March 2009}}</ref> Azerbaijan folk consists of Azerbaijanis, the representative part of society, as well as of nations and ethnic groups, compactly living in various areas of the country. Azerbaijani national and traditional dresses are the [[Chokha]] and [[Papakhi]]. There are radio broadcasts in Russian, [[Armenian language|Armenian]], [[Georgian language|Georgian]], [[Kurdish language|Kurdish]], [[Lezgian language|Lezgian]] and [[Talysh language|Talysh]] languages, which are financed from the state budget.<ref name="MIN"/> Some local radio stations in [[Balakən|Balakan]] and [[Khachmaz (city)|Khachmaz]] organize broadcasts in [[Avar language|Avar]] and [[Tat language (Caucasus)|Tat]].<ref name="MIN"/> In Baku several newspapers are published in Russian, Kurdish (''Dengi Kurd''), Lezgian (''Samur'') and Talysh languages.<ref name="MIN"/> Jewish society "Sokhnut" publishes the newspaper ''Aziz''.<ref name="MIN"/> ===Music and folk dances=== {{Main|Music of Azerbaijan|Azerbaijani dances}} [[File:Üzeyir Hacıbəyov6.gif|thumb|left|upright|[[Uzeyir Hajibeyov]] merged traditional [[Azerbaijani music]] with Western styles in the early 20th century.]] Music of Azerbaijan builds on [[Folk music|folk traditions]] that reach back nearly a thousand years.<ref>David C. King. ''Azerbaijan'', Marshall Cavendish, 2006, p. 94</ref> For centuries Azerbaijani music has evolved under the badge of [[monody]], producing rhythmically diverse melodies.<ref name="EMD">Энциклопедический музыкальный словарь, 2-е изд., Москва, 1966 (''Encyclopedical Music Dictionary'' (1966), 2nd ed., Moscow)</ref> Azerbaijani music has a branchy [[Musical mode|mode]] system, where [[Chromaticism|chromatization]] of [[major and minor]] [[Musical scale|scales]] is of great importance.<ref name="EMD"/> Among national musical instruments there are 14 [[string instruments]], eight percussion instruments and six wind instruments.<ref>{{cite web| title =The Azerbaijan musical instruments | publisher = Atlas.musigi-dunya.az| url = http://atlas.musigi-dunya.az/atlas/en/instruments.html| accessdate = 2007-05-27 |archiveurl = //web.archive.org/web/20070826153640/http://atlas.musigi-dunya.az/atlas/en/instruments.html |archivedate = 26 August 2007}}</ref> According to ''[[New Grove|The Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians]]'', "in terms of ethnicity, culture and religion the Azeri are musically much closer to Iran than Turkey."<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|last=During|first=Jean|title=Azerbaijan|encyclopedia=The Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians|year=2001|publisher=Macmillan|isbn=978-0-333-23111-1}}</ref> [[File:Azerbaijani mugam trio in XVI century miniature of Nizami Ganjavi's Khosrow and Shirin.JPG|thumb|The [[Mugham|Azerbaijani Mugam]], a [[UNESCO]] [[Masterpieces of the Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity|Masterpiece of Intangible Heritage of Humanity]], 16th-century miniature of [[Nizami Ganjavi]]'s [[Khosrow and Shirin]] tragic romance.]] [[Mugham]], [[meykhana]] and [[Art of Azerbaijani ashiqs|ashiq art]] are among the many musical traditions of Azerbaijan. Mugham is usually a suite with poetry and instrumental interludes. When performing mugham, the singers have to transform their emotions into singing and music. In contrast to the mugham traditions of Central Asian countries, Azeri mugham is more free-form and less rigid; it is often compared to the improvised field of [[jazz]].<ref>{{cite web| last = Duncan| first = Ishhad | title =The Baku Jazz Festival: Reviving a Tradition in Azerbaijan | publisher = EurasiaNet | url = http://www.eurasianet.org/departments/civilsociety/articles/eav042805.shtml| accessdate = 27 April 2005| archiveurl= //web.archive.org/web/20050508164545/http://www.eurasianet.org/departments/civilsociety/articles/eav042805.shtml| archivedate= 8 May 2005 | deadurl= no}}</ref> [[UNESCO]] proclaimed the Azerbaijani mugham tradition a [[Masterpieces of the Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity|Masterpiece of the Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity]] on 7 November 2003. Meykhana is a kind of traditional Azeri distinctive folk unaccompanied song, usually performed by several people improvising on a particular subject. Ashiq combines poetry, storytelling, dance and vocal and instrumental music into a traditional performance art that stands as a symbol of Azerbaijani culture. It is a mystic troubadour or traveling bard who sings and plays the [[baglama|saz]]. This tradition has its origin in the [[Shamanistic]] beliefs of ancient [[Turkic peoples]].<ref name="European University Institute, Florence, Italy ">[http://vlib.iue.it/carrie/texts/carrie_books/paksoy-6/cae05.html "ashik,shaman"] – ''European University Institute, Florence, Italy '' (retrieved10 August 2006).</ref> Ashiqs' songs are semi-improvised around common bases. Azerbaijan's ashiq art was included in the list of [[Intangible Cultural Heritage]] by the UNESCO on 30 September 2009.<ref>{{cite web| title =Azerbaijan's ashug art included into UNESCO list of Intangible Cultural Heritage | publisher = Today.Az| url = http://www.today.az/news/politics/56083.html| accessdate = 1 October 2009| archiveurl= //web.archive.org/web/20091002213552/http://www.today.az/news/politics/56083.html| archivedate= 2 October 2009 | deadurl= no}}</ref> Since the mid-1960s, Western-influenced [[Azerbaijani pop music]], in its various forms, that has been growing in popularity in Azerbaijan, while genres as [[Azerbaijani rock|rock]] and [[Azerbaijani hip hop|hip hop]] of alternative music genres are encouraged. Azerbaijani pop and [[Azerbaijani folk music]] arose with the international popularity of performers like [[Alim Qasimov]], [[Rashid Behbudov]], [[Vagif Mustafazadeh]], [[Muslim Magomayev (musician)|Muslim Magomayev]], [[Shovkat Alakbarova]] and [[Rubaba Muradova]].<ref>{{cite news| last =Hutcheon | first =David | title =Alim Qasimov: the living legend you’ve never heard of |work=The Times | date = 19 September 2008| url = http://entertainment.timesonline.co.uk/tol/arts_and_entertainment/music/article4781720.ece| accessdate = 19 September 2008 | location=London}}</ref> Azerbaijan made its debut appearance at the 2008 [[Eurovision Song Contest 2008|Eurovision Song Contest]]. The country's [[Azerbaijan in the Eurovision Song Contest 2009|entry]] gained the third place in 2009 and fifth the following year.<ref>{{cite news| last = Augstein| first = Frank| title =Azerbaijan duo upset favorites Ireland for first-time win at 2011 Eurovision Song Contest |agency=Associated Press| publisher = Daily Journal| url = http://www.dailyjournal.net/view/story/1cc717e21a72424295751f5782da538b/EU--Eurovision-Song-Contest/| accessdate = 14 May 2011}}</ref> [[Eldar & Nigar|Ell and Nikki]] won the first place at the [[Eurovision Song Contest 2011]] with the song "[[Running Scared (Eldar & Nigar song)|Running Scared]]", entitling Azerbaijan to host the contest in [[Eurovision Song Contest 2012|2012]], in Baku.<ref>{{cite news| title =Azerbaijan wins the Eurovision Song Contest |publisher=BBC News | date = 14 May 2011| url = http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/entertainment-arts-13387886| accessdate = 14 May 2011 | archiveurl= //web.archive.org/web/20110514035914/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/entertainment-arts-13387886| archivedate= 14 May 2011 | deadurl= no}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|last=Lusher|first=Adam|title=Azerbaijan wins Eurovision Song Contest|url=http://www.telegraph.co.uk/culture/tvandradio/eurovision/8514539/Azerbaijan-wins-Eurovision-Song-Contest.html|work=The Telegraph|accessdate=15 May 2011|location=London|date=15 May 2011}}</ref> There are dozens of Azerbaijani [[folk dance]]s. They are performed at formal celebrations and the dancers wear national clothes like the [[Chokha]], which is well-preserved within the national dances. Most dances have a very fast rhythm. The national dance shows the characteristics of the Azerbaijani nation. ===Literature=== {{main|Azerbaijani literature}} [[File:Khurshidbanu Natavan.jpg|thumb|180px|Painting of [[Khurshidbanu Natavan]], one of the most distinguished poets in Azerbaijani literature. She was also the daughter of the last ruler of the [[Karabakh Khanate]].]] Among the medieval authors born within the territorial limits of modern Azerbaijani Republic was Persian poet and philosopher [[Nizami Ganjavi|Nizami]], called Ganjavi after his place of birth, [[Ganja, Azerbaijan|Ganja]], who was the author of the [[Khamseh]] ("The Quintuplet"), composed of five romantic poems, including "The Treasure of Mysteries," “Khosrow and Shīrīn," and "Leyli and Mejnūn."<ref>[http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/46781/Azerbaijan/44294/Education Azerbaijan. Cultural life]. [[Encyclopædia Britannica]].</ref> The earliest known figure in Azerbaijani literature was [[Izzeddin Hasanoglu]], who composed a [[Diwan (poetry)|divan]] consisting of Persian and Turkic [[ghazal]]s.<ref name="beale">{{cite book |title=An Oriental Biographical Dictionary |last=Beale |first=Thomas William |author2=Keene Henry George |year=1894 |publisher=W.H.Allen |isbn= |page=311 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lxgaAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA311}}</ref><ref name="caferoglu">A.Caferoglu, "Adhari(azeri)",in ''Encyclopedia of Islam'', (new edition), Vol. 1, (Leiden, 1986)</ref> In Persian ghazals he used his pen-name, while his Turkic ghazals were composed under his own name of Hasanoghlu.<ref name="beale"/> Classical literature in Azerbaijani was formed in 14th century based on the various dialect Early Middle Ages dialects of [[Tabriz]] and [[Shirvan]]. Among the poets of this period were [[Kadi Burhan al-Din|Gazi Burhanaddin]], [[Jahan Shah|Haqiqi]] (pen-name of [[Jahan Shah|Jahan-shah Qara Qoyunlu]]), and [[Habibi (poet)|Habibi]].<ref name="tyrrell1">{{cite book |title=Aesopian Literary Dimensions of Azerbaijani Literature of the Soviet Period, 1920–1990 |last=Tyrrell |first=Maliheh S. |year=2001 |publisher=Lexington Books |isbn=978-0-7391-0169-8 |page=12 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=h4N_dneMybQC&pg=PA12}}</ref> The end of the 14th century was also the period of starting literary activity of [[Nesimi|Imadaddin Nesimi]],<ref>{{cite book |last=Průšek |first=Jaroslav |editor= |others= |title=Dictionary of Oriental Literatures |origyear= |url= |edition= |series= |year=1974 |publisher=Basic Books |isbn= |oclc= |page=138 |chapter= |chapterurl= |quote= }}</ref> one of the greatest [[Turkic language|Turkic]]<ref name="baldick">{{cite book |last=Baldick |first=Julian |editor= |others= |title=Mystical Islam: An Introduction to Sufism |origyear= |url= |edition= |series= |year=2000 |publisher=I.B. Tauris |isbn=978-1-86064-631-7 |oclc= |page=103 |chapter= |chapterurl= |quote= }}</ref><ref name="burrill">{{cite book |last=Burrill |first=Kathleen R.F. |editor= |others= |title=The Quatrains of Nesimi Fourteenth-Century Turkic Hurufi |origyear= |url= |edition= |series= |year=1972 |publisher=Walter de Gruyter GmbH & Co. KG |isbn=978-90-279-2328-8 |oclc= |chapter= |chapterurl= |quote= }}</ref><ref name="cambridge">{{cite book |last=Lambton |first=Ann K. S. |author2=Holt, Peter Malcolm|author3= Lewis, Bernard |editor= |others= |title=The Cambridge History of Islam |origyear= |url= |edition= |series= |year=1970 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-29138-5 |oclc= |page=689 |chapter= |chapterurl= |quote= }}</ref> [[Hurufi]] mystical poets of the late 14th and early 15th centuries<ref name="nesimibritannica">{{cite web | url = http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9055331/Seyid-Imadeddin-Nesimi | title = Seyid Imadeddin Nesimi | accessdate = 1 September 2008 | year = 2008 | publisher = Encyclopædia Britannica | archiveurl= //web.archive.org/web/20080118133336/http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9055331/Seyid-Imadeddin-Nesimi| archivedate= 18 January 2008 | deadurl= no}}</ref> and one of the most prominent early Divan masters in Turkic literary history,<ref name="nesimibritannica"/> who also composed poetry in [[Persian language|Persian]]<ref name="burrill"/><ref name="babinger">{{cite web | url = http://www.brillonline.nl/subscriber/entry?entry=islam_SIM-5892 | title = Nesīmī, Seyyid ʿImād al-Dīn | accessdate = 1 September 2008 | last = Babinger | first = Franz | year = 2008 | work = Encyclopaedia of Islam | publisher = Brill Online}}</ref> and [[Arabic language|Arabic]].<ref name="nesimibritannica"/> The Divan and Ghazal styles were further developed by poets [[Qasim al-Anvar]], [[Fuzûlî|Fuzuli]] and [[Khatai]] (pen-name of [[Safavid dynasty|Safavid]] [[Shah Ismail I]]). The [[Book of Dede Korkut]] consists of two manuscripts copied in the 16th century,<ref name="Meeker">Michael E. Meeker, "The Dede Korkut Ethic", International Journal of Middle East Studies, Vol. 24, No. 3 (Aug. 1992), 395–417. excerpt: The Book of Dede Korkut is an early record of oral Turkic folktales in Anatolia, and as such, one of the mythic charters of Turkish nationalist ideology. The oldest versions of the Book of Dede Korkut consist of two manuscripts copied in the 16th century. The twelve stories that are recorded in these manuscripts are believed to be derived from a cycle of stories and songs circulating among Turkic peoples living in northeastern Anatolia and northwestern Azerbaijan. According to Lewis (1974), an older substratum of these oral traditions dates to conflicts between the ancient Oghuz and their Turkish rivals in Central Asia (the Pecheneks and the Kipchaks), but this substratum has been clothed in references to the 14th-century campaigns of the Akkoyunlu Confederation of Turkic tribes against the Georgians, the Abkhaz, and the Greeks in Trebizond. Such stories and songs would have emerged no earlier than the beginning of the 13th century, and the written versions that have reached us would have been composed no later than the beginning of the 15th century. By this time, the Turkic peoples in question had been in touch with Islamic civilization for several centuries, had come to call themselves "Turcoman" rather than "Oghuz," had close associations with sedentary and urbanized societies, and were participating in Islamized regimes that included nomads, farmers, and townsmen. Some had abandoned their nomadic way of life altogether.</ref> was not written earlier than the 15th century.<ref name="Kafadar">Cemal Kafadar(1995), "in Between Two Worlds: Construction of the Ottoman states", University of California Press, 1995. Excerpt: "It was not earlier than the fifteenth century. Based on the fact that the author is buttering up both the Akkoyunlu and Ottoman rulers, it has been suggested that the composition belongs to someone living in the undefined border region lands between the two states during the reign of Uzun Hassan (1466–78). G. Lewis on the hand dates the composition "fairly early in the 15th century at least."</ref><ref name="IranicaOguzKhan">İlker Evrım Bınbaş,Encyclopædia Iranica, "Oguz Khan Narratives" [http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/oguz-khan-narratives Encyclopædia Iranica | Articles]. Retrieved October 2010. "The Ketāb-e Dede Qorqut, which is a collection of twelve stories reflecting the oral traditions of the Turkmens in the 15th-century eastern Anatolia, is also called Oḡuz-nāma"</ref> It is a collection of 12 stories reflecting the oral tradition of Oghuz nomads.<ref name="IranicaOguzKhan"/> The 16th-century poet, Muhammed Fuzuli produced his timeless philosophical and lyrical ''Qazals'' in Arabic, Persian, and Azeri. Benefiting immensely from the fine literary traditions of his environment, and building upon the legacy of his predecessors, Fizuli was destined to become the leading literary figure of his society. His major works include ''The Divan of Ghazals'' and ''The Qasidas''. In the same century, Azerbaijani literature further flourished with the development of [[Ashik]] ({{lang-az|Aşıq}}) poetic genre of bards. During the same period, under the pen-name of Khatāī ({{lang-ar|خطائی}} for ''sinner'') Shah Ismail I wrote about 1400 verses in Azeri,<ref name="minorsky1">{{cite journal |last=Minorsky |first=Vladimir |year=1942 |title=The Poetry of Shah Ismail |journal=Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London |volume=10 |issue=4 |page=1053 |url= |quote= |doi=10.1017/S0041977X00090182 }}</ref> which were later published as his ''Divan''. A unique literary style known as ''qoshma'' ({{lang-az|qoşma}} for ''improvization'') was introduced in this period, and developed by Shah Ismail and later by his son and successor, Shah [[Tahmasp I]]. In the span of the 17th and 18th centuries, Fizuli's unique genres as well [[Ashik]] poetry were taken up by prominent poets and writers such as [[Qovsi of Tabriz]], [[Abbas II of Persia|Shah Abbas Sani]], [[Agha Mesih Shirvani]], [[Nishat (poet)|Nishat]], [[Molla Vali Vidadi]], [[Molla Panah Vagif]], [[Amani (poet)|Amani]], [[Zafar (poet)|Zafar]] and others. Along with [[Turkish people|Turks]], [[Turkmens]] and [[Uzbeks]], [[Azeris]] also celebrate the [[Epic of Koroglu]] (from {{lang-az|kor oğlu}} for ''blind man's son''), a legendary folk hero.<ref name="samuel">{{cite book |title=Tantra and Popular Religion in Tibet |last=Samuel |first=Geoffrey |author2=Gregor, Hamish|author3= Stutchbury, Elisabeth |year=1994 |publisher=International Academy of Indian Culture and Aditya Prakashan |isbn=978-81-85689-68-5 |page=60 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=n74KAAAAYAAJ&pgis=1}}</ref> Several documented versions of Koroglu epic remain at the Institute for Manuscripts of the [[National Academy of Sciences of Azerbaijan]].<ref name="caferoglu"/> Modern literature in Azerbaijan is based on the Shirvani dialect mainly, while in Iran it is based on the Tabrizi one. The first newspaper in Azerbaijani, ''[[Akinchi]]'' was published in 1875. In the mid-19th century, it was taught in the schools of [[Baku]], [[Ganja (city)|Ganja]], [[Shaki, Azerbaijan|Shaki]], [[Tbilisi]], and [[Yerevan]]. Since 1845, it has also been taught in the [[University of Saint Petersburg]] in Russia. ===Folk art=== {{Main|Azerbaijani folk art}} [[File:Azerbaijan tradition.jpg|thumb|right|150px|Traditional Azerbaijani clothing and musical instruments.]] Azerbaijanis have a rich and distinctive culture, a major part of which is [[decorative art|decorative]] and [[applied art]]. This form of art is represented by a wide range of handicrafts, such as chasing, jeweler, engraving in metal, carving in wood, stone and bone, carpet-making, lasing, pattern weaving and printing, knitting and embroidery. Each of these types of decorative art, evidence of the and endowments of the Azerbaijan nation, is very much in favor here. Many interesting facts pertaining to the development of arts and crafts in Azerbaijan were reported by numerous merchants, travelers and diplomats who had visited these places at different times. The [[Azerbaijani rug|Azerbaijani carpet]] is a traditional handmade textile of various sizes, with dense texture and a pile or pile-less surface, whose patterns are characteristic of Azerbaijan's many carpet-making regions. In November 2010 the Azerbaijani carpet was proclaimed a [[Masterpieces of the Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity|Masterpiece of Intangible Heritage]] by [[UNESCO]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.unesco.org/culture/ich/index.php?lg=en&pg=00011&RL=00389 |title=The traditional art of Azerbaijani carpet weaving in the Republic of Azerbaijan |publisher=Unesco.org |accessdate=2011-01-04| archiveurl= //web.archive.org/web/20101205005739/http://www.unesco.org/culture/ich/index.php?lg=en&pg=00011&RL=00389| archivedate= 5 December 2010 | deadurl= no}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://en.apa.az/news.php?id=134436 |title=Azerbaijani carpet entered UNESCO List of Intangible Cultural Heritage |publisher=Azerbaijan Press Agency |accessdate=2011-01-04}}</ref> [[File:Lahic folk art.png|thumb|left|Handwork coppery in [[Lahıc, Ismailli|Lahic]].]] Azerbaijan has been since the ancient times known as a center of a large variety of crafts. The archeological dig on the territory of Azerbaijan testifies to the well developed agriculture, stock raising, metal working, pottery, ceramics, and carpet-weaving that date as far back as to the 2nd millennium BC. Archeological sites in Dashbulaq, Hasansu, Zayamchai, and Tovuzchai uncovered from the BTC pipeline have revealed early Iron Age artifacts.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.agt.si.edu/site_overviews/azerbaijan/zayam_tovuz_artifact_catalogue.html|title=Ancient Heritage of the BTC – SCP Pipeline Corridor|website=Smithsonian|accessdate=21 April 2014}}</ref> Azerbaijani carpets can be categorized under several large groups and a multitude of subgroups. Scientific research of the Azerbaijani carpet is connected with the name of [[Latif Kerimov]], a prominent scientist and artist. It was his classification that related the four large groups of carpets with the four geographical zones of Azerbaijan, Guba-Shirvan, Ganja-Kazakh, Karabakh and Tabriz.<ref>{{cite web| title =Organización de las Naciones Unidas para la Educación, la Ciencia y la Cultura | publisher = [[UNESCO]] | url = http://portal.unesco.org/es/ev.php-URL_ID=31108&URL_DO=DO_PRINTPAGE&URL_SECTION=201.html}}</ref> ===Cuisine=== {{Main|Azerbaijani cuisine}} [[File:Dushbara Azerbaijani cuisine.jpg|thumb|right|150px|[[Dushbara]], a traditional Azerbaijani meal.]] The traditional cuisine is famous for an abundance of vegetables and greens used seasonally in the dishes. Fresh herbs, including mint, cilantro (coriander), dill, basil, parsley, tarragon, leeks, chives, thyme, marjoram, green onion, and watercress, are very popular and often accompany main dishes on the table. Climatic diversity and fertility of the land are reflected in the national dishes, which are based on fish from the [[Caspian Sea]], local meat (mainly mutton and beef), and an abundance of seasonal vegetables and greens. Saffron-rice [[plov]] is the flagship food in Azerbaijan and [[black tea]] is the national beverage.<ref>{{cite web| last = Akhmedov| first = IA| script-title=ru:Азербайджанская кухня | publisher = Издательство "Ишыг"| url = http://www.azeri.ru/az/cuisine/azerbaydjanskaya_kuhnya|language=ru}}</ref> Azerbaijanis often use traditional [[armudu]] (pear-shaped) glass as they have very strong [[Azerbaijani tea culture|tea culture]].<ref name="aze">{{cite web | url =http://aze.info/azerbaijan_traditions/chaihana_baku/| title = Chaihana: culture in action|publisher =Aze.info| accessdate = 14 December 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sZVN2MwWZVAC&pg=PA244&dq=tea+in+Azerbaijan.&hl=ru&ei=eVC0TqfZEJHcsgaL5uXSAw&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=4&ved=0CEEQ6AEwAw#v=onepage&q=chaykhanas&f=false |title=The Azerbaijani Turks: power and identity under Russian rule. Audrey L. Altstadt |publisher=Hoover Institution Press |ISBN=9780817991821 |accessdate=2013-09-09}}</ref> Popular traditional dishes include ''bozbash'' (lamb soup that exists in several regional varieties with the addition of different vegetables), [[qutab]] (fried turnover with a filling of greens or minced meat) and [[dushbara]] (sort of dumplings of dough filled with ground meat and flavor). ===Architecture=== {{Main|Architecture of Azerbaijan}} [[File:Momine Hatoon Mausoleum.jpg|thumbnail|left|[[Momine Khatun Mausoleum]] in [[Nakhchivan (city)|Nakhchivan]] built in the 12th century]] Azerbaijani architecture typically combines elements of [[Eastern world|East]] and [[Western culture|West]].<ref>{{cite web| last = Khanlou | first = Pirouz | title =Baku's Architecture A Fusion of East and West | publisher = Azerbaijan International| url = http://azer.com/aiweb/categories/magazine/24_folder/24_articles/24_architecture.html| accessdate =12 March 2016}}</ref> Many ancient architectural treasures such as the [[Maiden Tower (Baku)|Maiden Tower]] and [[Palace of the Shirvanshahs]] in the [[Baku|Walled City of Baku]] survive in modern Azerbaijan. Entries submitted on the [[UNESCO World Heritage]] tentative list include the [[Ateshgah of Baku]], [[Momine Khatun Mausoleum]], [[Hirkan National Park]], [[Binegadi National Park]], [[Lökbatan Mud Volcano]], [[Baku Stage Mountain]], [[Caspian Shore Defensive Constructions]], [[Shusha National Reserve]], [[Ordubad National Reserve]] and the [[Palace of Shaki Khans]].<ref>{{cite web| title =Azerbaijan Properties inscribed on the World Heritage List | publisher = [[UNESCO]] | url = http://whc.unesco.org/en/statesparties/az}}</ref><ref>{{cite web| title =World Heritage Sites in Azerbaijan | publisher = World Heritage Site | url = http://www.worldheritagesite.org/countries/azerbaijan.html}}</ref> Among other architectural treasures are [[Quadrangular castle (Mardakan)|Quadrangular Castle]] in [[Mardakan]], [[Parigala]] in [[Yuxarı Çardaqlar|Yukhary Chardaglar]], a number of bridges spanning the Aras River, and several mausoleums. In the 19th and early 20th centuries, little monumental architecture was created, but distinctive residences were built in Baku and elsewhere. Among the most recent architectural monuments, the [[Baku Metro|Baku subways]] are noted for their lavish decor.<ref>{{cite web|title=Over 70 underground stations to be built in Baku|url=http://news.az/articles/economy/25958|publisher=News.Az|accessdate=18 February 2011}}</ref> The task for modern Azerbaijani architecture is diverse application of modern aesthetics, the search for an architect's own artistic style and inclusion of the existing historico-cultural environment. Major projects such as [[Heydar Aliyev Cultural Center]], [[Flame Towers]], [[Baku Crystal Hall]], [[Baku White City]] and [[SOCAR Tower]] have transformed the country's skyline and promotes its contemporary identity.<ref>{{cite web|author=1 February 2012 Jon Walton |url=http://www.constructiondigital.com/under_construction/100-billion-khazar-islands-taking-shape |title=$100 Billion Khazar Islands Taking Shape |publisher=Construction Digital |date=1 February 2012 |accessdate=2013-03-25}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|last=Glass|first=Nick|title=Flame Towers light up Baku's historic skyline|url=http://edition.cnn.com/2012/09/26/world/asia/great-buildings-barry-hughes|publisher=[[CNN]] |accessdate=14 April 2013|authorlink=Nick Glass}}</ref> ===Visual art=== {{Main|Visual arts of Azerbaijan}} [[File:Sheki dvoretc rospisi az.jpg|thumb|400px|A [[Miniature (illuminated manuscript)|miniature painting]] of a battle scene on the walls of the [[Palace of Shaki Khans]], 18th century.]] Azerbaijani art includes one of the oldest art objects in the world, which were discovered as [[Gamigaya Petroglyphs]] in the territory of [[Ordubad Rayon]] are dated back to the 1st to 4th centuries BC. About 1500 dislodged and carved rock paintings with images of deer, goats, bulls, dogs, snakes, birds, fantastic beings and also people, carriages and various symbols had been found out on basalt rocks.<ref>[http://irs-az.com/pdf/090621154956.pdf Наскальные рисунки Гямигая]</ref> Norwegian [[ethnographer]] and adventurer [[Thor Heyerdahl]] was convinced that people from the area went to [[Scandinavia]] in about 100 AD and took their boat building skills with them, and transmuted them into the Viking boats in Northern Europe.<ref>{{cite web|title=Ornaments Coming from Gobustan |url=http://divainternational.ch/spip.php?article169|work=Diva International}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Gobustan Rock Art|url=http://www.worldheritagesite.org/sites/gobustan.html|work=www.worldheritagesite.org|accessdate=11 October 2013}}</ref> Over the centuries, Azerbaijani art has gone through many stylistic changes. Azerbaijani painting is traditionally characterized by a warmth of colour and light, as exemplified in the works of [[Azim Azimzade]] and [[Bahruz Kangarli]], and a preoccupation with religious figures and cultural motifs.<ref>{{cite web |title=Azerbaijani Artists |url=http://www.arthistoryarchive.com/arthistory/soviet/Azerbaijani-Artists.html|website=www.arthistoryarchive.com|accessdate=11 October 2013}}</ref> Azerbaijani painting enjoyed preeminence in Caucasus for hundreds of years, from the [[Romanesque art|Romanesque]] and [[Culture of the Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] periods, and through the [[Socialist realism|Soviet]] and [[Baroque]] periods, the latter two of which saw fruition in Azerbaijan. Other notable artists who fall within these periods include [[Sattar Bahlulzade]], [[Togrul Narimanbekov]], [[Tahir Salahov]], [[Alakbar Rezaguliyev]], [[Mirza Gadim Iravani]], [[Mikayil Abdullayev]] and [[Boyukagha Mirzazade]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Steps of Time & Art is not only ugly|url=http://universes-in-universe.org/eng/nafas/articles/2008/azerbaijan_art|work=universes-in-universe.org|accessdate=11 October 2013}}</ref> ===Cinema=== [[File:Film of Azerbaijan 1916.jpg|thumbnail|left|Scene from the Azerbaijani film "In oil and millions kingdom", 1916]] {{Main|Cinema of Azerbaijan|Azerbaijani animation|Television in Azerbaijan}} The film industry in Azerbaijan dates back to 1898. In fact, Azerbaijan was among the first countries involved in [[cinematography]].<ref name="mishon">{{cite news |url= http://azer.com/aiweb/categories/magazine/53_folder/53_articles/53_100years.html|title=Cinema in Azerbaijan: Pre-Soviet Era|date=Autumn 1997|publisher="Azerbaijan International"|accessdate=12 March 2016}}</ref> Therefore, it's not surprising that this apparatus soon showed up in [[Baku]] – at the start of the 20th century, this bay town on the [[Caspian Sea|Caspian]] was producing more than 50 percent of the world's supply of oil. Just like today, the oil industry attracted foreigners eager to invest and to work.<ref name="cinemainazerbaijan">[http://www.azer.com/aiweb/categories/magazine/53_folder/53_articles/53_100years.html Celebrating 100 Years in Film, not 80] by Aydin Kazimzade. Azerbaijan International, Autumn 1997</ref> In 1919, during the [[Azerbaijan Democratic Republic]], a documentary ''The Celebration of the Anniversary of Azerbaijani Independence'' was filmed on Azerbaijan's independence day, 28 May, and premiered in June 1919 at several theatres in Baku.<ref name="ocaz">{{cite web| title =Azerbaijani cinema in 1920–1935: Silent films | publisher = OCAZ.eu| url = http://www.ocaz.eu/cinema-theatre.html}}</ref> After the Soviet power was established in 1920, Nariman Narimanov, Chairman of the Revolutionary Committee of Azerbaijan, signed a decree nationalizing Azerbaijan's cinema. This also influenced the creation of [[Azerbaijani animation]].<ref name="ocaz"/> In 1991, after Azerbaijan gained its independence from the Soviet Union, the first Baku International Film Festival East-West was held in Baku. In December 2000, the former President of Azerbaijan, Heydar Aliyev, signed a decree proclaiming 2 August to be the professional holiday of filmmakers of Azerbaijan. Today Azerbaijani filmmakers are again dealing with issues similar to those faced by cinematographers prior to the establishment of the Soviet Union in 1920. Once again, both choice of content and sponsorship of films are largely left up to the initiative of the filmmaker.<ref name="mishon"/> ===Media and media freedom=== {{Main|Media of Azerbaijan|Media freedom in Azerbaijan}} There are three state-owned television channels: [[AzTV]], [[Idman Azerbaijan TV|Idman TV]] and [[Medeniyyet TV]]. One public channel and 6 private channels: [[İctimai Television]], [[ANS TV]], [[Space TV]], [[Lider TV]], [[Azad Azerbaijan TV]], [[Xazar TV]] and [[Region TV]]. Print and broadcast media in Azerbaijan are almost wholly under control of the ruling Aliyev family, eventually through friendly intermediaries.<ref>Kazimova, Arifa: "Media in Azerbaijan: The Ruling Family Dominates TV, the Opposition Has Some Papers" in the [http://www.laender-analysen.de/cad/pdf/CaucasusAnalyticalDigest25.pdf ''Caucasus Analytical Digest No. 25'']</ref> Ownership opacity is backed by law. Azerbaijan hosts 9 national TV stations (of which a public service broadcaster and 3 more state-run channels), over 12 regional TV stations, 25 radio channels, over 30 daily newspapers. Opposition media manages to work on the perpetual brink of survival.<ref name=FH>[[Freedom House]], [https://freedomhouse.org/report/freedom-press/2015/azerbaijan Azerbaijan] 2015 Press Freedom report</ref> The [[Constitution of Azerbaijan]] guarantees freedom of speech, but this is denied in practice. After several years of decline in press and media freedom, in 2014 the media environment in Azerbaijan deteriorated fast under a governmental campaign to silence any opposition and criticism, even while the country led the Committee of Ministers of the [[Council of Europe]] (May–November 2014). Spurious legal charges and impunity in violence against journalists have remained the norm.<ref name=pace>Parliamentary Assembly of the [[Council of Europe]], [http://www.cfom.org.uk/wp-content/uploads/2014/07/PACE-HORSLEY-FINAL-2014-REPORT-AAC-25_14-Flego-protection-of-media-freedom-18-June.pdf The Protection of media freedom in Europe].Background report prepared by Mr William Horsley, special representative for media freedom of the [[Association of European Journalists]]</ref> All foreign broadcasts are banned in the country.<ref name=FH>[[Freedom House]], [https://freedomhouse.org/report/freedom-press/2015/azerbaijan Azerbaijan] 2015 Press Freedom report</ref> According to their 2013 [[Freedom of the Press (report)|Freedom of the Press report]], Azerbaijan's press freedom status is "not free" and Azerbaijan ranks 156th out of 179 countries world-wide.<ref>[http://www.freedomhouse.org/report/freedom-press/freedom-press-2013 ''Freedom of the Press 2013"], Freedom House, 1 May 2013.</ref> The three broadcasting stations [[British Broadcasting Corporation|BBC]], [[Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty]] and [[Voice of America]], which were the only ones that ensured political pluralism for its citizens, are banned in Azerbaijan since 2009.<ref>[http://en.rsf.org/report-azerbaijan,91.html Azerbaijan - Reporters Without Borders]. Retrieved 22 February 2013</ref> During the last few years, three journalists were killed and several prosecuted in trials described as unfair by international human rights organizations. Azerbaijan has the biggest number of journalists imprisoned in Europe and Central Asia in 2015, according to the [[Committee to Protect Journalists]], and is the 5th most censored country in the world, ahead of [[Iran]] and [[China]].<ref>[https://cpj.org/blog/2015/06/baku-2015-press-freedom-azerbaijan-and-the-europea.php Committee to Protect Journalists]</ref> ===Sports=== <!-- If you want to expand this section, please add new info into the main article: "Sport in Azerbaijan" your work will be very appreciated. --> {{Main|Sport in Azerbaijan}} [[File:Shakhriyar Mamedyarov 2013.jpg|thumb|150px|[[Shakhriyar Mamedyarov]] was the 2013 [[World Rapid Chess Championship|World Rapid Chess]] and two-time [[European Team Chess Championship|European Team Chess]] champion.]] Sport in Azerbaijan has ancient roots, and even now, both traditional and modern sports are still practiced. [[Freestyle wrestling]] has been traditionally regarded as Azerbaijan's [[national sport]], in which Azerbaijan won up to [[Azerbaijan at the Olympics|fourteen medals]], including four golds since joining the [[National Olympic Committee]]. Currently, the most popular sports include [[association football|football]] and [[chess]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Sport|url=http://www.expatwoman.com/azerbaijan/monthly_azerbaijan_out_about_Sport_11982.aspx|work=Expatwoman.com|accessdate=12 April 2014}}</ref> Football is the most popular sport in Azerbaijan, and the [[Association of Football Federations of Azerbaijan]] with 9,122 registered players, is the largest sporting association in the country.<ref>{{cite web|title=Azərbaycanda nə qədər futbolçu var?|url=http://news.milli.az/sport/14802.html|work=news.milli.az|accessdate=27 January 2014|language=Azerbaijani}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Football in Azerbaijan|url=http://www.fifa.com/associations/association=aze/goalprogramme/newsid=520992.html|work=www.fifa.com|publisher=[[FIFA]]|accessdate=27 January 2014}}</ref> The [[Azerbaijan national football team|national football team]] of Azerbaijan demonstrates relatively low performance in the international arena compared to the nation football clubs. The most successful Azerbaijani football clubs are [[Neftchi Baku PFC|Neftchi Baku]], [[Inter Baku]], [[FK Qarabağ|Qarabağ]], and [[Khazar Lankaran]]. In [[2012-13 UEFA Europa League|2012]], Neftchi Baku became the first Azerbaijani team to advance to the group stage of a European competition, beating [[APOEL F.C.|APOEL]] of [[Cyprus]] 4-2 on aggregate in the play-off round of the [[2012-13 UEFA Europa League]].<ref>{{cite web|script-title=ru:"Нефтчи" стал первым азербайджанским футбольным клубом, вышедшим в групповой этап еврокубков – ФОТО|url=http://www.1news.az/sport/football/20120831010854839.html|work=1news.az|accessdate=30 August 2012|language=Russian}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|script-title=ru:ЦСКА вылетел из еврокубков|url=http://ru.uefa.com/uefaeuropaleague/news/newsid=1853379.html|publisher=[[UEFA]] |accessdate=30 August 2012|language=Russian}}</ref> In [[2014-15 UEFA Europa League|2014]], Qarabağ became the second Azerbaijani club advancing to the group stage of [[UEFA Europa League]]. [[Futsal]] is another popular sport in Azerbaijan. The [[Azerbaijan national futsal team]] reached fourth place in the [[2010 UEFA Futsal Championship]], while domestic club [[Araz Naxçivan]] clinched bronze medals at the [[2009–10 UEFA Futsal Cup]] and [[2013–14 UEFA Futsal Cup]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.uefa.com/futsalcup/matches/season=2010/round=2000066/match=2002325/postmatch/report/index.html |title=Araz clinch third place on penalties |publisher=UEFA |date=25 April 2010 |accessdate=25 April 2010 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/20101223085129/http://www.uefa.com:80/futsalcup/matches/season=2010/round=2000066/match=2002325/postmatch/report/index.html |archivedate=23 December 2010 }}</ref> Azerbaijan is the main sponsor of [[Spain|Spanish]] football club [[Atlético de Madrid]], a partnership that the club describes should 'promote the image of Azerbaijan in the world'.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://en.clubatleticodemadrid.com/noticias/much-more-than-a-sponsorship|title=Azerbaijan: Official Atlético sponsor|publisher=Club Atlético de Madrid|accessdate=25 April 2015}}</ref> Azerbaijan is one of the traditional powerhouses of world chess,<ref>{{cite web|title=Chess with Luke McShane|url=http://www.express.co.uk/sport/othersport/101021/Chess-with-Luke-McShane|work=Express.co.uk|accessdate=12 April 2014}}</ref> having hosted many international chess tournaments and competitions and became [[European Team Chess Championship]] winners in 2009 and 2013.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://today.az/news/society/57078.html |title=Azerbaijan's chess team became European champion |publisher=Today.Az |date=31 October 2009 |accessdate= 30 June 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://reports.chessdom.com/news-2009/azerbaijan-russia-win-etcc-novi-sad |title=Azerbaijan, Russia take gold at the European Team Chess Championship |publisher=Chessdom |accessdate=30 June 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://azer.com/aiweb/categories/magazine/84_folder/84_articles/84_chess_mammadyarova.html |title=World Chess Champion: Zeynab Mammadyarova |publisher=Azerbaijan International |accessdate= 30 June 2010}}</ref> Notable chess players from country's chess schools that made a great impact on the game in world, includes [[Teimour Radjabov]], [[Shahriyar Mammadyarov]], [[Vladimir Makogonov]], [[Vugar Gashimov]] and former [[World Chess Champion]] [[Garry Kasparov]]. {{As of|2014}}, country's home of [[Shamkir Chess]] a category 22 event and one of the highest rated tournaments of all time.<ref>{{cite web|title=Carlsen beats Nakamura for perfect 2/2 start in the Gashimov Memorial|url=http://www.theweekinchess.com/chessnews/events/vugar-gashimov-memorial-2014/carlsen-beats-nakamura-for-perfect-22-start-in-the-gashimov-memorial|work=www.theweekinchess.com|accessdate=24 April 2014}}</ref> [[Backgammon]] also plays a major role in Azerbaijani culture.<ref>{{cite web| script-title=ru:История нард | publisher = 1-Kalyan| url = http://www.1-kalyan.ru/about/art/backgammon-history/| accessdate = 2007-05-27|language=ru}}</ref> The game is very popular in Azerbaijan and is widely played among the local public.<ref>[http://www.inforing.net/publications/infopress/sport.php?ELEMENT_ID=3348 Нарды – игра, требующая сноровки и удачи] {{ru icon}}</ref> There are also different variations of backgammon developed and analyzed by Azerbaijani experts.<ref>{{cite web| script-title=ru:История Нард | publisher = Nards| url = http://nards.ru/?categoryID=106|language=ru}}</ref> [[File:The opening ceremony of the first European games 7.jpg|thumb|left|[[Baku Olympic Stadium]] was used for the first [[European Games]] in June 2015.]] Azerbaijan is one of the leading volleyball countries in the world and its [[Azerbaijan Women's Volleyball Super League]] is one of strongest women leagues in world. Its women's national team came fourth at the [[2005 Women's European Volleyball Championship|2005 European Championship]].<ref>{{cite press release |title=More than just Mammadova: Azerbaijan's ladies cause World Championship upset|url=http://www.fivb.org/viewPressRelease.asp?No=44180&Language=en#.U2senvldVPs|work=www.fivb.org|accessdate=8 May 2014}}</ref> Over the last years, clubs like [[Rabita Baku]] and [[Azerrail Baku]] achieved great success at European cups.<ref>{{cite news |title=Vakıfbank women achieve historic success, winning intercontinental volleyball trophy|url=http://www.hurriyetdailynews.com/vakifbank-women-achieve-historic-success-winning-intercontinental-volleyball-trophy.aspx?pageID=238&nID=56196&NewsCatID=367|work=www.hurriyetdailynews.com|accessdate=8 May 2014}}</ref> Azerbaijani volleyball players include likes of [[Valeriya Korotenko]], [[Oksana Parkhomenko]], [[Inessa Korkmaz]], [[Natalya Mammadova]] and [[Alla Hasanova]]. Azerbaijan has a [[Baku City Circuit|Formula One race-track]] and country will be hosting its first [[Formula One]] Grand Prix in 2016.<ref>{{cite news|title=F1 Will Race in Azerbaijan in 2016 Says Ecclestone|url=http://www.forbes.com/sites/csylt/2014/07/24/f1-will-race-in-azerbaijan-in-2016-says-ecclestone/|website=www.forbes.com|accessdate=25 July 2014|first=Christian|last=Sylt}}</ref> Other well-known Azerbaijani athletes are [[Namig Abdullayev]], [[Toghrul Asgarov]], [[Rovshan Bayramov]], [[Sharif Sharifov]], [[Mariya Stadnik]] and [[Farid Mansurov]] in [[Amateur wrestling|wrestling]], [[Elnur Mammadli]], [[Elkhan Mammadov (judoka)|Elkhan Mammadov]] and [[Nazim Huseynov]] in judo, [[Rafael Aghayev]] in [[karate]], [[Magomedrasul Majidov]] and [[Aghasi Mammadov]] in [[boxing]], [[Nizami Pashayev]] in [[Olympic weightlifting]], [[Azad Asgarov]] in [[pankration]], [[Eduard Mammadov]] in kickboxing, and [[K-1]] fighter [[Zabit Samedov]]. Azerbaijan hosted several major sport competitions in last decade, including the [[2013 F1 Powerboat World Championship season|2013 F1 Powerboat World Championship]], [[2012 FIFA U-17 Women's World Cup]], [[2011 AIBA World Boxing Championships]], [[2010 European Wrestling Championships]], [[2009 Rhythmic Gymnastics European Championships]], [[European Taekwondo Championships|2014 European Taekwondo Championships]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Azerbaijan is a country known for its love of sport and sportsmanship.|url=http://www.baku2015.com/en/azerbaijan/sport.aspx|work=www.baku2015.com|accessdate=27 January 2014}}</ref> On 8 December 2012, [[Baku]] was selected to host the [[2015 European Games]], the first to be held in competition's history.<ref>{{cite news |title=Baku 2015 heralds new era in European sports movement|url=http://www.washingtontimes.com/news/2013/dec/10/baku-2015-heralds-new-era-european-sports-movement/ |newspaper=[[The Washington Times]]|accessdate=27 January 2014}}</ref> The most important annual sporting events held in the country are [[Baku Cup]] and [[Tour d'Azerbaïdjan]] cycling race. {{clear}} ==See also== {{portal|Geography|<!-- Eurasia -->|Asia|<!-- Western Asia -->|<!-- Caucasia -->|Azerbaijan}}{{Wikipedia books|Azerbaijan}} * [[Outline of Azerbaijan]] * [[Index of Azerbaijan-related articles]] {{clear}} ==References== {{Reflist|colwidth=30em}} ==Further reading== * Olukbasi, Suha. ''Azerbaijan: A Political History''. I.B. Tauris (2011). Focus on post-Soviet era. * [[Thomas de Waal|de Waal, Thomas]]. ''Black Garden''. NYU (2003). ISBN 0-8147-1945-7 * [[Thomas Goltz|Goltz, Thomas]]. ''Azerbaijan Diary : A Rogue Reporter's Adventures in an Oil-Rich, War-Torn, Post-Soviet Republic''. M E Sharpe (1998). ISBN 0-7656-0244-X ==External links== {{Spoken Wikipedia|En-Azerbaijan-article.ogg|2008-06-23}} {{Wikibooks|Wikijunior:Countries A-Z|Azerbaijan}} {{Sister project links|voy=Azerbaijan|Azerbaijan|s=Wikisource:Azerbaijan}} ; General information * [http://AZER.com Azerbaijan International] * [http://www.azerbaijan.az Heydar Aliyev Foundation] * {{dmoz|Regional/Asia/Azerbaijan}} * {{CIA World Factbook link|aj|Azerbaijan}} * [http://ucblibraries.colorado.edu/govpubs/for/azerbaijan.htm Azerbaijan] at [[University of Colorado at Boulder]] * [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/europe/country_profiles/1235976.stm Country profile] from [[BBC]] * [http://www.ifs.du.edu/ifs/frm_CountryProfile.aspx?Country=AZ Key Development Forecasts for Azerbaijan] from [[International Futures]] * {{osmrelation-inline|364110}} ; Major government resources * [http://www.president.az/?locale=en President of Azerbaijan website] * [http://www.azstat.org/indexen.php Azerbaijan State Statistical Committee] * [http://www.un-az.org United Nations Office in Azerbaijan] ; Major news media * [http://today.az/ Azerbaijan Today] * [http://en.apa.az/ Azerbaijan Press Agency] * [http://en.trend.az/ Trend News Agency] * [http://www.news.az/ News.Az] ; Tourism * [http://azerbaijan.tourism.az/?/en/ Azerbaijan Tourism Portal] * {{wikiatlas|Azerbaijan}} {{Coord|40.3|47.7|dim:300000_region:AZ|display=title}} {{Azerbaijan topics}} {{Countries of Asia}} {{Countries of Europe}} {{Commonwealth of Independent States}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Azerbaijan| ]] [[Category:Caucasus]] [[Category:Western Asian countries]] [[Category:Countries in Europe]] [[Category:Near Eastern countries]] [[Category:Landlocked countries]] [[Category:Modern Turkic states]] [[Category:Republics]] [[Category:Requests for audio pronunciation (Azerbaijani)]] [[Category:Russian-speaking countries and territories]] [[Category:States and territories established in 1991]] [[Category:Western Asia]] [[Category:Member states of the Council of Europe]] [[Category:Member states of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation]] [[Category:Member states of the Commonwealth of Independent States]] [[Category:Member states of the United Nations]] [[Category:Azerbaijani-speaking countries and territories]] [[Category:Ethnic Azerbaijani people]] [[Category:Eastern Europe]] [[Category:Caspian littoral states]] [[Category:Muslim-majority countries]] 9obj7rywwr9lr8b4lkb0br7ao2hihjc 0 748 712482024 712479445 2016-03-29T10:15:26Z Hertz1888 4088632 /* Common tools */ Clean up caption wikitext text/x-wiki {{redirect|Amateur astronomer|the magazine|The Amateur Astronomer}} {{redirect|Stargazing|the television programme|Stargazing Live}} {{Use mdy dates|date=June 2013}} {{Refimprove|date=December 2007}} [[Image:Astronomy Amateur 3 V2.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Amateur astronomers watch the night sky during the [[Perseids|Perseid]] meteor shower.]] '''Amateur astronomy''' is a [[hobby]] whose participants enjoy watching the [[sky]], and the abundance of objects found in it with the [[Naked eye|unaided eye]], [[binoculars]], or [[telescope]]s. Even though scientific [[research]] is not their main goal, many amateur astronomers make a contribution to astronomy by monitoring [[variable stars]], tracking [[asteroid]]s and discovering transient objects, such as [[comet]]s and [[nova]]e. The typical amateur astronomer is one who does not depend on the field of astronomy as a primary source of [[income]] or support, and does not have a [[professional degree]] or advanced academic training in the subject. Many amateurs are beginners or [[hobby]]ists, while others have a high degree of experience in astronomy and often assist and work alongside professional astronomers. Amateur astronomy is usually associated with viewing the [[night sky]] when most celestial objects and events are visible, but sometimes amateur astronomers also operate during the day for events such as [[sunspot]]s and [[solar eclipse]]s. Amateur astronomers often look at the sky using nothing more than their eyes, but common tools for amateur astronomy include portable [[optical telescope|telescopes]] and [[binoculars]]. People have studied the sky throughout history in an amateur framework, without any formal method of funding. It is only within about the past century, however, that amateur astronomy has become an activity clearly distinguished from professional astronomy, and other related activities. == Amateur astronomy objectives == [[File:The Cat's Paw Remastered.jpeg|thumb|An image of the [[Cat's Paw Nebula]] created combining the work of professional and amateur astronomers. The image is the combination of the 2.2-metre MPG/ESO telescope of the La Silla Observatory in Chile and a 0.4-meter amateur telescope.]] Collectively, amateur astronomers observe a variety of celestial objects and [[phenomenon|phenomena]]. Common targets of amateur astronomers include the [[Moon]], [[planet]]s, [[star]]s, [[comet]]s, [[meteor shower]]s, and a variety of [[deep sky object]]s such as [[star cluster]]s, [[galaxy|galaxies]], and [[nebula]]e. Many amateurs like to specialise in observing particular objects, types of objects, or types of events which interest them. One branch of amateur astronomy, amateur [[astrophotography]], involves the taking of photos of the night sky. Astrophotography has become more popular with the introduction of far easier to use equipment including, digital cameras, DSLR cameras and relatively sophisticated purpose built high quality [[CCD camera]]s. Most amateur astronomers work at [[visible spectrum|visible wavelengths]], but a small minority experiment with wavelengths outside the visible spectrum. An early pioneer of [[radio astronomy]] was [[Grote Reber]], an amateur astronomer who constructed the first purpose built [[radio telescope]] in the late 1930s to follow up on the discovery of [[radio frequency|radio wavelength]] emissions from space by [[Karl Guthe Jansky|Karl Jansky]]. Non-visual amateur astronomy includes the use of [[infrared filter]]s on conventional telescopes, and also the use of [[radio telescope]]s. Some amateur astronomers use home-made radio telescopes, while others use radio telescopes that were originally built for astronomy research but have since been made available for use by amateurs. The [[One-Mile Telescope]] is one such example. == Common tools == [[File:Beneath the Milky Way.jpg|thumb|Places like [[Paranal Observatory]] offer crystal clear skies for observing astronomical objects with or without instruments.<ref>{{cite web|title=Beneath the Milky Way|url=http://www.eso.org/public/images/potw1613a/|accessdate=29 March 2016}}</ref>]] Amateur astronomers use a range of instruments to study the [[sky]], depending on a combination of their interests and resources. Methods include simply looking at the night sky with the [[naked eye]], using [[binoculars]], and using a variety of [[optical telescope]]s of varying power and quality, as well as additional sophisticated equipment, such as [[camera]]s, to study light from the sky in both the visual and non-visual parts of the [[spectrum]]. Commercial telescopes are available new and used, but in some places it is also common for amateur astronomers to build (or commission the building of) their own custom telescope. Some people even focus on [[amateur telescope making]] as their primary interest within the hobby of amateur astronomy. Although specialized and experienced amateur astronomers tend to acquire more specialized and more powerful equipment over time, relatively simple equipment is often preferred for certain tasks. Binoculars, for instance, although generally of lower power than the majority of telescopes, also tend to provide a wider [[field of view]], which is preferable for looking at some objects in the night sky. Amateur astronomers also use [[star charts]] that, depending on experience and intentions, may range from simple [[planisphere]]s through to detailed charts of very specific areas of the night sky. A range of astronomy software is available and used by amateur astronomers, including software that generates maps of the sky, software to assist with astrophotography, observation scheduling software, and software to perform various calculations pertaining to astronomical phenomena. Amateur astronomers often like to keep records of their observations, which usually takes the form of an observing log. Observing logs typically record details about which objects were observed and when, as well as describing the details that were seen. Sketching is sometimes used within logs, and photographic records of observations have also been used in recent times. The Internet is an essential tool of amateur astronomers. The popularity of CCD imaging among amateurs has led to large numbers of web sites being written by individuals about their images and equipment. Much of the social interaction of amateur astronomy occurs on mailing lists or discussion groups. Discussion group servers host numerous astronomy lists. A great deal of the commerce of amateur astronomy, the buying and selling of equipment, occurs online. Many amateurs use online tools to plan their nightly observing sessions using tools such as the [[Clear Sky Chart]]. == Common techniques == While a number of interesting celestial objects are readily identified by the naked eye, sometimes with the aid of a star chart, many others are so faint or inconspicuous that technical means are necessary to locate them. Although many methods are used in amateur astronomy, most are variations of a few specific techniques. === Star hopping === {{Main|Star hopping}} '''Star hopping''' is a method often used by amateur astronomers with low-tech equipment such as binoculars or a manually driven telescope. It involves the use of maps (or memory) to locate known landmark stars, and "hopping" between them, often with the aid of a [[finderscope]]. Because of its simplicity, star hopping is a very common method for finding objects that are close to naked-eye stars. More advanced methods of locating objects in the sky include [[telescope mount]]s with ''setting circles'', which assist with pointing telescopes to positions in the sky that are known to contain objects of interest, and ''GOTO telescopes'', which are fully automated telescopes that are capable of locating objects on demand (having first been [[calibration|calibrated]]). === Setting circles === {{Main|Setting circles}} '''Setting circles''' are [[angular measurement]] scales that can be placed on the two main [[Rotation around a fixed axis|rotation axes]] of some telescopes. Since the widespread adoption of digital setting circles, any classical engraved setting circle is now specifically identified as an "analog setting circle" (ASC). By knowing the [[coordinate]]s of an object (usually given in [[equatorial coordinates]]), the telescope user can use the setting circle to align the telescope in the appropriate direction before looking through its [[eyepiece]]. A computerized setting circle is called a "digital setting circle" (DSC). Although digital setting circles can be used to display a telescope's [[right ascension|RA]] and [[declination|Dec]] coordinates, they are not simply a digital read-out of what can be seen on the telescope's analog setting circles. As with go-to telescopes, digital setting circle computers (commercial names include Argo Navis, Sky Commander, and NGC Max) contain databases of tens of thousands of celestial objects and projections of planet positions. To find an object, such as globular cluster [[NGC 6712]], one does not need to look up the RA and Dec coordinates in a book, and then move the telescope to those numerical readings. Rather, the object is chosen from the database and arrow markers appear in the display which indicate the direction to move the telescope. The telescope is moved until the distance value reaches zero. When both the RA and Dec axes are thus "zeroed out", the object should be in the eyepiece. The user therefore does not have to go back and forth from some other database (such as a book or laptop) to match the desired object's listed coordinates to the coordinates on the telescope. However, many DSCs, and also go-to systems, can work in conjunction with laptop sky programs. Computerized systems provide the further advantage of computing coordinate precession. Traditional printed sources are subtitled by the '[[Epoch (astronomy)|''epoch'' year]], which refers to the positions of celestial objects at a given time to the nearest year (e.g., J2005, J2007). Most such printed sources have been updated for intervals of only about every fifty years (e.g., J1900, J1950, J2000). Computerized sources, on the other hand, are able to calculate the right ascension and declination of the "epoch of date" to the exact instant of observation. ===GoTo telescopes=== {{Main|GoTo (telescopes)}} '''GOTO telescopes''' have become more popular since the 1980s as technology has improved and prices have been reduced. With these computer-driven telescopes, the user typically enters the name of the item of interest and the mechanics of the telescope point the telescope towards that item automatically. They have several notable advantages for amateur astronomers intent on [[research]]. For example, GOTO telescopes tend to be faster for locating items of interest than star hopping, allowing more time for studying of the object. GOTO also allows manufacturers to add equatorial tracking to mechanically simpler alt-azimuth telescope mounts, allowing them to produce an overall less expensive product. GOTO telescopes usually have to be calibrated using alignment stars in order to provide accurate tracking and positioning. However, several telescope manufacturers have recently developed telescope systems that are calibrated with the use of built-in GPS, decreasing the time it takes to set up a telescope at the start of an observing session. ===Remote control telescopes=== With the development of fast Internet in the last part of the 20th century along with advances in computer controlled telescope mounts and CCD cameras 'Remote Telescope' astronomy is now a viable means for amateur astronomers not aligned with major telescope facilities to partake in research and deep sky imaging. This enables anyone to control a telescope a large distance away in a dark location. The observers can image through the telescopes using CCD cameras. The digital data collected by the telescope is then transmitted and displayed to the user by means of the Internet. An example of a digital remote telescope operation for public use via the Internet is the [[Bareket observatory|The Bareket Observatory]], and there are telescope farms in [[New Mexico]], [[Australia]]<ref>[http://www.nmskies.com/ New Mexico skies]</ref> and [[Atacama Desert#Astronomical observatories|Atacama]] in Chile.<ref>[http://www.spaceobs.com/en/Media/Files/Telescope-Hosting-Conditions-Chile Atacama telescope farm]</ref> === Imaging techniques === {{expand section|date=November 2013}} {{See also|Astrophotography}} Amateur astronomers engage in many imaging techniques including [[film]], [[DSLR]], and [[charge-coupled device|CCD]] [[astrophotography]]. Because CCD imagers are linear, [[image processing]] may be used to subtract away the effects of light pollution, which has increased the popularity of astrophotography in urban areas. Narrowband filters may also be used to minimize light pollution.<ref>{{cite web|title=What are the advantages of CCD imaging over digital camera astrophotography?|url=http://starizona.com/acb/ccd/faq02.aspx|publisher=Starizona|accessdate=15 November 2013}}</ref> [[File:Milky_way_-route_292_shiga_kusatsu_road-_1920x1080.webm|thumb|500px|center|Video of the night sky taken with [[DSLR camera]]s in [[Japan]].]] == Scientific research == Scientific [[research]] is most often not the ''main'' goal for many amateur astronomers, unlike professional astronomy. Work of scientific merit is possible, however, and many amateurs successfully contribute to the knowledge base of professional astronomers. Astronomy is sometimes promoted as one of the few remaining sciences for which amateurs can still contribute useful data. To recognize this, the [[Astronomical Society of the Pacific]] annually gives [[Amateur Achievement Award of Astronomical Society of the Pacific|Amateur Achievement Awards]] for significant contributions to astronomy by amateurs. The majority of scientific contributions by amateur astronomers are in the area of data collection. In particular, this applies where large numbers of amateur astronomers with small telescopes are more effective than the relatively small number of large telescopes that are available to professional astronomers. Several organizations, such as the [[American Association of Variable Star Observers]], exist to help coordinate these contributions. Amateur astronomers often contribute toward activities such as monitoring the changes in brightness of [[variable star]]s and [[supernovae]], helping to track [[asteroid]]s, and observing [[occultation]]s to determine both the shape of asteroids and the shape of the terrain on the apparent edge of the [[Moon]] as seen from Earth. With more advanced equipment, but still cheap in comparison to professional setups, amateur astronomers can measure the light spectrum emitted from astronomical objects, which can yield high-quality scientific data if the measurements are performed with due care. A relatively recent role for amateur astronomers is searching for overlooked phenomena (e.g., [[Kreutz Sungrazers]]) in the vast libraries of digital images and other data captured by Earth and space based observatories, much of which is available over the Internet. In the past and present, amateur astronomers have played a major role in discovering new [[comet]]s. Recently however, funding of projects such as the [[LINEAR|Lincoln Near-Earth Asteroid Research]] and [[Near Earth Asteroid Tracking]] projects has meant that ''most'' comets are now discovered by automated systems, long before it is possible for amateurs to see them. == Societies == {{main|List of astronomical societies}} There is a large number of amateur [[astronomical society|astronomical societies]] around the world that serve as a meeting point for those interested in amateur astronomy, whether they be people who are actively interested in observing or, "armchair astronomers" who may simply be interested in the topic. Societies range widely in their goals, depending on a variety of factors such as geographic spread, local circumstances, size, and membership. For instance, a local society in the middle of a large city may have regular meetings with speakers, focusing less on observing the night sky if the membership is less able to observe due to factors such as [[light pollution]]. It is common for local societies to hold regular meetings, which may include activities such as [[star party|star parties]] or presentations. Societies are also a meeting point for people with particular interests, such as [[amateur telescope making]]. == Notable amateur astronomers == {{Main|Category:Amateur astronomers}} * [[George Alcock]], discovered several comets and novae. * [[Thomas Bopp]], shared the discovery of [[Comet Hale-Bopp]] in 1995 with unemployed PhD physicist [[Alan Hale (astronomer)|Alan Hale]]. * [[Robert Burnham, Jr.]] (1931–1993), author of the ''Celestial Handbook''. * [[Andrew Ainslie Common]] (1841–1903), built his own very large reflecting telescopes and demonstrated that photography could record astronomical features invisible to the human eye. * [[Robert E. Cox]] (1917–1989) who conducted the "Gleanings for ATMs" column in ''[[Sky and Telescope]]'' magazine for 21 years. * [[John Dobson (amateur astronomer)|John Dobson]] (1915–2014), whose name is associated with the [[Dobsonian telescope]], a simplified design for [[Newtonian telescope|Newtonian reflecting telescopes]]. * [[Robert Evans (astronomer)|Robert Owen Evans]] is a minister of the [[Uniting Church in Australia]] and an amateur astronomer who holds the all-time record for visual discoveries of [[supernovae]]. * [[Clinton B. Ford]] (1913–1992), who specialized in the observation of [[variable stars]]. * [[John Ellard Gore]] (1845–1910), who specialized in the observation of [[variable stars]]. * [[Edward Halbach]] (1909-2011), who specialized in the observation of [[variable stars]]. * [[Will Hay]], the famous comedian and actor, who discovered a white spot on Saturn. * [[Walter Scott Houston]] (1912–1993) who wrote the "Deep-Sky Wonders" column in ''[[Sky & Telescope]]'' magazine for almost 50 years. * [[Albert Graham Ingalls|Albert G. Ingalls]] (1888–1958), editor of ''Amateur Telescope Making, Vols. 1–3'' and "[[The Amateur Scientist]]". He and [[Russell W. Porter|Russell Porter]] are generally credited with having initiated the amateur telescope making movement in the US. * [[David H. Levy]] discovered or co-discovered 22 comets including [[Comet Shoemaker-Levy 9]], the most for any individual. * [[Terry Lovejoy]] discovered five comets in the 21st century and developed modifications to DSLR cameras for astrophotography. * [[Patrick Moore|Sir Patrick Moore]] (1923–2012), presenter of the BBC's long-running ''[[The Sky at Night]]'' and author of many books on astronomy. * [[Leslie Peltier]] (1900–1980), a prolific discoverer of comets and well-known observer of variable stars. * [[John M. Pierce]] (1886–1958) was one of the founders of the [[Russell W. Porter#Springfield Telescope Makers|Springfield Telescope Makers]]. In the 1930s he published a series of 14 articles on telescope making in [[Hugo Gernsback]]'s "Everyday Science and Mechanics" called "Hobbygraphs". He is considered one of "the big three behind the amateur telescope making movement in America".<ref>{{Cite journal | last=Cox | first=Robert E. | authorlink=Robert E. Cox | title=Albert G. Ingalls, T. N | volume=17 | issue= | pages=616–617 | date=October 1958 | url= | bibcode=1958S&T....17..616C | postscript=<!-- Bot inserted parameter. Either remove it; or change its value to "." for the cite to end in a ".", as necessary. -->{{inconsistent citations}} | journal=[[Sky and Telescope]]}} </ref> * [[Russell W. Porter]] (1871–1949) founded [[Stellafane]] and has been referred to as the "founder"<ref>{{cite book|last=Pendergrast|first=Mark | authorlink = Mark Pendergrast |title=Mirror mirror: a history of the human love affair with reflection|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=T4-GErgSbU0C|accessdate=August 5, 2011|date=2004|publisher=Basic Books|location=New York|isbn=978-0-465-05471-8|page=236}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.reflector.org/history.php |title=The Springfield Stars Club History |work=reflector.org |accessdate=August 5, 2011|quote=Russell Porter… considered to be the founder of amateur telescope making. | archiveurl= http://web.archive.org/web/20110725105843/http://www.reflector.org/history.php| archivedate= 25 July 2011 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}</ref> or one of the "founders" of [[amateur telescope making]]. [[Albert Graham Ingalls|Albert G. Ingalls]] is sometime given credit as co-founder of this movement.<ref>{{cite book|last=Kannappan|first=Sheila|title=Border Trading: The Amateur-Professional Partnership in Variable Star Astronomy|url=http://www.physics.unc.edu/~sheila/entirethesis.pdf|accessdate=August 5, 2011|date=April 2001|page=7|quote=[A]mateur telescope making (ATM) took off when Albert Ingalls and Russell Porter teamed up.|publisher= Harvard University|location=Cambridge, MA|format=M.A. thesis}}</ref> * [[Isaac Roberts]] (1829–1904), early experimenter in astronomical photography. * [[Grote Reber]] (1911–2002), pioneer of [[radio astronomy]] constructing the first purpose built [[radio telescope]] and conducted the first [[astronomical survey|sky survey]] in the radio frequency. == Prizes recognizing amateur astronomers == * [[Amateur Achievement Award of Astronomical Society of the Pacific]] * [[Chambliss Amateur Achievement Award]] == See also == {{Wikipedia books|Astronomy}} * [[Astronomical object]] *[[List of astronomical societies]] * [[Observation]] * [[Observational astronomy]] * [[Sidewalk astronomy]] * [[v:Skygazing|Skygazing]] * [[Star party]] * [[Clear Sky Chart]] Weather forecasts designed for amateur astronomers. * [[Caldwell catalogue]] A list of astronomical objects for observation by amateur astronomers compiled by Sir Patrick Caldwell-Moore. * [[List of Messier objects|Messier catalogue]] A set of astronomical objects catalogued by the French astronomer Charles Messier in 1771, which is still used by many amateurs as an observing list. == References == {{reflist}} == Further reading == <!--Books listed here should be about the subject (Amateur astronomy), not "how to" observe the night sky (see: WP:FURTHER, WP:NOT#HOWTO). --> * {{cite book|author=Timothy Ferris|authorlink=Timothy Ferris|title=Seeing in the Dark: How Backyard Stargazers Are Probing Deep Space and Guarding Earth from Interplanetary Peril|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=XHbvAAAAMAAJ|date=2002|publisher=Simon & Schuster|location=New York|isbn=978-0-684-86579-9}} * {{cite book|author1=P. Clay Sherrod|author2=Thomas L. Koed|title=A Complete Manual of Amateur Astronomy: Tools and Techniques for Astronomical Observations|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=4zjv84hHNPcC|date=2003|publisher=Dover Publications|location=Mineola, N.Y.|isbn=978-0-486-42820-8}} == External links == {{commons category|Amateur astronomy}} <!--Links added here should lead to websites that further describe Amateur astronomy, not sites about "how-to" conduct Amateur astronomy (see: WP:NOT#HOWTO and WP:EL) --> * [http://www.amateurastronomy.com/ Amateur Astronomy Magazine] * [http://arxiv.org/abs/1305.3647 Instrumental Methods for Professional and Amateur Collaborations in Planetary Astronomy] ([[arXiv]]:1305.3647 : 15 May 2013) {{Astronomy navbox}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Amateur Astronomy}} [[Category:Amateur astronomy]] [[Category:Articles containing video clips]] sgfh9yg3d1um1ooehnylo3qeaum479t 0 749 290186190 290185978 2009-05-15T22:31:52Z McSly 2576398 Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/71.168.133.40|71.168.133.40]] to last revision by DavidLevinson ([[WP:HG|HG]]) wikitext text/x-wiki #REDIRECT [[Astronomer]] ay03who5ih9iaett5ovv7dpglldnkw7 0 751 712882158 712877833 2016-03-31T17:06:11Z PRehse 410898 Undid revision 712877833 by [[Special:Contributions/213.205.198.167|213.205.198.167]] ([[User talk:213.205.198.167|talk]])probably wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox Martial art | logosize = 40px | image = Shihonage.jpg | imagecaption = A version of the "four-direction throw" (''shihōnage'') with standing attacker and seated defender. | imagesize = 300px | alt = A man kneeling throws another man from a standing position; both are wearing robes | name = Aikido<br>({{lang|ja|合気道}}) | aka = | focus = [[Grappling]] and [[Soft style|softness]]<!-- see the many discussions at Talk:Aikido --> | hardness = | country = [[Japan]] | creator = [[Morihei Ueshiba]] | famous pract = [[Kisshomaru Ueshiba]], [[Moriteru Ueshiba]], [[Christian Tissier]], [[Morihiro Saito]], [[Koichi Tohei]], [[Yoshimitsu Yamada]], [[Gozo Shioda]], [[Mitsugi Saotome]], [[Steven Seagal]] | parenthood = | ancestor arts = [[Daitō-ryū Aiki-jūjutsu]] | descendant arts = | olympic = | website = }} [[File:Indonesia and Malaysia Aikido Demonstration (Block 3.3) at WCG 2013.webm|thumb|Aikido Demonstration, 2013]] {{Nihongo|'''Aikido'''|合気道|Aikidō|lead=yes}} {{IPA-ja|a.i.ki.doː|}} is a [[gendai budō|modern]] [[Japanese martial art]] developed by [[Morihei Ueshiba]] as a synthesis of his martial studies, philosophy, and religious beliefs. Aikido is often translated as "the way of unifying (with) [[Qi|life energy]]"<ref>{{cite book | last = Saotome | first = Mitsugi | title = The Principles of Aikido | publisher = Shambhala | year = 1989 | page = 222 | location = Boston, Massachusetts | isbn = 978-0-87773-409-3 }}</ref> or as "the way of harmonious spirit."<ref name="ADS">{{cite book | last = Westbrook | first = Adele |last2=Ratti |first2=Oscar | title = Aikido and the Dynamic Sphere | publisher = Charles E. Tuttle Company | year = 1970 | pages = 16–96 | location = Tokyo, Japan | isbn = 978-0-8048-0004-4 }}</ref> Ueshiba's goal was to create an art that practitioners could use to defend themselves while also protecting their attacker from injury.<ref>{{cite book | last = Sharif | first = Suliaman | title = 50 Martial Arts Myths | publisher = New Media Entertainment | year = 2009 | page = 135 | isbn = 978-0-9677546-2-8 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book | last = Ueshiba | first = Kisshōmaru | title = The Art of Aikido: Principles and Essential Techniques | publisher = Kodansha International | year = 2004 | page = 70 | isbn = 4-7700-2945-4 }}</ref> Aikido techniques consist of entering and turning movements that redirect the [[momentum]] of an opponent's attack, and a [[Throw (grappling)|throw]] or [[joint lock]] that terminates the technique.<ref name="Aikido">{{cite encyclopedia | last = Pranin | first = Stanley | title = Aikido | encyclopedia = Encyclopedia of Aikido | year = 2006 | url = http://www.aikidojournal.com/encyclopedia.php?entryID=18 }}</ref> Aikido derives mainly from the martial art of [[Daitō-ryū Aiki-jūjutsu]], but began to diverge from it in the late 1920s, partly due to Ueshiba's involvement with the [[Oomoto|Ōmoto-kyō]] religion. Ueshiba's early students' documents bear the term ''aiki-jūjutsu''.<ref name="Pranin-Aikijujutsu">{{cite encyclopedia | last = Pranin | first = Stanley | title = Aikijujutsu | encyclopedia = Encyclopedia of Aikido | year = 2006 | url = http://www.aikidojournal.com/encyclopedia?entryID=31 }}</ref> Ueshiba's senior students have different approaches to aikido, depending partly on when they studied with him. Today aikido is found all over the world in a number of styles, with broad ranges of interpretation and emphasis. However, they all share techniques formulated by Ueshiba and most have concern for the well-being of the attacker. ==Etymology and basic philosophy== [[File:合氣道.svg|thumb|80px|"Aikidō" written with "[[Qi|ki]]" in its [[Kyūjitai|old character form]] ]] The word "aikido" is formed of three [[kanji]]: * {{lang|ja|[[wikt:en:合|合]]}}&nbsp;– ''ai''&nbsp;– joining, unifying, combining, fitting * {{lang|ja|[[wikt:en:気|気]]}}&nbsp;– ''ki''&nbsp;– spirit, energy, mood, morale * {{lang|ja|[[wikt:en:道|道]]}}&nbsp;– ''dō''&nbsp;– way, path The term "[[Aiki (martial arts principle)|aiki]]" does not readily appear in the Japanese language outside the scope of Budo. This has led to many possible interpretations of the word. {{lang|ja|合}} is mainly used in compounds to mean 'combine, unite, join together, meet', examples being {{lang|ja|合同}} (combined/united), {{lang|ja|合成}} (composition), {{lang|ja|結合}} (unite/combine/join together), {{lang|ja|連合}} (union/alliance/association), {{lang|ja|統合}} (combine/unify), and {{lang|ja|合意}} (mutual agreement). There is an idea of [[Norm of reciprocity|reciprocity]], {{lang|ja|知り合う}} (to get to know one another), {{lang|ja|話し合い}} (talk/discussion/negotiation), and {{lang|ja|待ち合わせる}} (meet by appointment). {{lang|ja|気}} is often used to describe a feeling, as in {{lang|ja|X気がする}} ('I feel X', as in terms of thinking but with less cognitive reasoning), and {{lang|ja|気持ち}} (feeling/sensation); it is used to mean energy or force, as in {{lang|ja|電気}} (electricity) and {{lang|ja|磁気}} (magnetism); it can also refer to qualities or aspects of people or things, as in {{lang|ja|気質}} (spirit/trait/temperament). The term {{transl|ja|dō}} is also found in martial arts such as [[judo]] and [[kendo]], and in various non-martial arts, such as [[Japanese calligraphy]] ({{transl|ja|shodō}}), [[ikebana|flower arranging]] ({{transl|ja|kadō}}) and [[Japanese tea ceremony|tea ceremony]] ({{transl|ja|chadō or sadō}}). Therefore, from a purely literal interpretation, aikido is the "Way of combining forces", in that the term {{transl|ja|[[Aiki (martial arts principle)|aiki]]}} refers to the martial arts principle or tactic of blending with an attacker's movements for the purpose of controlling their actions with minimal effort.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia | last = Pranin | first = Stanley | title = Aiki | encyclopedia = Encyclopedia of Aikido | year = 2007 | url = http://www.aikidojournal.com/encyclopedia?entryID=10 | accessdate=21 August 2007 | archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20070926225755/http://www.aikidojournal.com/encyclopedia?entryID=10 | archivedate= 26 September 2007 <!--DASHBot--> | deadurl= no}}</ref> One applies {{transl|ja|aiki}} by understanding the rhythm and intent of the attacker to find the optimal position and timing to apply a counter-technique. ==History== [[File:Morihei Ueshiba 1939.jpg|thumb|100px|alt=A middle-aged, mustachioed man in a kimono|Ueshiba in Tokyo in 1939]] Aikido was created by Morihei Ueshiba ({{lang|ja|植芝 盛平}} {{transl|ja|''[[Ueshiba Morihei]]''}}, 14 December 1883&nbsp;– 26 April 1969), referred to by some aikido practitioners as {{transl|ja|''Ōsensei''}} ("Great Teacher").<ref>{{cite encyclopedia | last = Pranin | first = Stanley | title = O-Sensei | encyclopedia = Encyclopedia of Aikido | year = 2007 | url = http://www.aikidojournal.com/encyclopedia?entryID=533 }}</ref> The term 'aikido' was coined in the twentieth century.<ref>Draeger, Donn F. (1974) Modern Bujutsu & Budo – The Martial Arts and Ways of Japan. New York: Weatherhill. Page 137. ISBN 0-8348-0351-8</ref> Ueshiba envisioned aikido not only as the synthesis of his martial training, but as an expression of his personal philosophy of universal peace and reconciliation. During Ueshiba's lifetime and continuing today, aikido has evolved from the [[Aiki (martial arts principle)|Aiki]] that Ueshiba studied into a variety of expressions by martial artists throughout the world.<ref name="Aikido" /> ===Initial development=== [[File:Takeda Sokaku.jpg|thumb|right|Takeda Sōkaku]] Ueshiba developed aikido primarily during the late 1920s through the 1930s through the synthesis of the older martial arts that he had studied.<ref name="AWH">{{cite book | last = Stevens | first = John | authorlink = John Stevens (scholar) |last2= Rinjiro |first2=Shirata | title = Aikido: The Way of Harmony | publisher = Shambhala | year = 1984 | pages = 3–17 | location = Boston, Massachusetts | isbn = 978-0-394-71426-4 }}</ref> The core martial art from which aikido derives is [[Daito-ryu aiki-jujutsu|Daitō-ryū aiki-jūjutsu]], which Ueshiba studied directly with [[Takeda Sōkaku]], the reviver of that art. Additionally, Ueshiba is known to have studied [[Tenjin Shinyo Ryu|Tenjin Shin'yō-ryū]] with Tozawa Tokusaburō in [[Tokyo]] in 1901, [[Yagyū Shingan-ryū|Gotōha Yagyū Shingan-ryū]] under Nakai Masakatsu in [[Sakai, Osaka|Sakai]] from 1903 to 1908, and [[judo]] with Kiyoichi Takagi ({{lang|ja|高木 喜代子}} {{transl|ja|''Takagi Kiyoichi''}}, 1894–1972) in [[Tanabe]] in 1911.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia | last = Pranin | first = Stanley | title = Ueshiba, Morihei | encyclopedia = Encyclopedia of Aikido | year = 2006 | url = http://www.aikidojournal.com/encyclopedia.php?entryID=723 }}</ref> The art of Daitō-ryū is the primary technical influence on aikido. Along with empty-handed throwing and joint-locking techniques, Ueshiba incorporated training movements with weapons, such as those for the [[spear]] ({{transl|ja|''[[yari]]''}}), short [[Stick fighting|staff]] ({{transl|ja|''[[jō]]''}}), and perhaps the {{Nihongo|[[bayonet]]|銃剣|jūken}}. However, aikido derives much of its technical structure from the art of swordsmanship ({{transl|ja|''[[kenjutsu]]''}}).<ref name="ADS"/><ref name="TSoA">{{cite book | last = Homma | first = Gaku | title = The Structure of Aikido: Volume 1: Kenjutsu and Taijutsu Sword and Open-Hand Movement Relationships (Structure of Aikido, Vol 1) | publisher = Blue Snake Books | year = 1997 | isbn = 1-883319-55-2 }}</ref> Ueshiba moved to [[Hokkaidō]] in 1912, and began studying under Takeda Sokaku in 1915. His official association with Daitō-ryū continued until 1937.<ref name="AWH"/> However, during the latter part of that period, Ueshiba had already begun to distance himself from Takeda and the Daitō-ryū. At that time Ueshiba was referring to his martial art as '''"Aiki Budō"'''. It is unclear exactly when Ueshiba began using the name "aikido", but it became the official name of the art in 1942 when the Greater Japan Martial Virtue Society ({{transl|ja|''[[Dai Nippon Butoku Kai]]''}}) was engaged in a government sponsored reorganization and centralization of Japanese martial arts.<ref name="Aikido"/> ===Religious influences=== [[File:Onisaburo Deguchi 2.jpg|thumb|right|Onisaburo Deguchi]] After Ueshiba left Hokkaidō in 1919, he met and was profoundly influenced by [[Onisaburo Deguchi]], the spiritual leader of the [[Oomoto|Ōmoto-kyō]] religion (a neo-[[Shinto]] movement) in [[Ayabe]].<ref>{{cite encyclopedia | last = Pranin | first = Stanley | title = Morihei Ueshiba and Onisaburo Deguchi | encyclopedia = Encyclopedia of Aikido | date = | url = http://www.aikidojournal.com/article.php?articleID=73 }}</ref> One of the primary features of Ōmoto-kyō is its emphasis on the attainment of [[utopia]] during one's life. This was a great influence on Ueshiba's martial arts philosophy of extending love and compassion especially to those who seek to harm others. Aikido demonstrates this philosophy in its emphasis on mastering martial arts so that one may receive an attack and harmlessly redirect it. In an ideal resolution, not only is the receiver unharmed, but so is the attacker.<ref>{{cite web | last = Oomoto Foundation | title = The Teachings | work = Teachings and Scriptures | publisher = Netinformational Commission | year = 2007 | url = http://www.oomoto.or.jp/English/enDokt/dokt-en.html | accessdate = 14 August 2007 | archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20070813025607/http://www.oomoto.or.jp/English/enDokt/dokt-en.html | archivedate= 13 August 2007 <!--DASHBot--> | deadurl= no}}</ref> In addition to the effect on his spiritual growth, the connection with Deguchi gave Ueshiba entry to elite political and military circles as a martial artist. As a result of this exposure, he was able to attract not only financial backing but also gifted students. Several of these students would found their own styles of aikido.<ref name="Styles">{{cite journal | last = Shishida | first = Fumiaki | title = Aikido | journal = Aikido Journal | date = | url = http://www.aikidojournal.com/article.php?articleID=626 | isbn = 0-9647083-2-9 | publisher = Shodokan Pub., USA | location = Berkeley, CA }}</ref> ===International dissemination=== Aikido was first brought to the rest of the world in 1951 by [[Minoru Mochizuki]] with a visit to [[France]] where he introduced aikido techniques to judo students.<ref name="Mochizuki">{{cite encyclopedia | last = Pranin | first = Stanley | title = Mochizuki, Minoru | encyclopedia = Encyclopedia of Aikido | year = 2006 | url = http://www.aikidojournal.com/encyclopedia.php?entryID=474 }}</ref> He was followed by [[Tadashi Abe]] in 1952, who came as the official [[Aikikai Hombu]] representative, remaining in France for seven years. [[Kenji Tomiki]] toured with a delegation of various martial arts through 15 continental states of the United States in 1953.<ref name="Styles"/><ref>{{cite web|url=http://ejmas.com/jnc/jncart_svinth3_0100.htm|title=Journal of Non-lethal Combat: Judo in the US Air Force, 1953|author=Robert W. Smith|work=ejmas.com}}</ref> Later that year, [[Koichi Tohei]] was sent by Aikikai Hombu to [[Hawaii]] for a full year, where he set up several [[dojo]]. This trip was followed by several further visits and is considered the formal introduction of aikido to the United States. The United Kingdom followed in 1955; Italy in 1964 by [[Hiroshi Tada]]; and Germany in 1965 by [[Katsuaki Asai]]. Designated "Official Delegate for Europe and Africa" by Morihei Ueshiba, [[Masamichi Noro]] arrived in France in September 1961. [[Seiichi Sugano]] was appointed to introduce aikido to Australia in 1965. Today there are aikido dojo throughout the world. ===Proliferation of independent organizations=== {{further|Aikido styles}} {{see also|List of aikidoka|l1=List of aikidōka}} The largest aikido organization is the [[Aikikai Foundation]], which remains under the control of the Ueshiba family. However, aikido has many styles, mostly formed by Morihei Ueshiba's major students.<ref name="Styles"/> The earliest independent styles to emerge were [[Yoseikan Aikido]], begun by [[Minoru Mochizuki]] in 1931,<ref name="Mochizuki"/> [[Yoshinkan]] Aikido, founded by [[Gozo Shioda]] in 1955,<ref>{{cite encyclopedia | last = Pranin | first = Stanley | title = Yoshinkan Aikido | encyclopedia = Encyclopedia of Aikido | year = 2006 | url = http://www.aikidojournal.com/encyclopedia.php?entryID=785 }}</ref> and [[Shodokan Aikido]], founded by [[Kenji Tomiki]] in 1967.<ref name="ACE">{{cite book | last = Shishido | first = Fumiaki | authorlink = Fumiaki Shishida |last2=Nariyama |first2=Tetsuro |authorlink2= Tetsuro Nariyama | title = Aikido: Tradition and the Competitive Edge | publisher = Shodokan Publishing USA | year = 2002 | isbn = 978-0-9647083-2-7 }}</ref> The emergence of these styles pre-dated Ueshiba's death and did not cause any major upheavals when they were formalized. Shodokan Aikido, however, was controversial, since it introduced a unique rule-based competition that some felt was contrary to the spirit of aikido.<ref name="Styles"/> After Ueshiba's death in 1969, two more major styles emerged. Significant controversy arose with the departure of the [[Aikikai Hombu Dojo]]'s chief instructor [[Koichi Tohei]], in 1974. Tohei left as a result of a disagreement with the son of the founder, [[Kisshomaru Ueshiba]], who at that time headed the Aikikai Foundation. The disagreement was over the proper role of ''ki'' development in regular aikido training. After Tohei left, he formed his own style, called [[Shin Shin Toitsu Aikido]], and the organization that governs it, the [[Ki Society]] (''Ki no Kenkyūkai'').<ref>{{cite encyclopedia | last = Pranin | first = Stanley | title = Tohei, Koichi | encyclopedia = Encyclopedia of Aikido | year = 2006 | url = http://www.aikidojournal.com/encyclopedia.php?entryID=701 }}</ref> A final major style evolved from Ueshiba's retirement in [[Iwama, Ibaraki]] and the teaching methodology of long term student [[Morihiro Saito]]. It is unofficially referred to as the "[[Iwama style]]", and at one point a number of its followers formed a loose network of schools they called [[Iwama Ryu]]. Although Iwama style practitioners remained part of the Aikikai until Saito's death in 2002, followers of Saito subsequently split into two groups. One remained with the Aikikai and the other formed the independent [[Shinshin Aikishuren Kai]] in 2004 around Saito's son [[Hitohiro Saito]]. Today, the major styles of aikido are each run by a separate governing organization, have their own {{Nihongo|headquarters|本部道場|honbu dōjō}} in Japan, and have an international breadth.<ref name="Styles"/> ==Ki== [[File:ki obsolete.svg|right|float|thumb|100px|This was the [[kanji]] for ''ki'' until 1946, when [[Tōyō kanji|it was changed]] to {{lang|ja|[[wikt:気|気]]}}.]] The study of ''[[Qi|ki]]'' is an important component of aikido, and its study defies categorization as either "physical" or "mental" training, as it encompasses both. The ''[[kanji]]'' for ''ki'' normally is written as {{lang|ja|気}}. It was written as {{lang|ja|氣}} until the [[Tōyō kanji|writing reforms after World War 2]], and this older form still is seen on occasion. The character for ''ki'' is used in everyday Japanese terms, such as {{Nihongo|"health"|元気|genki}}, or {{Nihongo|"shyness"|内気|uchiki}}. ''Ki'' has many meanings, including "ambience", "mind", "mood", and "intention", however, in traditional martial arts it is often used to refer to "life energy". [[Gōzō Shioda]]'s [[Yoshinkan|Yoshinkan Aikido]], considered one of the "hard styles," largely follows Ueshiba's teachings from before World War II, and surmises that the secret to ''ki'' lies in timing and the application of the whole body's strength to a single point.<ref name="Shugyo"/> In later years, Ueshiba's application of ''ki'' in aikido took on a softer, more gentle feel. This was his [[Takemusu]] Aiki and many of his later students teach about ''ki'' from this perspective. [[Koichi Tohei]]'s [[Ki Society]] centers almost exclusively around the study of the [[empirical]] (albeit subjective) experience of ''ki'' with students ranked separately in aikido techniques and ''ki'' development.<ref>{{cite web| last = Reed| first = William| title = A Test Worth More than a Thousand Words| year = 1997| url = http://www.b-smart.net/archive/test_article_0497.html| accessdate = 11 August 2007|archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20070619083726/http://www.b-smart.net/archive/test_article_0497.html <!-- Bot retrieved archive --> |archivedate = 19 June 2007}}</ref> ==Training== In aikido, as in virtually all Japanese [[martial arts]], there are both physical and mental aspects of training. The physical training in aikido is diverse, covering both general physical fitness and [[Physical exercise|conditioning]], as well as specific techniques.<ref name="AFL">{{cite book | last = Homma | first = Gaku | title = Aikido for Life | publisher = North Atlantic Books | year = 1990 | page = 20 | location = Berkeley, California | isbn = 978-1-55643-078-7 }}</ref> Because a substantial portion of any aikido curriculum consists of [[throw (grappling)|throws]], beginners learn how to safely fall or roll.<ref name="AFL"/> The specific techniques for attack include both strikes and grabs; the techniques for defense consist of throws and [[Pinning hold|pins]]. After basic techniques are learned, students study freestyle defense against multiple opponents, and techniques with weapons. ===Fitness=== [[File:Aïkido-shihoo nage.jpg|thumb|right|200px|[[Uke (martial arts)|Ukemi]] ({{lang|ja|受け身}}) is very important for safe practice]] Physical training goals pursued in conjunction with aikido include controlled [[relaxation technique|relaxation]], correct movement of joints such as hips and shoulders, [[flexibility (anatomy)|flexibility]], and [[endurance]], with less emphasis on [[strength training]]. In aikido, pushing or extending movements are much more common than pulling or contracting movements. This distinction can be applied to general fitness goals for the aikido practitioner.<ref name="ADS"/> In aikido, specific muscles or muscle groups are not isolated and worked to improve tone, mass, or power. Aikido-related training emphasizes the use of coordinated whole-body movement and balance similar to [[yoga]] or [[pilates]]. For example, many dojos begin each class with {{Nihongo|warm-up exercises|準備体操|''junbi taisō''}}, which may include [[stretching]] and [[Uke (martial arts)|ukemi]] (break falls).<ref>{{cite encyclopedia | last = Pranin | first = Stanley | title = Jumbi Taiso | encyclopedia = Encyclopedia of Aikido | year = 2006 | url = http://www.aikidojournal.com/encyclopedia.php?entryID=340 }}</ref> ===Roles of ''uke'' and ''tori''=== Aikido training is based primarily on two partners practicing pre-arranged forms (''[[kata]]'') rather than freestyle practice. The basic pattern is for the receiver of the technique (''[[uke (martial arts)|uke]]'') to initiate an attack against the person who applies the technique—the {{lang|ja|取り}} ''[[Tori (martial arts)|tori]]'', or ''shite'' {{lang|ja|仕手}} (depending on aikido style), also referred to as {{lang|ja|投げ}} ''nage'' (when applying a throwing technique), who neutralises this attack with an aikido technique.<ref name="afl2"/> Both halves of the technique, that of ''uke'' and that of ''tori'', are considered essential to aikido training.<ref name="afl2"/> Both are studying aikido principles of blending and adaptation. ''Tori'' learns to blend with and control attacking energy, while ''uke'' learns to become calm and flexible in the disadvantageous, off-balance positions in which ''tori'' places them. This "receiving" of the technique is called ''ukemi''.<ref name="afl2">{{cite book | last = Homma | first = Gaku | title = Aikido for Life | publisher = North Atlantic Books | year = 1990 | pages = 20–30 | location = Berkeley, California | isbn = 978-1-55643-078-7 | url = https://books.google.com/books/about/Aikido_for_Life.html?id=cmvuAkvibXkC }}</ref> ''Uke'' continuously seeks to regain balance and cover vulnerabilities (e.g., an exposed side), while ''tori'' uses position and timing to keep ''uke'' off-balance and vulnerable. In more advanced training, ''uke'' will sometimes apply {{Nihongo|reversal techniques|返し技|kaeshi-waza}} to regain balance and pin or throw ''tori''. {{Nihongo|''Ukemi''|受身}} refers to the act of receiving a technique. Good ''ukemi'' involves attention to the technique, the partner and the immediate environment—it is an active rather than a passive receiving of aikido. The fall itself is part of aikido, and is a way for the practitioner to receive, safely, what would otherwise be a devastating strike or throw. ===Initial attacks=== Aikido techniques are usually a defense against an attack, so students must learn to deliver various types of attacks to be able to practice aikido with a partner. Although attacks are not studied as thoroughly as in striking-based arts, sincere attacks (a strong strike or an immobilizing grab) are needed to study correct and effective application of technique.<ref name="ADS"/> Many of the {{Nihongo|strikes|打ち|uchi}} of aikido resemble cuts from a [[sword]] or other grasped object, which indicate its origins in techniques intended for [[weapon|armed]] combat.<ref name="ADS"/> Other techniques, which explicitly appear to be punches (''[[tsuki]]''), are practiced as thrusts with a [[knife]] or sword. [[Kick]]s are generally reserved for upper-level variations; reasons cited include that falls from kicks are especially dangerous, and that kicks (high kicks in particular) were uncommon during the types of combat prevalent in feudal Japan. Some basic strikes include: * {{Nihongo|'''Front-of-the-head strike'''|正面打ち|shōmen'uchi}} a vertical [[knifehand strike]] to the head. In training, this is usually directed at the forehead or the [[Crown (anatomy)|crown]] for safety, but more dangerous versions of this attack target the bridge of the nose and the [[maxillary sinus]]. * {{Nihongo|'''Side-of-the-head strike'''|横面打ち|yokomen'uchi}} a diagonal knifehand strike to the side of the head or neck. * {{Nihongo|'''Chest thrust'''|胸突き|mune-tsuki}} a [[Punch (strike)|punch]] to the [[torso]]. Specific targets include the [[chest]], [[abdomen]], and [[solar plexus]]. Same as {{Nihongo|"middle-level thrust"|中段突き|chūdan-tsuki}}, and {{Nihongo|"direct thrust"|直突き|[[choku-tsuki]]}}. * {{Nihongo|'''Face thrust'''|顔面突き|ganmen-tsuki}} a punch to the [[face]]. Same as {{Nihongo|"upper-level thrust"|上段突き|jōdan-tsuki}}. Beginners in particular often practice techniques from grabs, both because they are safer and because it is easier to feel the energy and lines of force of a hold than a strike. Some grabs are historically derived from being held while trying to draw a [[Katana|weapon]]; a technique could then be used to free oneself and immobilize or strike the attacker who is grabbing the defender.<ref name="ADS"/> The following are examples of some basic grabs: * {{Nihongo|'''Single-hand grab'''|片手取り|katate-dori}} one hand grabs one wrist. * {{Nihongo|'''Both-hands grab'''|諸手取り|morote-dori}} both hands grab one wrist. Same as {{Nihongo|"single hand double-handed grab"|片手両手取り|katateryōte-dori}} * {{Nihongo|'''Both-hands grab'''|両手取り|ryōte-dori}} both hands grab both wrists. Same as {{Nihongo|"double single-handed grab"|両片手取り|ryōkatate-dori}}. * {{Nihongo|'''Shoulder grab'''|肩取り|kata-dori}} a shoulder grab. "Both-shoulders-grab" is {{Nihongo|''ryōkata-dori''|両肩取り}}. It is sometimes combined with an overhead strike as {{Nihongo|'''Shoulder grab face strike'''|肩取り面打ち|kata-dori men-uchi}}. * {{Nihongo|'''Chest grab'''|胸取り|mune-dori or muna-dori}} grabbing the (clothing of the) chest. Same as {{Nihongo|"collar grab"|襟取り|eri-dori}}. ===Basic techniques=== {{main|Aikido techniques}} [[File:Aikido ikkyo.svg|right|thumb|Diagram of ''ikkyō'', or "first technique". ''Yonkyō'' has a similar mechanism of action, although the upper hand grips the forearm rather than the elbow.]] The following are a sample of the basic or widely practiced throws and pins. Many of these techniques derive from Daitō-ryū Aiki-jūjutsu, but some others were invented by Morihei Ueshiba. The precise terminology for some may vary between organisations and styles, so what follows are the terms used by the Aikikai Foundation. Note that despite the names of the first five techniques listed, they are not universally taught in numeric order.<ref>{{cite book | last = Shifflett | first = C.M. | title = Aikido Exercises for Teaching and Training | publisher = North Atlantic Books | year = 1999 | location = Berkeley, California | isbn = 978-1-55643-314-6 }}</ref> * {{Nihongo|'''First technique'''|一教 ([[wikt:教|教]])|ikkyō}} a control using one hand on the elbow and one hand near the wrist which [[lever]]ages ''uke'' to the ground.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia | last = Pranin | first = Stanley | title = Ikkyo | encyclopedia = Encyclopedia of Aikido | year = 2008 | url = http://www.aikidojournal.com/encyclopedia?entryID=289 }}</ref> This grip applies pressure into the [[ulnar nerve]] at the wrist. * {{Nihongo|'''Second technique'''|二教|nikyō}} a [[Kote mawashi|pronating wristlock]] that torques the arm and applies painful nerve pressure. (There is an [[Wristlock#Adductive wristlock|adductive wristlock]] or Z-lock in ''ura'' version.) * {{Nihongo|'''Third technique'''|三教|sankyō}} a [[Wristlock#Rotational wristlock|rotational wristlock]] that directs upward-spiraling tension throughout the arm, elbow and shoulder. * {{Nihongo|'''Fourth technique'''|四教|yonkyō}} a shoulder control similar to ''ikkyō'', but with both hands gripping the forearm. The knuckles (from the palm side) are applied to the recipient's [[radial nerve]] against the [[periosteum]] of the forearm bone.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia | last = Pranin | first = Stanley | title = Yonkyo | encyclopedia = Encyclopedia of Aikido | year = 2008 | url = http://www.aikidojournal.com/encyclopedia?entryID=780 }}</ref> * {{Nihongo|'''Fifth technique'''|五教|gokyō}} visually similar to ''ikkyō'', but with an inverted grip of the wrist, [[medial rotation]] of the arm and shoulder, and downward pressure on the elbow. Common in [[knife]] and other weapon take-aways. * {{Nihongo|'''Four-direction throw'''|四方投げ|shihōnage}} The hand is folded back past the shoulder, locking the shoulder joint. * {{Nihongo|'''Forearm return'''|小手返し|kotegaeshi}} a [[Kote gaeshi|supinating]] wristlock-throw that stretches the [[extensor digitorum]]. * {{Nihongo|'''Breath throw'''|呼吸投げ|kokyūnage}} a loosely used term for various types of mechanically unrelated techniques, although they generally do not use joint locks like other techniques.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia | last = Pranin | first = Stanley | title = Kokyunage | encyclopedia = Encyclopedia of Aikido | year = 2008 | url = http://www.aikidojournal.com/encyclopedia?entryID=419 }}</ref> * {{Nihongo|'''Entering throw'''|入身投げ|iriminage}} throws in which ''tori'' moves through the space occupied by ''uke''. The classic form superficially resembles a "clothesline" technique. * {{Nihongo|'''Heaven-and-earth throw'''|天地投げ|tenchinage}} beginning with ''ryōte-dori''; moving forward, ''tori'' sweeps one hand low ("earth") and the other high ("heaven"), which unbalances ''uke'' so that he or she easily topples over. * {{Nihongo|'''Hip throw'''|腰投げ|koshinage}} aikido's version of the [[throw (grappling)#Hip throws|hip throw]]. ''Tori'' drops his or her hips lower than those of ''uke'', then flips ''uke'' over the resultant [[Lever|fulcrum]]. * {{Nihongo|'''Figure-ten throw'''|十字投げ|jūjinage}} or {{Nihongo|'''figure-ten entanglement'''|十字絡み|jūjigarami}} a throw that locks the arms against each other (The [[kanji]] for "10" is a cross-shape: 十).<ref>{{cite encyclopedia | last = Pranin | first = Stanley | title = Juji Garami | encyclopedia = Encyclopedia of Aikido | year = 2008 | url = http://www.aikidojournal.com/encyclopedia?entryID=337 }}</ref> * {{Nihongo|'''Rotary throw'''|回転投げ|kaitennage}} ''Tori'' sweeps the arm back until it locks the shoulder joint, then uses forward pressure to throw.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia | last = Pranin | first = Stanley | title = Kaitennage | encyclopedia = Encyclopedia of Aikido | year = 2008 | url = http://www.aikidojournal.com/encyclopedia?entryID=342 }}</ref> ===Implementations=== [[File:Aikido ikkyo omote ura.png|left|thumb|Diagram showing two versions of the ''ikkyō'' technique: one moving forward (the ''omote'' version) and one moving backward (the ''ura'' version). See text for more details.]] Aikido makes use of body movement (''[[tai sabaki]]'') to blend with ''uke''. For example, an "entering" (''[[irimi]]'') technique consists of movements inward towards ''uke'', while a {{Nihongo|"turning"|転換|tenkan}} technique uses a pivoting motion.<ref>{{cite journal | last = Amdur | first = Ellis | title = Irimi | journal = Aikido Journal | url = http://www.aikidojournal.com/article.php?articleID=686 }}</ref> Additionally, an {{Nihongo|"inside"|内|uchi}} technique takes place in front of ''uke'', whereas an {{Nihongo|"outside"|外|soto}} technique takes place to his side; a {{Nihongo|"front"|表|omote}} technique is applied with motion to the front of ''uke'', and a {{Nihongo|"rear"|裏|ura}} version is applied with motion towards the rear of ''uke'', usually by incorporating a turning or pivoting motion. Finally, most techniques can be performed while in a seated posture (''[[seiza]]''). Techniques where both ''uke'' and ''tori'' are standing are called ''tachi-waza'', techniques where both start off in ''seiza'' are called ''suwari-waza'', and techniques performed with ''uke'' standing and ''tori'' sitting are called ''hanmi handachi'' ({{lang|ja|半身半立}}).<ref name="dynamic"/> Thus, from fewer than twenty basic techniques, there are thousands of possible implementations. For instance, ''ikkyō'' can be applied to an opponent moving forward with a strike (perhaps with an ''ura'' type of movement to redirect the incoming force), or to an opponent who has already struck and is now moving back to reestablish distance (perhaps an ''omote-waza'' version). Specific aikido ''kata'' are typically referred to with the formula "attack-technique(-modifier)". For instance, ''katate-dori ikkyō'' refers to any ''ikkyō'' technique executed when ''uke'' is holding one wrist. This could be further specified as ''katate-dori ikkyō omote'', referring to any forward-moving ''ikkyō'' technique from that grab. ''[[Atemi]]'' ({{lang|ja|当て身}}) are strikes (or [[feint]]s) employed during an aikido technique. Some view ''atemi'' as attacks against "[[pressure point|vital points]]" meant to cause damage in and of themselves. For instance, [[Gozo Shioda|Gōzō Shioda]] described using ''atemi'' in a brawl to quickly down a gang's leader.<ref name="Shugyo">{{cite book | author = Gōzō Shioda | authorlink = Gozo Shioda |others= Translated by Payet, Jacques |author2= Johnston, Christopher | title = Aikido Shugyo: Harmony in Confrontation | publisher = Shindokan Books | year = 2000 | isbn = 978-0-9687791-2-5 }}</ref> Others consider ''atemi'', especially to the face, to be methods of distraction meant to enable other techniques. A strike, whether or not it is blocked, can startle the target and break his or her concentration. The target may become unbalanced in attempting to avoid the blow, for example by jerking the head back, which may allow for an easier throw.<ref name="dynamic">{{cite book | last = Shioda | first = Gōzō | authorlink = Gozo Shioda | title = Dynamic Aikido | publisher = Kodansha International | pages = 52–55 | year = 1968 | isbn = 978-0-87011-301-7 }}</ref> Many sayings about ''atemi'' are attributed to Morihei Ueshiba, who considered them an essential element of technique.<ref>{{cite web | last = Scott | first = Nathan | title = Teachings of Ueshiba Morihei Sensei | year = 2000 | url = http://www.tsuki-kage.com/ueshiba.html | accessdate = 1 February 2007 | archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20061231203238/http://www.tsuki-kage.com/ueshiba.html | archivedate= 31 December 2006 <!--DASHBot--> | deadurl= no}}</ref> ===Weapons=== [[File:PRehse002-cropped.jpg|right|thumb|Disarming an attacker using a {{Nihongo|"sword taking"|太刀取り|tachi-dori}} technique.]] Weapons training in aikido traditionally includes the short staff (''[[jō]]''), wooden sword (''[[bokken]]''), and knife (''[[tantō]]'').<ref>{{cite book | last = Dang | first = Phong | title = Aikido Weapons Techniques: The Wooden Sword, Stick, and Knife of Aikido | publisher = Charles E Tuttle Company | year = 2006 | isbn = 978-0-8048-3641-8 }}</ref> Some schools incorporate firearm-disarming techniques. Both weapon-taking and weapon-retention are taught. Some schools, such as the [[Iwama style]] of [[Morihiro Saito]], usually spend substantial time with ''bokken'' and ''jō'', practised under the names ''[[aiki-ken]]'', and ''[[aiki-jō]]'', respectively. The founder developed many of the empty-handed techniques from traditional sword and spear movements. Consequently, the practice of the weapons arts gives insight into the origin of techniques and movements, and reinforces the concepts of distance, timing, foot movement, presence and connectedness with one's training partner(s).<ref name="SOS">{{cite book | last = Ratti | first = Oscar |last2= Westbrook |first2=Adele | title = Secrets of the Samurai: The Martial Arts of Feudal Japan | publisher = Castle Books | year = 1973 | pages = 23, 356–359 | location = Edison, New Jersey | isbn = 978-0-7858-1073-5}}</ref> ===Multiple attackers and ''randori''=== [[File:Embukai01.jpg|left|thumb|Technique performed against two attackers.]] <!-- this image is above related paragraph to improve page rendering --> One feature of aikido is training to defend against multiple attackers, often called ''taninzudori'', or ''taninzugake''. Freestyle practice with multiple attackers, called ''[[randori]]'' ({{lang|ja|乱取}}) or ''jiyūwaza'' ({{lang|ja|自由技}}), is a key part of most curricula and is required for the higher level ranks.<ref name="best">{{cite book | last = Ueshiba | first = Kisshomaru |first2= Moriteru |last2=Ueshiba | title = Best Aikido: The Fundamentals (Illustrated Japanese Classics) | publisher = Kodansha International | year = 2002 | isbn = 978-4-7700-2762-7 }}</ref> ''Randori'' exercises a person's ability to intuitively perform techniques in an unstructured environment.<ref name="best"/> Strategic choice of techniques, based on how they reposition the student relative to other attackers, is important in ''randori'' training. For instance, an ''ura'' technique might be used to neutralise the current attacker while turning to face attackers approaching from behind.<ref name="ADS"/> In [[Shodokan Aikido]], ''randori'' differs in that it is not performed with multiple persons with defined roles of defender and attacker, but between two people, where both participants attack, defend, and counter at will. In this respect it resembles judo ''randori''.<ref name="ACE"/><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.amazon.co.uk/Aikido-Randori-Tetsuro-Nariyama/dp/0956620507|title=Aikido Randori: Amazon.co.uk: Tetsuro Nariyama: 9780956620507: Books|work=amazon.co.uk}}</ref> ===Injuries=== In applying a technique during training, it is the responsibility of ''tori'' to prevent injury to ''uke'' by employing a speed and force of application that is commensurate with their partner's proficiency in ''ukemi''.<ref name="afl2"/> Injuries (especially those to the joints), when they do occur in aikido, are often the result of ''tori'' misjudging the ability of ''uke'' to receive the throw or pin.<ref name="Aikinjuries">Aikido and injuries: special report by [[Fumiaki Shishida]] Aiki News 1989;80 (April); partial English translation of article re-printed in Aikido Journal [http://www.aikidojournal.com/article.php?articleID=8]</ref><ref name="Aikinjuries2">{{cite encyclopedia | last = Pranin | first = Stanley | title = Aikido and Injuries | encyclopedia = Encyclopedia of Aikido | year = 1983 | url = http://www.aikidojournal.com/article?articleID=7&highlight=injuries }}</ref> A study of injuries in the martial arts showed that the type of injuries varied considerably from one art to the other.<ref name = injurycomparison>{{cite journal | last =Zetaruk | first =M | last2 =Violán | first2 =MA | last3 =Zurakowski | first3 =D | last4 =Micheli | first4 =LJ | title =Injuries in martial arts: a comparison of five styles | journal =British journal of sports medicine | volume =39 | issue =1 | pages =29–33 | publisher =BMJ Publishing Group | year =2005 | url =http://bjsm.bmj.com/cgi/content/abstract/39/1/29 | accessdate = 15 August 2008 | doi =10.1136/bjsm.2003.010322 | pmid =15618336 | pmc =1725005}}</ref> Soft tissue injuries are one of the most common types of injuries found within aikido,<ref name = injurycomparison/> as well as joint strain and stubbed fingers and toes.<ref name="Aikinjuries2"/> Several deaths from head-and-neck injuries, caused by aggressive ''shihōnage'' in a [[Senpai and kōhai|senpai/kōhai]] hazing context, have been reported.<ref name="Aikinjuries"/> ===Mental training=== Aikido training is mental as well as physical, emphasizing the ability to relax the mind and body even under the stress of dangerous situations.<ref name="ZENMA">{{cite book | last = Hyams | first = Joe | title = Zen in the Martial Arts | publisher = Bantam Books | year = 1979 | pages = 53–57 | location = New York | isbn = 0-553-27559-3 }}</ref> This is necessary to enable the practitioner to perform the bold enter-and-blend movements that underlie aikido techniques, wherein an attack is met with confidence and directness.<ref name="AFL 1-9">{{cite book | last = Homma | first = Gaku | title = Aikido for Life | publisher = North Atlantic Books | year = 1990 | pages = 1–9 | location = Berkeley, California | isbn = 978-1-55643-078-7 }}</ref> Morihei Ueshiba once remarked that one "must be willing to receive 99% of an opponent's attack and stare death in the face" in order to execute techniques without hesitation.<ref name="AOP">{{cite book |author= Morihei Ueshiba |others= Translation by [[John Stevens (scholar)|Stevens, John]] | title = The Art of Peace| publisher = Shambhala Publications, Inc. | year = 1992| location = Boston, Massachusetts| isbn = 978-0-87773-851-0}}</ref> As a martial art concerned not only with fighting proficiency but with the betterment of daily life, this mental aspect is of key importance to aikido practitioners.<ref name="NewWarrior">{{cite book| last = Heckler| first = Richard| authorlink = Richard Strozzi-Heckler| title = Aikido and the New Warrior| publisher = North Atlantic Books| year = 1985| pages = 51–57| location = Berkeley, California| isbn = 978-0-938190-51-6}}</ref> ==Uniforms and ranking== [[File:Folding hakama.jpg|thumb|230px|right|[[Hakama]] are folded after practice to preserve the pleats.]] Aikido practitioners (commonly called ''aikidōka'' outside Japan) generally progress by promotion through a series of "grades" (''[[kyū]]''), followed by a series of "degrees" (''[[dan (rank)|dan]]''), pursuant to formal testing procedures. Some aikido organizations use belts to distinguish practitioners' grades, often simply white and [[Black belt (martial arts)|black belts]] to distinguish ''kyu'' and ''dan'' grades, though some use various belt colors. Testing requirements vary, so a particular rank in one organization is not comparable or interchangeable with the rank of another.<ref name="ADS"/> Some dojos do not allow students to take the test to obtain a ''dan'' rank unless they are 16 or older. {| class="wikitable" style="float:left;" |- ! rank !! belt !! color !! type |- | ''kyū'' || [[File:Judo white belt.svg|65px]] || white || ''mudansha'' / ''yūkyūsha'' |- | ''dan'' || [[File:Judo black belt.svg|65px]] || black || ''yūdansha'' |} The uniform worn for practicing aikido (''[[aikidogi|aikidōgi]]'') is similar to the training uniform (''[[keikogi]]'') used in most other modern martial arts; simple trousers and a wraparound jacket, usually white. Both thick ("[[judo]]-style"), and thin ("[[karate]]-style") cotton tops are used.<ref name="ADS"/> Aikido-specific tops are available with shorter sleeves which reach to just below the elbow. Most aikido systems add a pair of wide pleated black or [[indigo]] trousers called a ''[[hakama]]'' (used also in [[kendo]] and [[iaido]]). In many schools, its use is reserved for practitioners with (''dan'') ranks or for instructors, while others allow all practitioners to wear a ''hakama'' regardless of rank.<ref name="ADS"/> ==Criticisms== The most common criticism of aikido is that it suffers from a lack of realism in training. The attacks initiated by ''uke'' (and which ''tori'' must defend against) have been criticized as being "weak," "sloppy," and "little more than caricatures of an attack."<ref name="Pranin-aikido today">{{cite journal| last = Pranin| first = Stanley| title = Aikido Practice Today| journal = Aiki News| volume = 86| publisher = Aiki News| date = Fall 1990| url = http://www.aikidojournal.com/article?articleID=123| accessdate = 2 November 2007| archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20071121231252/http://www.aikidojournal.com/article?articleID=123| archivedate= 21 November 2007 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | last = Ledyard| first = George S.| title = Non-Traditional Attacks| work = www.aikiweb.com |date=June 2002| url = http://www.aikiweb.com/training/ledyard3.html| accessdate = 29 July 2008| archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20080725060329/http://www.aikiweb.com/training/ledyard3.html| archivedate= 25 July 2008 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}</ref> Weak attacks from ''uke'' allow for a conditioned response from ''tori'', and result in underdevelopment of the skills needed for the safe and effective practice of both partners.<ref name="Pranin-aikido today"/> To counteract this, some styles allow students to become less compliant over time but, in keeping with the core philosophies, this is after having demonstrated proficiency in being able to protect themselves and their training partners. [[Shodokan Aikido]] addresses the issue by practising in a competitive format.<ref name="ACE"/> Such adaptations are debated between styles, with some maintaining that there is no need to adjust their methods because either the criticisms are unjustified, or that they are not training for self-defense or combat effectiveness, but spiritual, fitness or other reasons.<ref>{{cite web| last = Wagstaffe| first = Tony| title = In response to the articles by Stanley Pranin&nbsp;– Martial arts in a state of decline? An end to the collusion? |work = Aikido Journal |date = 30 March 2007| url = http://www.aikidojournal.com/?id=3104 | accessdate = 29 July 2008}}</ref> Another criticism pertains to the shift toward ki as the focus of training. After the end of Ueshiba's seclusion in Iwama from 1942 to the mid-1950s, he increasingly emphasized the spiritual and philosophical aspects of aikido. As a result, strikes to vital points by ''tori'', entering (''irimi'') and initiation of techniques by ''tori'', the distinction between ''omote'' (front side) and ''ura'' (back side) techniques, and the use of weapons, were all de-emphasized or eliminated from practice. Some Aikido practitioners feel that lack of training in these areas leads to an overall loss of effectiveness.<ref name="Pranin-status quo">{{cite journal| last = Pranin| first = Stanley| title = Challenging the Status Quo | journal = Aiki News| volume = 98| publisher = Aiki News| year = 1994| url = http://www.aikidojournal.com/article?articleID=12| accessdate = 2 November 2007| archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20071121231241/http://www.aikidojournal.com/article?articleID=12| archivedate= 21 November 2007 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}</ref> Conversely, some styles of aikido receive criticism for not placing enough importance on the spiritual practices emphasized by Ueshiba. According to Minoru Shibata of Aikido Journal, "O-Sensei's aikido was not a continuation and extension of the old and has a distinct discontinuity with past martial and philosophical concepts."<ref name="Shibata-Dilemma">{{cite journal| last = Shibata| first = Minoru J.| title = A Dilemma Deferred: An Identity Denied and Dismissed| journal = Aikido Journal | year = 2007| url = http://members.aikidojournal.com/public/a-dilemma-deferred-an-identity-denied-and-dismissed/| accessdate = 11 March 2016| archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20071121231751/http://www.aikidojournal.com/article?articleID=263| archivedate= 21 November 2007 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}</ref> That is, that aikido practitioners who focus on aikido's roots in traditional ''[[jujutsu]]'' or ''[[kenjutsu]]'' are diverging from what Ueshiba taught. Such critics urge practitioners to embrace the assertion that "[Ueshiba's] transcendence to the spiritual and universal reality were the fundamentals {{sic}} of the paradigm that he demonstrated."<ref name="Shibata-Dilemma"/> {{Clear}} {{Portal|Martial arts}} ==References== {{Clear}} {{Reflist|30em}} ==External links== {{sisterlinks|d=Q43114|n=no|b=no|s=no|voy=no|mw=no|species=no|wikt=aikido}} <!-- Please see Talk concerning Styles and External Links. Entries should not act as a list of individual or dojo clusters. The length of such a list would be very long. If you disagree please discuss in Talk. --> * [http://www.aikiweb.com AikiWeb Aikido Information] site on aikido, with essays, forums, gallery, reviews, columns, wiki and other information. <!-- Please see Talk concerning Styles and External Links. Entries should not act as a list of individual or dojo clusters. The length of such a list would be very long. If you disagree please discuss in Talk. --> {{Navboxes |title=Articles and topics related to aikido |state=collapsed |list1= {{Aikido styles}} {{Grappling}} {{Japanese martial arts}} {{martial arts}} }} {{featured article}} {{Use dmy dates|date=September 2011}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Japanese martial arts]] [[Category:Aikido| ]] [[Category:Dō]] [[Category:Articles containing video clips]] fe7x787ge0vqy35chzekrbnwruqw3xa 0 752 717255340 717254085 2016-04-26T16:34:56Z Johnbod 2563820 /* Theory */ better wikitext text/x-wiki {{about|the general concept of art|the group of creative disciplines|The arts|other uses|Art (disambiguation)}} {{pp-semi-indef}} {{pp-move-indef}} {{Use dmy dates|date=March 2014}} [[File:Art-portrait-collage 2.jpg|thumb|upright=1.5|Clockwise from upper left: a [[self-portrait]] by [[Vincent van Gogh]]; a female ancestor figure by a [[Chokwe people|Chokwe]] artist; detail from ''[[The Birth of Venus]]'' by [[Sandro Botticelli]]; and an Okinawan [[Shisa|Shisa lion]].]] '''Art''' is a diverse range of [[human behavior|human activities]] in creating visual, auditory or performing artifacts – [[artworks]], expressing the author's imaginative or technical skill, intended to be appreciated for their beauty or emotional power.<ref name=OD>{{cite web|url=http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/art |title=Art: definition |publisher=Oxford Dictionaries}}</ref><ref name=MW>{{cite web|url=http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/art |title=art |publisher=Merriam-Websters Dictionary}}</ref> In their most general form these activities include the production of works of art, the criticism of art, the study of the history of art, and the aesthetic dissemination of art. The oldest form of art are [[visual arts]], which include creation of images or objects in fields including painting, sculpture, [[printmaking]], photography, and other visual media. Architecture is often included as one of the visual arts; however, like the [[decorative arts]], it involves the creation of objects where the practical considerations of use are essential—in a way that they usually are not in a painting, for example. Music, theatre, film, dance, and other [[performing arts]], as well as literature and other media such as [[interactive media]], are included in a broader definition of art or [[the arts]].<ref name=OD/><ref>"Art, n. 1". OED Online. December 2011. Oxford University Press. http://www.oed.com. (Accessed 26 February 2012.)</ref> Until the 17th century, ''art'' referred to any skill or mastery and was not differentiated from [[craft]]s or [[sciences]]. In modern usage after the 17th century, where aesthetic considerations are paramount, the fine arts are separated and distinguished from acquired skills in general, such as the decorative or [[applied arts]]. Art may be characterized in terms of [[mimesis]] (its representation of reality), expression, communication of emotion, or other qualities. During the [[Romanticism|Romantic period]], art came to be seen as "a special faculty of the human mind to be classified with religion and science".<ref>{{cite web |author=Gombrich, Ernst. |url=http://www.gombrich.co.uk/showdoc.php?id=68 |title=Press statement on The Story of Art |accessdate=18 November 2008 |year=2005 |work=The Gombrich Archive| archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20081006212330/http://www.gombrich.co.uk/showdoc.php?id=68| archivedate= 6 October 2008 | deadurl= no}}{{Dead link|date=November 2011}}</ref> Though the definition of what constitutes art is disputed<ref>{{cite book |title=Definition of Art |author=Stephen Davies |publisher=Cornell University Press |year=1991 |isbn=978-0-8014-9794-0}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=Artworks: Definition, Meaning, Value |author=Robert Stecker |publisher=Pennsylvania State University Press |year=1997 |isbn=978-0-271-01596-5}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=Theories of Art Today |editor=Noël Carroll |publisher=University of Wisconsin Press |year=2000 |isbn=978-0-299-16354-9}}</ref> and has changed over time, general descriptions mention an idea of imaginative or technical skill stemming from [[Agency (philosophy)|human agency]]<ref>|url=http://www.ubc.ca/okanagan/creative/links/arthistory/What_is_Art_.html |date=20120427192624 |df=y [http://www.ubc.ca/okanagan/creative/links/arthistory/What_is_Art_.html What Is Art?<!-- Bot generated title -->] {{wayback}}</ref> and creation.<ref name="britannica.com">{{cite web|url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/630806/art|title=art|work=Encyclopedia Britannica}}</ref> The nature of art, and related concepts such as [[creativity]] and interpretation, are explored in a branch of philosophy known as [[aesthetics]].<ref>Kennick, William ed,{{clarify|date=May 2012}} and W. E. Kennick, ''Art and philosophy: readings in aesthetics'' New York: St. Martin's Press, 1979, pp. xi–xiii. ISBN 0-312-05391-6.</ref> == Creative art and fine art == {{wide image|Wang Ximeng - A Thousand Li of River (Bridge).jpg|1250px|Works of art can tell stories or simply express an aesthetic truth or feeling. Panorama of a section of ''A Thousand Li of Mountains and Rivers'', a 12th-century painting by Song dynasty artist [[Wang Ximeng]].}} In the perspective of the history of art,<ref name="britannica.com"/> artistic works have existed for almost as long as humankind: from early [[pre-historic art]] to [[contemporary art]]; however, some theories restrict the concept of "artistic works" to modern Western societies.<ref>Elkins, James "Art History and Images That Are Not Art", ''The Art Bulletin'', Vol. 47, No. 4 (Dec. 1995), with previous bibliography. "Non-Western images are not well described in terms of art, and neither are medieval paintings that were made in the absence of humanist ideas of artistic value". 553</ref> One early sense of the definition of ''art'' is closely related to the older Latin meaning, which roughly translates to "skill" or "craft," as associated with words such as "artisan." English words derived from this meaning include ''artifact'', ''artificial'', ''artifice'', ''medical arts'', and ''military arts''. However, there are many other colloquial uses of the word, all with some relation to its [[etymology]]. [[File:Teke bottle.JPG|thumb|upright|20th-century Rwandan bottle. Artistic works may serve practical functions, in addition to their decorative value.]] Few modern scholars have been more divided than Plato and Aristotle on the question concerning the importance of art, with Aristotle strongly supporting art in general and Plato generally being opposed to its relative importance. Several dialogues in Plato tackle questions about art: Socrates says that poetry is inspired by the [[muses]], and is not rational. He speaks approvingly of this, and other forms of divine madness (drunkenness, eroticism, and dreaming) in the ''[[Phaedrus (Plato)|Phaedrus]] ''(265a–c), and yet in the ''[[Republic (Plato)|''Republic'']]'' wants to outlaw Homer's great poetic art, and laughter as well. In ''[[Ion (dialogue)|Ion]]'', Socrates gives no hint of the disapproval of Homer that he expresses in the ''Republic''. The dialogue ''Ion'' suggests that [[Homer]]'s ''[[Iliad]]'' functioned in the ancient Greek world as the Bible does today in the modern Christian world: as divinely inspired literary art that can provide moral guidance, if only it can be properly interpreted. With regards to the literary art and the musical arts, Aristotle considered [[epic poetry]], tragedy, comedy, [[Dithyramb|dithyrambic poetry]] and music to be [[Mimesis|mimetic]] or imitative art, each varying in imitation by medium, object, and manner.<ref>Aristotle, ''Poetics'' I 1447a</ref> For example, music imitates with the media of rhythm and harmony, whereas dance imitates with rhythm alone, and poetry with language. The forms also differ in their object of imitation. Comedy, for instance, is a dramatic imitation of men worse than average; whereas tragedy imitates men slightly better than average. Lastly, the forms differ in their manner of imitation – through narrative or character, through change or no change, and through drama or no drama.<ref>Aristotle, ''Poetics'' III</ref> Aristotle believed that imitation is natural to mankind and constitutes one of mankind's advantages over animals.<ref>Aristotle, ''Poetics'' IV</ref> The second, and more recent, sense of the word ''art'' as an abbreviation for ''creative art'' or ''fine art'' emerged in the early 17th century.<ref>''[[Shorter Oxford English Dictionary|The New Shorter Oxford English Dictionary]]''. [[Oxford University Press]], Oxford 1993, p.&nbsp;120</ref> Fine art refers to a skill used to express the artist's creativity, or to engage the audience's aesthetic sensibilities, or to draw the audience towards consideration of more refined or ''finer'' work of art. Within this latter sense, the word ''art'' may refer to several things: (i) a study of a creative skill, (ii) a process of using the creative skill, (iii) a product of the creative skill, or (iv) the audience's experience with the creative skill. The creative arts (''art'' as discipline) are a collection of disciplines which produce ''artworks'' (''art'' as objects) that are compelled by a personal drive (art as activity) and convey a message, mood, or symbolism for the perceiver to interpret (art as experience). Art is something that stimulates an individual's thoughts, emotions, beliefs, or ideas through the senses. Works of art can be explicitly made for this purpose or interpreted on the basis of images or objects. For some scholars, such as [[Kant]], the sciences and the arts could be distinguished by taking science as representing the domain of knowledge and the arts as representing the domain of the freedom of artistic expression. Often, if the skill is being used in a common or practical way, people will consider it a craft instead of art. Likewise, if the skill is being used in a commercial or industrial way, it may be considered [[commercial art]] instead of fine art. On the other hand, crafts and design are sometimes considered [[applied art]]. Some art followers have argued that the difference between fine art and applied art has more to do with value judgments made about the art than any clear definitional difference.<ref>David Novitz, ''The Boundaries of Art'', 1992</ref> However, even fine art often has goals beyond pure creativity and self-expression. The purpose of works of art may be to communicate ideas, such as in politically, spiritually, or philosophically motivated art; to create a sense of beauty (see [[aesthetics]]); to explore the nature of perception; for pleasure; or to generate strong [[emotion]]s. The purpose may also be seemingly nonexistent. The nature of art has been described by philosopher [[Richard Wollheim]] as "one of the most elusive of the traditional problems of human culture".<ref>Richard Wollheim, ''Art and its objects'', p. 1, 2nd ed., 1980, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0-521-29706-0</ref> Art has been defined as a vehicle for the expression or communication of emotions and ideas, a means for exploring and appreciating [[Formalism (art)|formal elements]] for their own sake, and as ''[[mimesis]]'' or [[Representation (arts)|representation]]. Art as mimesis has deep roots in the philosophy of [[Aristotle]].<ref name=Levinson5/> [[Leo Tolstoy]] identified art as a use of indirect means to communicate from one person to another.<ref name=Levinson5>Jerrold Levinson, ''The Oxford Handbook of Aesthetics'', Oxford University Press, 2003, p5. ISBN 0-19-927945-4</ref> [[Benedetto Croce]] and [[R.G. Collingwood]] advanced the [[Idealism|idealist]] view that art expresses emotions, and that the work of art therefore essentially exists in the mind of the creator.<ref>Jerrold Levinson, ''The Oxford Handbook of Aesthetics'', Oxford University Press, 2003, p16. ISBN 0-19-927945-4</ref><ref>R.G. Collingwood's view, expressed in ''The Principles of Art'', is considered in Wollheim, op. cit. 1980 pp 36–43</ref> The theory of art as form has its roots in the philosophy of [[Immanuel Kant]], and was developed in the early twentieth century by [[Roger Fry]] and [[Clive Bell]]. More recently, thinkers influenced by [[Martin Heidegger]] have interpreted art as the means by which a community develops for itself a medium for self-expression and interpretation.<ref>[[Martin Heidegger]], "The Origin of the Work of Art", in ''Poetry, Language, Thought'', (Harper Perennial, 2001). See also [[Maurice Merleau-Ponty]], "Cézanne's Doubt" in ''The Merleau-Ponty Aesthetics Reader'', Galen Johnson and Michael Smith (eds), (Northwestern University Press, 1994) and [[John Russon]], ''Bearing Witness to Epiphany'', (State University of New York Press, 2009).</ref> [[George Dickie (philosopher)|George Dickie]] has offered an [[institutional theory of art]] that defines a work of art as any artifact upon which a qualified person or persons acting on behalf of the social institution commonly referred to as "the [[art world]]" has conferred "the status of candidate for appreciation".<ref>Kennick, William ed, and W. E. Kennick, ''Art and philosophy: readings in aesthetics'' New York: St. Martin's Press, 1979, p. 89. ISBN 0-312-05391-6</ref> Larry Shiner has described fine art as "not an essence or a fate but something we have made. Art as we have generally understood it is a European invention barely two hundred years old.”<ref>Shiner 2003. ''[[The Invention of Art: A Cultural History]]''Chicago: University of Chicago Press. p. 3. ISBN 978-0-226-75342-3</ref> ==History== {{Main|History of art}} [[File:Venus of Willendorf frontview retouched 2.jpg|thumb|upright|left|[[Venus of Willendorf]], ''circa'' 24,000–22,000&nbsp;[[Before Present|BP]]]] Sculptures, [[cave paintings]], rock paintings and [[petroglyphs]] from the [[Upper Paleolithic]] dating to roughly 40,000 years ago have been found,<ref>{{cite web |title = World's oldest art found in Indonesian cave |url = http://www.nature.com/news/world-s-oldest-art-found-in-indonesian-cave-1.16100 |website = nature.com |date = 8 October 2014 |accessdate = 12 October 2014 }}</ref> but the precise meaning of such art is often disputed because so little is known about the cultures that produced them. The oldest art objects in the world—a series of tiny, drilled snail shells about 75,000 years old—were discovered in a South African cave.<ref>Radford, Tim. [http://education.guardian.co.uk/higher/artsandhumanities/story/0,12241,1193237,00.html "World's Oldest Jewellery Found in Cave"]. ''Guardian Unlimited'', 16 April 2004. Retrieved on 18 January 2008.</ref> Containers that may have been used to hold paints have been found dating as far back as 100,000 years.<ref>{{cite news| url=http://www.nytimes.com/2011/10/14/science/14paint.html | work=The New York Times | title=African Cave Yields Evidence of a Prehistoric Paint Factory | date=13 October 2011}}</ref> Etched shells by ''[[Homo erectus]]'' from 430,000 and 540,000 years ago were discovered in 2014.<ref name="homoerectus">{{cite web |url=http://www.newscientist.com/article/mg22429983.200-shell-art-made-300000-years-before-humans-evolved.html |title= Shell 'Art' Made 300,000 Years Before Humans Evolved |date=December 3, 2014 |work=[[New Scientist]] |publisher=[[Reed Business Information]] Ltd}}</ref> [[File:lascaux2.jpg|thumb|right|[[Cave painting]] of a horse from the [[Lascaux]] caves, ''circa'' 16,000&nbsp;BP]] Many great traditions in art have a foundation in the art of one of the great ancient civilizations: [[Ancient Egypt]], [[Mesopotamia]], [[History of Iran|Persia]], India, China, Ancient Greece, Rome, as well as [[Inca]], [[Maya civilization|Maya]], and [[Olmec]]. Each of these centers of early civilization developed a unique and characteristic style in its art. Because of the size and duration of these civilizations, more of their art works have survived and more of their influence has been transmitted to other cultures and later times. Some also have provided the first records of how artists worked. For example, this period of Greek art saw a veneration of the human physical form and the development of equivalent skills to show musculature, poise, beauty, and anatomically correct proportions. In [[Byzantine art|Byzantine]] and [[Medieval art]] of the Western Middle Ages, much art focused on the expression of subjects about Biblical and religious culture, and used styles that showed the higher glory of a heavenly world, such as the use of gold in the background of paintings, or glass in mosaics or windows, which also presented figures in idealized, patterned (flat) forms. Nevertheless, a classical realist tradition persisted in small Byzantine works, and realism steadily grew in the art of Catholic Europe. [[Renaissance art]] had a greatly increased emphasis on the realistic depiction of the material world, and the place of humans in it, reflected in the corporeality of the human body, and development of a systematic method of [[graphical perspective]] to depict recession in a three-dimensional picture space. [[File:Tugra Mahmuds II.gif|right|thumb|The stylized signature of [[Sultan]] [[Mahmud II]] of the [[Ottoman Empire]] was written in [[Islamic calligraphy]]. It reads ''Mahmud Khan son of Abdulhamid is forever victorious''.]] [[File:Great Mosque of Kairouan Panorama - Grande Mosquée de Kairouan Panorama.jpg|thumb|The [[Mosque of Uqba|Great Mosque of Kairouan]] in Tunisia, also called the Mosque of Uqba, is one of the finest, most significant and best preserved artistic and architectural examples of early great mosques. Dated in its present state from the 9th century, it is the ancestor and model of all the mosques in the western Islamic lands.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=IaM9AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA104&dq=oleg+grabar+kairouan+mosque&cd=3#v=onepage&q=oleg%20grabar%20kairouan%20mosque&f=false John Stothoff Badeau and John Richard Hayes, ''The Genius of Arab civilization: source of Renaissance''. Taylor & Francis. 1983. p. 104]</ref>]] In the east, [[Islamic art]]'s rejection of [[iconography]] led to emphasis on geometric patterns, [[Islamic calligraphy|calligraphy]], and [[Islamic architecture|architecture]]. Further east, religion dominated artistic styles and forms too. India and Tibet saw emphasis on painted sculptures and dance, while religious painting borrowed many conventions from sculpture and tended to bright contrasting colors with emphasis on outlines. China saw the flourishing of many art forms: jade carving, bronzework, pottery (including the stunning [[terracotta army]] of Emperor Qin), poetry, calligraphy, music, painting, drama, fiction, etc. Chinese styles vary greatly from era to era and each one is traditionally named after the ruling dynasty. So, for example, [[Tang dynasty]] paintings are monochromatic and sparse, emphasizing idealized landscapes, but [[Ming Dynasty]] paintings are busy and colorful, and focus on telling stories via setting and composition. Japan names its styles after imperial dynasties too, and also saw much interplay between the styles of calligraphy and painting. [[Woodblock printing]] became important in Japan after the 17th century. [[File:Ma Lin Guests.jpg|thumb|left|Painting by [[Song dynasty]] artist Ma Lin, ''circa'' 1250. 24.8&nbsp;× 25.2&nbsp;cm]] The western [[Age of Enlightenment]] in the 18th century saw artistic depictions of physical and rational certainties of the clockwork universe, as well as politically revolutionary visions of a post-monarchist world, such as [[William Blake|Blake]]'s portrayal of Newton as a divine geometer, or [[Jacques-Louis David|David]]'s propagandistic paintings. This led to [[Romanticism|Romantic]] rejections of this in favor of pictures of the emotional side and individuality of humans, exemplified in the novels of [[Goethe]]. The late 19th century then saw a host of artistic movements, such as [[academic art]], [[Symbolism (arts)|Symbolism]], [[impressionism]] and [[fauvism]] among others. The history of twentieth-century art is a narrative of endless possibilities and the search for new standards, each being torn down in succession by the next. Thus the parameters of [[Impressionism]], [[Expressionism]], [[Fauvism]], [[Cubism]], [[Dadaism]], [[Surrealism]], etc. cannot be maintained very much beyond the time of their invention. Increasing [[globalization|global]] interaction during this time saw an equivalent influence of other cultures into Western art. Thus, Japanese woodblock prints (themselves influenced by Western Renaissance draftsmanship) had an immense influence on Impressionism and subsequent development. Later, [[African art|African sculptures]] were taken up by Picasso and to some extent by [[Matisse]]. Similarly, in the 19th and 20th centuries the West has had huge impacts on Eastern art with originally western ideas like [[Communism]] and [[Post-Modernism]] exerting a powerful influence. [[Modernism]], the idealistic search for truth, gave way in the latter half of the 20th century to a realization of its unattainability. [[Theodor W. Adorno]] said in 1970, "It is now taken for granted that nothing which concerns art can be taken for granted any more: neither art itself, nor art in relationship to the whole, nor even the right of art to exist."<ref>Adorno, Theodor W., ''Aesthetic Theory'', (1970 in German)</ref> [[Relativism]] was accepted as an unavoidable truth, which led to the period of [[contemporary art]] and [[List of postmodern critics|postmodern criticism]], where cultures of the world and of history are seen as changing forms, which can be appreciated and drawn from only with [[skepticism]] and irony. Furthermore, the separation of cultures is increasingly blurred and some argue it is now more appropriate to think in terms of a global culture, rather than of regional ones. ==Forms, genres, media, and styles== {{Main|The arts}} [[File:MonaLisa sfumato.jpeg|thumb|Detail of [[Leonardo da Vinci]]'s [[Mona Lisa]], showing the painting technique of ''[[sfumato]]'']] The creative arts are often divided into more specific categories, each related to its technique, or [[Media (arts)|medium]], such as [[decorative art]]s, [[plastic arts]], [[performing arts]], or literature. Unlike scientific fields, art is one of the few subjects that are academically organized according to technique. An artistic [[recording medium|medium]] is the substance or material the artistic work is made from, and may also refer to the technique used. For example, paint is a medium used in painting, and paper is a medium used in drawing. An '''''art form''''' is the specific ''shape'', or quality an artistic expression takes. The media used often influence the form. For example, the [[shape|form]] of a sculpture must exist in space in three dimensions, and respond to gravity. The constraints and limitations of a particular medium are thus called its '''''formal qualities'''''. To give another example, the formal qualities of painting are the canvas texture, color, and brush texture. The formal qualities of video games are non-linearity, interactivity and virtual presence. The ''form'' of a particular work of art is determined by the formal qualities of the media, and is not related to the intentions of the artist or the reactions of the audience in any way whatsoever as these properties are related to content rather than form.<ref name=SaylorIntroPDF>{{cite web|last=www.sbctc.edu (adapted)|title=Module 1: Introduction and Definitions|url=http://www.saylor.org/site/wp-content/uploads/2011/12/Module-1.pdf|publisher=Saylor.org|accessdate=2 April 2012}}</ref> A '''''genre''''' is a set of conventions and styles within a particular medium. For instance, well recognized genres in film are [[Western (genre)|western]], [[horror (genre)|horror]] and [[romantic comedy film|romantic comedy]]. Genres in music include [[death metal]] and [[trip hop]]. Genres in painting include [[still life]] and [[Landscape art|pastoral landscape]]. A particular work of art may bend or combine genres but each genre has a recognizable group of conventions, clichés and tropes. (One note: the word ''genre'' has a second older meaning within painting; ''[[genre painting]]'' was a phrase used in the 17th to 19th centuries to refer specifically to paintings of scenes of everyday life and is still used in this way.) [[File:Great Wave off Kanagawa2.jpg|thumb|[[The Great Wave off Kanagawa]] by [[Hokusai]] (Japanese, 1760–1849), colored woodcut print]] The '''''style''''' of an artwork, artist, or movement is the distinctive method and form followed by the respective art. Any loose brushy, dripped or poured abstract painting is called ''expressionistic''. Often a style is linked with a particular historical period, set of ideas, and particular artistic movement. So [[Jackson Pollock]] is called an [[Abstract Expressionist]]. A particular style may have specific cultural meanings. For example, [[Roy Lichtenstein]]—a painter associated with the American [[Pop art]] movement of the 1960s—was not a [[Pointillism|pointillist]], despite his use of dots. Lichtenstein used evenly spaced [[Ben-Day dots]] (the type used to reproduce color in comic strips) as a style to question the "high" art of painting with the "low" art of comics, thus commenting on class distinctions in culture. Pointillism, a technique in late Impressionism (1880s) developed especially by the artist [[Georges Seurat]], employs dots to create variation in color and depth in an attempt to approximate the way people really see color. Both artists use dots, but the particular style and technique relate to the artistic movement adopted by each artist. These are all ways of beginning to define a work of art, to narrow it down. {{quote|Imagine you are an art critic whose mission is to compare the meanings you find in a wide range of individual artworks. How would you proceed with your task? One way to begin is to examine the materials each artist selected in making an object, image video, or event. The decision to cast a sculpture in bronze, for instance, inevitably effects its meaning; the work becomes something different from how it might be if it had been cast in gold or plastic or chocolate, even if everything else about the artwork remains the same. Next, you might examine how the materials in each artwork have become an arrangement of shapes, colors, textures, and lines. These, in turn, are organized into various patterns and compositional structures. In your interpretation, you would comment on how salient features of the form contribute to the overall meaning of the finished artwork. [But in the end] the meaning of most artworks ... is not exhausted by a discussion of materials, techniques, and form. Most interpretations also include a discussion of the ideas and feelings the artwork engenders.<ref>Robertson, Jean and Craig McDaniel: ''Themes of Contemporary Art, Visual Art after 1980'', page 4. Oxford University Press, 2005.</ref>}} ===Skill and craft=== [[File:Michelangelo, Creation of Adam 03.jpg|thumb|left|[[Adam]]. Detail from [[Michelangelo]]'s fresco in the [[Sistine Chapel]] (1511)]] {{See also|Conceptual art#Conceptual Art and Artistic Skill|l1=Conceptual Art and Artistic Skill}} Art can connote a sense of trained ability or mastery of a [[Media (arts)|medium]]. Art can also simply refer to the developed and efficient use of a [[language]] to convey meaning with immediacy and or depth. Art is an act of expressing feelings, thoughts, and observations.<ref>Breskin, Vladimir, [http://vip.iva.dk/signs/Articles_Signs_International_Section/2010/Breskin_(2010)_Signs_Triad_eng_final_rev_2010.pdf "Triad: Method for studying the core of the semiotic parity of language and art"], ''Signs – International Journal of Semiotics'' 3, pp.1–28, 2010. {{ISSN|1902-8822}}</ref> There is an understanding that is reached with the material as a result of handling it, which facilitates one's thought processes. A common view is that the [[Wikt:epithet|epithet]] "art", particular in its elevated sense, requires a certain level of creative expertise by the artist, whether this be a demonstration of technical ability, an originality in stylistic approach, or a combination of these two. Traditionally skill of execution was viewed as a quality inseparable from art and thus necessary for its success; for [[Leonardo da Vinci]], art, neither more nor less than his other endeavors, was a manifestation of skill. [[Rembrandt]]'s work, now praised for its ephemeral virtues, was most admired by his contemporaries for its virtuosity. At the turn of the 20th century, the adroit performances of [[John Singer Sargent]] were alternately admired and viewed with skepticism for their manual fluency, yet at nearly the same time the artist who would become the era's most recognized and peripatetic iconoclast, [[Pablo Picasso]], was completing a traditional academic training at which he excelled. A common contemporary criticism of some [[modern art]] occurs along the lines of objecting to the apparent lack of skill or ability required in the production of the artistic object. In conceptual art, [[Marcel Duchamp]]'s "[[Fountain (Duchamp)|Fountain]]" is among the first examples of pieces wherein the artist used found objects ("ready-made") and exercised no traditionally recognised set of skills. [[Tracey Emin]]'s ''My Bed'', or [[Damien Hirst]]'s ''The Physical Impossibility of Death in the Mind of Someone Living'' follow this example and also manipulate the mass media. Emin slept (and engaged in other activities) in her bed before placing the result in a gallery as work of art. Hirst came up with the conceptual design for the artwork but has left most of the eventual creation of many works to employed artisans. Hirst's celebrity is founded entirely on his ability to produce shocking concepts. The actual production in many conceptual and contemporary works of art is a matter of assembly of found objects. However, there are many modernist and contemporary artists who continue to excel in the skills of drawing and painting and in creating ''hands-on'' works of art. ==Purpose of art== [[File:Transition 1880.jpg|thumb|right|A [[Navajo rug]] made ''circa'' 1880]] [[File:B Escorial 93v.jpg|thumb|[[Mozarabic art|Mozarabic]] [[Commentary on the Apocalypse|Beatus]] [[miniature (illuminated manuscript)|miniature]]. Spain, late 10th century]] Art has had a great number of different functions throughout its history, making its purpose difficult to abstract or quantify to any single concept. This does not imply that the purpose of Art is "vague", but that it has had many unique, different reasons for being created. Some of these functions of Art are provided in the following outline. The different purposes of art may be grouped according to those that are non-motivated, and those that are motivated (Lévi-Strauss). ===Non-motivated functions of art=== The non-motivated purposes of art are those that are integral to being human, transcend the individual, or do not fulfill a specific external purpose. In this sense, Art, as creativity, is something humans must do by their very nature (i.e.,&nbsp;no other species creates art), and is therefore beyond utility. # ''[[fine arts|Basic human instinct for harmony, balance, rhythm]].'' Art at this level is not an action or an object, but an internal appreciation of balance and harmony (beauty), and therefore an aspect of being human beyond utility.<blockquote>"Imitation, then, is one instinct of our nature. Next, there is the instinct for 'harmony' and rhythm, meters being manifestly sections of rhythm. Persons, therefore, starting with this natural gift developed by degrees their special aptitudes, till their rude improvisations gave birth to Poetry." -Aristotle<ref>Aristotle. ''The Poetics, Republic''. Note: Although speaking mostly of poetry here, the Ancient Greeks often speak of the arts collectively. http://www.authorama.com/the-poetics-2.html</ref></blockquote> # ''Experience of the mysterious.'' Art provides a way to experience one's self in relation to the universe. This experience may often come unmotivated, as one appreciates art, music or poetry.<blockquote>"The most beautiful thing we can experience is the mysterious. It is the source of all true art and science." -Albert Einstein<ref>Einstein, Albert. "The World as I See It". http://www.aip.org/history/einstein/essay.htm</ref></blockquote> # ''Expression of the imagination.'' Art provides a means to express the imagination in non-grammatic ways that are not tied to the formality of spoken or written language. Unlike words, which come in sequences and each of which have a definite meaning, art provides a range of forms, symbols and ideas with meanings that are malleable.<blockquote>"Jupiter's eagle [as an example of art] is not, like logical (aesthetic) attributes of an object, the concept of the sublimity and majesty of creation, but rather something else – something that gives the imagination an incentive to spread its flight over a whole host of kindred representations that provoke more thought than admits of expression in a concept determined by words. They furnish an aesthetic idea, which serves the above rational idea as a substitute for logical presentation, but with the proper function, however, of animating the mind by opening out for it a prospect into a field of kindred representations stretching beyond its ken." -Immanuel Kant<ref>Immanuel Kant, ''Critique of Aesthetic Judgement'' (1790).</ref></blockquote> # ''Ritualistic and symbolic functions.'' In many cultures, art is used in rituals, performances and dances as a decoration or symbol. While these often have no specific utilitarian (motivated) purpose, anthropologists know that they often serve a purpose at the level of meaning within a particular culture. This meaning is not furnished by any one individual, but is often the result of many generations of change, and of a cosmological relationship within the culture.<blockquote>"Most scholars who deal with rock paintings or objects recovered from prehistoric contexts that cannot be explained in utilitarian terms and are thus categorized as decorative, ritual or symbolic, are aware of the trap posed by the term 'art'." -Silva Tomaskova<ref>Silvia Tomaskova, "Places of Art: Art and Archaeology in Context": (1997)</ref> </blockquote> ===Motivated functions of art=== Motivated purposes of art refer to intentional, conscious actions on the part of the artists or creator. These may be to bring about political change, to comment on an aspect of society, to convey a specific emotion or mood, to address personal psychology, to illustrate another discipline, to (with commercial arts) sell a product, or simply as a form of communication. # ''Communication.'' Art, at its simplest, is a form of communication. As most forms of communication have an intent or goal directed toward another individual, this is a motivated purpose. Illustrative arts, such as scientific illustration, are a form of art as communication. Maps are another example. However, the content need not be scientific. Emotions, moods and feelings are also communicated through art.<blockquote>"[Art is a set of] artefacts or images with symbolic meanings as a means of communication." -Steve Mithen<ref>Steve Mithen. ''The Prehistory of the Mind: The Cognitive Origins of Art, Religion and Science''. 1999</ref></blockquote> # ''Art as entertainment''. Art may seek to bring about a particular emotion or mood, for the purpose of relaxing or entertaining the viewer. This is often the function of the art industries of Motion Pictures and Video Games.{{citation needed|date=July 2013}} # ''The Avante-Garde. Art for political change.'' One of the defining functions of early twentieth-century art has been to use visual images to bring about political change. Art movements that had this goal—[[Dadaism]], [[Surrealism]], [[Russian constructivism]], and [[Abstract Expressionism]], among others—are collectively referred to as the ''avante-garde'' arts.<blockquote>"By contrast, the realistic attitude, inspired by positivism, from Saint Thomas Aquinas to Anatole France, clearly seems to me to be hostile to any intellectual or moral advancement. I loathe it, for it is made up of mediocrity, hate, and dull conceit. It is this attitude which today gives birth to these ridiculous books, these insulting plays. It constantly feeds on and derives strength from the newspapers and stultifies both science and art by assiduously flattering the lowest of tastes; clarity bordering on stupidity, a dog's life." -André Breton (Surrealism)<ref>André Breton, ''Surrealist Manifesto'' (1924)</ref></blockquote> # ''Art as a "free zone"'', removed from the action of the social censure. Unlike the [[avant-garde]] movements, which wanted to erase cultural differences in order to produce new universal values, [[contemporary art]] has enhanced its tolerance towards cultural differences as well as its critical and liberating functions (social inquiry, activism, subversion, deconstruction ...), becoming a more open place for research and experimentation.<ref>According to [[Maurizio Bolognini]] this is not only associated with the [[postmodern art|postmodern]] rejection of all canons but with a process of secularization of art, which is finally considered as "a mere (albeit essential) convention, sustained and reproduced by the art system (artists, galleries, critics, collectors), providing a free zone, that is, a more open place for experimentation, removed from the constraints of the practical sphere.": see {{Cite book |title=Postdigitale |url= http://www.bolognini.org/bolognini_PDIG.htm |year=2008 |author=Maurizio Bolognini |publisher=Carocci |location=Rome |isbn=978-88-430-4739-0 |postscript=<!-- Bot inserted parameter. Either remove it; or change its value to "." for the cite to end in a ".", as necessary. -->{{inconsistent citations}} }}, [http://www.bolognini.org/bolognini_PDIG.htm#ch3b chap. 3].</ref> # ''Art for social inquiry, subversion and/or anarchy.'' While similar to art for political change, subversive or deconstructivist art may seek to question aspects of society without any specific political goal. In this case, the function of art may be simply to criticize some aspect of society.[[File:Graffiti Panorama rome.jpg|700px|thumb|center|[[Aerosol paint|Spray-paint]] [[graffiti]] on a wall in Rome]] [[Graffiti#Uses|Graffiti art]] and other types of [[street art]] are graphics and images that are [[Spray painting|spray-painted]] or [[stencil]]led on publicly viewable walls, buildings, buses, trains, and bridges, usually without permission. Certain art forms, such as graffiti, may also be illegal when they break laws (in this case vandalism). # ''Art for social causes.'' Art can be used to raise awareness for a large variety of causes. A number of art activities were aimed at raising awareness of [[autism]],<ref>{{cite news|last=Trotter |first=Jeramia |title=RiverKings raising autism awareness with art |url=http://southaven-hornlake.wmctv.com/news/arts-culture/riverkings-raising-autism-awareness-art/52165 |accessdate=21 February 2013 |newspaper=WMC tv |date=15 February 2011 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/20110222053732/http://southaven-hornlake.wmctv.com:80/news/arts-culture/riverkings-raising-autism-awareness-art/52165 |archivedate=22 February 2011 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=Art exhibit aims to raise awareness of autism|url=http://www.newsminer.com/article_1a9b7e33-6ca0-56a5-89f3-c9c0798815a2.html|accessdate=21 February 2013|newspaper=Daily News-Miner|date=4 April 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Anchorage art exhibit to raise awareness about autism|url=http://dhss.alaska.gov/News/Documents/press/2011/Anchorage_art_exhibit_autism_PR033111.pdf|publisher=Alaska Department of Health and Social Services|accessdate=21 February 2013}}</ref> cancer,<ref>{{cite news|last=Ruhl|first=Ashleigh|title=Photographer Seeks Subjects To Help Raise Cancer Awareness|url=http://www.gazettes.com/lifestyle/arts_and_entertainment/photographer-seeks-subjects-to-help-raise-cancer-awareness/article_10291db8-7614-11e2-be53-0019bb2963f4.html|accessdate=21 February 2013|newspaper=Gazettes|date=18 February 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=Bra art raising awareness for breast cancer|url=http://www.palmbeachpost.com/videos/news/national/bra-art-raising-awareness-for-breast-cancer/vgBSm/|accessdate=22 January 2015|newspaper=The Palm Beach Post|date=n.d.}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|last=Flynn|first=Marella|title=October art walk aims to raise money, awareness for breast cancer|url=http://gargoyle.flagler.edu/2007/10/october-art-walk-aims-to-raise-money-awareness-for-breast-cancer/|accessdate=21 February 2013|newspaper=Flagler College Gargoyle|date=10 January 2007}}</ref> [[human trafficking]],<ref>{{cite news|title=Students get creative in the fight against human trafficking |url=http://www.wdtn.com/dpp/news/local/montgomery/ud-students-use-art-to-raise-awareness#.USb6vFeIqAg |accessdate=21 February 2013 |newspaper=WDTN Channel 2 News |date=26 November 2012 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/20150122224159/http://www.wdtn.com/dpp/news/local/montgomery/ud-students-use-art-to-raise-awareness |archivedate=22 January 2015 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=Looking to raise awareness at ArtPrize |url=http://www.wwmt.com/shared/newsroom/top-stories/stories/wwmt_looking-raise-awareness-at-artprize-4625.shtml |accessdate=21 February 2013 |newspaper=WWMT, Newschannel 3 |date=10 January 2012 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/20121006075346/http://www.wwmt.com:80/shared/newsroom/top-stories/stories/wwmt_looking-raise-awareness-at-artprize-4625.shtml |archivedate=6 October 2012 }}</ref> and a variety of other topics, such as ocean conservation,<ref>{{cite web|title=SciCafe – Art/Sci Collision: Raising Ocean Conservation Awareness|url=http://www.amnh.org/calendar/scicafe-art-sci-collision-raising-ocean-conservation-awareness|publisher=American Museum of Natural History|accessdate=21 February 2013}}</ref> human rights in [[Darfur]],<ref>{{cite news|title=SMU students raise awareness with 'Art for Darfur'|url=http://smu.edu/newsinfo/releases/07138c.asp|accessdate=21 February 2003|newspaper=SMU News Release|date=4 March 2008}}</ref> murdered and missing Aboriginal women,<ref>{{cite news|last=Donnelly |first=Greg |title=Red dress art project to raise awareness of murdered and missing Aboriginal women |url=http://www.globaltvedmonton.com/red+dress+art+project+to+raise+awareness+of+murdered+and+missing+aboriginal+women/6442594504/story.html |accessdate=21 February 2013 |newspaper=Global Edmonton |date=3 May 2012 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/20150122230836/http://www.globaltvedmonton.com/red+dress+art+project+to+raise+awareness+of+murdered+and+missing+aboriginal+women/6442594504/story.html |archivedate=22 January 2015 }}</ref> elder abuse,<ref>{{cite web|title=Raising elder abuse awareness through intergenerational art|url=http://www.hrsdc.gc.ca/eng/success_stories/seniors/40/index.shtml|publisher=Human Resources and Skills Development Canada|accessdate=21 February 2013}}</ref> and pollution.<ref>{{cite news|last=Mathema|first=Paavan|title=Trash to treasure: Turning Mt. Everest waste into art|url=http://www.cnn.com/2013/01/15/world/asia/everest-trash-art/|accessdate=21 February 2013|newspaper=CNN|date=16 January 2013}}</ref> [[Trashion]], using trash to make fashion, practiced by artists such as [[Marina DeBris]] is one example of using art to raise awareness about pollution. # ''Art for psychological and healing purposes.'' Art is also used by art therapists, psychotherapists and clinical psychologists as [[art therapy]]. The [[Art therapy#The Diagnostic Drawing Series (DDS)|Diagnostic Drawing Series]], for example, is used to determine the personality and emotional functioning of a patient. The end product is not the principal goal in this case, but rather a process of healing, through creative acts, is sought. The resultant piece of artwork may also offer insight into the troubles experienced by the subject and may suggest suitable approaches to be used in more conventional forms of psychiatric therapy. # ''Art for propaganda, or commercialism.'' Art is often utilized as a form of propaganda, and thus can be used to subtly influence popular conceptions or mood. In a similar way, art that tries to sell a product also influences mood and emotion. In both cases, the purpose of art here is to subtly manipulate the viewer into a particular emotional or psychological response toward a particular idea or object.<ref>[[Roland Barthes]], ''Mythologies''</ref> # ''Art as a fitness indicator.'' It has been argued that the ability of the human brain by far exceeds what was needed for survival in the ancestral environment. One [[evolutionary psychology]] explanation for this is that the human brain and associated traits (such as artistic ability and creativity) are the human equivalent of the [[peacock]]'s tail. The purpose of the male peacock's extravagant tail has been argued to be to attract females (see also [[Fisherian runaway]] and [[handicap principle]]). According to this theory superior execution of art was evolutionary important because it attracted mates.<ref name="Dutton">Dutton, Denis. 2003. "Aesthetics and Evolutionary Psychology" in ''The Oxford Handbook for Aesthetics''. Oxford University Press.</ref> The functions of art described above are not mutually exclusive, as many of them may overlap. For example, art for the purpose of entertainment may also seek to sell a product, i.e. the movie or video game. ==Public access== [[File:Chateau-de-versailles-cour.jpg|upright=2|thumb|left|Versailles: [[Louis Le Vau]] opened up the interior court to create the expansive entrance ''[[cour d'honneur]]'', later copied all over Europe.]] Since ancient times, much of the finest art has represented a deliberate display of wealth or power, often achieved by using massive scale and expensive materials. Much art has been commissioned by rulers or religious establishments, with more modest versions only available to the most wealthy in society. Nevertheless, there have been many periods where art of very high quality was available, in terms of ownership, across large parts of society, above all in cheap media such as pottery, which persists in the ground, and perishable media such as textiles and wood. In many different cultures, the [[ceramics of indigenous peoples of the Americas]] are found in such a wide range of graves that they were clearly not restricted to a [[social elite]], though other forms of art may have been. Reproductive methods such as [[Molding (process)|moulds]] made mass-production easier, and were used to bring high-quality [[Ancient Roman pottery]] and Greek [[Tanagra figurine]]s to a very wide market. [[Cylinder seal]]s were both artistic and practical, and very widely used by what can be loosely called the middle class in the [[Ancient Near East]]. Once [[coin]]s were widely used these also became an art form that reached the widest range of society. Another important innovation came in the 15th century in Europe, when [[printmaking]] began with small [[woodcut]]s, mostly religious, that were often very small and hand-colored, and affordable even by [[peasant]]s who glued them to the walls of their homes. Printed books were initially very expensive, but fell steadily in price until by the 19th century even the poorest could afford some with printed illustrations. [[Popular prints]] of many different sorts have decorated homes and other places for centuries. [[Public art|Public buildings and monuments]], secular and religious, by their nature normally address the whole of society, and visitors as viewers, and display to the general public has long been an important factor in their design. [[Egyptian temple]]s are typical in that the most largest and most lavish decoration was placed on the parts that could be seen by the general public, rather than the areas seen only by the priests. Many areas of royal palaces, castles and the houses of the social elite were often generally accessible, and large parts of the art collections of such people could often be seen, either by anybody, or by those able to pay a small price, or those wearing the correct clothes, regardless of who they were, as at the [[Palace of Versailles]], where the appropriate extra accessories (silver shoe buckles and a sword) could be hired from shops outside. Special arrangements were made to allow the public to see many royal or private collections placed in galleries, as with the [[Orleans Collection#Collection in Paris|Orleans Collection]] mostly housed in a wing of the [[Palais Royal]] in Paris, which could be visited for most of the 18th century. In Italy the art tourism of the [[Grand Tour]] became a major industry from the Renaissance onwards, and governments and cities made efforts to make their key works accessible. The British [[Royal Collection]] remains distinct, but large donations such as the [[Old Royal Library]] were made from it to the [[British Museum]], established in 1753. The [[Uffizi]] in [[Florence]] opened entirely as a gallery in 1765, though this function had been gradually taking the building over from the original civil servants' offices for a long time before. The building now occupied by the [[Prado]] in Madrid was built before the French Revolution for the public display of parts of the royal art collection, and similar royal galleries open to the public existed in [[Vienna]], Munich and other capitals. The opening of the [[Musée du Louvre]] during the [[French Revolution]] (in 1793) as a public museum for much of the former French royal collection certainly marked an important stage in the development of public access to art, transferring ownership to a republican state, but was a continuation of trends already well established. Most modern public museums and art education programs for children in schools can be traced back to this impulse to have art available to everyone. Museums in the United States tend to be gifts from the very rich to the masses ([[The Metropolitan Museum of Art]] in New York City, for example, was created by [[John Taylor Johnston]], a railroad executive whose personal art collection seeded the museum.) But despite all this, at least one of the important functions of art in the 21st century remains as a marker of wealth and social status. [[File:BeuysAchberg78.jpg|thumb|Performance by [[Joseph Beuys]], 1978: ''Everyone an artist – On the way to the libertarian form of the social organism'']] There have been attempts by artists to create art that can not be bought by the wealthy as a status object. One of the prime original motivators of much of the art of the late 1960s and 1970s was to create art that could not be bought and sold. It is "necessary to present something more than mere objects"<ref>{{cite journal|title=An Interview with Joseph Beuys|journal=ArtForum|date=December 1969|first=Willoughby|last=Sharp|volume=8|issue=4|page=45|id= |url=}}</ref> said the major post war German artist Joseph Beuys. This time period saw the rise of such things as [[performance art]], [[video art]], and [[conceptual art]]. The idea was that if the artwork was a performance that would leave nothing behind, or was simply an idea, it could not be bought and sold. "Democratic precepts revolving around the idea that a work of art is a commodity impelled the aesthetic innovation which germinated in the mid-1960s and was reaped throughout the 1970s. Artists broadly identified under the heading of Conceptual art ... substituting performance and publishing activities for engagement with both the material and materialistic concerns of painted or sculptural form ... [have] endeavored to undermine the art object qua object."<ref>Rorimer, Anne: ''New Art in the 60s and 70s Redefining Reality'', page 35. Thames and Hudson, 2001.</ref> In the decades since, these ideas have been somewhat lost as the art market has learned to sell limited edition DVDs of video works,<ref>{{cite news | first=Mia | last=Fineman | title=YouTube for Artists The best places to find video art online. | date=21 March 2007 | publisher= | url =http://www.slate.com/id/2162382/ | work =Slate | pages = | accessdate = 3 August 2007 | language = }}</ref> invitations to exclusive performance art pieces, and the objects left over from conceptual pieces. Many of these performances create works that are only understood by the elite who have been educated as to why an idea or video or piece of apparent garbage may be considered art. The marker of status becomes understanding the work instead of necessarily owning it, and the artwork remains an upper-class activity. "With the widespread use of DVD recording technology in the early 2000s, artists, and the gallery system that derives its profits from the sale of artworks, gained an important means of controlling the sale of video and computer artworks in limited editions to collectors."<ref>Robertson, Jean and Craig McDaniel: ''Themes of Contemporary Art, Visual Art after 1980'', page 16. Oxford University Press, 2005.</ref> ==Controversies== [[File:JEAN LOUIS THÉODORE GÉRICAULT - La Balsa de la Medusa (Museo del Louvre, 1818-19).jpg|thumb|left|upright=1.5|[[Théodore Géricault]]'s ''[[The Raft of the Medusa|Raft of the Medusa]]'', ''circa'' 1820]] Art has long been controversial, that is to say disliked by some viewers, for a wide variety of reasons, though most pre-modern controversies are dimly recorded, or completely lost to a modern view. [[Iconoclasm]] is the destruction of art that is disliked for a variety of reasons, including religious ones. [[Aniconism]] is a general dislike of either all figurative images, or often just religious ones, and has been a thread in many major religions. It has been a crucial factor in the history of [[Islamic art]], where [[depictions of Muhammad]] remain especially controversial. Much art has been disliked purely because it depicted or otherwise stood for unpopular rulers, parties or other groups. Artistic conventions have often been conservative and taken very seriously by [[art critic]]s, though often much less so by a wider public. The [[iconography|iconographic]] content of art could cause controversy, as with late medieval depictions of the new motif of the [[Swoon of the Virgin]] in scenes of the [[Crucifixion of Jesus]]. [[The Last Judgment (Michelangelo)|The ''Last Judgment'']] by [[Michelangelo]] was controversial for various reasons, including breaches of [[decorum]] through nudity and the [[Apollo]]-like pose of Christ. The content of much formal art through history was dictated by the patron or commissioner rather than just the artist, but with the advent of [[Romanticism]], and econonomic changes in the production of art, the artists' vision became the usual determinant of the content of his art, increasing the incidence of controversies, though often reducing their significance. Strong incentives for perceived originality and publicity also encouraged artists to court controversy. [[Théodore Géricault]]'s ''[[The Raft of the Medusa|Raft of the Medusa]]'' (c. 1820), was in part a political commentary on a recent event. [[Édouard Manet]]'s ''[[The Luncheon on the Grass|Le Déjeuner sur l'Herbe]]'' (1863), was considered scandalous not because of the [[nude]] woman, but because she is seated next to men fully dressed in the clothing of the time, rather than in robes of the antique world. [[John Singer Sargent]]'s ''[[Portrait of Madame X|Madame Pierre Gautreau (Madam&nbsp;X)]]'' (1884), caused a controversy over the reddish pink used to color the woman's ear lobe, considered far too suggestive and supposedly ruining the high-society model's reputation. The gradual abandonment of naturalism and the depiction of realistic representations of the visual appearance of subjects in the 19th and 20th centuries led to a rolling controversy lasting for over a century. In the twentieth century, [[Pablo Picasso]]'s ''[[Guernica (painting)|Guernica]]'' (1937) used arresting [[cubism|cubist]] techniques and stark [[Monochrome painting|monochromatic oils]], to depict the harrowing consequences of a contemporary bombing of a small, ancient Basque town. [[Leon Golub]]'s ''Interrogation III'' (1981), depicts a female nude, hooded detainee strapped to a chair, her legs open to reveal her sexual organs, surrounded by two tormentors dressed in everyday clothing. [[Andres Serrano]]'s ''[[Piss Christ]]'' (1989) is a photograph of a crucifix, sacred to the Christian religion and representing [[Jesus Christ|Christ]]'s sacrifice and final suffering, submerged in a glass of the artist's own urine. The resulting uproar led to comments in the United States Senate about public funding of the arts. ==Theory== {{main|Aesthetics}} Before Modernism, aesthetics in Western art was greatly concerned with achieving the appropriate balance between different aspects of [[Realism (arts)|realism or truth to nature]] and the [[Idealism|ideal]]; ideas as to what the appropriate balance is have shifted to and fro over the centuries. This concern is largely absent in other traditions of art. The aesthetic theorist [[John Ruskin]], who championed what he saw as the naturalism of [[J. M. W. Turner|J.&nbsp;M.&nbsp;W. Turner]], saw art's role as the communication by artifice of an essential truth that could only be found in nature.<ref>"go to nature in all [[singleness of heart]], rejecting nothing and selecting nothing, and scorning nothing, believing all things are right and good, and rejoicing always in the truth". [[John Ruskin|Ruskin, John]]. ''[[Modern Painters]]'', Volume I, 1843. London: Smith, Elder and Co.</ref> The definition and evaluation of art has become especially problematic since the 20th century. [[Richard Wollheim]] distinguishes three approaches to assessing the aesthetic value of art: the [[Aesthetic realism|Realist]], whereby aesthetic quality is an absolute value independent of any human view; the [[Objectivity (philosophy)|Objectivist]], whereby it is also an absolute value, but is dependent on general human experience; and the [[Relativist]] [[Aesthetic relativism|position]], whereby it is not an absolute value, but depends on, and varies with, the human experience of different humans.<ref>Wollheim 1980, ''Essay VI''. pp. 231–39.</ref> ===Arrival of Modernism=== [[File:Piet Mondriaan, 1930 - Mondrian Composition II in Red, Blue, and Yellow.jpg|thumb|''Composition II in Red, Blue, and Yellow'' (1930) by [[Piet Mondrian]] (Dutch, 1872–1944)]] The arrival of [[Modernism]] in the late nineteenth century lead to a radical break in the conception of the function of art,<ref>Griselda Pollock, ''Differencing the Canon''. Routledge, London & New York, 1999. ISBN 0-415-06700-6</ref> and then again in the late twentieth century with the advent of [[Postmodern art|postmodernism]]. [[Clement Greenberg]]'s 1960 article "Modernist Painting" defines modern art as "the use of characteristic methods of a discipline to criticize the discipline itself".<ref name = "Frascina">''Modern Art and Modernism: A Critical Anthology''. ed. Francis Frascina and Charles Harrison, 1982.</ref> Greenberg originally applied this idea to the Abstract Expressionist movement and used it as a way to understand and justify flat (non-illusionistic) abstract painting: {{quote|Realistic, naturalistic art had dissembled the medium, using art to conceal art; modernism used art to call attention to art. The limitations that constitute the medium of painting—the flat surface, the shape of the support, the properties of the pigment—were treated by the Old Masters as negative factors that could be acknowledged only implicitly or indirectly. Under Modernism these same limitations came to be regarded as positive factors, and were acknowledged openly.<ref name = "Frascina" />}} After Greenberg, several important art theorists emerged, such as [[Michael Fried]], [[T. J. Clark (historian)|T.&nbsp;J.&nbsp;Clark]], [[Rosalind Krauss]], [[Linda Nochlin]] and [[Griselda Pollock]] among others. Though only originally intended as a way of understanding a specific set of artists, Greenberg's definition of modern art is important to many of the ideas of art within the various art movements of the 20th century and early 21st century. [[Pop art]]ists like [[Andy Warhol]] became both noteworthy and influential through work including and possibly critiquing popular culture, as well as the [[art world]]. Artists of the 1980s, 1990s, and 2000s expanded this technique of self-criticism beyond ''high art'' to all cultural image-making, including fashion images, comics, billboards and pornography. Duchamp once proposed that art is any activity of any kind- everything. However, the way that only certain activities are classified today as art is a social construction.<ref name="Duchamp Interview Clip">{{YouTube|haon2DXWvLk|Duchamp Two Statements}}</ref> There is evidence that there may be an element of truth to this. [[The Invention of Art: A Cultural History]] is an art history book which examines the construction of the modern system of the arts i.e. [[Fine Art]]. Shiner finds evidence that the older system of the arts before our modern system (fine art) held art to be any skilled human activity i.e. Ancient Greek society did not possess the term art but [[techne]]. Techne can be understood neither as art or craft, the reason being that the distinctions of art and [[craft]] are historical products that came later on in human history. Techne included painting, sculpting and music but also; cooking, medicine, [[horsemanship]], [[geometry]], [[carpentry]], [[prophecy]] and farming etc. ===New Criticism and the "Intentional Fallacy"=== Following Duchamp during the first half of the twentieth century, a significant shift to general aesthetic theory took place which attempted to apply aesthetic theory between various forms of art, including the literary arts and the visual arts, to each other. This resulted in the rise of the [[New Criticism]] school and debate concerning ''the intentional fallacy''. At issue was the question of whether the aesthetic intentions of the artist in creating the work of art, whatever its specific form, should be associated with the criticism and evaluation of the final product of the work of art, or, if the work of art should be evaluated on its own merits independent of the intentions of the artist. In 1946, [[W. K. Wimsatt|William K. Wimsatt]] and [[Monroe Beardsley]] published a classic and controversial New Critical essay entitled "[[Intentional Fallacy|The Intentional Fallacy]]", in which they argued strongly against the relevance of an [[Authorial intentionality|author's intention]], or "intended meaning" in the analysis of a literary work. For Wimsatt and Beardsley, the words on the page were all that mattered; importation of meanings from outside the text was considered irrelevant, and potentially distracting. In another essay, "[[Affective fallacy|The Affective Fallacy]]," which served as a kind of sister essay to "The Intentional Fallacy" Wimsatt and Beardsley also discounted the reader's personal/emotional reaction to a literary work as a valid means of analyzing a text. This fallacy would later be repudiated by theorists from the [[reader-response]] school of literary theory. Ironically, one of the leading theorists from this school, [[Stanley Fish]], was himself trained by New Critics. Fish criticizes Wimsatt and Beardsley in his essay "Literature in the Reader" (1970).<ref>Leitch, Vincent B. , et al., eds. ''The Norton Anthology of Theory and Criticism''. New York: W. W. Norton & Company, 2001.</ref> As summarized by Gaut and Livingston in their essay "The Creation of Art": "Structuralist and post-structuralists theorists and critics were sharply critical of many aspects of New Criticism, beginning with the emphasis on aesthetic appreciation and the so-called autonomy of art, but they reiterated the attack on biographical criticisms's assumption that the artist's activities and experience were a privileged critical topic."<ref>Gaut and Livingston, ''The Creation of Art'', p. 3.</ref> These authors contend that: "Anti-intentionalists, such as formalists, hold that the intentions involved in the making of art are irrelevant or peripheral to correctly interpreting art. So details of the act of creating a work, though possibly of interest in themselves, have no bearing on the correct interpretation of the work."<ref name="Gaut and Livingston, p.6">Gaut and Livingston, p. 6.</ref> Gaut and Livingston define the intentionalists as distinct from formalists stating that: "Intentionalists, unlike formalists, hold that reference to intentions is essential in fixing the correct interpretation of works." They quote [[Richard Wollheim]] as stating that, "The task of criticism is the reconstruction of the creative process, where the creative process must in turn be thought of as something not stopping short of, but terminating on, the work of art itself."<ref name="Gaut and Livingston, p.6"/> ==="Linguistic turn" and its debate=== The end of the 20th century fostered an extensive debate known as the linguistic turn controversy, or the "innocent eye debate", and generally referred to as the structuralism-[[poststructuralism]] debate in the philosophy of art. This debate discussed the encounter of the work of art as being determined by the relative extent to which the conceptual encounter with the work of art dominates over the perceptual encounter with the work of art.<ref>''Philosophy for Architecture'', Branco Mitrovic, 2012.</ref> Decisive for the linguistic turn debate in art history and the humanities were the works of yet another tradition, namely the [[structuralism]] of [[Ferdinand de Saussure]] and the ensuing movement of [[poststructuralism]]. In 1981, the artist [[Mark Tansey]] created a work of art titled "The Innocent Eye" as a criticism of the prevailing climate of disagreement in the philosophy of art during the closing decades of the 20th century. Influential theorists include [[Judith Butler]], [[Luce Irigaray]], [[Julia Kristeva]], [[Michel Foucault]] and [[Jacques Derrida]]. The power of language, more specifically of certain rhetorical tropes, in art history and historical discourse was explored by [[Hayden White]]. The fact that language is ''not'' a transparent medium of thought had been stressed by a very different form of [[philosophy of language]] which originated in the works of [[Johann Georg Hamann]] and [[Wilhelm von Humboldt]].<ref>''Introduction to Structuralism'', Michael Lane, Basic Books University of Michigan, 1970.</ref> [[Ernst Gombrich]] and [[Nelson Goodman]] in his book ''[[Languages of Art|Languages of Art: An Approach to a Theory of Symbols]]'' came to hold that the conceptual encounter with the work of art predominated exclusively over the perceptual and visual encounter with the work of art during the 1960s and 1970s.<ref>''[[Languages of Art|Languages of Art: An Approach to a Theory of Symbols]]''. Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merrill, 1968. 2nd ed. Indianapolis: Hackett, 1976. Based on his 1960-61 [[John Locke lectures]].</ref> He was challenged on the basis of research done by the Nobel prize winning psychologist [[Roger Sperry]] who maintained that the human visual encounter was not limited to concepts represented in language alone (the linguistic turn) and that other forms of psychological representations of the work of art were equally defensible and demonstrable. Sperry's view eventually prevailed by the end of the 20th century with aesthetic philosophers such as Nick Zangwill strongly defending a return to moderate aesthetic formalism among other alternatives.<ref>Nick Zangwill, "Feasible Aesthetic Formalism", ''Nous'', December 1999, pp. 610-629.</ref> ==Classification disputes== {{Main|Classificatory disputes about art}} [[Image:Duchamp Fountaine.jpg|thumb|The original ''[[Fountain (Duchamp)|Fountain]]'' by [[Marcel Duchamp]], 1917, photographed by [[Alfred Stieglitz]] at the [[Little Galleries of the Photo-Secession|291]] after the 1917 [[Society of Independent Artists]] exhibit. Stieglitz used a backdrop of ''The Warriors'' by [[Marsden Hartley]] to photograph the urinal. The exhibition entry tag can be clearly seen.<ref name="Tomkins, p. 186">Tomkins, ''Duchamp: A Biography'', p. 186.</ref>]] Disputes as to whether or not to classify something as a work of art are referred to as classificatory disputes about art. Classificatory disputes in the 20th century have included [[cubist]] and [[impressionist]] paintings, [[Duchamp]]'s ''[[Fountain (Duchamp)|Fountain]]'', the movies, superlative imitations of [[J. S. G. Boggs|banknotes]], [[conceptual art]], and [[video games]].<ref>{{cite news |author=Deborah Solomon |title=2003: the 3rd Annual Year in Ideas: Video Game Art |newspaper=The New York Times Magazine |date=14 December 2003 |url=http://www.nytimes.com/2003/12/14/magazine/2003-the-3rd-annual-year-in-ideas-video-game-art.html}}</ref> Philosopher David Novitz has argued that disagreement about the definition of art are rarely the heart of the problem. Rather, "the passionate concerns and interests that humans vest in their social life" are "so much a part of all classificatory disputes about art" (Novitz, 1996). According to Novitz, classificatory disputes are more often disputes about societal values and where society is trying to go than they are about theory proper. For example, when the [[Daily Mail]] criticized [[Damien Hirst|Hirst]]'s and [[Tracey Emin|Emin]]'s work by arguing "For 1,000 years art has been one of our great civilising forces. Today, pickled sheep and soiled beds threaten to make barbarians of us all" they are not advancing a definition or theory about art, but questioning the value of Hirst's and Emin's work.<ref>Painter, Colin. ''Contemporary Art and the Home''. Berg Publishers, 2002. p. 12. ISBN 1-85973-661-0</ref> In 1998, [[Arthur Danto]], suggested a thought experiment showing that "the status of an artifact as work of art results from the ideas a culture applies to it, rather than its inherent physical or perceptible qualities. Cultural interpretation (an art theory of some kind) is therefore constitutive of an object's arthood."<ref>Dutton, Denis [http://www.denisdutton.com/tribal_art.htm "Tribal Art"] in ''[[Encyclopedia of Aesthetics]], edited by Michael Kelly (New York: Oxford University Press, 1998).</ref><ref>Danto, Arthur. "Artifact and Art" in ''Art/Artifact'', edited by Susan Vogel. New York, 1988.</ref> [[Anti-art]] is a label for art that intentionally challenges the established parameters and values of art;<ref name=tate/> it is term associated with [[Dada]]ism and attributed to [[Marcel Duchamp]] just before World War I,<ref name=tate>[http://www.tate.org.uk/collections/glossary/definition.jsp?entryId=571 "Glossary: Anti-art"], [[Tate]]. Retrieved 23 January 2010.</ref> when he was making art from [[found art|found objects]].<ref name=tate/> One of these, ''[[Fountain (Duchamp)|Fountain]]'' (1917), an ordinary urinal, has achieved considerable prominence and influence on art.<ref name=tate/> Anti-art is a feature of work by [[Situationist International]],<ref>Schneider, Caroline. [http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1G1-78637292.html "Asger Jorn"], ''[[Artforum]]'', 1 September 2001. Retrieved from encyclopedia.com, 24 January 2010. {{wayback|url=http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1G1-78637292.html |date=20110513081709 }}</ref> the lo-fi Mail art movement, and the [[Young British Artists]],<ref name=tate/> though it is a form still rejected by the [[Stuckism|Stuckists]],<ref name=tate/> who describe themselves as [[anti-anti-art]].<ref>Ferguson, Euan. [http://www.guardian.co.uk/artanddesign/2003/apr/20/thesaatchigallery.art2 "In bed with Tracey, Sarah ... and Ron"], ''[[The Observer]]'', 20 April 2003. Retrieved on 2 May 2009.</ref><ref>[http://www.artnet.com/Magazine/news/artnetnews/artnetnews10-27-00.asp "Stuck on the Turner Prize"], [[artnet]], 27 October 2000. Retrieved on 2 May 2009.</ref> ===Value judgment=== [[File:Aboriginal hollow log tomb.jpg|thumb|left|upright|Aboriginal hollow log tombs. National Gallery, [[Canberra]], Australia]] Somewhat in relation to the above, the word ''art'' is also used to apply judgments of value, as in such expressions as "that meal was a work of art" (the cook is an artist), or "the art of deception", (the highly attained level of skill of the deceiver is praised). It is this use of the word as a measure of high quality and high value that gives the term its flavor of subjectivity. Making judgments of value requires a basis for criticism. At the simplest level, a way to determine whether the impact of the object on the senses meets the criteria to be considered ''art'' is whether it is perceived to be attractive or repulsive. Though perception is always colored by experience, and is necessarily subjective, it is commonly understood that what is not somehow aesthetically satisfying cannot be art. However, "good" art is not always or even regularly aesthetically appealing to a majority of viewers. In other words, an artist's prime motivation need not be the pursuit of the aesthetic. Also, art often depicts terrible images made for social, moral, or thought-provoking reasons. For example, [[Francisco Goya]]'s painting depicting the Spanish shootings of 3rd&nbsp;of May 1808 is a graphic depiction of a firing squad executing several pleading civilians. Yet at the same time, the horrific imagery demonstrates Goya's keen artistic ability in composition and execution and produces fitting social and political outrage. Thus, the debate continues as to what mode of aesthetic satisfaction, if any, is required to define 'art'. The assumption of new values or the rebellion against accepted notions of what is aesthetically superior need not occur concurrently with a complete abandonment of the pursuit of what is aesthetically appealing. Indeed, the reverse is often true, that the revision of what is popularly conceived of as being aesthetically appealing allows for a re-invigoration of aesthetic sensibility, and a new appreciation for the standards of art itself. Countless schools have proposed their own ways to define quality, yet they all seem to agree in at least one point: once their aesthetic choices are accepted, the value of the work of art is determined by its capacity to transcend the limits of its chosen medium to strike some universal chord by the rarity of the skill of the artist or in its accurate reflection in what is termed the ''[[zeitgeist]]''. Art is often intended to appeal to and connect with human emotion. It can arouse [[aesthetic]] or [[morality|moral]] feelings, and can be understood as a way of communicating these feelings. Artists express something so that their audience is aroused to some extent, but they do not have to do so consciously. Art may be considered an exploration of the [[human condition]]; that is, what it is to be human.<ref>{{cite book | last1 = Graham | first1 = Gordon | title = Philosophy of the arts: an introduction to aesthetics | publisher = Taylor & Francis | year = 2005}}</ref> ==See also== {{clear}} {{Portal|Arts|Visual arts}} <!-- Please keep entries in alphabetical order & add a short description [[WP:SEEALSO]] --> {{div col||20em|small=yes}} * [[Art movement]] * [[Artist in residence]] * [[Formal analysis]] * [[List of artistic media]] *[[Mathematics and art]] * [[Outline of the visual arts]] – guide to the subject of art presented as a [[tree structure]]d list of its subtopics. {{div col end}} <!-- please keep entries in alphabetical order --> {{Wikipedia books|Art|position=left}} ==Notes== {{reflist|30em}} ==Bibliography== * Shiner, Larry. "[[The Invention of Art: A Cultural History]]". Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2003. ISBN 978-0-226-75342-3 * [[Arthur Danto]], ''The Abuse of Beauty: Aesthetics and the Concept of Art.'' 2003 * Dana Arnold and Margaret Iverson (eds.) ''Art and Thought''. Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 2003 * Michael Ann Holly and Keith Moxey (eds.) ''Art History Aesthetics Visual Studies''. New Haven: Yale University Press, 2002. ISBN 0300097891 * John Whitehead. ''Grasping for the Wind'', 2001 * Noel Carroll, ''Theories of Art Today'', 2000 * Evelyn Hatcher, ed. ''Art as Culture: An Introduction to the Anthropology of Art'', 1999 * [[Catherine de Zegher]] (ed.). ''Inside the Visible''. MIT Press, 1996 * Nina, Felshin, ed. ''But is it Art?'' 1995 * Stephen Davies, ''Definitions of Art'', 1991 * Oscar Wilde, "Intentions". * Jean Robertson and Craig McDaniel, "Themes of Contemporary Art, Visual Art after 1980", 2005 ==Further reading== {{Commons category|Art}} {{Library resources box |by=no |onlinebooks=no |others=no |about=yes |label=Art }} * Shiner, Larry. ''The Invention of Art: A Cultural History''. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2003. ISBN 978-0-226-75342-3 * Augros, Robert M., Stanciu, George N. ''The New Story of Science: mind and the universe'', Lake Bluff, Ill.: Regnery Gateway, 1984. ISBN 0-89526-833-7 (this book has significant material on art and science) * [[Richard Wollheim]], ''Art and its Objects: An introduction to aesthetics''. New York: Harper & Row, 1968. {{OCLC|1077405}} * [[Carl Jung]], ''Man and His Symbols''. London: Pan Books, 1978. ISBN 0330253212 * [[Benedetto Croce]]. ''Aesthetic as Science of Expression and General Linguistic'', 2002 * [[Władysław Tatarkiewicz]], ''A History of Six Ideas: an Essay in Aesthetics'', translated from the Polish by [[Christopher Kasparek]], The Hague, Martinus Nijhoff, 1980 * [[Leo Tolstoy]], "[[What Is Art?]]", 1897 * Kleiner, Gardner, Mamiya and Tansey. ''Art Through the Ages, Twelfth Edition (2 volumes)'' Wadsworth, 2004. ISBN 0-534-64095-8 (vol 1) and ISBN 0-534-64091-5 (vol 2) * [[Kristine Stiles]] and [[Peter Selz]], eds. ''Theories and Documents of Contemporary Art''. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1986 * Florian Dombois, Ute Meta Bauer, Claudia Mareis and Michael Schwab, eds. ''Intellectual Birdhouse. Artistic Practice as Research''. London: Koening Books, 2012. ISBN 978-3863351182 * Dana Arnold and Margaret Iverson, eds. ''Art and Thought''. London: Blackwell, 2003. ISBN 0631227156 * Antony Briant and [[Griselda Pollock]], eds. ''Digital and Other Virtualities: Renegotiating the image''. London and NY: I.B.Tauris, 2010. ISBN 978-1441676313 * Carol Armstrong and Catherine de Zegher, eds. ''Women Artists at the Millennium''. Massachusetts: October Books/The MIT Press, 2006. ISBN 026201226X ==External links== {{Sisterlinks|art}} <!-- Do not place advertisements here. COMMERCIAL LINKS WILL BE REMOVED. See this article's Talk page, WP:EL, and WP:SPAM for more information. Wikipedia is not a link directory. Consider submitting your link to DMOZ instead. --> * [http://xtf.lib.virginia.edu/xtf/view?docId=DicHist/uvaBook/tei/DicHist1.xml;chunk.id=dv1-17;toc.depth=1;toc.id=dv1-17;brand=default;query=Dictionary%20of%20the%20History%20of%20Ideas#1 ''Art and Play'' from the Dictionary of the History of ideas] * [http://witcombe.sbc.edu/ARTHLinks.html In-depth directory of art] * ''[http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcollections/art-design/artandartistfiles/ Art and Artist Files in the Smithsonian Libraries Collection]'' (2005) Smithsonian Digital Libraries * [http://www.ahds.ac.uk/ Visual Arts Data Service (VADS)] – online collections from UK museums, galleries, universities * [http://www.RevolutionArtMagazine.com/ RevolutionArt – Art magazines with worldwide exhibitions, callings and competitions] * {{sep entry|art-definition|The Definition of Art|Thomas Adajian}} <!-- Do not place advertisements here. COMMERCIAL LINKS WILL BE REMOVED. See this article's Talk page, WP:EL, and WP:SPAM for more information. Wikipedia is not a link directory. Consider submitting your link to DMOZ instead. --> {{aesthetics}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Aesthetics]] [[Category:Arts| ]] [[Category:Visual arts]] ps56f8joxuvz7oauk91mlmyzvy4790z 0 755 629644964 179567678 2014-10-15T00:02:41Z Jdaloner 4460044 Changed "R from CamelCase" tag to "R from subpage". wikitext text/x-wiki #REDIRECT [[History of Albania]] {{R from subpage}} r7hhwwy02x0504zuam13w8vgnm0fuo6 0 758 629645102 312960590 2014-10-15T00:03:46Z Jdaloner 4460044 Changed "R from CamelCase" tag to "R from subpage". wikitext text/x-wiki #REDIRECT [[Foreign relations of Albania]] {{R from subpage}} {{nahmc|Foreign relations of Albania}} t984gzi8sufrciywfcr917te1yuv4wl 0 759 629645149 179567710 2014-10-15T00:04:19Z Jdaloner 4460044 Changed "R from CamelCase" tag to "R from subpage". wikitext text/x-wiki #REDIRECT [[Demographics of Albania]] {{R from subpage}} s095sdkdi036i8t22q5pepa8tglgpxx 0 763 629645216 312960491 2014-10-15T00:04:54Z Jdaloner 4460044 Changed "R from CamelCase" tag to "R from subpage". wikitext text/x-wiki #REDIRECT [[Foreign relations of Albania]] {{R from subpage}} {{nahmc|Foreign relations of Albania}} t984gzi8sufrciywfcr917te1yuv4wl 0 764 696453716 696364305 2015-12-23T07:18:03Z Caftaric 25152539 Category:Trilobite orders wikitext text/x-wiki {{Use dmy dates|date=June 2013}} {{Automatic taxobox | taxon = Agnostida | fossil_range = {{fossil_range|Early Cambrian|Late Ordovician}} | image = Itagnostus interstrictus (White, 1874) - 8 mm 1.JPG | image_caption = ''Itagnostus interstrictus'' | authority = [[John William Salter|Salter]], 1864 | synonyms = Isopygia Gürich, 1907<br /> Miomera Jækel, 1909 | subdivision_ranks = Families | subdivision = '''Suborder [[Agnostina]]''' * '''Superfamily Agnostoidea''' ** [[Agnostidae]] ** [[Ammagnostidae]] ** [[Clavagnostidae]] ** [[Diplagnostidae]] ** [[Doryagnostidae]] ** [[Glyptagnostidae]] ** [[Metagnostidae]] ** [[Peronopsidae]] ** [[Ptychagnostidae]] ** [[Spinagnostidae]] * '''Superfamily [[Condylopygoidea]]''' ** [[Condylopygidae]] '''Suborder [[Eodiscina]]''' * '''Superfamily [[Eodiscoidea]]''' ** [[Calodiscidae]] ** [[Eodiscidae]] ** [[Hebediscidae]] ** [[Tsunyidiscidae]] ** [[Weymouthiidae]] ** [[Yukoniidae]] }} '''Agnostida''' is an [[order (biology)|order]] of [[arthropod]] which first developed near the end of the [[Cambrian|Early Cambrian]] period and thrived during the Middle Cambrian. They are present in the [[Lower Cambrian]] fossil record along with [[trilobites]] from the [[Redlichiida]], [[Corynexochida]], and [[Ptychopariida]] orders. The last agnostids went [[extinct]] in the Late [[Ordovician]]. ==Systematics== The Agnostida are divided into two suborders&nbsp;— [[Agnostina]] and [[Eodiscina]]&nbsp;— that are then subdivided into a number of [[family (biology)|families]]. As a group, agnostids are isopygous, meaning that their [[pygidium]] is similar in size and shape to their [[cephalon (arthropod anatomy)|cephalon]]. Most agnostid species were eyeless. The systematic position of the order Agnostida within the class Trilobita remains uncertain, and there has been continuing debate whether they are trilobites or a [[stem group]]. The challenge to the status has focused on the Agnostina partly because [[juvenile (organism)|juveniles]] of one genus have been found with legs greatly different from those of adult trilobites,<ref>Müller, K. J. & Walossek, D. (1987): "Morphology, ontogeny, and life habit of ''Agnostus pisiformis'' from the Upper Cambrian of Sweden". ''Fossils and Strata'', '''19''', 1-124.</ref> suggesting they are not members of the [[lamellipedia]]n [[clade]], of which trilobites are a part. Instead, the limbs of agnostids closely resemble those of stem group crustaceans, although they lack the [[proximal endite]], which defines that group. They are likely the [[sister taxon]] to the crustacean stem lineage, and, as such, part of the clade [[Crustaceomorpha]].<ref>Bergström, J. & Hou, X.G. (2005). "Early Palaeozoic non-lamellipedian arthropods". In S. Koenemann & A. J. Ronald (eds.), ''Crustacea and Arthropod Relationships'' (Volume , pp. 75-93). Taylor and Francis Group.</ref> Other researchers have suggested, based on a [[cladistic]] analyses of [[dorsum (anatomy)|dorsal]] [[exoskeleton|exoskeletal]] features, that Eodiscina and Agnostida are closely united, and that the Eodiscina descended from the trilobite order [[Ptychopariida]].<ref>Cotton, T. J. & [[Fortey, R.A.]] (2005). "Comparative morphology and relationships of the Agnostida". In S. Koenemann & R. A. Jenner (eds.), ''Crustacea and Arthropod Relationships'' (Volume , pp. 95-136). Taylor and Francis Group.</ref> Still others have argued that Agnostids are related to [[Brachiopods]]. ==Ecology== Scientists have long debated whether the agnostids lived a [[pelagic]] or a [[benthic]] lifestyle. Their lack of eyes, a morphology not well-suited for swimming, and their fossils found in association with other benthic trilobites all suggest a benthic (bottom-dwelling) mode of life. They are likely to have lived on areas of the ocean floor that received little or no light and fed on [[detritus]] that descended from upper layers of the sea to the bottom. In contrast, their wide geographic dispersion in the [[fossil record]] is uncharacteristic of benthic animals, suggesting a pelagic existence. The thoracic segment appears to form a hinge between the head and pygidium allowing for a bivalved [[ostracod]]an-type lifestyle. Furthermore, the orientation of the thoracic appendages appears ill suited for benthic living. However, recent work suggests that some agnostids were benthic predators, engaging in cannibalism and possibly manifesting pack-hunting behavior.<ref>McMenamin, M. A. S. (2010). "Cambrian cannibals: agnostid trilobite ethology and the earliest known case of arthropod cannibalism". ''Geological Society of America Abstracts with Programs'', v. 42, no. 5, p. 320.</ref> They are sometimes preserved within the voids of other organisms, for instance within empty [[hyolith]] conchs,<ref>{{Cite journal |year = 2009 |title = Agnostids entombed in hyolith conchs |journal = Memoirs of the Association of Australasian Palaeontologists |pages = 481–489 |author1 = Fatka, O. |author2 = Vokáč, V. |author3 = Moravec, J. |author4 = Šinágl, M. |author5 = Valent, M. |volume = 37 |issn = 0810-8889}}</ref> within [[sponge]]s, [[Selkirkia|worm tubes]] and under the carapaces of [[Sidneyia|bivalved arthropods]],<ref name=Chatterton2003>{{Chatterton 2003}}</ref> presumably in order to hide from predators or strong storm currents; or maybe whilst scavenging for food.<ref name=Chatterton2003/> In the case of the tapering worm tubes ''[[Selkirkia]]'', trilobites are always found with their heads directed towards the opening of the tube, suggesting that they reversed in; the absence of any moulted carapaces suggests that moulting was not their primary reason for seeking shelter.<ref name=Chatterton2003/> ==References== {{Reflist}} ==External links== * [http://www.trilobites.info/ordagnostida.htm Order Agnostida] by Sam Gon III. * [http://www.fossilmuseum.net/Fossil_Galleries/Trilobites-Agnostida.htm The Virtual Fossil Museum – Trilobite Order Agnostida] * [http://www.aloha.net/~smgon/ordagnostida.htm Agnostida fact sheet] by Sam Gon III. * [http://news.discovery.com/animals/early-animals-cannibals.html "Earth's Early Cannibals Caught in the Act"], by Larry O'Hanlon, news.discovery.com. {{Trilobites}} [[Category:Agnostida| ]] [[Category:Trilobite orders]] [[Category:Cambrian trilobites]] [[Category:Ordovician trilobites]] [[Category:Fossil taxa described in 1864]] [[Category:Cambrian first appearances]] [[Category:Late Ordovician extinctions]] nwk65yarpi6mypbsbrxkz84m6fu55kr 0 765 717701537 717642774 2016-04-29T06:52:14Z Doc James 3810835 Reverted [[WP:AGF|good faith]] edits by [[Special:Contributions/Dmpls83|Dmpls83]] ([[User talk:Dmpls83|talk]]): Moved back per MEDMOS. ([[WP:TW|TW]]) wikitext text/x-wiki {{other uses|Abortion (disambiguation)}} {{pp-semi-indef}} {{pp-move-indef}} {{Use dmy dates|date=May 2014}} <!--Note to Editors: This article has a long history of intense terminology debates. Please review the talk page before making changes to lines to see if there is a previous established consensus or compromise. Thank you.--> {{bots|deny=Citation bot}} {{Infobox medical condition | Name = Induced abortion | Image =<!--Please don't add an image here unless it achieves consensus at Talk:Abortion/Lead image--> | Caption = | Field = [[Obstetrics]] and [[gynecology]] | ICD10 = {{ICD10|O|04||o|00}} | ICD9 = {{ICD9|779.6}} | DiseasesDB = 4153 | ICDO = | OMIM = | MedlinePlus = 002912 | eMedicineSubj = article | eMedicineTopic = 252560 | MeshID=D000028 }} <!-- The lead sentence has been the topic of much discussion. Please do not edit it without first reviewing the talk page and its archives. --> <!-- Terminology --> '''Abortion''' is the ending of [[pregnancy]] by removing a [[fetus]] or [[embryo]] before it can [[fetal viability|survive outside the uterus]].<ref name="definition" group="note" /> An abortion which occurs spontaneously is also known as a [[miscarriage]]. An abortion may be caused purposely and is then called an [[#Induced|induced abortion]], or less frequently, "induced miscarriage". The word ''abortion'' is often used to mean only induced abortions. A similar procedure after the fetus could potentially survive outside the womb is known as a "[[late termination of pregnancy]]".<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Grimes|first1=DA |last2=Stuart |first2=G |title=Abortion jabberwocky: the need for better terminology |journal=Contraception |year=2010 |volume=81 |issue=2 |pages=93–6 |pmid=20103443 |doi=10.1016/j.contraception.2009.09.005}}</ref> <!-- Methods and safety --> When allowed by [[abortion law|local law]], abortion in the [[developed world]] is [[#Safety|one of the safest procedures in medicine]].<ref name="lancet-grimes">{{Cite journal |last1=Grimes |first1=DA |last2=Benson |first2=J |last3=Singh |first3=S |last4=Romero |first4=M |last5=Ganatra |first5=B |last6=Okonofua |first6=FE |last7=Shah |first7=IH |doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(06)69481-6 |title=Unsafe abortion: The preventable pandemic |journal=The Lancet |volume=368 |issue=9550 |pages=1908–1919 |year=2006 |pmid=17126724 |url=http://www.who.int/reproductivehealth/publications/general/lancet_4.pdf |format=PDF}}</ref><ref name="Ray2014">{{cite journal |last1=Raymond |first1=EG |last2=Grossman |first2=D |last3=Weaver |first3=MA |last4=Toti |first4=S |last5=Winikoff |first5=B |title=Mortality of induced abortion, other outpatient surgical procedures and common activities in the United States |journal=Contraception |date=November 2014 |volume=90 |issue=5 |pages=476–479 |pmid=25152259 |doi=10.1016/j.contraception.2014.07.012}}</ref> Modern methods use [[medical abortion|medication]] or [[surgical abortion|surgery]] for abortions.<ref name=1st_Methods>{{cite journal |last1=Kulier |first1=R |last2=Kapp |first2=N |last3=Gülmezoglu |first3=AM |last4=Hofmeyr |first4=GJ |last5=Cheng |first5=L |last6=Campana |first6=A |title=Medical methods for first trimester abortion. |journal=Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews |date=9 November 2011 |issue=11 |pages=CD002855 |pmid=22071804 |doi=10.1002/14651858.CD002855.pub4}}</ref> The drug [[mifepristone]] in combination with [[prostaglandin]] appears to be as safe and effective as surgery during the [[first trimester|first]] and [[second trimester]] of pregnancy.<ref name=1st_Methods/><ref name=Kapp2013/> [[Birth control]], such as [[combined oral contraceptive pill|the pill]] or [[intrauterine device]]s, can be used immediately following abortion.<ref name=Kapp2013>{{cite journal|last1=Kapp |first1=N |last2=Whyte |first2=P |last3=Tang |first3=J |last4=Jackson |first4=E |last5=Brahmi |first5=D |title=A review of evidence for safe abortion care |journal=Contraception |date=September 2013 |volume=88 |issue=3 |pages=350–63 |pmid=23261233 |doi=10.1016/j.contraception.2012.10.027}}</ref> When performed legally and safely, induced abortions do not increase the risk of long-term [[mental health|mental]] or physical problems.<ref name=BMJ2014/> In contrast, [[unsafe abortion]]s cause 47,000 [[maternal death|deaths]] and 5 million hospital admissions each year.<ref name=BMJ2014>{{Cite journal |last1=Lohr |first1=PA |last2=Fjerstad |first2=M |last3=Desilva |first3=U |last4=Lyus |first4=R |title=Abortion |journal = BMJ | volume = 348 | page = f7553 | year = 2014 | doi = 10.1136/bmj.f7553}}</ref><ref name="OBGY09">{{Cite journal |last1=Shah |first1=I |last2=Ahman |first2=E |title=Unsafe abortion: global and regional incidence, trends, consequences, and challenges |journal=Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology Canada |volume=31 |issue=12 |pages=1149–58 |date=December 2009 |pmid=20085681 |url=http://www.sogc.org/jogc/abstracts/full/200912_WomensHealth_1.pdf |format=PDF}}</ref> The [[World Health Organization]] recommends safe and legal abortions be available to all women.<ref name=WHOPolicy2012>{{cite book |author=World Health Organization |title=Safe abortion: technical and policy guidance for health systems |date=2012 |publisher=World Health Organization |location=Geneva |isbn=9789241548434 |page=8 |edition=2nd |url=http://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/10665/70914/1/9789241548434_eng.pdf?ua=1 |format=PDF}}</ref> <!-- Epidemiology --> Around 44 million abortions occur each year in the world, with a little under half done unsafely.<ref name="Sedgh 2012">{{Cite journal |last1=Sedgh |first1=G. |last2=Singh |first2=S. |last3=Shah |first3=I. H. |last4=Åhman |first4=E. |last5=Henshaw |first5=S. K. |last6=Bankole |first6=A. |doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(11)61786-8 |title=Induced abortion: Incidence and trends worldwide from 1995 to 2008 |journal=The Lancet |volume=379 |issue=9816 |pages=625–632 |year=2012 |pmid=22264435 |url=http://www.guttmacher.org/pubs/journals/Sedgh-Lancet-2012-01.pdf |format=PDF |quote=Because few of the abortion estimates were based on studies of random samples of women, and because we did not use a model-based approach to estimate abortion incidence, it was not possible to compute confidence intervals based on standard errors around the estimates. Drawing on the information available on the accuracy and precision of abortion estimates that were used to develop the subregional, regional, and worldwide rates, we computed intervals of certainty around these rates (webappendix). We computed wider intervals for unsafe abortion rates than for safe abortion rates. The basis for these intervals included published and unpublished assessments of abortion reporting in countries with liberal laws, recently published studies of national unsafe abortion, and high and low estimates of the numbers of unsafe abortion developed by WHO.}}</ref> Abortion rates changed little between 2003 and 2008,<ref name="Sedgh 2012" /> before which they decreased for at least two decades as access to [[family planning]] and birth control increased.<ref name="worldtrends2007">{{Cite journal |author=Sedgh G, Henshaw SK, Singh S, Bankole A, Drescher J |title=Legal abortion worldwide: incidence and recent trends |journal=Int Fam Plan Perspect |volume=33 |issue=3 |pages=106–116 |date=September 2007 |pmid=17938093 |doi=10.1363/ifpp.33.106.07 |url=http://www.guttmacher.org/pubs/journals/3310607.html}}</ref> {{as of|2008}}, 40% of the world's women had access to legal abortions without limits as to reason.<ref name=IJGO10/> Different governments have different limits on how late in pregnancy abortion is allowed.<ref name=IJGO10>{{Cite journal|author=Culwell KR, Vekemans M, de Silva U, Hurwitz M|title=Critical gaps in universal access to reproductive health: Contraception and prevention of unsafe abortion |journal=International Journal of Gynecology & Obstetrics |volume=110 |pages=S13–16 |date=July 2010 |pmid=20451196 |doi=10.1016/j.ijgo.2010.04.003}}</ref> <!-- History, society and culture --> Since [[history of abortion|ancient times]], abortions have been done using [[abortifacient|herbal medicine]]s, sharp tools, with [[physical trauma|force]], or through other [[traditional medicine|traditional methods]].<ref name="Management of Abortion, Chp 1">{{cite book|chapter=1. Abortion and medicine: A sociopolitical history|isbn=978-1-4443-1293-5|publisher=[[John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.]]|year=2009|location=[[Oxford, United Kingdom]]|title=Management of Unintended and Abnormal Pregnancy|edition=1st|editors=M Paul, ES Lichtenberg, L Borgatta, DA Grimes, PG Stubblefield, MD Creinin |first=Carole |last=Joffe |url=http://media.wiley.com/product_data/excerpt/62/14051769/1405176962.pdf |format=PDF |archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/62bppK1Iw |archivedate=21 October 2011 |deadurl=no}}</ref> [[Abortion law]]s and cultural or religious views of abortions are different around the world. In some areas abortion is legal only in specific cases such as rape, [[fetal defects|problems with the fetus]], [[Socioeconomic status|poverty]], risk to a woman's health, or [[incest]].<ref name="Dev98-07">{{Cite journal|last1=Boland |first1=R. |last2=Katzive |first2=L. |doi=10.1363/ifpp.34.110.08 |title=Developments in Laws on Induced Abortion: 1998–2007 |journal=International Family Planning Perspectives |volume=34 |issue=3 |pages=110–120 |year=2008 |pmid=18957353 |url=http://www.guttmacher.org/pubs/journals/3411008.html}}</ref> In many places there is much [[Abortion debate|debate]] over the moral, ethical, and legal issues of abortion.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Nixon|first1=edited by Frederick Adolf Paola, Robert Walker, Lois LaCivita|title=Medical ethics and humanities|date=2010|publisher=Jones and Bartlett Publishers|location=Sudbury, Mass.|isbn=9780763760632|page=249|url=https://books.google.ca/books?id=9pM2pw-2wl4C&pg=PA249}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Johnstone|first1=Megan-Jane|title=Bioethics a nursing perspective|date=2009|publisher=Churchill Livingstone/Elsevier|location=Sydney, N.S.W.|isbn=9780729578738|page=228|edition=5th|url=https://books.google.ca/books?id=EG-Yg1xDYakC&pg=PA228|quote=Although abortion has been legal in many countries for several decades now, its moral permissibilities continues to be the subject of heated public debate.}}</ref> Those who [[Anti-abortion movements|oppose abortion]] often maintain that an embryo or fetus is a human with a [[right to life]] and may compare abortion to [[murder]].<ref>{{Cite news|author=Pastor Mark Driscoll |title=What do 55 million people have in common? |publisher=Fox News |date=18 October 2013 |accessdate=2 July 2014 |url=http://www.foxnews.com/opinion/2013/10/18/what-do-55-million-people-have-in-common/}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|first=Dale|last=Hansen |title=Abortion: Murder, or Medical Procedure? |publisher=Huffington Post |date=18 March 2014 |accessdate=2 July 2014 |url=http://www.huffingtonpost.com/dale-hansen/abortion-murder-or-medica_b_4986637.html}}</ref> Those who [[Abortion-rights movements|favor the legality of abortion]] often hold that [[reproductive rights|a woman has a right to make decisions about her own body]].<ref>{{cite book|last1=Sifris|first1=Ronli Noa|title=Reproductive Freedom, Torture and International Human Rights Challenging the Masculinisation of Torture.|date=2013|publisher=Taylor and Francis|location=Hoboken|isbn=9781135115227|page=3|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9pVWAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA3}}</ref> {{TOC limit|3}} ==Types== ===Induced=== Approximately 205 million pregnancies occur each year worldwide. Over a third are [[unintended pregnancy|unintended]] and about a fifth end in induced abortion.<ref name="Sedgh 2012" /><ref>{{cite web|author=Cheng L.|url=http://apps.who.int/rhl/fertility/abortion/CD006714_chengl_com/en/index.html|title=Surgical versus medical methods for second-trimester induced abortion|date=1 November 2008|work=The WHO Reproductive Health Library|publisher=World Health Organization |accessdate=17 June 2011 |archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/5zVk3OSM4 |archivedate=17 June 2011 |deadurl=no}}</ref> Most abortions result from unintended pregnancies.<ref>{{cite journal |journal=International Family Planning Perspectives |year=1998 |volume=24 |issue=3 |pages=117–127 & 152 |author=Bankole |url=http://www.guttmacher.org/pubs/journals/2411798.html |title=Reasons Why Women Have Induced Abortions: Evidence from 27 Countries |doi=10.2307/3038208|display-authors=etal}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|first1=Lawrence B.|last1=Finer |first2=Lori F.|last2=Frohwirth |first3=Lindsay A.|last3=Dauphinee |first4=Susheela|last4=Singh |first5=Ann M.|last5=Moore |url=http://www.guttmacher.org/pubs/journals/3711005.pdf |format=PDF| title=Reasons U.S. Women Have Abortions: Quantitative and Qualitative Perspectives |journal=Perspectives on Sexual and Reproductive Health |volume=37|issue=3|pages=110–118|year=2005|doi=10.1111/j.1931-2393.2005.tb00045.x|pmid=16150658 }}</ref> In the United Kingdom, 1 to 2% of abortions are done due to genetic problems in the fetus.<ref name=BMJ2014/> A pregnancy can be intentionally aborted in several ways. The manner selected often depends upon the [[gestational age]] of the embryo or fetus, which increases in size as the pregnancy progresses.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Stubblefield|first=Phillip G. |chapter=10. Family Planning |title=Novak's Gynecology|editor1-last=Berek|editor1-first=Jonathan S.|editor1-link=Jonathan Berek|publisher=Lippincott Williams & Wilkins|year=2002|edition=13|isbn=978-0-7817-3262-8}}</ref><ref>{{citation|title=Risk factors for legal induced abortion-related mortality in the United States|pmid=15051566|journal=Obstetrics & Gynecology |format= |year=2004 |last1=Bartlett |first1=LA |last2=Berg |first2=CJ |last3=Shulman |first3=HB |last4=Zane |first4=SB |last5=Green |first5=CA |last6=Whitehead |first6=S |last7=Atrash |first7=HK |volume=103 |issue=4 |pages=729–37 |doi=10.1097/01.AOG.0000116260.81570.60}}</ref> Specific procedures may also be selected due to legality, regional availability, and doctor or a women's personal preference. Reasons for procuring induced abortions are typically characterized as either therapeutic or elective. An abortion is medically referred to as a therapeutic abortion when it is performed to save the life of the pregnant woman; prevent harm to the woman's [[Health|physical]] or [[mental health]]; terminate a pregnancy where indications are that the child will have a significantly increased chance of premature morbidity or mortality or be otherwise [[Disability|disabled]]; or to [[selective reduction|selectively reduce]] the number of fetuses to lessen health risks associated with [[multiple pregnancy]].<ref name="roche1">{{cite web|last=Roche|first=Natalie E.|date=28 September 2004 |title=Therapeutic Abortion |publisher=[[eMedicine]] |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20041214092044/http://www.emedicine.com/MED/topic3311.htm |url=http://emedicine.medscape.com/article/252560-overview |archivedate=14 December 2004 |accessdate=19 June 2011}}</ref><ref name="Williams Gyn, Chp 6" /> An abortion is referred to as an elective or voluntary abortion when it is performed at the request of the woman for non-medical reasons.<ref name="Williams Gyn, Chp 6" /> Confusion sometimes arises over the term "elective" because "[[elective surgery]]" generally refers to all scheduled surgery, whether medically necessary or not.<ref name=eos-elective>{{cite web | url = http://www.surgeryencyclopedia.com/Ce-Fi/Elective-Surgery.html#b | title = Elective surgery | publisher = Encyclopedia of Surgery | accessdate = 17 December 2012 | postscript = . }} "An elective surgery is a planned, non-emergency surgical procedure. It may be either medically required (e.g., cataract surgery), or optional (e.g., breast augmentation or implant) surgery. </ref> ===Spontaneous=== {{Main|Miscarriage}} Spontaneous abortion, also known as miscarriage, is the unintentional expulsion of an embryo or fetus before the 24th [[gestational age|week of gestation]].<ref>{{cite book | title = Churchill Livingstone medical dictionary | publisher = Churchill Livingstone Elsevier | location = Edinburgh New York | year = 2008 | isbn = 978-0-443-10412-1 | quote = The preferred term for unintentional loss of the product of conception prior to 24 weeks' gestation is miscarriage.}}</ref> A pregnancy that ends before 37 weeks of gestation resulting in a [[live birth (human)|live-born]] infant is known as a "[[premature birth]]" or a "preterm birth".<ref>{{cite book|quote=A preterm birth is defined as one that occurs before the completion of 37 menstrual weeks of gestation, regardless of birth weight.|page=669|editor1-last=Gabbe|editor1-first=Steven G.|editor1-link=Steven Gabbe|editor2-last=Niebyl|editor2-first=Jennifer R.|editor3-last=Simpson|editor3-first=Joe Leigh|year=2007|title=Obstetrics: Normal and Problem Pregnancies|edition=5|publisher=[[Churchill Livingstone]]|chapter=51. Legal and Ethical Issues in Obstetric Practice|isbn=978-0-443-06930-7|last1=Annas|first1=George J.|authorlink1=George Annas|last2=Elias|first2=Sherman}}</ref> When a fetus dies [[in utero]] after [[Fetal viability|viability]], or during [[childbirth|delivery]], it is usually termed "[[stillbirth|stillborn]]".<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|quote=birth of a fetus that shows no evidence of life (heartbeat, respiration, or independent movement) at any time later than 24 weeks after conception|title=Stillbirth|work=[[Concise Medical Dictionary]]|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]|year=2010|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Zs8ZM4OUurcC&pg=PA698&lpg=PA698}}</ref> Premature births and stillbirths are generally not considered to be miscarriages although usage of these terms can sometimes overlap.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://fam.state.gov/FAM/07FAM/07FAM1470.html|title=7 FAM 1470 Documenting Stillbirth (Fetal Death)|publisher=United States Department of State|date=18 February 2011|accessdate=12 Jan 2016}}</ref> Only 30% to 50% of conceptions progress past the [[first trimester]].<ref name="Gabbe, Chp 24">{{cite book|editor1-last=Gabbe|editor1-first=Steven G.|editor1-link=Steven Gabbe|editor2-last=Niebyl|editor2-first=Jennifer R.|editor3-last=Simpson|editor3-first=Joe Leigh|year=2007|title=Obstetrics: Normal and Problem Pregnancies|edition=5|publisher=[[Churchill Livingstone]]|chapter=24. Pregnancy loss|isbn=978-0-443-06930-7|last1=Annas|first1=George J.|authorlink1=George Annas|last2=Elias|first2=Sherman}}</ref> The vast majority of those that do not progress are lost before the woman is [[clinically silent|aware of the conception]],<ref name="Williams Gyn, Chp 6" /> and many pregnancies are lost before medical practitioners can detect an embryo.<ref>{{cite book|last=Katz|first=Vern L.|publisher=[[Mosby (publisher)|Mosby]]|year=2007|edition=5|title=Katz: Comprehensive Gynecology|editor1-last=Katz|editor1-first=Vern L.|editor2-last=Lentz|editor2-first=Gretchen M.|editor3-last=Lobo|editor3-first=Rogerio A.|editor4-last=Gershenson|editor4-first=David M.|chapter=16. Spontaneous and Recurrent Abortion&nbsp;– Etiology, Diagnosis, Treatment|isbn=978-0-323-02951-3}}</ref> Between 15% and 30% of known pregnancies end in clinically apparent miscarriage, depending upon the age and health of the pregnant woman.<ref>{{cite book|last=Stovall|first=Thomas G.|chapter=17. Early Pregnancy Loss and Ectopic Pregnancy|title=Novak's Gynecology|editor1-last=Berek|editor1-first=Jonathan S.|editor1-link=Jonathan Berek|publisher=Lippincott Williams & Wilkins|year=2002|edition=13|isbn=978-0-7817-3262-8}}</ref> 80% of these spontaneous abortions happen in the first trimester.<ref name=Williams18>{{cite book |editor1-last= Cunningham |editor1-first = F. Gary |editor2-last= Leveno |editor2-first = Kenneth J. |editor3-last= Bloom |editor3-first = Steven L. |editor4-last= Spong |editor4-first = Catherine Y. |editor5-last= Dashe |editor5-first = Jodi S. |editor6-last= Hoffman |editor6-first = Barbara L. |editor7-last= Casey |editor7-first = Brian M. |editor8-last= Sheffield |editor8-first = Jeanne S. |title = Williams Obstetrics |edition = 24th |year = 2014 |publisher = McGraw Hill Education |isbn = 978-0-07-179893-8}}</ref> The most common cause of spontaneous abortion during the first trimester is [[chromosomal abnormalities]] of the embryo or fetus,<ref name="Williams Gyn, Chp 6">{{cite book|editor1-last=Schorge|editor1-first=John O.|editor2-first=Joseph I.|editor2-last=Schaffer|editor3-first=Lisa M.|editor3-last=Halvorson|editor4-first=Barbara L.|editor4-last=Hoffman|editor5-first=Karen D.|editor5-last=Bradshaw|editor6-first=F. Gary|editor6-last=Cunningham|year=2008|title=Williams Gynecology|edition=1|publisher=[[McGraw-Hill Medical]]|isbn=978-0-07-147257-9|chapter=6. First-Trimester Abortion}}</ref><ref name="mednet">{{cite web|url=http://www.medicinenet.com/miscarriage/page1.htm |title=Miscarriage (Spontaneous Abortion) |accessdate=7 April 2009 |last=Stöppler |first=Melissa Conrad |editor1-first=William C., Jr. |editor1-last=Shiel |work=MedicineNet.com |publisher=[[WebMD]] |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/20040829013142/http://www.medicinenet.com:80/Miscarriage/page1.htm |archivedate=29 August 2004 }}</ref> accounting for at least 50% of sampled early pregnancy losses.<ref name="fetal med 837">{{Cite book|author=Jauniaux E, Kaminopetros P, El-Rafaey H |chapter=Early pregnancy loss |editor=Whittle MJ, Rodeck CH |title=Fetal medicine: basic science and clinical practice |publisher=Churchill Livingstone |location=Edinburgh |year=1999 |url=https://books.google.com/?id=0BY0hx2l5uoC |isbn=978-0-443-05357-3 |oclc=42792567 |page=837}}</ref> Other causes include [[vascular disease]] (such as [[Systemic lupus erythematosus|lupus]]), [[diabetes mellitus|diabetes]], other hormonal problems, infection, and abnormalities of the uterus.<ref name="mednet" /> Advancing maternal age and a women's history of previous spontaneous abortions are the two leading factors associated with a greater risk of spontaneous abortion.<ref name="fetal med 837" /> A spontaneous abortion can also be caused by accidental [[Physical trauma|trauma]]; intentional trauma or stress to cause miscarriage is considered induced abortion or [[feticide]].<ref name="Fetal Homicide Laws">{{cite web|url=http://www.ncsl.org/programs/health/fethom.htm |title=Fetal Homicide Laws |accessdate=7 April 2009 |publisher=[[National Conference of State Legislatures]]| archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20090329202558/http://www.ncsl.org/programs/health/fethom.htm| archivedate= 29 March 2009 | deadurl= no}}</ref> ==Methods== {{Abortion methods}} ===Medical=== {{Main|Medical abortion}} Medical abortions are those induced by [[abortifacient]] pharmaceuticals. Medical abortion became an alternative method of abortion with the availability of [[prostaglandin]] [[prostaglandin analogue|analog]]s in the 1970s and the [[antiprogestin|antiprogestogen]] [[mifepristone]] (also known as RU-486) in the 1980s.<ref name=1st_Methods/><ref name=Kapp2013/><ref name="Kulier 2011">{{cite journal|author=Kulier R, Kapp N, Gülmezoglu AM, Hofmeyr GJ, Cheng L, Campana A|title=Medical methods for first trimester abortion|journal=Cochrane Database Syst Rev|year=2011|issue=11|page=CD002855|doi=10.1002/14651858.CD002855.pub4|pmid=22071804|volume=11}}</ref><ref name="Creinin 2009">{{cite book|author=Creinin MD, Gemzell-Danielsson K|year=2009|chapter=Medical abortion in early pregnancy|editor=Paul M, Lichtenberg ES, Borgatta L, Grimes DA, Stubblefield PG, Creinin MD (eds.)|title=Management of unintended and abnormal pregnancy: comprehensive abortion care|location=Oxford|publisher=Wiley-Blackwell|pages=111–134|isbn=1-4051-7696-2}}</ref><ref name="Kapp 2009">{{cite book|author=Kapp N, von Hertzen H|year=2009|chapter=Medical methods to induce abortion in the second trimester|editor=Paul M, Lichtenberg ES, Borgatta L, Grimes DA, Stubblefield PG, Creinin MD (eds.)|title=Management of unintended and abnormal pregnancy: comprehensive abortion care|location=Oxford|publisher=Wiley-Blackwell|pages=178–192|isbn=1-4051-7696-2}}</ref> The most common early first-trimester medical abortion regimens use mifepristone in combination with a prostaglandin analog ([[misoprostol]] or [[gemeprost]]) up to 9 weeks gestational age, [[methotrexate]] in combination with a prostaglandin analog up to 7 weeks gestation, or a prostaglandin analog alone.<ref name="Kulier 2011"/> Mifepristone–misoprostol combination regimens work faster and are more effective at later gestational ages than methotrexate–misoprostol combination regimens, and combination regimens are more effective than misoprostol alone.<ref name="Creinin 2009"/> This regime is effective in the second trimester.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Wildschut|first=H|author2=Both, MI|author3= Medema, S|author4= Thomee, E|author5= Wildhagen, MF|author6= Kapp, N|title=Medical methods for mid-trimester termination of pregnancy.|journal=Cochrane database of systematic reviews (Online)|date=19 January 2011|issue=1|pages=CD005216|pmid=21249669|doi=10.1002/14651858.CD005216.pub2}}</ref> In very early abortions, up to 7 weeks gestation, medical abortion using a mifepristone–misoprostol combination regimen is considered to be more effective than surgical abortion (vacuum aspiration), especially when clinical practice does not include detailed inspection of aspirated tissue.<ref name="WHO FAQs 2006">{{cite book|author=WHO Department of Reproductive Health and Research|date=23 November 2006|title=Frequently asked clinical questions about medical abortion|location=Geneva|publisher=World Health Organization|isbn=92-4-159484-5|url=http://whqlibdoc.who.int/publications/2006/9241594845_eng.pdf|accessdate=22 November 2011}}{{subscription required}}</ref> Early medical abortion regimens using mifepristone, followed 24–48 hours later by buccal or vaginal misoprostol are 98% effective up to 9 weeks gestational age.<ref name="Fjerstad 2009b">{{cite journal|author=Fjerstad M, Sivin I, Lichtenberg ES, Trussell J, Cleland K, Cullins V|date=September 2009|title=Effectiveness of medical abortion with mifepristone and buccal misoprostol through 59 gestational days |journal=Contraception |volume=80 |issue=3 |pages=282–286 |doi=10.1016/j.contraception.2009.03.010 |pmid=19698822 |pmc=3766037}} The regimen (200 mg of mifepristone, followed 24–48 hours later by 800 mcg of ''vaginal'' misoprostol) ''previously'' used by [[Planned Parenthood]] clinics in the United States from 2001 to March 2006 was 98.5% effective through 63 days gestation—with an ongoing pregnancy rate of about 0.5%, and an additional 1% of women having uterine evacuation for various reasons, including problematic bleeding, persistent gestational sac, clinician judgment or a women's request. The regimen (200 mg of mifepristone, followed 24–48 hours later by 800 mcg of ''[[wikt:buccal|buccal]]'' misoprostol) ''currently'' used by Planned Parenthood clinics in the United States since April 2006 is 98.3% effective through 59 days gestation.</ref> If medical abortion fails, surgical abortion must be used to complete the procedure.<ref>{{cite book|author=Holmquist S, Gilliam M|year=2008|chapter=Induced abortion|editor=Gibbs RS, Karlan BY, Haney AF, Nygaard I (eds.)|title=Danforth's obstetrics and gynecology|edition=10th|location=Philadelphia|publisher=Lippincott Williams & Wilkins|pages=586–603|isbn=978-0-7817-6937-2}}</ref> Early medical abortions account for the majority of abortions before 9 weeks gestation in Britain,<ref>{{cite web|date=24 May 2011|title=Abortion statistics, England and Wales: 2010|location=London|publisher=Department of Health, United Kingdom|url=http://www.dh.gov.uk/prod_consum_dh/groups/dh_digitalassets/documents/digitalasset/dh_127202.pd |accessdate=22 November 2011}}{{dead link|date=October 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|date=31 May 2011|title=Abortion statistics, year ending 31 December 2010|location=Edinburgh|publisher=ISD, NHS Scotland|url=http://www.isdscotland.scot.nhs.uk/Health-Topics/Sexual-Health/Publications/2011-05-31/2011-05-31-Abortions-Report.pdf?68450564147|accessdate=22 November 2011}}</ref> France,<ref>{{cite web|author=Vilain A, Mouquet M-C |date=22 June 2011 |title=Voluntary terminations of pregnancies in 2008 and 2009 |location=Paris |publisher=DREES, Ministry of Health, France |url=http://www.sante.gouv.fr/IMG/pdf/er765.pdf |accessdate=22 November 2011 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/20110926235733/http://www.sante.gouv.fr/IMG/pdf/er765.pdf |archivedate=26 September 2011 }}</ref> Switzerland,<ref>{{cite web|author=.|date=5 July 2011|title=Abortions in Switzerland 2010|location=Neuchâtel|publisher=Office of Federal Statistics, Switzerland|url=http://www.bfs.admin.ch/bfs/portal/fr/index/themen/14/02/03/key/03.html|accessdate=22 November 2011}}</ref> and the Nordic countries.<ref>{{cite web|author=Gissler M, Heino A|date=21 February 2011|title=Induced abortions in the Nordic countries 2009|location=Helsinki|publisher=National Institute for Health and Welfare, Finland|url=http://www.stakes.fi/tilastot/tilastotiedotteet/2011/Tr09_11.pdf|accessdate=22 November 2011}}</ref> In the United States, the percentage of early medical abortions is far lower.<ref>{{cite journal|author=Jones RK, Kooistra K|date=March 2011|title=Abortion incidence and access to services in the United States, 2008|journal=Perspect Sex Reprod Health|volume=43|issue=1|pages=41–50|url=http://www.guttmacher.org/pubs/journals/4304111.pdf|doi=10.1363/4304111|pmid=21388504|accessdate=22 November 2011}}</ref><ref name="NEJMDec2011">{{Cite journal |last1=Templeton |first1=A. |last2=Grimes |first2=D. A. |doi=10.1056/NEJMcp1103639 |title=A Request for Abortion |journal=New England Journal of Medicine |volume=365 |issue=23 |pages=2198–2204 |year=2011 |url=http://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJMcp1103639}}</ref> Medical abortion regimens using mifepristone in combination with a prostaglandin analog are the most common methods used for second-trimester abortions in Canada, most of Europe, China and India,<ref name="Kapp 2009"/> in contrast to the United States where 96% of second-trimester abortions are performed surgically by dilation and evacuation.<ref>{{cite book|author=Hammond C, Chasen ST|year=2009|chapter=Dilation and evacuation|editor=Paul M, Lichtenberg ES, Borgatta L, Grimes DA, Stubblefield PG, Creinin MD (eds.)|title=Management of unintended and abnormal pregnancy: comprehensive abortion care|location=Oxford|publisher=Wiley-Blackwell|pages=178–192|isbn=1-4051-7696-2}}</ref> ===Surgical=== [[File:Vacuum-aspiration (single).svg|thumb|A vacuum aspiration abortion at eight weeks gestational age (six weeks after fertilization).<br />'''1:''' Amniotic sac<br />'''2:''' Embryo<br />'''3:''' Uterine lining<br />'''4:''' Speculum<br />'''5:''' Vacurette<br />'''6:''' Attached to a suction pump]] Up to 15 weeks' gestation, [[suction-aspiration abortion|suction-aspiration]] or [[vacuum aspiration]] are the most common surgical methods of induced abortion.<ref>{{cite web|author=Healthwise |url=http://www.webmd.com/hw/womens_conditions/tw1078.asp#tw1112 |title=Manual and vacuum aspiration for abortion |year=2004 |publisher=[[WebMD]] |accessdate=5 December 2008| archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20081028141321/http://www.webmd.com/hw/womens_conditions/tw1078.asp| archivedate= 28 October 2008 | deadurl= no}}</ref> ''Manual vacuum aspiration'' (MVA) consists of removing the [[fetus]] or [[embryo]], [[placenta]], and membranes by suction using a manual syringe, while ''electric vacuum aspiration'' (EVA) uses an electric pump. These techniques differ in the mechanism used to apply suction, in how early in pregnancy they can be used, and in whether cervical dilation is necessary. MVA, also known as "mini-suction" and "[[menstrual extraction]]", can be used in very early pregnancy, and does not require cervical dilation. [[Dilation and curettage]] (D&C), the second most common method of surgical abortion, is a standard gynecological procedure performed for a variety of reasons, including examination of the uterine lining for possible malignancy, investigation of abnormal bleeding, and abortion. [[Curettage]] refers to cleaning the walls of the [[uterus]] with a [[curette]]. The [[World Health Organization]] recommends this procedure, also called ''sharp curettage,'' only when MVA is unavailable.<ref>{{Cite book|author=[[World Health Organization]] |chapter=Dilatation and curettage |chapterurl=http://www.who.int/reproductive-health/impac/Procedures/Dilatetion_P61_P63.html |title=Managing Complications in Pregnancy and Childbirth: A Guide for Midwives and Doctors |publisher=[[World Health Organization]] |location=Geneva |year=2003 |pages= |isbn=978-92-4-154587-7 |oclc=181845530 |accessdate=5 December 2008}}</ref> From the 15th week of gestation until approximately the 26th, other techniques must be used. [[Dilation and evacuation]] (D&E) consists of opening the [[cervix]] of the uterus and emptying it using surgical instruments and suction. After the 16th week of gestation, abortions can also be induced by [[intact dilation and extraction]] (IDX) (also called intrauterine cranial decompression), which requires surgical decompression of the fetus's head before evacuation. IDX is sometimes called "[[partial-birth abortion]]", which has been [[Partial-Birth Abortion Ban Act|federally banned]] in the United States. In the third trimester of pregnancy, induced abortion may be performed surgically by [[intact dilation and extraction]] or by hysterotomy. [[Hysterotomy abortion]] is a procedure similar to a [[caesarean section]] and is performed under [[general anesthesia]]. It requires a smaller incision than a caesarean section and is used during later stages of pregnancy.<ref name="encarta">{{cite encyclopedia |last=McGee |first=Glenn |authorlink=Glenn McGee |author2=[[Jon F. Merz]] |encyclopedia=[[Encarta]] |title=Abortion |url=http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761553899/Abortion.html |accessdate=5 December 2008 |publisher=[[Microsoft]] |archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/5kvWYG63q |archivedate=31 October 2009 |deadurl=yes}}</ref> First-trimester procedures can generally be performed using [[local anesthesia]], while second-trimester methods may require [[Sedation#Levels of sedation|deep sedation]] or [[general anesthesia]].<ref name="NEJMDec2011" /> ===Labor induction abortion=== In places lacking the necessary medical skill for dilation and extraction, or where preferred by practitioners, an abortion can be induced by first [[Labor induction|inducing labor]] and then [[Late termination of pregnancy#Methods|inducing fetal demise]] if necessary.<ref name=GLOWM_Late>{{cite journal|last1=Borgatta|first1=L|journal=Global Library of Women's Medicine|date=December 2014|volume=GLOWM.10444|doi=10.3843/GLOWM.10444|url=http://www.glowm.com/section_view/heading/Labor%20Induction%20Termination%20of%20Pregnancy/item/443|accessdate=25 September 2015|title=Labor Induction Termination of Pregnancy}}</ref> This is sometimes called "induced miscarriage". This procedure may be performed from 13 weeks gestation to the third trimester. Although it is very uncommon in the United States, more than 80% of induced abortions throughout the second trimester are labor induced abortions in Sweden and other nearby countries.<ref name=Labor_Induced_Abortion>{{cite journal|last1=Society of Family Planning|title=Clinical Guidelines, Labor induction abortion in the second trimester|journal=Contraception|date=February 2011|volume=84|issue=1|pages=4–18|doi=10.1016/j.contraception.2011.02.005|url=http://www.contraceptionjournal.org/article/S0010-7824(11)00057-6/pdf|quote="10. What is the effect of feticide on labor induction abortion outcome? Deliberately causing demise of the fetus before labor induction abortion is performed primarily to avoid transient fetal survival after expulsion; this approach may be for the comfort of both the woman and the staff, to avoid futile resuscitation efforts. Some providers allege that feticide also facilitates delivery, although little data support this claim. Transient fetal survival is very unlikely after intraamniotic installation of saline or urea, which are directly feticidal. Transient survival with misoprostol for labor induction abortion at greater than 18 weeks ranges from 0% to 50% and has been observed in up to 13% of abortions performed with high-dose oxytocin. Factors associated with a higher likelihood of transient fetal survival with labor induction abortion include increasing gestational age, decreasing abortion interval and the use of nonfeticidal inductive agents such as the PGE1 analogues."|accessdate=25 September 2015}}</ref> Only limited data are available comparing this method with dilation and extraction.<ref name=Labor_Induced_Abortion/> Unlike D&E, labor induced abortions after 18 weeks may be complicated by the occurrence of brief fetal survival, which may be legally characterized as live birth. For this reason, labor induced abortion is legally risky in the U.S.<ref name=Labor_Induced_Abortion/><ref name=NAF_2015_Policy>{{cite journal|title=2015 Clinical Policy Guidelines|journal=National Abortion Federation|date=2015|url=http://prochoice.org/wp-content/uploads/2015_NAF_CPGs.pdf|accessdate=30 October 2015|quote=Policy Statement: Medical induction abortion is a safe and effective method for termination of pregnancies beyond the first trimester when performed by trained clinicians in medical offices, freestanding clinics, ambulatory surgery centers, and hospitals. Feticidal agents may be particularly important when issues of viability arise.}}</ref> ===Other methods=== Historically, a number of herbs reputed to possess abortifacient properties have been used in [[folk medicine]]: [[tansy]], [[Mentha pulegium|pennyroyal]], [[black cohosh]], and the now-extinct [[silphium]].<ref name="riddle2">{{Cite book|first=John M. |last=Riddle |title=Eve's herbs: a history of contraception and abortion in the West |publisher=Harvard University Press |location=[[Cambridge, Massachusetts]] |year=1997 |pages= |isbn=978-0-674-27024-4 |oclc=36126503}}{{Page needed|date=August 2010}}</ref> The use of herbs in such a manner can cause serious—even lethal—side effects, such as [[multiple organ dysfunction syndrome|multiple organ failure]], and is not recommended by physicians.<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Ciganda C, Laborde A |title=Herbal infusions used for induced abortion |journal=J. Toxicol. Clin. Toxicol. |volume=41 |issue=3 |pages=235–239 |year=2003 |pmid=12807304 |doi=10.1081/CLT-120021104 |url=}}</ref> Abortion is sometimes attempted by causing trauma to the abdomen. The degree of force, if severe, can cause serious internal injuries without necessarily succeeding in inducing [[miscarriage]].<ref>{{cite journal | author = Smith JP | title = Risky choices: The dangers of teens using self-induced abortion attempts | journal = Journal of Pediatric Health Care | volume = 12 | issue = 3 | pages = 147–151 | year = 1998 | pmid = 9652283 | doi = 10.1016/S0891-5245(98)90245-0 }}</ref> In Southeast Asia, there is an ancient tradition of attempting abortion through forceful abdominal massage.<ref name="potts">{{Cite journal |last1=Potts |first1=M.| authorlink1=Malcolm Potts| last2=Graff |first2=M. |last3=Taing |first3=J. |doi=10.1783/147118907782101904 |title=Thousand-year-old depictions of massage abortion |journal=Journal of Family Planning and Reproductive Health Care |volume=33 |issue=4| pages=233–234 |year=2007 |pmid=17925100}}</ref> One of the [[bas relief]]s decorating the temple of [[Angkor Wat]] in Cambodia depicts a demon performing such an abortion upon a woman who has been sent to the [[underworld]].<ref name="potts" /> Reported methods of unsafe, [[self-induced abortion]] include misuse of [[misoprostol]], and insertion of non-surgical implements such as knitting needles and clothes hangers into the uterus. These methods are rarely seen in developed countries where surgical abortion is legal and available.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Thapa |first1=S. R. |last2=Rimal |first2=D. |last3=Preston |first3=J. |title=Self induction of abortion with instrumentation |journal=Australian Family Physician |volume=35 |issue=9 |pages=697–698 |year=2006 |pmid=16969439| url=http://www.racgp.org.au/afp/200609/11015}}</ref> All of these, and any other method to terminate pregnancy may be called "induced miscarriage". {{clear}}<!-- The clr tag prevents the picture from running into the next section. Please keep it at the bottom of this section. --> ==Safety== [[File:Abortion Quick & Pain Free sign, Joe Slovo Park, Cape Town, South Africa-3869.jpg|thumb|right|Quick and pain free abortion flyer in South Africa]] The health risks of abortion depend on whether the procedure is performed safely or unsafely. The [[World Health Organization]] defines [[unsafe abortion]]s as those performed by unskilled individuals, with hazardous equipment, or in unsanitary facilities.<ref name="who-unsafe-1995">{{cite web| publisher=[[World Health Organization]] |title=The Prevention and Management of Unsafe Abortion |date=April 1995| accessdate=1 June 2010 |url=http://whqlibdoc.who.int/hq/1992/WHO_MSM_92.5.pdf |format=PDF| archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20100530072310/http://whqlibdoc.who.int/hq/1992/WHO_MSM_92.5.pdf| archivedate= 30 May 2010 | deadurl= no}}</ref> Legal abortions performed in the [[developed country|developed world]] are among the safest procedures in medicine.<ref name="lancet-grimes" /><ref name="grimes-overview">{{cite journal |last1=Grimes |first1=DA |last2=Creinin |first2=MD |title=Induced abortion: an overview for internists |journal=Ann. Intern. Med. |volume=140 |issue=8 |pages=620–6 |year=2004 |pmid=15096333 |doi= 10.7326/0003-4819-140-8-200404200-00009|url=http://www.annals.org/content/140/8/620.full}}</ref> In the US, the risk of [[mortality rate|maternal death]] from abortion is 0.7 per 100,000 procedures,<ref name="Ray2014" /> making abortion about 13 times safer for women than childbirth (8.8 maternal deaths per 100,000 live births).<ref name="grimes-mortality-2012">{{Cite journal| last1=Raymond |first1=E. G. |last2=Grimes |first2=D. A. |doi=10.1097/AOG.0b013e31823fe923 |title=The Comparative Safety of Legal Induced Abortion and Childbirth in the United States |journal=Obstetrics & Gynecology |volume=119 |issue=2, Part 1 |pages=215–219 |year=2012 |pmid=22270271 |pmc=}}</ref><ref name="grimes-mortality-2006">{{cite journal |author=Grimes DA |title=Estimation of pregnancy-related mortality risk by pregnancy outcome, United States, 1991 to 1999 |journal=Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol. |volume=194 |issue=1 |pages=92–4 |date=January 2006 |pmid=16389015 |doi=10.1016/j.ajog.2005.06.070 |url=}}</ref> The risk of abortion-related mortality increases with gestational age, but remains lower than that of childbirth through at least 21 weeks' gestation.<ref name="bartlett">{{cite journal |author=Bartlett LA |title=Risk factors for legal induced abortion-related mortality in the United States |journal=Obstet Gynecol |volume=103 |issue=4 |pages=729–37 |date=April 2004 |pmid=15051566 |doi=10.1097/01.AOG.0000116260.81570.60 |url= |author2=Berg CJ |author3=Shulman HB |last4=Zane |first4=Suzanne B. |last5=Green |first5=Clarice A. |last6=Whitehead |first6=Sara |last7=Atrash |first7=Hani K.|display-authors=3 }}</ref><ref name="emedicine">{{cite web |publisher=[[eMedicine]] |title=Elective Abortion |date=27 May 2010 |accessdate=1 June 2010 |first=Suzanne |last=Trupin |quote=At every gestational age, elective abortion is safer for the mother than carrying a pregnancy to term. |url=http://emedicine.medscape.com/article/252560-overview}}</ref><ref name="Genevra-2012">{{cite news|url=http://www.reuters.com/article/2012/01/23/us-abortion-idUSTRE80M2BS20120123|title=Abortion safer than giving birth: study|last=Pittman|first=Genevra |date=23 January 2012|publisher=Reuters|accessdate=4 February 2012}}</ref> In the United States from 2000 to 2009, abortion had a lower mortality rate than [[plastic surgery]].<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Raymond|first1=EG|last2=Grossman|first2=D|last3=Weaver|first3=MA|last4=Toti|first4=S|last5=Winikoff|first5=B|title=Mortality of induced abortion, other outpatient surgical procedures and common activities in the United States.|journal=Contraception|date=November 2014|volume=90|issue=5|pages=476–9|doi=10.1016/j.contraception.2014.07.012|pmid=25152259}}</ref> [[Vacuum aspiration]] in the first trimester is the safest method of surgical abortion, and can be performed in a [[primary care|primary care office]], [[abortion clinic]], or hospital. Complications are rare and can include [[uterine perforation]], [[endometritis|pelvic infection]], and retained products of conception requiring a second procedure to evacuate.<ref name="arch-fam-practice">{{cite journal|author=Westfall JM, Sophocles A, Burggraf H, Ellis S |title=Manual vacuum aspiration for first-trimester abortion |journal=Arch Fam Med |volume=7 |issue=6 |pages=559–62 |year=1998 |pmid=9821831 |doi=10.1001/archfami.7.6.559 |url=http://archfami.ama-assn.org/cgi/content/full/7/6/559 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/20050405202853/http://archfami.ama-assn.org:80/cgi/content/full/7/6/559 |archivedate=5 April 2005 }}</ref> The rate of complications of vacuum aspiration abortion in the first trimester is similar regardless of whether the procedure is performed in a hospital, surgical center, or office.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=White|first1=Kari|last2=Carroll|first2=Erin|last3=Grossman|first3=Daniel|title=Complications from first-trimester aspiration abortion: a systematic review of the literature|journal=Contraception|date=November 2015|volume=92|issue=5|pages=422–438|doi=10.1016/j.contraception.2015.07.013}}</ref> Preventive antibiotics (such as [[doxycycline]] or [[metronidazole]]) are typically given before elective abortion,<ref>{{cite journal |title=ACOG practice bulletin No. 104: antibiotic prophylaxis for gynecologic procedures |journal=Obstet Gynecol |volume=113 |issue=5 |pages=1180–9 |date=May 2009 |pmid=19384149 |doi=10.1097/AOG.0b013e3181a6d011 |url= |author1= ACOG Committee on Practice Bulletins—Gynecology}}</ref> as they are believed to substantially reduce the risk of postoperative uterine infection.<ref name="NEJMDec2011" /><ref>{{cite journal |author=Sawaya GF, Grady D, Kerlikowske K, Grimes DA |title=Antibiotics at the time of induced abortion: the case for universal prophylaxis based on a meta-analysis |journal=Obstet Gynecol |volume=87 |issue=5 Pt 2 |pages=884–90 |date=May 1996 |pmid=8677129 |doi= |url=}}</ref> Complications after second-trimester abortion are similar to those after first-trimester abortion, and depend somewhat on the method chosen. There is little difference in terms of safety and efficacy between medical abortion using a combined regimen of mifepristone and misoprostol and surgical abortion (vacuum aspiration) in early first trimester abortions up to 9 weeks gestation.<ref name="WHO FAQs 2006"/> Medical abortion using the prostaglandin analog misoprostol alone is less effective and more painful than medical abortion using a combined regimen of mifepristone and misoprostol or surgical abortion.<ref>{{cite web|author=Grossman D|date=3 September 2004|title= Medical methods for first trimester abortion: RHL commentary|work=Reproductive Health Library|location=Geneva|publisher=World Health Organization|url=http://apps.who.int/rhl/fertility/abortion/dgcom/en/index.html |accessdate=22 November 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|author=Chien P, Thomson M|date=15 December 2006|title=Medical versus surgical methods for first trimester termination of pregnancy: RHL commentary|work=Reproductive Health Library|location=Geneva|publisher=World Health Organization|url=http://apps.who.int/rhl/fertility/abortion/pccom/en/index.html |accessdate=1 June 2010| archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20100517201143/http://apps.who.int/rhl/fertility/abortion/pccom/en/index.html| archivedate= 17 May 2010 | deadurl= no}}</ref> Some purported risks of abortion are promoted primarily by anti-abortion groups, but lack scientific support.<ref name="JASEN">{{cite journal |author=Jasen P |title=Breast cancer and the politics of abortion in the United States |journal=Med Hist |volume=49 |issue=4 |pages=423–44 |date=October 2005 |pmid=16562329 |pmc=1251638 |doi= 10.1017/S0025727300009145|url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1251638/}}</ref> For example, the question of a [[abortion-breast cancer hypothesis|link between induced abortion and breast cancer]] has been investigated extensively. Major medical and scientific bodies (including the [[World Health Organization]], the US [[National Cancer Institute]], the [[American Cancer Society]], the [[Royal College of Obstetricians and Gynaecologists]] and the [[American Congress of Obstetricians and Gynecologists]]) have concluded that abortion does not cause breast cancer,<ref>Position statements of major medical bodies on abortion and breast cancer include: * World Health Organization: {{cite web|url=http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs240/en/ |title=Induced abortion does not increase breast cancer risk (Fact sheet N°240) |publisher=World Health Organization |accessdate=6 January 2011 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110213141046/http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs240/en/ |archivedate=13 February 2011 }} * National Cancer Institute: {{cite web|url=http://www.cancer.gov/cancertopics/factsheet/risk/abortion-miscarriage |title=Abortion, Miscarriage, and Breast Cancer Risk |publisher=National Cancer Institute |accessdate=11 January 2011 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20101221084337/http://www.cancer.gov/cancertopics/factsheet/Risk/abortion-miscarriage |archivedate=21 December 2010 |deadurl=no }} * American Cancer Society: {{cite web|url=http://www.cancer.org/Cancer/BreastCancer/MoreInformation/is-abortion-linked-to-breast-cancer |publisher=[[American Cancer Society]] |date=23 September 2010 |accessdate=20 June 2011 |title=Is Abortion Linked to Breast Cancer? |quote=At this time, the scientific evidence does not support the notion that abortion of any kind raises the risk of breast cancer. |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110605204701/http://www.cancer.org/Cancer/BreastCancer/MoreInformation/is-abortion-linked-to-breast-cancer |archivedate=5 June 2011 |deadurl=no }} * Royal College of Obstetricians and Gynaecologists: {{cite web|url=http://www.rcog.org.uk/files/rcog-corp/uploaded-files/NEBAbortionSummary.pdf |title=The Care of Women Requesting Induced Abortion |page=9 |format=PDF |publisher=Royal College of Obstetricians and Gynaecologists |accessdate=29 June 2008 |quote=Induced abortion is not associated with an increase in breast cancer risk. |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130727105037/http://www.rcog.org.uk/files/rcog-corp/uploaded-files/NEBAbortionSummary.pdf |archivedate=27 July 2013 }} * American Congress of Obstetricians and Gynecologists: {{cite web|url=http://www.acog.org/from_home/publications/press_releases/nr07-31-03-2.cfm |title=ACOG Finds No Link Between Abortion and Breast Cancer Risk |date=31 July 2003 |publisher=American Congress of Obstetricians and Gynecologists |accessdate=11 January 2011 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110102030744/http://www.acog.org/from_home/publications/press_releases/nr07-31-03-2.cfm |archivedate=2 January 2011 |deadurl=no }}</ref> although such a link continues to be studied<ref name="Lanfranchi2014">{{cite journal|author1=Lanfranchi, Angela|author2=Fagan, Patrick|title=Breast Cancer and Induced Abortion: A Comprehensive Review of Breast Development and Pathophysiology, the Epidemiologic Literature, and Proposal for Creation of Databanks to Elucidate All Breast Cancer Risk Factors|journal=Issues in Law & Medicine | date=2014 | volume=29 | issue=1 | pages=1–133 | url=http://www.bcpinstitute.org/papers/ILM_Vol%2029_No1_1-133.pdf | accessdate=11 November 2015 | quote=Given what is known of breast physiology, we can conclude that the following factors are protective, or decrease the likelihood that a woman will develop breast cancer: • Full-term pregnancy or pregnancy lasting longer than 32 weeks • Multiparity (more than one full-term pregnancy) • Short period (“susceptibility window”) between menarche and first full-term pregnancy • Full-term pregnancy soon after abortion or second-trimester miscarriage • Breastfeeding}}</ref><ref name=Huang_meta_analysis_2014>{{cite journal | author1=Huang Yubei | author2=Zhang Xiaoliang | title=A meta-analysis of the association between induced abortion and breast cancer risk among Chinese females | journal=Cancer Causes Control | date=February 2014 | volume=25 | issue=2 | pages=227–236 | doi=10.1007/s10552-013-0325-7 | pmid=24272196 | url=http://static-content.springer.com/esm/art%3A10.1007%2Fs10552-013-0325-7/MediaObjects/10552_2013_325_MOESM1_ESM.pptx | accessdate=11 November 2015 | publisher=Springer International Publishing | issn=1573-7225 | quote=Compared to people without any history of [induced abortion], an increased risk of breast cancer was observed among females who had at least one [induced abortion]. | display-authors=etal}}</ref> and promoted by anti-abortion groups.<ref name="JASEN"/><ref name=Cancer_Linacre>{{cite journal|author1=Schneider, A. Patrick II|author2=Zainer, Christine|title=The breast cancer epidemic: 10 facts|journal=The Linacre Quarterly|date=August 2014|volume=81|issue=3|pages=244–277|doi=10.1179/2050854914Y.0000000027|url=http://www.maneyonline.com/doi/full/10.1179/2050854914Y.0000000027|accessdate=11 November 2015|publisher=Catholic Medical Association|quote=...an association between [induced abortion] and breast cancer has been found by numerous Western and non-Western researchers from around the world. This is especially true in more recent reports that allow for a sufficient breast cancer latency period since an adoption of a Western life style in sexual and reproductive behavior.|display-authors=etal}}</ref> ===Mental health=== {{Main|Abortion and mental health}} There is no relationship between most induced abortions and [[abortion and mental health|mental-health problems]]<ref name=BMJ2014/><ref name="Cockburn">{{Cite book|last1=Cockburn|first1=Jayne |last2=Pawson|first2=Michael E. |title=Psychological Challenges to Obstetrics and Gynecology: The Clinical Management |year=2007 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-1-84628-807-4 |page=243}}</ref> other than those expected for any unwanted pregnancy.<ref name="apa-press"/> The [[American Psychological Association]] has concluded that a woman's first abortion is not a threat to mental health when carried out in the first trimester, with such women no more likely to have mental-health problems than those carrying an unwanted pregnancy to term; the mental-health outcome of a woman's second or greater abortion is less certain.<ref name="apa-press">{{cite press release |publisher=[[American Psychological Association]] |title=APA Task Force Finds Single Abortion Not a Threat to Women's Mental Health |date=12 August 2008 |accessdate=7 September 2011 |url=http://www.apa.org/news/press/releases/2008/08/single-abortion.aspx}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.apa.org/pi/women/programs/abortion/mental-health.pdf |title=Report of the APA Task Force on Mental Health and Abortion |publisher=[[American Psychological Association]] |location=Washington, DC |date=13 August 2008}}</ref> Although some studies show negative mental-health outcomes in women who choose abortions after the first trimester because of fetal abnormalities,<ref name="apa-2008">{{cite web | url = http://www.apa.org/pi/women/programs/abortion/index.aspx | title = Mental Health and Abortion | publisher = [[American Psychological Association]] | year = 2008 | accessdate = 18 April 2012}}</ref> more rigorous research would be needed to show this conclusively.<ref name="Steinberg2011">{{Cite journal |last1=Steinberg |first1=J. R. |title=Later Abortions and Mental Health: Psychological Experiences of Women Having Later Abortions—A Critical Review of Research |doi=10.1016/j.whi.2011.02.002 |journal=Women's Health Issues |volume=21 |issue=3 |pages=S44–S48 |year=2011 |pmid=21530839}}</ref> Some proposed negative psychological effects of abortion have been referred to by anti-abortion advocates as a separate condition called "[[post-abortion syndrome]]", which is not recognized by any medical or psychological organization.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.guttmacher.org/pubs/gpr/09/3/gpr090308.html | title=Abortion and Mental Health: Myths and Realities | work=Guttmacher Policy Review | date=Summer 2006 | accessdate=12 April 2015 | author=Cohen, Susan A.}}</ref> ===Unsafe abortion=== {{Main|Unsafe abortion}} [[File:RussianAbortionPoster.jpg|thumb|Soviet poster circa 1925, warning against midwives performing abortions. Title translation: "Abortions performed by either trained or self-taught midwives not only maim the woman, they also often lead to death."]] Women seeking to terminate their pregnancies sometimes resort to unsafe methods, particularly when access to legal abortion is restricted. They may attempt to [[self-induced abortion|self-abort]] or rely on another person who does not have proper medical training or access to proper facilities. This has a tendency to lead to severe complications, such as incomplete abortion, [[sepsis]], hemorrhage, and damage to internal organs.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Okonofua |first1=F. |title=Abortion and maternal mortality in the developing world |journal=Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology Canada| volume=28 |issue=11 |pages=974–979 |year=2006 |pmid=17169222| url=http://www.jogc.org/abstracts/full/200611_WomensHealth_1.pdf |format=PDF}}</ref> Unsafe abortions are a major cause of injury and death among women worldwide. Although data are imprecise, it is estimated that approximately 20 million unsafe abortions are performed annually, with 97% taking place in [[developing country|developing countries]].<ref name="lancet-grimes"/> Unsafe abortions are believed to result in millions of injuries.<ref name="lancet-grimes"/><ref name="Haddad-2009">{{Cite journal|last1=Haddad |first1=LB. |last2=Nour |first2=NM. |title=Unsafe abortion: unnecessary maternal mortality |journal=Rev Obstet Gynecol |volume=2 |issue=2 |pages=122–6|year=2009 |doi=|pmid=19609407 |pmc=2709326}}</ref> Estimates of deaths vary according to methodology, and have ranged from 37,000 to 70,000 in the past decade;<ref name="lancet-grimes"/><ref name=OBGY09/><ref name=Loz2012>{{cite journal|last=Lozano|first=R|title=Global and regional mortality from 235 causes of death for 20 age groups in 1990 and 2010: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2010.|journal=Lancet|date=15 December 2012|volume=380|issue=9859|pages=2095–128|pmid=23245604|doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(12)61728-0}}</ref> deaths from unsafe abortion account for around 13% of all [[maternal deaths]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Darney|first=Leon Speroff, Philip D.|title=A clinical guide for contraception|year=2010|publisher=Lippincott Williams & Wilkins|location=Philadelphia, Pa.|isbn=1-60831-610-6|page=406|edition=5th }}</ref> The [[World Health Organization]] believes that mortality has fallen since the 1990s.<ref name="WHO2011">{{cite book|last=World Health Organisation|title=Unsafe abortion: global and regional estimates of the incidence of unsafe abortion and associated mortality in 2008 |publisher=World Health Organisation |year=2011 |edition=6th |page=27 |isbn=978-92-4-150111-8 |url=http://whqlibdoc.who.int/publications/2011/9789241501118_eng.pdf |format=PDF}}</ref> To reduce the number of unsafe abortions, public health organizations have generally advocated emphasizing the legalization of abortion, training of medical personnel, and ensuring access to reproductive-health services.<ref name="berer-who">{{cite journal |author=Berer M |title=Making abortions safe: a matter of good public health policy and practice |journal=Bull. World Health Organ. |volume=78 |issue=5 |pages=580–92 |year=2000 |pmid=10859852 |pmc=2560758}}</ref> However, the Dublin Declaration on Maternal Health, signed in 2012, notes that "the prohibition of abortion does not affect, in any way, the availability of optimal care to pregnant women".<ref>{{cite web | url =http://www.dublindeclaration.com/translations/|title=Translations|publisher=Dublin Declaration| accessdate =28 October 2015}}</ref> A major factor in whether abortions are performed safely or not is the legal standing of abortion. Countries with restrictive abortion laws have significantly higher rates of unsafe abortion (and similar overall abortion rates) compared to those where abortion is legal and available.<ref name="OBGY09"/><ref name="Sedgh 2012"/><ref name="berer-who"/><ref name="Sedgh 2007">{{cite journal |author=Sedgh G, Henshaw S, Singh S, Ahman E, Shah IH |title =Induced abortion: estimated rates and trends worldwide |year=2007 |journal=Lancet |volume=370 |issue=9595 |pages=1338–45 |doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(07)61575-X |pmid=17933648}}</ref><ref name="WHO-unsafe-2007">{{cite web |publisher=[[World Health Organization]] |year=2007 |accessdate=7 March 2011 |format=PDF |url=http://whqlibdoc.who.int/publications/2007/9789241596121_eng.pdf |title=Unsafe abortion: Global and regional estimates of the incidence of unsafe abortion and associated mortality in 2003 |archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20110216141018/http://whqlibdoc.who.int/publications/2007/9789241596121_eng.pdf| archivedate= 16 February 2011 |deadurl= no}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author=Berer M |title=National laws and unsafe abortion: the parameters of change |journal=Reprod Health Matters |volume=12 |issue=24 Suppl |pages=1–8 |date=November 2004 |pmid=15938152 |doi= 10.1016/S0968-8080(04)24024-1|url=}}</ref> For example, the 1996 legalization of abortion in South Africa had an immediate positive impact on the frequency of abortion-related complications,<ref name="jewkes">{{cite journal |author=Jewkes R, Rees H, Dickson K, Brown H, Levin J |title=The impact of age on the epidemiology of incomplete abortions in South Africa after legislative change |journal=BJOG |volume=112 |issue=3 |pages=355–9 |date=March 2005 |pmid=15713153 |doi=10.1111/j.1471-0528.2004.00422.x |url=}}</ref> with abortion-related deaths dropping by more than 90%.<ref name="bateman-samj">{{cite journal |author=Bateman C |title=Maternal mortalities 90% down as legal TOPs more than triple |journal=S. Afr. Med. J. |volume=97 |issue=12 |pages=1238–42 |date=December 2007 |pmid=18264602}}</ref> In addition, a lack of access to effective contraception contributes to unsafe abortion. It has been estimated that the incidence of unsafe abortion could be reduced by up to 75% (from 20 million to 5 million annually) if modern family planning and maternal health services were readily available globally.<ref name="Singh">{{cite web|url=http://www.guttmacher.org/pubs/FB-AIU-summary.pdf |title=Facts on Investing in Family Planning and Maternal and Newborn Health |format=PDF |publisher=[[Guttmacher Institute]] |year=2010 |accessdate=24 May 2012 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/20120324101905/http://www.guttmacher.org:80/pubs/FB-AIU-summary.pdf |archivedate=24 March 2012 }}</ref> Rates of such abortions may be difficult to measure because they can be reported variously as miscarriage, "induced miscarriage", "menstrual regulation", "mini-abortion", and "regulation of a delayed/suspended menstruation".<ref name=Pandemic>{{cite web |url=http://www.who.int/reproductivehealth/publications/unsafe_abortion/lancet_paper/en/ |title = Unsafe Abortion - The Preventable Pandemic* |accessdate = 2010-01-16 |last = Grimes |first = David A.}}</ref><ref name=Brazil_Unsafe>{{cite journal|last1=Nations|first1=MK|title=Women’s hidden transcripts about abortion in Brazil|journal=Soc Sci Med|date=1997|volume=44|pages=1833–45|doi=10.1016/s0277-9536(96)00293-6|pmid=9194245}}</ref> Forty percent of the world's women are able to access therapeutic and elective abortions within gestational limits,<ref name="IJGO10"/> while an additional 35 percent have access to legal abortion if they meet certain physical, mental, or socioeconomic criteria.<ref name="Dev98-07"/> While [[maternal death|maternal mortality]] seldom results from safe abortions, unsafe abortions result in 70,000 deaths and 5 million disabilities per year.<ref name=OBGY09/> Complications of unsafe abortion account for approximately an eighth of [[maternal death|maternal mortalities]] worldwide,<ref name="Maclean">{{cite book|last=Maclean|first=Gaynor|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=u4Aeiu2eDMAC&pg=PA299|chapter=XI. Dimension, Dynamics and Diversity: A 3D Approach to Appraising Global Maternal and Neonatal Health Initiatives|pages=299–300|title=Trends in Midwifery Research|editor1-first=Randell E.|editor1-last=Balin|publisher=Nova Publishers|year=2005|isbn=978-1-59454-477-4}}</ref> though this varies by region.<ref>{{cite journal|author=Salter, C., Johnson, H.B., and Hengen, N. |year=1997|url=http://info.k4health.org/pr/l10edsum.shtml|title=Care for Postabortion Complications: Saving Women's Lives|journal=Population Reports|volume=25|issue=1|publisher=Johns Hopkins School of Public Health |archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/61MhmDwmL |archivedate=1 September 2011}}</ref> Secondary infertility caused by an unsafe abortion affects an estimated 24 million women.<ref name="WHO-unsafe-2007"/> The rate of unsafe abortions has increased from 44% to 49% between 1995 and 2008.<ref name="Sedgh 2012" /> Health education, access to family planning, and improvements in health care during and after abortion have been proposed to address this phenomenon.<ref>{{cite web|title=Packages of interventions: Family planning, safe abortion care, maternal, newborn and child health|author=[[UNICEF]], [[United Nations Population Fund]], WHO, World Bank |year=2010 |accessdate=31 December 2010|url=http://www.who.int/reproductivehealth/publications/maternal_perinatal_health/fch_10_06/en/index.html}}</ref> ===Live birth=== Although it is very uncommon, women undergoing abortion after 18 weeks gestation sometimes give birth to a fetus that may survive briefly (occurring 1 in 250 cases, 0 to 13%, or 0 to 50%, depending on the method and gestation).<ref name=RCOG_2nd-trimester>{{cite journal|title=The Care of Women Requesting Induced Abortion. Evidence-Based Clinical Guideline no. 7|journal=Royal College of Obstetricians and Gynaecologists|date=November 2011|url=https://www.rcog.org.uk/globalassets/documents/guidelines/abortion-guideline_web_1.pdf|accessdate=31 October 2015|quote=RECOMMENDATION 6.21 Feticide should be performed before medical abortion after 21 weeks and 6 days of gestation to ensure that there is no risk of a live birth.}}</ref><ref name=Labor_Induced_Abortionb>{{cite journal|last1=Society of Family Planning|title=Clinical Guidelines, Labor induction abortion in the second trimester|journal=Contraception|date=February 2011|volume=84|issue=1|pages=4–18|doi=10.1016/j.contraception.2011.02.005|url=http://www.contraceptionjournal.org/article/S0010-7824(11)00057-6/pdf|quote="Transient survival with misoprostol for labor induction abortion at greater than 18 weeks ranges from 0% to 50% and has been observed in up to 13% of abortions performed with high-dose oxytocin."}}</ref><ref name=Fletcher_Ethics>{{cite journal|author1=Fletcher|author2=Isada|author3=Johnson|author4=Evans|title=Fetal intracardiac potassium chloride injection to avoid the hopeless resuscitation of an abnormal abortus: II. Ethical issues.|journal=Obstetrics and Gynecology|date=Aug 1992|volume=80|issue=2|pages=310–313|pmid=1635751|url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1635751|accessdate=6 November 2015|quote="... following later abortions at greater than 20 weeks, the rare but catastrophic occurrence of live births can lead to fractious controversy over neonatal management."}}</ref> [[Fetal viability|Longer term survival]] is possible after 22 weeks.<ref name=RCOG_Term>{{cite journal|title=Termination of Pregnancy for Fetal Abnormality|journal=Royal College of Obstetricians and Gynaecologists|quote="Death [of the fetus] may occur before delivery, either by the procedure undertaken by an obstetrician (feticide) or as a consequence of a compromised fetus being unable to tolerate induced labour. Death may also occur after birth either because of the severity of the abnormality for which termination was performed or because of extreme prematurity (or both)... Where the fetal abnormality is not lethal and termination of pregnancy is being undertaken after 22 weeks of gestation, failure to perform feticide could result in live birth and survival, an outcome that contradicts the intention of the abortion. In such situations, the child should receive the neonatal support and intensive care that is in the child’s best interest and its condition managed within published guidance for neonatal practice."|date=May 2010|pages=29–31|url=https://www.rcog.org.uk/globalassets/documents/guidelines/terminationpregnancyreport18may2010.pdf|accessdate=26 October 2015}}</ref> If medical staff observe signs of life, they may be required to provide care: emergency medical care if the child has a good chance of survival and palliative care if not.<ref name=Nuffield_Bioethics>{{cite journal|last1=Nuffield Council on Bioethics|title=Critical care decisions in fetal and neonatal medicine: a guide to the report|date=2007|url=http://nuffieldbioethics.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/07/CCD-Short-Version-FINAL.pdf|accessdate=29 October 2015|quote=Under English law, fetuses have no independent legal status. Once born, babies have the same rights to life as other people.}}</ref><ref name=US_Ethics>{{cite journal|author1=Gerri R. Baer|author2=Robert M. Nelson|title=Preterm Birth: Causes, Consequences, and Prevention. C: A Review of Ethical Issues Involved in Premature Birth|journal=Institute of Medicine (US) Committee on Understanding Premature Birth and Assuring Healthy Outcomes;|date=2007|url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK11389/|quote=In 2002, the 107th U.S. Congress passed the Born-Alive Infants Protection Act of 2001. This law established personhood for all infants who are born “at any stage of development” who breathe, have a heartbeat, or “definite movement of voluntary muscles,” regardless of whether the birth was due to labor or induced abortion.}}</ref><ref name=BAIPA>{{cite web|last1=Chabot|first1=Steve|title=H.R. 2175 (107th): Born-Alive Infants Protection Act of 2002|url=https://www.govtrack.us/congress/bills/107/hr2175|website=govtrack.us|accessdate=30 October 2015|ref=Pub.L. 107-207|date=5 August 2002|quote=The term ``born alive is defined as the complete expulsion or extraction from its mother of that member, at any stage of development, who after such expulsion or extraction breathes or has a beating heart, pulsation of the umbilical cord, or definite movement of the voluntary muscles, regardless of whether the umbilical cord has been cut, and regardless of whether the expulsion or extraction occurs as a result of natural or induced labor, cesarean section, or induced abortion.}}</ref> [[feticide#Use during legal abortion|Induced fetal demise]] before termination of pregnancy after 20–21 weeks gestation is recommended to avoid this.<ref name=ACOG_2nd>{{cite journal|title=Practice Bulletin: Second-Trimester Abortion|journal=Obstetrics & Gynecology|date=June 2013|volume=121|issue=6|pages=1394–1406|doi=10.1097/01.AOG.0000431056.79334.cc|pmid=23812485|url=http://blog.utp.edu.co/maternoinfantil/files/2012/04/135-Aborto-2-trimestre.pdf|accessdate=30 October 2015|quote=With medical abortion after 20 weeks of gestation, induced fetal demise may be preferable to the woman or provider in order to avoid transient fetal survival after expulsion.}}</ref><ref name=SFP_Demise>{{cite journal|title=Clinical Guidelines: Induction of fetal demise before abortion|journal=Contraception: a publication of Society of Family Planning|date=January 2010|page=8|doi=10.1016/j.contraception.2010.01.018|url=http://www.societyfp.org/_documents/resources/InductionofFetalDemise.pdf|quote="Inducing fetal demise before induction termination avoids signs of live birth that may have beneficial emotional, ethical and legal consequences."|accessdate=26 October 2015|volume=81}}</ref><ref name=ACOG_demise>{{cite journal|last1=Committee on Health Care for Underserved Women|title=Committee Opinion 613: Increasing Access to Abortion|journal=Obstetrics & Gynecology|date=November 2014|volume=124|pages=1060–1065|url=http://www.acog.org/Resources-And-Publications/Committee-Opinions/Committee-on-Health-Care-for-Underserved-Women/Increasing-Access-to-Abortion?IsMobileSet=false|accessdate=28 October 2015|quote=“Partial-birth” abortion bans—The federal Partial-Birth Abortion Ban Act of 2003 (upheld by the Supreme Court in 2007) makes it a federal crime to perform procedures that fall within the definition of so-called “partial-birth abortion” contained in the statute, with no exception for procedures necessary to preserve the health of the woman...physicians and lawyers have interpreted the banned procedures as including intact dilation and evacuation unless fetal demise occurs before surgery.|doi=10.1097/01.aog.0000456326.88857.31}}</ref><ref name=NAF_2015>{{cite journal|title=2015 Clinical Policy Guidelines|journal=National Abortion Federation|date=2015|url=http://prochoice.org/wp-content/uploads/2015_NAF_CPGs.pdf|accessdate=30 October 2015|quote=Policy Statement: Medical induction abortion is a safe and effective method for termination of pregnancies beyond the first trimester when performed by trained clinicians in medical offices, freestanding clinics, ambulatory surgery centers, and hospitals. Feticidal agents may be particularly important when issues of viability arise.}}</ref><ref name=FIGO_Ethical>{{cite journal|title=FIGO (International Federation of Gynecology and Obstetrics) Committee Report: Ethical aspects concerning termination of pregnancy following prenatal diagnosis.|journal=International Journal of Gynecology and Obstetrics|quote="Termination of pregnancy following prenatal diagnosis after 22 weeks must be preceded by a feticide"|date=2008|issue=102|pages=97–98|doi=10.1016/j.ijgo.2008.03.002|pmid=18423641|volume=102}}</ref> Death following live birth which is caused by abortion is given the [[ICD-10 Chapter XVI: Certain conditions originating in the perinatal period#(P90–P96) Other disorders originating in the perinatal period|ICD-10 underlying cause description code of P96.4]]; data are identified as either fetus or newborn. Between 1999 and 2013, in the U.S., the [[Centers for Disease Control and Prevention|CDC]] recorded 531 such deaths for newborns,<ref name=CDC_ICD-10_P96.4_Newborn>{{cite journal|title=Underlying Cause of Death 1999-2013 on CDC WONDER Online Database, released 2015|journal=Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Center for Health Statistics|url=http://wonder.cdc.gov/ucd-icd10.html|accessdate=12 November 2015|location=Data are from the Multiple Cause of Death Files, 1999-2013, as compiled from data provided by the 57 vital statistics jurisdictions through the Vital Statistics Cooperative Program}}</ref> approximately 4 per 100,000 abortions.<ref name=CDC_Surveillance_2006>{{cite journal|last1=Pazol|first1=Karen|title=Abortion Surveillance - United States, 2006|journal=Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report Surveillance Summaries|date=27 November 2009|volume=58|issue=SS08|pages=1–35|url=http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/ss5808a1.htm?s_cid=ss5808a1_e|accessdate=12 November 2015|display-authors=etal}}</ref> ==Incidence== There are two commonly used methods of measuring the incidence of abortion: * Abortion rate&nbsp;– number of abortions per 1000 women between 15 and 44 years of age * Abortion percentage&nbsp;– number of abortions out of 100 known pregnancies (pregnancies include live births, abortions and miscarriages) In many places, where abortion is illegal or carries a heavy social stigma, medical reporting of abortion is not reliable.<ref name=Sedgh_2007/> For this reason, estimates of the incidence of abortion must be made without determining certainty related to standard error.<ref name="Sedgh 2012" /> The number of abortions performed worldwide seems to have remained stable in recent years, with 41.6&nbsp;million having been performed in 2003 and 43.8&nbsp;million having been performed in 2008.<ref name="Sedgh 2012" /> The abortion rate worldwide was 28 per 1000 women, though it was 24 per 1000 women for developed countries and 29 per 1000 women for developing countries.<ref name="Sedgh 2012" /> The same 2012 study indicated that in 2008, the estimated abortion percentage of known pregnancies was at 21% worldwide, with 26% in developed countries and 20% in developing countries.<ref name="Sedgh 2012" /> On average, the incidence of abortion is similar in countries with restrictive abortion laws and those with more liberal access to abortion. However, restrictive abortion laws are associated with increases in the percentage of abortions which are performed unsafely.<ref name=IJGO10/><ref>{{Cite journal|author=Shah I, Ahman E |title=Unsafe abortion: global and regional incidence, trends, consequences, and challenges |journal=[[J Obstet Gynaecol Can]] |volume=31 |issue=12 |pages=1149–58 |date=December 2009 |pmid=20085681 |doi= |quote=However, a woman's chance of having an abortion is similar whether she lives in a developed or a developing region: in 2003 the rates were 26 abortions per 1000 women aged 15 to 44 in developed areas and 29 per 1000 in developing areas. The main difference is in safety, with abortion being safe and easily accessible in developed countries and generally restricted and unsafe in most developing countries}}</ref><ref name="nytimes-abortion-rates">{{cite news|last=Rosenthal|first=Elizabeth|url=http://www.nytimes.com/2007/10/12/world/12abortion.html?|title=Legal or Not, Abortion Rates Compare|newspaper=The New York Times|date=12 October 2007|accessdate=18 July 2011}}</ref> The unsafe abortion rate in developing countries is partly attributable to lack of access to modern contraceptives; according to the [[Guttmacher Institute]], providing access to contraceptives would result in about 14.5 million fewer unsafe abortions and 38,000 fewer deaths from unsafe abortion annually worldwide.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.guttmacher.org/pubs/FB-AIU-summary.pdf |format=PDF |title=Facts on Investing in Family Planning and Maternal and Newborn Health |publisher=[[Guttmacher Institute]] |date=November 2010 |accessdate=24 October 2011 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/20111020135329/http://www.guttmacher.org/pubs/FB-AIU-summary.pdf |archivedate=20 October 2011 }}</ref> The rate of legal, induced abortion varies extensively worldwide. According to the report of employees of Guttmacher Institute it ranged from 7 per 1000 women (Germany and Switzerland) to 30 per 1000 women (Estonia) in countries with complete statistics in 2008. The proportion of pregnancies that ended in induced abortion ranged from about 10% (Israel, the Netherlands and Switzerland) to 30% (Estonia) in the same group, though it might be as high as 36% in Hungary and Romania, whose statistics were deemed incomplete.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Sedgh |first1=G. |last2=Singh |first2=S. |last3=Henshaw |first3=S. K. |last4=Bankole |first4=A. |title=Legal Abortion Worldwide in 2008: Levels and Recent Trends |doi=10.1363/4318811 |journal=Perspectives on Sexual and Reproductive Health |volume=43| issue=3 |pages=188–198| year=2011 |pmid=21884387 |url=http://www.guttmacher.org/pubs/journals/3708411.html}}</ref><ref>[[National Institute of Statistics (Romania)|National Institute of Statistics]], [http://www.insse.ro/cms/files/Anuar%20statistic/02/02%20Populatie_ro.pdf Romanian Statistical Yearbook, chapter 2, page 62], 2011</ref> The abortion rate may also be expressed as the average number of abortions a woman has during her reproductive years; this is referred to as ''total abortion rate'' (TAR). ===Gestational age and method=== {{Double image|right|UK abortion by gestational age 2004 histogram.svg|200|US abortion by gestational age 2004 histogram.svg|200|[[Histogram]] of abortions by [[gestational age]] in England and Wales during 2004. (left)<br /><br />Abortion in the United States by gestational age, 2004. (right)||}} Abortion rates also vary depending on the stage of pregnancy and the method practiced. In 2003, the [[Centers for Disease Control and Prevention]] (CDC) reported that 26% of abortions in the United States were known to have been obtained at less than 6 weeks' gestation, 18% at 7 weeks, 15% at 8 weeks, 18% at 9 through 10 weeks, 9.7% at 11 through 12 weeks, 6.2% at 13 through 15 weeks, 4.1% at 16 through 20 weeks and 1.4% at more than 21 weeks. 90.9% of these were classified as having been done by "[[curettage]]" ([[Suction-aspiration abortion|suction-aspiration]], [[dilation and curettage]], [[dilation and evacuation]]), 7.7% by "[[medical abortion|medical]]" means ([[mifepristone]]), 0.4% by "[[instillation abortion|intrauterine instillation]]" (saline or [[prostaglandin]]), and 1.0% by "other" (including [[hysterotomy abortion|hysterotomy]] and [[hysterectomy]]).<ref name="cdc2003">{{Cite journal |last1=Strauss |first1=L. T. |last2=Gamble |first2=S. B. |last3=Parker |first3=W. Y. |last4=Cook |first4=D. A. |last5=Zane |first5=S. B. |last6=Hamdan |first6=S. |title=Abortion surveillance—United States, 2003 |journal=Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report Surveillance Summaries| volume=55 |issue=SS11 |pages=1–32 |year=2006 |pmid=17119534| url=http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/ss5511a1.htm |author7=Centers for Disease Control Prevention}}</ref> According to the CDC, due to data collection difficulties the data must be viewed as tentative and some fetal deaths reported beyond 20 weeks may be natural deaths erroneously classified as abortions if the removal of the dead fetus is accomplished by the same procedure as an induced abortion.<ref name="guttmacher">{{cite web |publisher=The Guttmacher Institute |title=The Limitations of U.S. Statistics on Abortion |work=Issues in Brief |location=New York |year=1997 |url=http://www.guttmacher.org/pubs/ib14.html |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120404080239/http://www.guttmacher.org/pubs/ib14.html |archivedate=4 April 2012 |deadurl=yes}}</ref> The Guttmacher Institute estimated there were 2,200 [[intact dilation and extraction]] procedures in the US during 2000; this accounts for 0.17% of the total number of abortions performed that year.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Finer |first1=L. B. |last2=Henshaw |first2=S. K. |title=Abortion Incidence and Services in the United States in 2000| journal=Perspectives on Sexual and Reproductive Health| volume=35 |issue=1 |pages=6–15 |year=2003 |pmid=12602752| url=http://www.guttmacher.org/pubs/journals/3500603.html |doi=10.1363/3500603}}</ref> Similarly, in England and Wales in 2006, 89% of terminations occurred at or under 12 weeks, 9% between 13 and 19 weeks, and 1.5% at or over 20 weeks. 64% of those reported were by vacuum aspiration, 6% by D&E, and 30% were medical.<ref>{{cite web|author=Department of Health |year=2007 |title=Abortion statistics, England and Wales: 2006 |accessdate=12 October 2007 |url=http://www.dh.gov.uk/en/Publicationsandstatistics/Publications/PublicationsStatistics/DH_075697 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/20101206002417/http://www.dh.gov.uk/en/Publicationsandstatistics/Publications/PublicationsStatistics/DH_075697 |archivedate=6 December 2010 }}</ref> There are more second trimester abortions in developing countries such as China, India and Vietnam than in developed countries.<ref>{{cite web|last=Cheng|first=Linan|date=1 November 2008|title=Surgical versus medical methods for second-trimester induced abortion: RHL commentary|work=The WHO Reproductive Health Library|location=Geneva|publisher=World Health Organization|url=http://www.who.int/rhl/fertility/abortion/CD006714_chengl_com/en/index.html|accessdate=10 February 2009}} commentary on:<br/>{{cite journal|last1=Lohr|first1=Patricia A.|last2=Hayes|first2=Jennifer L.|last3=Gemzell-Danielsson|first3=Kristina|date=23 January 2008|title=Surgical versus medical methods for second trimester abortion|journal=Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews|issue=1|page=CD006714|doi=10.1002/14651858.CD006714.pub2|pmid=18254113}}</ref> ==Motivation== ===Personal=== The reasons why women have abortions are diverse and vary across the world.<ref name="guttmacher" /><ref name="bankole98"/> [[File:AGIAbortionReasonsBarChart.png|thumb|A bar chart depicting selected data from a 1998 [[Alan Guttmacher Institute|AGI]] [[meta-study]] on the reasons women stated for having an abortion.]] Some of the most common reasons are to postpone childbearing to a more suitable time or to focus energies and resources on existing children. Others include being unable to afford a child either in terms of the direct costs of raising a child or the loss of income while caring for the child, lack of support from the father, inability to afford additional children, desire to provide schooling for existing children, disruption of one's own education, relationship problems with their partner, a perception of being too young to have a child, unemployment, and not being willing to raise a child conceived as a result of rape or [[incest]], among others.<ref name="bankole98">{{Cite journal|last1=Bankole|first1=Akinrinola |last2=Singh|first2=Susheela |last3=Haas|first3=Taylor |year=1998 |url=http://www.guttmacher.org/pubs/journals/2411798.html |title=Reasons Why Women Have Induced Abortions: Evidence from 27 Countries |journal=International Family Planning Perspectives |volume=24 |issue=3 |pages=117–127; 152 |doi=10.2307/3038208}}</ref><ref name="finer2005">{{Cite journal |last1=Finer |first1=L. B. |last2=Frohwirth |first2=L. F. |last3=Dauphinee |first3=L. A. |last4=Singh |first4=S. |last5=Moore |first5=A. M. |title=Reasons U.S. Women Have Abortions: Quantitative and Qualitative Perspectives |journal=Perspectives on Sexual and Reproductive Health |volume=37 |issue=3 |pages=110–118 |doi=10.1111/j.1931-2393.2005.tb00045.x |year=2005 |pmid=16150658| url=http://www.guttmacher.org/pubs/journals/3711005.html}}</ref> ===Societal=== Some abortions are undergone as the result of societal pressures. These might include the preference for children of a specific sex or race,<ref name="Nuremberg">{{Cite journal|title=Nuremberg and the Crime of Abortion|url=http://digitalcommons.liberty.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1047&context=lusol_fac_pubs|accessdate=12 July 2014|page=283|volume=42|work=U. Toledo. L. Rev.}}</ref> disapproval of single or early motherhood, stigmatization of people with disabilities, insufficient economic support for families, lack of access to or rejection of contraceptive methods, or efforts toward [[population control]] (such as China's [[one-child policy]]). These factors can sometimes result in compulsory abortion or [[sex-selective abortion]].<ref name="MissingWomen">{{cite journal | last=Oster | first=Emily |authorlink=Emily Oster |title=Explaining Asia's "Missing Women": A New Look at the Data &ndash; Comment | journal=Population and Development Review | date=September 2005 |volume=31 | issue=3 | pages=529, 535 | url=http://home.uchicago.edu/~eoster/dasgupta.pdf | accessdate=19 May 2009 | doi=10.1111/j.1728-4457.2005.00082.x}}</ref> An American study in 2002 concluded that about half of women having abortions were using a form of [[birth control|contraception]] at the time of becoming pregnant. Inconsistent use was reported by half of those using [[condom]]s and three-quarters of those using the [[combined oral contraceptive pill|birth-control pill]]; 42% of those using condoms reported failure through slipping or breakage.<ref>{{Cite journal |doi=10.2307/3097748 |last1=Jones |first1=R. K. |last2=Darroch |first2=J. E. |last3=Henshaw |first3=S. K. |title=Contraceptive Use Among U.S. Women Having Abortions in 2000–2001 |journal=Perspectives on Sexual and Reproductive Health |volume=34 |issue=6 |pages=294–303 |year=2002 |pmid=12558092 |url=http://www.guttmacher.org/pubs/journals/3429402.pdf |format=PDF}}</ref> The Guttmacher Institute estimated that "most abortions in the United States are obtained by minority women" because minority women "have much higher rates of unintended pregnancy."<ref>{{cite journal |first=SA |last=Cohen |url=http://www.guttmacher.org/pubs/gpr/11/3/gpr110302.html |title=Abortion and Women of Color: The Bigger Picture |journal=Guttmacher Policy Review |year=2008 |volume=11 |issue=3}}</ref> ===Maternal and fetal health=== An additional factor is risk to maternal or fetal health, which was cited as the primary reason for abortion in over a third of cases in some countries and as a significant factor in only a single-digit percentage of abortions in other countries.<ref name="guttmacher" /><ref name="bankole98"/> In the U.S., the Supreme Court decisions in ''[[Roe vs Wade]]'' and ''[[Doe vs Bolton]]'': "ruled that the state's interest in the life of the fetus became compelling only at the point of viability, defined as the point at which the fetus can survive independently of its mother. Even after the point of viability, the state cannot favor the life of the fetus over the life or health of the pregnant woman. Under the right of privacy, physicians must be free to use their "medical judgment for the preservation of the life or health of the mother." On the same day that the Court decided Roe, it also decided Doe v. Bolton, in which the Court defined health very broadly: "The medical judgment may be exercised in the light of all factors—physical, emotional, psychological, familial, and the woman's age—relevant to the well-being of the patient. All these factors may relate to health. This allows the attending physician the room he needs to make his best medical judgment."<ref>George J. Annas and Sherman Elias. Legal and Ethical Issues in Obstetrical Practice. Chapter 54 in Obstetrics: Normal and Problem Pregnancies, 6th edition. Eds. Steven G. Gabbe, et al. 2012 Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier. ISBN 978-1-4377-1935-2</ref>{{rp|1200–1201}} Public opinion shifted in America following television personality [[Sherri Finkbine]]'s discovery during her fifth month of pregnancy that she had been exposed to [[thalidomide]], unable to abort in the United States she traveled to Sweden. From 1962-65 there was an outbreak of [[Rubella|German measles]] that left 15,000 babies with severe birth defects. In 1967, the [[American Medical Association]] publicly supported liberalization of abortion laws. A National Opinion Research Center poll in 1965 showed 73% supported abortion when the mothers life was at risk, 57% when birth defects were present and 59% for pregnancies resulting from rape or incest. {{sfn|Doan|2007|p=57}} ====Cancer==== <!-- Sources here are >10 years old, and should be updated with new ones --> The rate of cancer during pregnancy is 0.02–1%, and in many cases, cancer of the mother leads to consideration of abortion to protect the life of the mother, or in response to the potential damage that may occur to the fetus during treatment. This is particularly true for [[cervical cancer]], the most common type which occurs in 1 of every 2000-13000 pregnancies, for which initiation of treatment "cannot co-exist with preservation of fetal life (unless [[neoadjuvant chemotherapy]] is chosen)." Very early stage cervical cancers (I and IIa) may be treated by [[radical hysterectomy]] and pelvic [[lymph node]] dissection, [[radiation therapy]], or both, while later stages are treated by radiotherapy. Chemotherapy may be used simultaneously. Treatment of breast cancer during pregnancy also involves fetal considerations, because [[lumpectomy]] is discouraged in favor of modified [[radical mastectomy]] unless late-term pregnancy allows follow-up radiation therapy to be administered after the birth.<ref name=Weisz>{{cite journal|url=http://humupd.oxfordjournals.org/content/7/4/384.full.pdf |format=PDF |title=Cancer in pregnancy: maternal and fetal implications |pmid=11476351 |last1=Weisz |first1=B |last2=Schiff |first2=E |last3=Lishner |first3=M |year=2001 |volume=7 |pages=384–393 |issue=4 |journal=Hum Reprod Update |doi=10.1093/humupd/7.4.384}}</ref> Exposure to a single chemotherapy drug is estimated to cause a 7.5–17% risk of [[teratogenic]] effects on the fetus, with higher risks for multiple drug treatments. Treatment with more than 40 [[gray (unit)|Gy]] of radiation usually causes spontaneous abortion. Exposure to much lower doses during the first trimester, especially 8 to 15 weeks of development, can cause [[intellectual disability]] or [[microcephaly]], and exposure at this or subsequent stages can cause reduced intrauterine growth and birth weight. Exposures above 0.005–0.025 Gy cause a dose-dependent reduction in [[IQ]].<ref name=Weisz /> It is possible to greatly reduce exposure to radiation with abdominal shielding, depending on how far the area to be irradiated is from the fetus.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Mayr |first1=NA |last2=Wen |first2=BC |last3=Saw |first3=CB|title=Radiation therapy during pregnancy |journal=Obstet Gynecol Clin North Am. |year=1998 |volume=25 |issue=2 |pages=301–21 |pmid=9629572}}</ref><ref name="pmid11237773">{{cite journal| author=Fenig E, Mishaeli M, Kalish Y, Lishner M| title=Pregnancy and radiation. |journal=Cancer Treat Rev |year=2001 |volume=27 |issue=1 |pages=1–7 |pmid=11237773 |doi=10.1053/ctrv.2000.0193}}</ref> The process of birth itself may also put the mother at risk. "Vaginal delivery may result in dissemination of neoplastic cells into lymphovascular channels, haemorrhage, cervical laceration and implantation of malignant cells in the episiotomy site, while abdominal delivery may delay the initiation of non-surgical treatment."<ref name="pmid19197101">{{cite journal|author=Li WW, Yau TN, Leung CW, Pong WM, Chan MY |title=Large-cell neuroendocrine carcinoma of the uterine cervix complicating pregnancy |journal=Hong Kong Med J |year=2009 |volume=15 |issue=1 |pages=69–72 |pmid=19197101}}</ref> ==History and religion== {{Main|History of abortion}} [[File:AngkorWatAbortionAD1150.JPG|thumb|[[Bas-relief]] at [[Angkor Wat]], [[Cambodia]], c. 1150, depicting a [[demon]] inducing an abortion by pounding the abdomen of a pregnant woman with a [[pestle]].<ref name="potts" /><ref>{{Cite book|author=Mould R |title=Mould's Medical Anecdotes |page=406 |publisher=CRC Press |year=1996|isbn=978-0-85274-119-1}}</ref>]][[File:FrenchPeriodicalPills-January61845,BostonDailyTimes.jpg|thumb|right|"French Periodical Pills." An example of a clandestine advertisement published in an 1845 edition of the ''[[Boston Daily Times]]''.]] Since [[history of abortion|ancient times]] abortions have been done using [[abortifacient|herbal medicine]]s, sharp tools, with [[physical trauma|force]], or through other [[traditional medicine|traditional methods]].<ref name="Management of Abortion, Chp 1">{{cite book|chapter=1. Abortion and medicine: A sociopolitical history|isbn=978-1-4443-1293-5|publisher=[[John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.]]|year=2009|location=[[Oxford, United Kingdom]]|title=Management of Unintended and Abnormal Pregnancy|edition=1st|editors=M Paul, ES Lichtenberg, L Borgatta, DA Grimes, PG Stubblefield, MD Creinin |first=Carole |last=Joffe |url=http://media.wiley.com/product_data/excerpt/62/14051769/1405176962.pdf |format=PDF |archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/62bppK1Iw |archivedate=21 October 2011 |deadurl=no}}</ref> Induced abortion has long history, and can be traced back to civilizations as varied as China under [[Shennong]] (c. 2700 BCE), [[Ancient Egypt]] with its [[Ebers Papyrus]] (c. 1550 BCE), and the Roman Empire in the time of [[Juvenal]] (c. 200 CE).<ref name="Management of Abortion, Chp 1"/> There is evidence to suggest that pregnancies were terminated through a number of methods, including the administration of abortifacient herbs, the use of sharpened implements, the application of abdominal pressure, and other techniques. One of the [[History of abortion#5th century to 18th century|earliest]] known artistic representations of abortion is in a [[bas relief]] at Angkor Wat (c. 1150). Found in a series of [[frieze]]s that represent judgment after death in [[Hinduism|Hindu]] and [[Buddhism|Buddhist]] culture, it depicts the technique of abdominal abortion.<ref name="potts" /> Some medical scholars and abortion opponents have suggested that the [[Hippocratic Oath]] forbade [[Ancient Greece|Ancient Greek]] physicians from performing abortions;<ref name="Management of Abortion, Chp 1" /> other scholars disagree with this interpretation,<ref name="Management of Abortion, Chp 1" /> and state the medical texts of [[Hippocratic Corpus]] contain descriptions of abortive techniques right alongside the [[Hippocratic Oath|Oath]].<ref>{{Cite book |first=Steven |last=Miles |authorlink=Steven H. Miles |title=The Hippocratic Oath and the Ethics of Medicine |year=2005| publisher=Oxford University Press| isbn=978-0-19-518820-2}}</ref> The physician [[Scribonius Largus]] wrote in 43 CE that the Hippocratic Oath prohibits abortion, as did [[Soranus of Ephesus|Soranus]], although apparently not all doctors adhered to it strictly at the time. According to [[Soranus of Ephesus|Soranus]]' 1st or 2nd century CE work ''Gynaecology'', one party of medical practitioners banished all abortives as required by the Hippocratic Oath; the other party —to which he belonged— was willing to prescribe abortions, but only for the sake of the mother's health.<ref name=Largus>[http://penelope.uchicago.edu/~grout/encyclopaedia_romana/aconite/largus.html "Scribonius Largus"]</ref><ref name=Soranus>{{cite book|last1=Soranus, Owsei Temkin|title=Soranus' Gynecology|date=1956|publisher=JHU Press|location=I.19.60|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YsKWfh31gxwC|accessdate=6 October 2015}}</ref> [[Aristotle]], in his treatise on government ''[[Politics (Aristotle)|Politics]]'' (350 BCE), condemns infanticide as a means of population control. He preferred abortion in such cases, with the restriction<ref>{{Cite book| first = Paul| last = Carrick | title = Medical Ethics in the Ancient World| year = 2001| publisher = Georgetown University Press| isbn = 978-0-87840-849-8}}</ref> "<nowiki>[that it]</nowiki> must be practised on it before it has developed sensation and life; for the line between lawful and unlawful abortion will be marked by the fact of having sensation and being alive."<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0058%3Abook%3D7%3Asection%3D1335b |title=Aristotle, Politics |last1=Rackham |first1=H.|year=1944 |work= |publisher=Harvard University Press |accessdate=21 June 2011}}</ref> [[Christianity and abortion|In Christianity]], [[Pope Sixtus V]] (1585–90) was the first Pope to declare that abortion is homicide regardless of the stage of pregnancy;<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|first=Katherine |last=Brind'Amour| title=Effraenatam|encyclopedia=Embryo Project Encyclopedia |year=2007 |url=http://embryo.asu.edu/view/embryo:123948 |archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/658tiVCq0 |archivedate=1 February 2012 |publisher=Arizona State University}}</ref> the Catholic Church had previously been divided on whether it believed that abortion was murder, and did not begin vigorously opposing abortion until the 19th century.<ref name="Management of Abortion, Chp 1" /> [[Islam and abortion|Islamic tradition]] has traditionally permitted abortion until a point in time when Muslims believe the soul enters the fetus,<ref name="Management of Abortion, Chp 1" /> considered by various theologians to be at conception, 40 days after conception, 120 days after conception, or [[quickening]].<ref name="BBC and Islam / Abortion">{{cite web|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/islam/islamethics/abortion_1.shtml |title=Religions&nbsp;– Islam: Abortion |publisher=BBC |date= |accessdate=10 December 2011}}</ref> However, abortion is largely heavily restricted or forbidden in areas of high Islamic faith such as the [[Middle East and North Africa]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Abortion in the Middle East and North Africa |url=http://www.prb.org/pdf08/MENAabortion.pdf |deadurl=no|last1=Dabash|first1=Rasha|first2=Farzaneh|last2=Roudi-Fahimi|publisher=[[Population Research Bureau]]|archiveurl=http://www.prb.org/pdf08/MENAabortion.pdf|archivedate=8 July 2011|year=2008|format=PDF}}</ref> In Europe and North America, abortion techniques advanced starting in the 17th century. However, conservatism by most physicians with regards to sexual matters prevented the wide expansion of safe abortion techniques.<ref name="Management of Abortion, Chp 1" /> Other medical practitioners in addition to some physicians advertised their services, and they were not widely regulated until the 19th century, when the practice (sometimes called ''restellism'')<ref>{{cite news|last1=Dannenfelser|first1=Marjorie|title=The Suffragettes Would Not Agree With Feminists Today on Abortion|url=http://time.com/4093214/suffragettes-abortion/|accessdate=4 November 2015|work=TIME|date=4 November 2015}}</ref> was banned in both the United States and the United Kingdom.<ref name="Management of Abortion, Chp 1" /> Church groups as well as physicians were highly influential in anti-abortion movements.<ref name="Management of Abortion, Chp 1" /> In the US, abortion was more dangerous than childbirth until about 1930 when incremental improvements in abortion procedures relative to childbirth made abortion safer.<ref group="note">By 1930, medical procedures in the US had improved for both childbirth and abortion but not equally, and induced abortion in the first trimester had become safer than childbirth. In 1973, ''Roe vs. Wade'' acknowledged that abortion in the first trimester was safer than childbirth: * {{cite book |title=Time communication 1940–1989: retrospective |publisher=Time Inc. |year=1989 |chapter=The 1970s |quote=Blackmun was also swayed by the fact that most abortion prohibitions were enacted in the 19th century when the procedure was more dangerous than now.}} * {{cite book |last=Will |first=George |title=Suddenly: the American idea abroad and at home, 1986–1990 |publisher=Free Press |year=1990 |page=312 |isbn=0-02-934435-2}} * {{cite web |url=http://www.policyalmanac.org/culture/archive/crs_abortion_overview.shtml |title=Abortion Law Development: A Brief Overview |last1=Lewis |first1=J. |last2=Shimabukuro |first2=Jon O. |publisher=Congressional Research Service |date=28 January 2001 |accessdate=1 May 2011| archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20110514133610/http://www.policyalmanac.org/culture/archive/crs_abortion_overview.shtml| archivedate= 14 May 2011 | deadurl= no}}<br/> *{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EHj_0R2rbxAC&pg=PA1 |page=1 |title=Encyclopedia of American law |last=Schultz |first=David Andrew |publisher=Infobase Publishing |year=2002 |isbn=0-8160-4329-9}} * {{cite web |title=Birthing a Nation: Fertility Control Access and the 19th Century Demographic Transition |last=Lahey |first=Joanna N. |publisher=Pomona College |date=24 September 2009 |url=http://economics-files.pomona.edu/colloquium/joannalahey.pdf|format=PDF; preliminary version|work=Colloquium}}</ref> Soviet Russia (1919), Iceland (1935) and Sweden (1938) were among the first countries to legalize certain or all forms of abortion.<ref name="cbctrust">{{cite web|url=http://www.cbctrust.com/history_law_religion.php |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080208053146/http://www.cbctrust.com/history_law_religion.php |archivedate=8 February 2008 |title=Abortion Law, History & Religion |accessdate=23 March 2008 |publisher=Childbirth By Choice Trust}}</ref> In 1935 Nazi Germany, a law was passed permitting abortions for those deemed "hereditarily ill", while women considered of German stock were specifically prohibited from having abortions.<ref>For sources describing abortion policy in Nazi Germany, see: * {{Cite book|last=Friedlander |first=Henry |authorlink=Henry Friedlander |title=The origins of Nazi genocide: from euthanasia to the final solution |publisher=University of North Carolina Press |location=Chapel Hill |year=1995 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gqLDEKVk2nMC|page=30|isbn=978-0-8078-4675-9 |oclc=60191622}} * {{Cite book|first=Robert |last=Proctor |authorlink=Robert N. Proctor |title=Racial Hygiene: Medicine Under the Nazis |publisher=Harvard University Press |location=[[Cambridge, Massachusetts]] |year=1988 |pages=122, 123 and 366 |isbn=978-0-674-74578-0 |oclc=20760638}} * {{Cite book|first=Margaret L. |last=Arnot |authorlink= |author2=Cornelie Usborne |title=Gender and Crime in Modern Europe |publisher=Routledge |location=New York |year=1999 |page=231 |isbn=978-1-85728-745-5 |oclc=186748539}} * {{cite encyclopedia |last=DiMeglio |first=Peter M. |editor=Helen Tierney |encyclopedia=Women's studies encyclopedia |title=Germany 1933–1945 (National Socialism) |year=1999 |publisher=Greenwood Press |location=[[Westport, Connecticut]] |isbn=978-0-313-31072-0 |oclc=38504469|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gQLqRd7hJq0C|page=589}}</ref> Beginning in the second half of the twentieth century, abortion was legalized in a greater number of countries.<ref name="Management of Abortion, Chp 1" /> A bill passed by the state legislature of New York legalizing abortion was signed by Governor Nelson Rockefeller in April 1970.<ref>Smith, Richard Norton On His Own Terms: A Life of Nelson Rockefeller pages 560-561</ref> ==Society and culture== ===Abortion debate=== {{Main|Abortion debate}} Induced abortion has long been the source of considerable debate. [[Medical ethics|Ethical]], [[Morality|moral]], [[Philosophical aspects of the abortion debate|philosophical]], [[Therapeutic abortion|biological]], [[Ethics in religion|religious]] and [[Abortion law|legal]] issues surrounding abortion are related to [[value system]]s. Opinions of abortion may be about [[fetal rights]], governmental authority, and [[women's rights]]. In both public and private debate, arguments presented in favor of or against abortion access focus on either the moral permissibility of an induced abortion, or justification of laws permitting or restricting abortion.<ref>{{cite book | first=Courtney| last=Farrell| title =Abortion Debate| publisher =ABDO Publishing Company| year =2010| pages =6–7| isbn =1617852643}}</ref> The [[World Medical Association]] Declaration on Therapeutic Abortion notes that "circumstances bringing the interests of a mother into conflict with the interests of her unborn child create a dilemma and raise the question as to whether or not the pregnancy should be deliberately terminated".<ref>{{cite web | url =http://www.wma.net/en/30publications/10policies/a1/|title=WMA Declaration on Therapeutic Abortion|publisher=[[World Medical Association|WMA]]| accessdate =28 October 2015}}</ref> Abortion debates, especially pertaining to [[abortion law]]s, are often spearheaded by groups advocating one of these two positions. Anti-abortion groups who favor greater legal restrictions on abortion, including complete prohibition, most often describe themselves as "pro-life" while abortion rights groups who are against such legal restrictions describe themselves as "pro-choice".<ref>Farrell, p. 8</ref> Generally, the former position argues that a human fetus is a [[Personhood|human person]] with a [[right to life|right to live]], making abortion morally the same as murder. The latter position argues that a woman has certain [[reproductive rights]], especially the choice whether or not to carry a pregnancy to term. ===Modern abortion law=== {{Main|Abortion law}} {{See also|History of abortion law debate}} {{AbortionLawsMap|size=350px}} Current laws pertaining to abortion are diverse. Religious, moral, and cultural sensibilities continue to influence abortion laws throughout the world. The right to life, the right to liberty, the right to [[security of person]], and the right to [[reproductive health]] are major issues of human rights that are sometimes used as justification for the existence or absence of laws controlling abortion. In jurisdictions where abortion is legal, certain requirements must often be met before a woman may obtain a safe, legal abortion (an abortion performed without the woman's consent is considered [[feticide]]). These requirements usually depend on the age of the fetus, often using a [[Pregnancy#Terminology|trimester]]-based system to regulate the window of legality, or as in the U.S., on a doctor's evaluation of the fetus' [[Fetal viability|viability]]. Some jurisdictions require a waiting period before the procedure, prescribe the distribution of information on [[prenatal development|fetal development]], or require that [[minors and abortion|parents be contacted]] if their minor daughter requests an abortion.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://internationalfamilyplanningperspectives.org/pubs/MandatoryCounseling.pdf|title=The Impact of State Mandatory Counseling and Waiting Period Laws on Abortion: A Literature Review|format=PDF|publisher=[[Guttmacher Institute]]|author=Theodore J. Joyce, Stanley K. Henshaw, Amanda Dennis, Lawrence B. Finer and Kelly Blanchard|date=April 2009|accessdate=31 December 2010|archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/5vj6Mlykp |archivedate=14 January 2011|deadurl=yes}}</ref> Other jurisdictions may require that a woman obtain the [[Paternal rights and abortion|consent of the fetus' father]] before aborting the fetus, that abortion providers inform women of health risks of the procedure—sometimes including "risks" not supported by the medical literature—and that multiple medical authorities certify that the abortion is either medically or socially necessary. Many restrictions are waived in emergency situations. China, which has a [[one-child policy]], has at times incorporated mandatory abortions as part of their population control strategy.<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |title=Science, Technology, and Society: An Encyclopedia |page=2 |editor1-first=Sal P. |editor1-last=Restivo |year=2005 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=9780195141931 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=A8C3m8rRba4C}}</ref> Other jurisdictions ban abortion almost entirely. Many, but not all, of these allow legal abortions in a variety of circumstances. These circumstances vary based on jurisdiction, but may include whether the pregnancy is a result of rape or incest, the fetus' development is impaired, the woman's physical or mental well-being is endangered, or socioeconomic considerations make childbirth a hardship.<ref name="Dev98-07" /> In countries where abortion is banned entirely, such as [[Abortion in Nicaragua|Nicaragua]], medical authorities have recorded rises in maternal death directly and indirectly due to pregnancy as well as deaths due to doctors' fears of prosecution if they treat other gynecological emergencies.<ref>{{cite web|title=European delegation visits Nicaragua to examine effects of abortion ban |date=26 November 2007 |publisher=Ipas |accessdate=15 June 2009 |url=http://www.ipas.org/Library/News/News_Items/European_delegation_visits_Nicaragua_to_examine_effects_of_abortion_ban.aspx |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080417033829/http://www.ipas.org/Library/News/News_Items/European_delegation_visits_Nicaragua_to_examine_effects_of_abortion_ban.aspx |archivedate=17 April 2008 |quote=More than 82 maternal deaths had been registered in Nicaragua since the change. During this same period, indirect obstetric deaths, or deaths caused by illnesses aggravated by the normal effects of pregnancy and not due to direct obstetric causes, have doubled.}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=http://insidecostarica.com/special_reports/2008-06/nicaragua_womens_movement.htm |title=Nicaragua: "The Women's Movement Is in Opposition" |date=28 June 2008 |location=Montevideo |agency=IPS |publisher=Inside Costa Rica}}</ref> Some countries, such as Bangladesh, that nominally ban abortion, may also support clinics that perform abortions under the guise of menstrual hygiene.<ref>{{cite web|title=Surgical Abortion: History and Overview |publisher=National Abortion Federation |accessdate=4 September 2006 |url=http://www.prochoice.org/education/resources/surg_history_overview.html| archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20060922152349/http://www.prochoice.org/education/resources/surg_history_overview.html| archivedate= 22 September 2006 | deadurl= no}}</ref> This is also a terminology in traditional medicine.<ref name= nations1977>{{cite journal | pmid = 9194245 | title = Women's hidden transcripts about abortion in Brazil | author = Nations MK, Misago C, Fonseca W, Correia LL, Campbell OM. | journal = Soc Sci Med | date = June 1997 | volume = 44 | issue = 12 | pages = 1833–45 |quote= Two folk medical conditions, "delayed" (atrasada) and "suspended" (suspendida) menstruation, are described as perceived by poor Brazilian women in Northeast Brazil. Culturally prescribed methods to "regulate" these conditions and provoke menstrual bleeding are also described&nbsp;... | doi=10.1016/s0277-9536(96)00293-6}}</ref> In places where abortion is illegal or carries heavy social stigma, pregnant women may engage in [[medical tourism]] and travel to countries where they can terminate their pregnancies.<ref>{{Cite journal| last1=Henshaw |first1=S. K. |title=The Accessibility of Abortion Services in the United States |doi=10.2307/2135775 |year=1991 |pages=246–263 |issue=6 |journal=Family Planning Perspectives |volume=23}}</ref> Women without the means to travel can resort to providers of illegal abortions or attempt to perform an abortion by themselves.<ref>{{cite web|title=Need Abortion, Will Travel |first=Marcy|last=Bloom |date=25 February 2008 |publisher=RH Reality Check |accessdate=15 June 2009 |url=http://www.rhrealitycheck.org/blog/2008/02/25/need-abortion-will-travel}}</ref> ===Sex-selective abortion=== {{Main|Sex-selective abortion}} [[Medical ultrasonography|Sonography]] and [[amniocentesis]] allow parents to determine sex before childbirth. The development of this technology has led to [[sex-selective abortion and female infanticide|sex-selective abortion]], or the termination of a fetus based on sex. The selective termination of a female fetus is most common. Sex-selective abortion is partially responsible for the noticeable disparities between the birth rates of male and female children in some countries. The preference for male children is reported in many areas of Asia, and abortion used to limit female births has been reported in Taiwan, South Korea, India, and China.<ref>Banister, Judith. (16 March 1999). [http://www.census.gov/ipc/www/ebspr96a.html Son Preference in Asia&nbsp;– Report of a Symposium]. Retrieved 12 January 2006.</ref> This deviation from the standard birth rates of males and females occurs despite the fact that the country in question may have officially banned sex-selective abortion or even sex-screening.<ref>{{Cite news|first=Patricia |last=Reaney |publisher=Reuters |url=http://www.alertnet.org/thenews/newsdesk/L06779563.htm |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20060220072756/http://www.alertnet.org/thenews/newsdesk/L06779563.htm |archivedate=20 February 2006 |title=Selective abortion blamed for India's missing girls |accessdate=3 December 2008}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Sudha |first=S. |date=July 1999 |title=Female Demographic Disadvantage in India 1981–1991: Sex Selective Abortions and Female Infanticide |journal=Development and Change |volume=30 |issue=3 |pages=585–618 |doi=10.1111/1467-7660.00130 |url=http://www.hsph.harvard.edu/organizations/healthnet/gender/docs/sudha.html |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20030101210623/http://www.hsph.harvard.edu/organizations/healthnet/gender/docs/sudha.html |archivedate=1 January 2003 |accessdate=3 December 2008 |last2=Rajan |first2=S. Irudaya |pmid=20162850}}</ref><ref name="LOC India">{{cite web|url=http://www.loc.gov/law/help/sex-selection/india.php|publisher=[[Library of Congress]]|title=Sex Selection & Abortion: India|date=4 April 2011|accessdate=18 July 2011}}</ref><ref>"[http://www.china.org.cn/english/2003/Mar/59194.htm China Bans Sex-selection Abortion]." (22 March 2002). ''Xinhua News Agency.'.' Retrieved 12 January 2006.</ref> In China, a historical preference for a male child has been exacerbated by the [[one-child policy]], which was enacted in 1979.<ref>{{Cite journal|first=Maureen J. |last=Graham |date=June 1998 |title=Son Preference in Anhui Province, China |journal=International Family Planning Perspectives |volume=24 |issue=2 |url=http://www.guttmacher.org/pubs/journals/2407298.html|doi=10.2307/2991929|author2=Larsen |author3=Xu|archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/62bsN3Cfj |archivedate=21 October 2011|deadurl=no|pages=72–77}}</ref> Many countries have taken legislative steps to reduce the incidence of sex-selective abortion. At the [[International Conference on Population and Development]] in 1994 over 180 states agreed to eliminate "all forms of discrimination against the girl child and the root causes of son preference",<ref name="UNFPA">{{cite web|url=http://www.unfpa.org/webdav/site/global/shared/documents/publications/2011/Preventing_gender-biased_sex_selection.pdf|title=Preventing gender-biased sex selection|publisher=[[UNFPA]]|accessdate=1 November 2011}}</ref> conditions which were also condemned by a [[Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe|PACE]] resolution in 2011.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://assembly.coe.int/Documents/WorkingDocs/Doc11/EDOC12715.pdf |title=Prenatal sex selection |publisher=[[Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe|PACE]] |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/20111003133834/http://assembly.coe.int/Documents/WorkingDocs/Doc11/EDOC12715.pdf |archivedate=3 October 2011 |accessdate=17 November 2015 }}</ref> The [[World Health Organization]] and [[UNICEF]], along with other United Nations agencies, have found that measures to reduce access to abortion are much less effective at reducing sex-selective abortions than measures to reduce gender inequality.<ref name="UNFPA"/> ===Anti-abortion violence=== {{Main|Anti-abortion violence}} In a number of cases, abortion providers and these facilities have been subjected to various forms of violence, including murder, attempted murder, kidnapping, stalking, assault, arson, and bombing. Anti-abortion violence is classified by both governmental and scholarly sources as terrorism.<ref name="csis">{{cite web |author=Smith, G. Davidson (Tim) |publisher=Canadian Security Intelligence Service |year=1998 |url=http://www.csis-scrs.gc.ca/en/publications/commentary/com74.asp |title=Single Issue Terrorism Commentary |accessdate= 1 September 2011|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20071015065711/http://csis-scrs.gc.ca/en/publications/commentary/com74.asp|archivedate=15 October 2007|deadurl=yes}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Wilson |first1=M. |last2=Lynxwiler |first2=J. |doi=10.1080/10576108808435717 |title=Abortion clinic violence as terrorism |journal=Studies in Conflict & Terrorism |volume=11 |issue=4 |pages=263–273| year=1988}}</ref> Only a small fraction of those opposed to abortion commit violence. In the United States, four physicians who performed abortions have been murdered: [[David Gunn (doctor)|David Gunn]] (1993), [[John Britton (doctor)|John Britton]] (1994), [[Barnett Slepian]] (1998), and [[George Tiller]] (2009). Also murdered, in the U.S. and Australia, have been other personnel at abortion clinics, including receptionists and security guards such as James Barrett, Shannon Lowney, Lee Ann Nichols, and Robert Sanderson. Woundings (e.g., [[Garson Romalis]]) and attempted murders have also taken place in the United States and Canada. Hundreds of bombings, arsons, acid attacks, invasions, and incidents of vandalism against abortion providers have occurred.<ref>{{cite news |title=The Death of Dr. Gunn |newspaper=New York Times |date=12 March 1993 |url=http://www.nytimes.com/1993/03/12/opinion/the-death-of-dr-gunn.html}}</ref><ref name="naf">{{cite web |publisher=[[National Abortion Federation]] |year=2009 |url=http://www.prochoice.org/pubs_research/publications/downloads/about_abortion/violence_stats.pdf |format=PDF |title=Incidence of Violence & Disruption Against Abortion Providers in the U.S. & Canada |accessdate=9 February 2010}}</ref> Notable perpetrators of anti-abortion violence include [[Eric Robert Rudolph]], [[Scott Roeder]], [[Shelley Shannon]], and [[Paul Jennings Hill]], the first person to be executed in the United States for murdering an abortion provider.<ref>{{Cite news |url=http://www.guardian.co.uk/theguardian/1999/feb/03/features11.g26 |newspaper=The Guardian |date=3 February 1999 |title=The bomber under siege |first=Julian |last=Borger |location=London}}</ref> [[Legal protection of access to abortion]] has been brought into some countries where abortion is legal. These laws typically seek to protect abortion clinics from obstruction, vandalism, picketing, and other actions, or to protect women and employees of such facilities from threats and harassment. Far more common than physical violence is psychological pressure. In 2003, [[Chris Danze]] organized pro-life organizations throughout Texas to prevent the construction of a [[Planned Parenthood]] facility in Austin. The organizations [[doxing|released the personal information]] online, of those involved with construction, sending them up to 1200 phone calls a day and contacting their churches.<ref name=Doan>{{cite book|title=Opposition and Intimidation:The abortion wars and strategies of political harassment|author=Alesha E. Doan|year=2007|page=2|publisher=University of Michigan}}</ref> Some protestors record women entering clinics on camera.<ref name=Doan/> =={{anchor|Other animals}} Other animals== <!-- This Anchor tag serves to provide a permanent target for incoming section links. Please do not move it out of the section heading, even though it disrupts edit summary generation (you can manually fix the edit summary before saving your changes). Please do not modify it, even if you modify the section title. It is always best to anchor an old section header that has been changed so that links to it won't be broken. See [[Template:Anchor]] for details. (This text: [[Template:Anchor comment]]) --> <!-- linked from redirects [[Abortion in animals]] and [[Pine needle abortion]] --> {{further|Miscarriage}} Spontaneous abortion occurs in various animals. For example, in sheep, it may be caused by crowding through doors, or being chased by dogs.<ref>{{cite book |author=Spencer, James B. |title=Sheep Husbandry in Canada |year=1908 |page=114 |oclc=798508694 }}</ref> In cows, abortion may be caused by contagious disease, such as ''[[Brucellosis]]'' or ''[[Campylobacter]]'', but can often be controlled by vaccination.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.teara.govt.nz/1966/B/BeefCattleAndBeefProduction/ManagementAndHusbandryOfBeefCattle/en |title=Beef cattle and Beef production: Management and Husbandry of Beef Cattle |work=Encyclopaedia of New Zealand |year=1966}}</ref> Eating [[pine needle]]s can also induce abortions in cows.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Myers |first1=Brandon |last2=Beckett |first2=Jonathon |title=Animal Health Care and Maintenance |chapter=Pine needle abortion |url=http://ag.arizona.edu/arec/pubs/rmg/4%20animalcare&healthmaintenance/31%20pineneedleabortion01.pdf |accessdate=10 April 2013 |year=2001 |publisher=Arizona Cooperative Extension, University of Arizona |location=Tucson, AZ |pages=47–50}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Kim |first1=Ill-Hwa |last2=Choi |first2=Kyung-Chul |last3=An |first3=Beum-Soo |last4=Choi |first4=In-Gyu |last5=Kim |first5=Byung-Ki |last6=Oh |first6=Young-Kyoon |last7=Jeung |first7=Eui-Bae |year=2003 |title=Effect on abortion of feeding Korean pine needles to pregnant Korean native cows |journal=Canadian Journal of Veterinary Research |volume=67 |issue=3 |pages=194–197 |publisher=Canadian Veterinary Medical Association |pmc=227052 |pmid=12889725}}</ref> In horses, a fetus may be aborted or resorbed if it has [[lethal white syndrome]] (congenital intestinal aganglionosis). Foal embryos that are homozygous for the [[dominant white]] gene (WW) are theorized to also be aborted or resorbed before birth.<ref name=phj>{{cite web|url=http://www.painthorsejournal.com/pastissues/pdfs/byahair-mar04.pdf |title=By a Hair |last=Overton |first=Rebecca |publisher=Paint Horse Journal |date=March 2003 |accessdate=19 December 2012 |postscript=. |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130218233122/http://www.painthorsejournal.com/pastissues/pdfs/byahair-mar04.pdf |archivedate=18 February 2013 }} </ref> Viral infection can cause abortion in dogs.<ref name=dogabort1 >{{cite web | url = http://www.petmd.com/dog/conditions/infectious-parasitic/c_dg_canine_herpesvirus_infection#.UM_vf2_7LoI | title = Herpesvirus in dog pups | publisher = petMD | accessdate = 18 December 2012 | postscript = .}} </ref> Cats can experience spontaneous abortion for many reasons, including hormonal imbalance. A combined abortion and spaying is performed on pregnant cats, especially in [[Trap-Neuter-Return]] programs, to prevent unwanted kittens from being born.<ref name=spay1 >{{cite web | url = http://www.carolsferals.org/spaying-pregnant-females/ | title = Spaying Pregnant Females | publisher = Carol's Ferals | accessdate = 17 December 2012 | postscript = .}} </ref><ref name=spay2 >{{cite web | url = http://www.petmd.com/blogs/fullyvetted/2007/may/feline-abortion-often-unnerving-necessity#.UM_umW_7LoI | title = Feline abortion: often an unnerving necessity | first = Jennifer | last = Coates | date = 7 May 2007 | publisher = petMD | accessdate = 18 December 2012 | postscript = .}} </ref><ref name=spay3 >{{cite web | url = http://www.carolsferals.org/spaying-pregnant-females/ | title = Feline abortion: often an unnerving necessity (Part 2) | first = Patty | last = Khuly | date = 1 April 2011 | publisher = petMD | accessdate = 18 December 2012 | postscript = .}} </ref> Female rodents may terminate a pregnancy when exposed to the smell of a male not responsible for the pregnancy, known as the [[Bruce effect]].<ref name=Schwagmeyer> {{cite journal |jstor=2460564 |pages=932–938 |last1=Schwagmeyer |first1=P. L. |title=The Bruce Effect: An Evaluation of Male/Female Advantages |volume=114 |issue=6 |journal=The American Naturalist |year=1979 |doi=10.1086/283541}} </ref> Abortion may also be induced in animals, in the context of [[animal husbandry]]. For example, abortion may be induced in mares that have been mated improperly, or that have been purchased by owners who did not realize the mares were pregnant, or that are pregnant with twin foals.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jlZAT-9VwUIC |title=Equine Reproduction |page=563 |first1=Angus O. |last1=McKinnon |first2=James L. |last2=Voss |publisher=Wiley-Blackwell |isbn=0-8121-1427-2 |year=1993}}</ref> Feticide can occur in horses and zebras due to male harassment of pregnant mares or forced copulation,<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Berger|first=Joel W|date=5 May 1983|title=Induced abortion and social factors in wild horses |journal=Nature |volume=303 |pages=59–61 |doi=10.1038/303059a0 |pmid=6682487|issue=5912|last2=Vuletić|first2=L|last3=Boberić|first3=J|last4=Milosavljević|first4=A|last5=Dilparić|first5=S|last6=Tomin|first6=R|last7=Naumović|first7=P}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Pluháček |first=Jan |year=2000 |title=Male infanticide in captive plains zebra, Equus burchelli |journal=Animal Behaviour |volume=59 |pages=689–694 |url=http://af.czu.cz/~bartos/publications/pdf/Pluhacek_Bartos_2000_AB.pdf |doi=10.1006/anbe.1999.1371 |pmid=10792924 |last2=Bartos |first2=L |issue=4 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/20110718170925/http://af.czu.cz/~bartos/publications/pdf/Pluhacek_Bartos_2000_AB.pdf |archivedate=18 July 2011 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Pluháček |first=Jan |year=2005 |title=Further evidence for male infanticide and feticide in captive plains zebra, Equus burchelli|journal=Folia Zool.|volume=54|issue=3|pages= 258–262|url=http://www.ivb.cz/folia/54/3/258-262.pdf}}</ref> although the frequency in the wild has been questioned.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Kirkpatrick |first1=J. F. |last2=Turner |first2=J. W. |title=Changes in Herd Stallions among Feral Horse Bands and the Absence of Forced Copulation and Induced Abortion |journal=Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology |volume=29 |issue=3 |pages=217–219 |doi=10.1007/BF00166404 |year=1991 |jstor=4600608}}</ref> Male [[gray langur]] monkeys may attack females following male takeover, causing miscarriage.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Agoramoorthy |first1=G. |last2=Mohnot |first2=S. M. |last3=Sommer |first3=V. |last4=Srivastava |first4=A. |title=Abortions in free ranging Hanuman langurs (Presbytis entellus)&nbsp;– a male induced strategy? |journal=Human Evolution |volume=3| issue=4| pages=297–308| year=1988 |doi=10.1007/BF02435859}}</ref> ==References== ===Citations=== {{Research help|Med}} {{Reflist|colwidth=30em}} ===Notes=== {{Reflist|group="note"| refs= <ref name="definition" group="note">[[Definitions of abortion]], as with many words, vary from source to source. Language used to define abortion often reflects societal and political opinions (not only scientific knowledge).<!-- {{cite web | url=http://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/view/document/obo-9780199756797/obo-9780199756797-0090.xml?rskey=tygpVh&result=1 | title=Abortion | publisher=[[Oxford Bibliographies]] | accessdate=9 April 2014 | author=Kulczycki, Andrzej}} --> The following is a partial list of definitions as stated by [[obstetrics and gynecology]] (OB/GYN) textbooks, dictionaries, and other sources: ;Major OB/GYN textbooks * The [[National Center for Health Statistics]] defines an "abortus" as "[a] fetus or embryo removed or expelled from the uterus during the first half of gestation—20 weeks or less, or in the absence of accurate dating criteria, born weighing < 500 g." They also define "birth" as "[t]he complete expulsion or extraction from the mother of a fetus after 20 weeks' gestation.&nbsp;... in the absence of accurate dating criteria, fetuses weighing <500 g are usually not considered as births, but rather are termed abortuses for purposes of vital statistics." {{cite book|editor1-last=Cunningham|editor1-first=FG|editor2-last=Leveno|editor2-first=KJ|editor3-last=Bloom|editor3-first=SL|editor4-last=Hauth|editor4-first=JC|editor5-last=Rouse|editor5-first=DJ|editor6-last=Spong |editor6-first=CY|displayeditors=3|chapter=1. Overview of Obstetrics|title=Williams Obstetrics|edition=23|publisher=[[McGraw-Hill Medical]]|year=2010|isbn=978-0-07-149701-5}} * "[T]he standard medical definition of abortion [is] termination of a pregnancy when the fetus is not viable". {{cite book|editor1-last=Gabbe|editor1-first=Steven G.|editor1-link=Steven Gabbe|editor2-last=Niebyl|editor2-first=Jennifer R.|editor3-last=Simpson|editor3-first=Joe Leigh|year=2007|title=Obstetrics: Normal and Problem Pregnancies|edition=5|publisher=[[Churchill Livingstone]]|chapter=51. Legal and Ethical Issues in Obstetric Practice|isbn=978-0-443-06930-7|last1=Annas|first1=George J.|authorlink1=George Annas|last2=Elias|first2=Sherman}} * "Termination of a pregnancy, whether spontaneous or induced." {{cite book|first1=Melissa J.|last1=Kottke|first2=Mimi|last2=Zieman|chapter=33. Management of Abortion|editor1-first=John A.|editor1-last=Rock|editor2-first=Howard W.|editor2-last=Jones III|year=2008|edition=10|publisher=[[Lippincott Williams & Wilkins]]|isbn=978-0-7817-7234-1|title=TeLinde's Operative Gynecology}} ;Other OB/GYN textbooks * "Termination of pregnancy before 20 weeks' gestation calculated from date of onset of last [[menses]]. An alternative definition is delivery of a fetus with a weight of less than 500 g. If abortion occurs before 12 weeks' gestation, it is called early; from 12 to 20 weeks it is called late." {{cite book|last=Katz|first=Vern L.|publisher=[[Mosby (publisher)|Mosby]]|year=2007|edition=5|title=Katz: Comprehensive Gynecology|editor1-last=Katz|editor1-first=Vern L.|editor2-last=Lentz|editor2-first=Gretchen M.|editor3-last=Lobo|editor3-first=Rogerio A.|editor4-last=Gershenson|editor4-first=David M.|displayeditors=3|chapter=16. Spontaneous and Recurrent Abortion&nbsp;– Etiology, Diagnosis, Treatment|isbn=978-0-323-02951-3}} * "Abortion is the spontaneous or induced termination of pregnancy before fetal viability. Because popular use of the word abortion implies a deliberate pregnancy termination, some prefer the word miscarriage to refer to spontaneous fetal loss before viability&nbsp;... The National Center for Health Statistics, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), and the World Health Organization (WHO) define abortion as pregnancy termination prior to 20 weeks' gestation or a fetus born weighing less than 500 g. Despite this, definitions vary widely according to state laws." {{cite book|editor1-last=Schorge|editor1-first=John O.|editor2-first=Joseph I.|editor2-last=Schaffer|editor3-first=Lisa M.|editor3-last=Halvorson|editor4-first=Barbara L.|editor4-last=Hoffman|editor5-first=Karen D.|editor5-last=Bradshaw|editor6-first=F. Gary|editor6-last=Cunningham|year=2008|title=Williams Gynecology|edition=1|publisher=McGraw-Hill Medical|isbn=978-0-07-147257-9|chapter=6. First-Trimester Abortion}} ;Major [[medical dictionaries]] * "The spontaneous or induced termination of pregnancy before the fetus reaches a viable age." {{cite web|url=http://www.tabers.com/tabersonline/ub/view/Tabers/143003/37/abortion|title=Taber's Medical Dictionary: abortion|publisher=[[F. A. Davis Company|F.A. Davis]]|work=[[Taber's Cyclopedic Medical Dictionary]]|accessdate=14 June 2011|archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/5zRoq1nVk|archivedate=14 June 2011|deadurl=no}} * "Expulsion from the uterus an embryo or fetus prior to the stage of viability (20 weeks' gestation or fetal weight <500g). A distinction made between [abortion] and premature birth: premature infants are those born after the stage of viability but prior to 37 weeks." {{cite book|title=[[Stedman's Medical Dictionary]]|publisher=[[Lippincott Williams & Wilkins]]|edition=27|isbn=0-683-40008-8}} * "[P]remature expulsion from the uterus of the products of conception, either the embryo or a nonviable fetus." {{cite book|title=[[Dorland's Illustrated Medical Dictionary]]|publisher=[[Saunders (publisher)|Saunders]]|year=2007|isbn=978-1-4160-2364-7|edition=31}} ;Other medical dictionaries * "[T]he termination of a pregnancy after, accompanied by, resulting in, or closely followed by the death of the embryo or fetus". {{cite web|url=http://www.merriam-webster.com/medlineplus/abortion|title=Medical Dictionary|publisher=[[Merriam-Webster]]|location=Springfield, Mass.|work=Merriam-Webster's Medical Dictionary|accessdate=15 June 2011|archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/5zTA1aALZ|archivedate=15 June 2011}} * "Induced termination of pregnancy, involving destruction of the embryo or fetus." "abortion." {{cite book|title=The American Heritage Science Dictionary |location=Boston |publisher=Houghton Mifflin |year=2005 |isbn=978-0-618-45504-1}} * "Interruption of pregnancy before the fetus has attained a stage of viability, usually before the 24th gestational week." "abortion." {{cite book|title=Cambridge Dictionary of Human Biology and Evolution |location=Cambridge; New York |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2005 |oclc=54374716}} * "[A] spontaneous or deliberate ending of pregnancy before the fetus can be expected to survive." "abortion." {{cite encyclopedia | encyclopedia=Miller-Keane Encyclopedia and Dictionary of Medicine, Nursing, and Allied Health | publisher=W. B. Saunders | accessdate=10 April 2016 | author=Miller-Keane | editor=Marie T. O'Toole | year=2005 | edition=Seventh | location=United States of America | pages=2304}}{{cite book|title=Mosby's Emergency Dictionary |location=Philadelphia |publisher=Elsevier Health Sciences |year=1998 |oclc=37553784}}{{Verify source|date=October 2011}} * "[A] situation where a fetus leaves the uterus before it is fully developed, especially during the first 28 weeks of pregnancy, or a procedure which causes this to happen&nbsp;... [T]o have an abortion to have an operation to make a fetus leave the uterus during the first period of pregnancy." {{cite book |contribution="abortion" |title=Dictionary of Medical Terms |location=London |publisher=A & C Black |year=2005 |oclc=55634250}} * "1. Induced termination of a pregnancy with destruction of the fetus or embryo; therapeutic abortion. 2. Spontaneous abortion." {{cite book |title=The American Heritage Medical Dictionary |isbn=0-618-94725-6|publisher=Houghton Mifflin |year=2008 |edition=reprint |page=2 |oclc=608212441}} * "Although the term abortion is generic and implies a premature termination of pregnancy for any reason, the lay public better understands the word 'miscarriage' for involuntary fetal loss or fetal wastage." {{cite book |title=The Dictionary of Modern Medicine |page=3 |year=1992 |publisher=Parthenon Publishing |isbn=1-85070-321-3}} * "The termination of pregnancy or premature expulsion of the products of conception by any means, usually before fetal viability." {{cite book |title=Churchill's Medical Dictionary|page=3|year=1989|isbn=0-443-08691-5|publisher=Churchill Livingstone}} ;Bibliographies * "An abortion refers to the termination of a pregnancy. It can be ''induced'' (see Definitions, Terminology, and Reference Resources) through a pharmacological or a surgical procedure, or it may be spontaneous (also called miscarriage)." "Definitions of abortion vary across and within countries as well as among different institutions. Language used to refer to abortion often also reflects societal and political opinions and not only scientific knowledge (Grimes and Gretchen 2010). Popular use of the word abortion implies a deliberate pregnancy termination, whereas a miscarriage is used to refer to spontaneous fetal loss when the fetus is not viable (i.e., not yet unable to survive independently outside the womb)." {{cite web | url=http://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/view/document/obo-9780199756797/obo-9780199756797-0090.xml?rskey=tygpVh&result=1 | title=Abortion | publisher=[[Oxford Bibliographies]] | accessdate=9 April 2014 | author=Kulczycki, Andrzej}} ;[[English dictionary#Major English dictionaries|Major English dictionaries]] (general-purpose) * "1. a. The expulsion or removal from the womb of a developing embryo or fetus, spec. (Med.) in the period before it is capable of independent survival, occurring as a result either of natural causes (more fully spontaneous abortion) or of a deliberate act (more fully induced abortion); the early or premature termination of pregnancy with loss of the fetus; an instance of this." {{cite book|title=[[Oxford English Dictionary]] |chapter= abortion, n.| chapterurl=http://www.oed.com/viewdictionaryentry/Entry/503 |edition=Third |date=September 2009 |orig-year=online version September 2011 |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]}} * "[A]n operation or other procedure to terminate pregnancy before the fetus is viable" or "[T]he premature termination of pregnancy by spontaneous or induced expulsion of a nonviable fetus from the uterus". {{cite web|title=abortion|publisher=[[HarperCollins Publishers]]|work=Collins English Dictionary&nbsp;– Complete & Unabridged 11th Edition|accessdate=7 October 2012|url=http://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/abortion}} * "[T]he removal of an embryo or fetus from the uterus in order to end a pregnancy" or "[A]ny of various surgical methods for terminating a pregnancy, especially during the first six months." {{cite web|title=abortion|work=[[Dictionary.com]] Unabridged|publisher=[[Random House, Inc.]]|date=27 June 2011|url=http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/abortion}} * "1. ''medicine'' the removal of an embryo or fetus from the uterus before it is sufficiently developed to survive independently, deliberately induced by the use of drugs or by surgical procedures. Also called termination or induced abortion. 2. ''medicine'' the spontaneous expulsion of an embryo or fetus from the uterus before it is sufficiently developed to survive independently. Also called miscarriage, spontaneous abortion." ''Chambers 21st Century Dictionary''. London: Chambers Harrap, 2001. * "a medical operation to end a pregnancy so that the baby is not born alive". ''[[Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English]]'', [http://www.ldoceonline.com/dictionary/abortion online edition]. ;Other dictionaries * "The deliberate termination of a pregnancy, usually before the embryo or fetus is capable of independent life." {{cite book |title=The American Heritage New Dictionary of Cultural Literacy |edition=3rd |publisher=[[Houghton Mifflin Company]] |year=2005 |url=http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/abortion}} * "A term that, in philosophy, theology, and social debates, often means the deliberate termination of pregnancy before the fetus is able to survive outside the uterus. However, participants in these debates sometimes use the term abortion simply to mean the termination of pregnancy before birth, regardless of whether the fetus is viable or not." "abortion." ''Dictionary of World Philosophy''. London: Routledge, 2001. * "1. An artificially induced termination of a pregnancy for the purpose of destroying an embryo or fetus. 2. The spontaneous expulsion of an embryo or fetus before viability;" {{cite book| last=Garner| first=Bryan A.| authorlink=Bryan A. Garner| title=[[Black's Law Dictionary]]| edition=9th|date=June 2009| publisher=Thomson West| isbn=978-0-314-19949-2}} ;Encyclopedias * "[T]he expulsion of a fetus from the uterus before it has reached the stage of viability (in human beings, usually about the 20th week of gestation)." {{cite web|title=Abortion (pregnancy)|publisher=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]|work=Encyclopædia Britannica Online|year=2011|url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/1498/abortion|deadurl=no|archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/5zjwaLKR7|archivedate=26 June 2011|accessdate=26 June 2011}} * "Expulsion of the products of conception before the embryo or fetus is viable. Any interruption of human pregnancy prior to the 28th week is known as abortion." {{cite encyclopedia|encyclopedia=The Columbia Encyclopedia|location=New York|publisher=Columbia University Press|year=2008|title=Abortion}} * "The expulsion or removal of a fetus from the womb before it is capable of independent survival." {{cite encyclopedia|title=Abortion|encyclopedia=World Encyclopedia|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2008}} * "[Abortion] is commonly misunderstood outside medical circles. In general terms, the word 'abortion' simply means the failure of something to reach fulfilment or maturity. Medically, abortion means loss of the fetus, for any reason, before it is able to survive outside the womb. The term covers accidental or spontaneous ending, or miscarriage, of pregnancy as well as deliberate termination. The terms 'spontaneous abortion' and 'miscarriage' are synonymous and are defined as loss of the fetus before the twenty-eighth week of pregnancy. This definition implies a legal perception of the age at which a fetus can survive out of the womb. With great advances in recent years in the ability to keep very premature babies alive, this definition is in need of revision." {{cite encyclopedia|title=Abortion and miscarriage|encyclopedia=The Royal Society of Medicine Health Encyclopedia|location=London|publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing|year=2000}} * "Abortion is the intentional removal of a fetus or an embryo from a mother's womb for purposes other than that of either producing a live birth or disposing of a dead embryo." {{cite encyclopedia|title=Abortion|encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of Human Rights Issues since 1945|location=[[Santa Barbara, California]]|year=1999|publisher=Routledge|edition=1|isbn=978-1-57958-166-4}} ;Journal articles about terminology *"Abortion can be performed up to viability; thereafter, according to standard dictionaries, other terms should be used for uterine evacuation. "Late" is an acceptable descriptor for abortion; "late-term" is not. Gestational age should be expressed in completed cardinal days, weeks or months; ordinal numbers (and trimesters) should be avoided. "Intact D&E" should be used instead of the oxymoronic "partial-birth abortion" or the mysterious "D&X." " (internal citations removed) {{cite journal |title=Abortion jabberwocky: the need for better terminology |first=DA |last=Grimes |first2=G |last2=Stuart |journal=Contraception |volume=81 |issue=2 |year=2010 |pages=93–96 |pmid=20103443 |doi=10.1016/j.contraception.2009.09.005}} </ref> }} ==External links== {{wikimedia|collapsible=yes}} * {{cite book|last1=Organization|first1=World Health|title=Safe abortion: technical and policy guidance for health systems|date=2012|publisher=World Health Organization|location=Geneva|isbn=9789241548434|edition=2nd |url=http://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/10665/70914/1/9789241548434_eng.pdf?ua=1}} * [http://www.un.org/esa/population/publications/abortion Abortion Policies: A Global Review], published by the United Nations <!-- HELP KEEP THIS ARTICLE SHORT AND SIMPLE: ADD LINKS TO WHICHEVER SUB-ARTICLE WOULD BE APPROPRIATE INSTEAD OF HERE. ALSO, PLEASE UNDERSTAND THAT SITES CONTAINING SHOCK MATERIAL SHALL IN NO CASE BE ACCEPTED. THANKS!!--> {{Portal bar|Human rights|Medicine}} {{Abortion}} {{Birth control methods}} {{Particular human rights}} {{Reproductive health}} [[Category:Abortion|df=yes]] [[Category:Ethically disputed practices]] [[Category:Fertility]] [[Category:Gender studies]] [[Category:Human reproduction]] [[Category:RTT]] 6kebfdqi4nzyo6r3qwyc43uswijbs3o 0 766 700743550 594795702 2016-01-20T10:16:13Z Xezbeth 86247 delink United States per [[WP:OVERLINK]] wikitext text/x-wiki {{Use dmy dates|date=June 2013}} In [[law]], an '''abstract''' is a brief statement that contains the most important points of a long [[legal document]] or of several related legal papers. ==Abstract of title== {{Main|Abstract of title}} {{Unreferenced section|type=Law|date=November 2007}} The Abstract of Title, used in [[real estate]] transactions, is the more common form of abstract. An abstract of title lists all the owners of a piece of land, a house, or a building before it came into possession of the present owner. The abstract also records all [[deed]]s, [[will (law)|wills]], [[mortgage law|mortgages]], and other documents that affect [[ownership]] of the property. An abstract describes a chain of transfers from owner to owner and any agreements by former owners that are binding on later owners. ==Clear title== {{Unreferenced section|type=Law|date=November 2007}} A clear title to property is one that clearly states any obligation in the deed to the property. It reveals no breaks{{Clarify|reason= does this mean "it shews an unbroken chain"?|date=February 2011}}in the chain of legal ownership. After the records of the property have been traced and the title has been found clear, it is sometimes guaranteed, or insured. In a few states, a different system of insuring title of real properties provides for registration of a clear title with public authorities. After this is accomplished, no abstract of title is necessary. ==Patent law== In the context of [[patent]] law and specifically in [[prior art]] searches, searching through abstracts is a common way to find relevant prior art document to question to [[novelty (patent)|novelty]] or [[Inventive step and non-obviousness|inventive step]] (or [[Inventive step and non-obviousness|non-obviousness]] in United States patent law) of an invention. Under [[United States patent law]], the abstract may be called "Abstract of the Disclosure".<ref>[[United States Patent and Trademark Office]] (USPTO) web site, [http://www.uspto.gov/web/offices/pac/mpep/documents/0600_608_01_b.htm 608.01(b) Abstract of the Disclosure]</ref> ==Administrative process== Certain government bureaucracies, such as a ''department of motor vehicles'' will issue an '''abstract''' of a completed transaction or an updated record intended to serve as a proof of compliance with some administrative requirement. This is often done in advance of the update of reporting databases and/or the issuance of official documents. ==Notes== {{Reflist}} ==See also== *[[Property abstract]] ==References== * [[World Book]] encyclopedia 1988 == External links == * {{PCT Rule|8}}, defining the requirements regarding the abstract in an international application filed under [[Patent Cooperation Treaty]] (PCT) * {{EPC Article|85}} and {{EPC Rule|47}} (previously {{EPC 1973 Rule|33}}), defining the abstract-related requirements in a [[European Patent Convention|European patent application]] {{DEFAULTSORT:Abstract (Law)}} [[Category:Legal research]] h5dzfms53bu1n56jxijcp7ow8ly5d7v 0 767 528977607 15899284 2012-12-20T16:37:51Z MZMcBride 212624 [[bugzilla:42616]] wikitext text/x-wiki #REDIRECT [[A. E. van Vogt]] d0rs7rv3ixtbodd9a7p702ztdms7cds 0 768 654335890 266608955 2015-03-31T13:24:02Z Xqbot 8066546 Bot: Fixing double redirect to [[Internet troll]] wikitext text/x-wiki #REDIRECT [[Internet troll]] k58s70r5oeonhb39m7rnqtl1eidr3sz 0 771 717770601 717770552 2016-04-29T16:31:10Z 173.2.120.9 /* Taxes */ wikitext text/x-wiki {{Redirect|Revolutionary War}} {{About|military actions only|political and social developments, including the origins and aftermath of the war|American Revolution}} {{pp-pc1}} {{Use mdy dates|date=June 2013}} {{Infobox military conflict |conflict=American Revolutionary War |image=[[File:AmericanRevolutionaryWarMon.jpg|300px]] |caption='''Clockwise from top left''': [[Surrender of Lord Cornwallis]] after the [[Siege of Yorktown]], [[Battle of Trenton]], [[The Death of General Warren at the Battle of Bunker's Hill, June 17, 1775|The Death of General Warren]] at the [[Battle of Bunker Hill]], [[Battle of Long Island]], [[Battle of Guilford Court House]] |date=April 19, 1775{{snds}}September 3, 1783<ref>A cease-fire in America [http://avalon.law.yale.edu/18th_century/proc1783.asp was proclaimed by Congress] on April 11, 1783 pursuant to a cease-fire agreement between Great Britain and France on January 20, 1783. The final peace treaty was not signed until September 3, 1783, ratified on January 14, 1784 in the U.S., and final ratification exchanged in Europe on May 12, 1784. Hostilities in India continued until July 1783.</ref><br />({{Age in years, months and days|1775|04|19|1783|09|03}})<br /> Ratification effective: May 12, 1784 |place=Eastern North America, [[Gibraltar]], [[Balearic Islands]], the [[Indian subcontinent]],parts of Africa and elsewhere;<br /> European coastal waters, [[Caribbean Sea]], [[Atlantic Ocean|Atlantic]] and Indian Oceans |result= American victory * [[Peace of Paris (1783)|Peace of Paris]] * [[Kingdom of Great Britain|British]] recognition of the independence of the <br />[[United States|United States of America]] * End of the [[First British Empire]] * Shattering of the [[Iroquois|Iroquois Confederacy]] |territory=Great Britain loses area east of Mississippi River and south of Great Lakes and St. Lawrence River to independent United States and to Spain;<br />Spain gains [[East Florida]], [[West Florida]] and [[Minorca]];<br />Great Britain cedes [[Tobago]] and [[Senegal]] to France.<br />Dutch Republic cedes [[Nagapattinam|Negapatnam]] to Great Britain. |combatant1= *{{flagdeco|United States|1776}} [[Thirteen Colonies|United Colonies]] <small>(before 1776)</small> *{{flagdeco|United States|1777|size=23px}} [[Patriot (American Revolution)|United States]] <small>(after 1776)</small> *[[Vermont Republic]] <small>(from 1777)</small> *[[Watauga Association]]{{cn|date=April 2016}} *{{flagicon|Kingdom of France}} [[Kingdom of France|France]]{{refn|[[Anglo-French War (1778–83)|(1778{{ndash}}83)]]}} *{{flagicon|Spain|1748}} [[Spanish Empire|Spain]]{{refn|[[Spain in the American Revolutionary War|(1779{{ndash}}83)]]}}{{cn|date=April 2016}} *[[Native Americans in the United States|Native Americans]]{{refn|[[Oneida tribe|Oneida]], [[Tuscarora (tribe)|Tuscarora]], [[Catawba (tribe)|Catawba]], [[Lenape]], [[Chickasaw]], [[Choctaw]], [[Mahican]], [[Mi'kmaq]] (until 1779), [[Abenaki]], [[Cheraw (tribe)|Cheraw]], [[Seminole]], [[Pee Dee people|Pee Dee]], [[Lumbee]]}} ---- '''Co-belligerents:'''<br /> {{flag|Dutch Republic|name=Netherlands}}{{refn|[[Fourth Anglo-Dutch War|(1780–83)]]}}{{cn|date=April 2016}}<br /> {{Flagicon image|Flag_of_Mysore.svg|size=23px}} [[Sultanate of Mysore|Mysore]]{{refn|(1780–84)}} {{cn|date=April 2016}} |combatant2={{flagcountry|Kingdom of Great Britain}} * [[Loyalist (American Revolution)|Loyalists]] * [[Germans in the American Revolution|German auxiliaries]] *[[Native Americans in the United States|Native Americans]]{{refn|[[Onondaga people|Onondaga]], [[Mohawk nation|Mohawk]], [[Cayuga people|Cayuga]], [[Seneca people|Seneca]], [[Mi'kmaq]] <small>(from 1779)</small>, [[Cherokee]], [[Odawa]], [[Muscogee]], [[Susquehannock]], [[Shawnee]]}} |commander1={{flagicon|United States|1777}} [[George Washington]]<br /> {{flagicon|United States|1777}} [[Nathanael Greene]]<br /> {{flagicon|United States|1777}} [[Horatio Gates]]<br /> {{flagicon|Kingdom of France}} [[Jean-Baptiste Donatien de Vimeur, comte de Rochambeau|Jean-Baptiste de Rochambeau]]<br /> {{flagicon|Kingdom of France}} [[François Joseph Paul de Grasse|François de Grasse]]{{POW}}<br /> {{flagicon|Spain|1748}} [[Bernardo de Gálvez y Madrid, Count of Gálvez|Bernardo de Gálvez]]<br /> <small>[[Military leadership in the American Revolutionary War|'''''...full list''''']]</small> |commander2={{flagicon|Kingdom of Great Britain}} [[William Howe, 5th Viscount Howe|Sir William Howe]]<br /> {{flagicon|Kingdom of Great Britain}} [[Thomas Gage]]<br /> {{flagicon|Kingdom of Great Britain}} [[Henry Clinton (American War of Independence)|Sir Henry Clinton]]<br /> {{flagicon|Kingdom of Great Britain}} [[Charles Cornwallis, 1st Marquess Cornwallis|Lord Cornwallis]]{{POW}}<br /> {{flagicon|Kingdom of Great Britain}} [[John Burgoyne]]{{POW}} <br /> {{flagicon|Kingdom of Great Britain}} [[Richard Howe, 1st Earl Howe|Richard Howe]]<br /> <small>[[Military leadership in the American Revolutionary War|'''''...full list''''']]</small> |strength1= '''United States:'''<br /> 40,000 (Average)<ref name=medical>Duncan, Louis C. [http://history.amedd.army.mil/booksdocs/rev/MedMen/default.html MEDICAL MEN IN THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION] (1931).</ref><br /> 5,000 [[Continental Navy]] sailors (at height in 1779)<ref name="Greene"/><br /> no ships of the line<br /> 53 other ships (active at some point during the war)<ref name="Greene">Jack P. Greene and J. R. Pole. ''A Companion to the American Revolution'' (Wiley-Blackwell, 2003), p. 328.</ref> '''Allies:'''<br /> 12,000 French (in America)<br /> 63,000 French and Spanish (at Gibraltar)<br /> 146 ships of the line (active 1782)<ref name="Jonathan Dull 1985 p. 110">Jonathan Dull, ''A Diplomatic History of the American Revolution'' (Yale University Press, 1985), p. 110.</ref> '''Native Allies:''' Unknown |strength2= '''Great Britain:'''<br /> '''Army:'''<br>39,196 (average, North America only)<ref>Duncan, Louis C. [http://history.amedd.army.mil/booksdocs/rev/MedMen/default.html MEDICAL MEN IN THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION] (1931). Page 373, Appendix A.</ref><br>7,500 (at Gibraltar)<br /> '''Navy:'''<br> 94 ships of the line (active 1782)<ref name="Jonathan Dull 1985 p. 110"/><br /> 171,000 Sailors<ref name="Mackesy 1964 pp. 6, 176">Mackesy (1964), pp. 6, 176 (British seamen).</ref> '''Loyalist forces:'''<br /> 19,000 (total number that served)<ref>Jasanoff, Maya, Liberty's Exiles: American Loyalists in the Revolutionary World (2011).</ref> '''German auxiliaries:'''<br /> 30,000 (total number that served)<ref>A. J. Berry, ''A Time of Terror'' (2006) p. 252</ref> '''Native Allies:''' 13,000<ref>Greene and Pole (1999), p. 393; Boatner (1974), p. 545.</ref> |casualties1= '''United States:'''<br /> 6,824 killed in battle <br /> 25,000–70,000 dead from all causes<ref name=medical/><ref name="Howard H. Peckham 1974">Howard H. Peckham, ed., The Toll of Independence: Engagements and Battle Casualties of the American Revolution (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1974).</ref><br /> Overall casualties up to 50,000<ref>American dead and wounded: Shy, pp. 249–50. The lower figure for number of wounded comes from Chambers, p. 849.</ref><br /> '''France:''' 10,000 battle deaths (75% at sea) '''Spain:''' 5,000 killed '''Netherlands:''' 500 killed<ref>{{cite web|url=http://necrometrics.com/wars18c.htm#AmRev |title=Spanish casualties in The American Revolutionary war. |publisher=Necrometrics}}</ref> |casualties2='''Great Britain:'''<br />4,000 army troops killed in battle (North America only)<br>27,000 army troops died of disease (North America)<ref name=medical/><ref>{{cite web|url=http://necrometrics.com/wars18c.htm|title=Eighteenth Century Death Tolls|author=|date=|work=necrometrics.com|accessdate=January 7, 2016}}</ref><br />1,243 navy killed in battle, 42,000 deserted, 18,500 died from disease (1776–1780)<ref name="Parliamentary Register">[https://books.google.com/books?id=zc5ZwyqzpQQC&pg=PA298&dq=parliamentary+register+1780&hl=en&sa=X&ei=M-rPVO-pMrT7sASv6oCgCw&ved=0CCUQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q=killed&f=false Parliamentary Register] (1781), p. 269.</ref><br />At least 51,000 dead from all causes '''Germans:''' 1,800 killed in battle<br>4,888 deserted<br>7,774 dead from all causes<ref name=medical/> }} {{Campaignbox American Revolutionary War}} The '''American Revolutionary War''' (1775{{ndash}}1783), also known as the '''American War of Independence'''<ref>Modern British writers generally favour "American War of Independence", rather than "American Rebellion" or "War of American Independence". {{cite web|url=https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/national-curriculum-in-england-history-programmes-of-study/national-curriculum-in-england-history-programmes-of-study|title=National Curriculum England|date=|accessdate=April 21, 2016}}</ref> and the '''Revolutionary War''' in the United States, was the armed conflict between [[Kingdom of Great Britain|Great Britain]] and [[Thirteen Colonies|thirteen of its North American colonies]], which had declared themselves the independent [[United States of America]].{{refn|In this article, the inhabitants of the thirteen colonies who supported the American Revolution are primarily referred to as "Americans", with occasional references to "Patriots", "Whigs", "Rebels" or "Revolutionaries". Colonists who supported the British and opposed the Revolution are referred to as "Loyalists" or "Tories". The geographical area of the thirteen colonies is often referred to simply as "America".|group=N}}<ref>Merrill Jensen, ''The Founding of a Nation: A History of the American Revolution, 1763–1776'' (2004).</ref> Early fighting took place primarily on the North American continent. France, eager for revenge after its defeat in the [[Seven Years' War]], signed an [[Franco-American alliance|alliance]] with the new nation in 1778 that proved decisive in the ultimate victory.<ref name="RichardBrooks">Brooks, Richard (editor). ''Atlas of World Military History''. HarperCollins, 2000, p. 101 "Washington's success in keeping the army together deprived the British of victory, but French intervention won the war."</ref> The conflict gradually expanded into a [[world war]] with Britain combating [[Early Modern France|France]], [[Enlightenment Spain|Spain]], and [[Dutch Republic|the Netherlands]]. [[Second Anglo-Mysore War|Fighting]] also broke out in India between the British [[East India Company]] and the French allied [[Kingdom of Mysore]]. The American Revolutionary War had its origins in the resistance of many Americans to taxes, [[No taxation without representation|which they claimed were unconstitutional]], imposed by the British parliament. Patriot protests escalated into boycotts, and on December 16, 1773, the destruction of a shipment of tea at the [[Boston Tea Party]]. The British government retaliated by closing the port of Boston and taking away self-government. The Patriots responded by [[Suffolk Resolves|setting up a shadow government]] that took control of the province outside of Boston. Twelve other colonies supported Massachusetts, formed a [[Continental Congress]] to coordinate their resistance, and set up committees and conventions that effectively seized power. In April 1775 the [[battles of Lexington and Concord]], in [[Middlesex County, Massachusetts|Middlesex County]], near Boston, began open armed conflict between the Kingdom of Great Britain and thirteen of its colonies. The Continental Congress appointed General [[George Washington]] to take charge of militia units besieging British forces in Boston, forcing them to evacuate the city in March 1776. Congress supervised the war, giving Washington command of the new Continental Army; he also coordinated state militia units. On July 2, 1776, the [[Continental Congress]] [[United States Declaration of Independence|formally voted for independence, and issued its Declaration on July 4]].<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/king-george-refuses-olive-branch-petition|title= King George refuses Olive Branch Petition|date= 2014 |website= The History Channel Website|publisher= |accessdate= November 29, 2014}}</ref> However, it was not until August 2, 1776 that the [[Declaration of independence]] was taken into place and first signed by [[Delaware]]. Meanwhile, the British were mustering forces to suppress the revolt. [[William Howe, 5th Viscount Howe|Sir William Howe]] outmaneuvered and defeated Washington, capturing New York City and New Jersey. Washington was able to [[Battle of Trenton|capture a Hessian detachment at Trenton]] and drive the British out of most of New Jersey. In 1777 Howe's army launched a campaign against the national capital at Philadelphia, failing to aid [[Saratoga Campaign|Burgoyne's separate invasion force from Canada]]. Burgoyne's army was trapped, and surrendered after the [[Battles of Saratoga]] in October 1777. This American victory encouraged France [[France in the American Revolutionary War|to enter the war in 1778]]. [[Spain in the American Revolutionary War|Spain joined the war]] in 1779, as an ally of France under the [[Pacte de Famille]]. In 1778, having failed in the northern states, the British shifted strategy toward the south, bringing Georgia and South Carolina under control in 1779 and 1780. However, the resulting surge of Loyalist support was far weaker than expected. In 1781, British forces moved through Virginia and settled at Yorktown, but their escape was blocked by a French [[Battle of the Chesapeake|naval victory]] in September. Led by [[Jean-Baptiste Donatien de Vimeur, comte de Rochambeau|Count Rochambeau]] and Washington,<ref name="RonChernow1">Chernow, Ron. ''Washington''. Penguin Books, 2010, p. 413 "Each morning the two men reviewed the progress, but Washington deferred to French expertise about sieges, putting the French general in command."</ref> a combined Franco-American army launched a [[Siege of Yorktown|siege at Yorktown]] and captured more than 8,000 British troops in October.<ref name="RonChernow2">Chernow, Ron. ''Washington''. Penguin Books, 2010, p. 419 "The Yorktown victory netted more than eight thousand prisoners..."</ref> The defeat at Yorktown finally turned the British Parliament against the war, and in early 1782 they voted to end offensive operations in North America. The war against France and Spain continued, with the British defeating the long [[siege of Gibraltar]], and inflicting several [[France in the American Revolutionary War|defeats on the French]] in 1782. In 1783, the [[Treaty of Paris (1783)|Treaty of Paris]] ended the war and recognized the sovereignty of the United States over the territory bounded roughly by what is now Canada to the north, [[Florida]] to the south, and the [[Mississippi River]] to the west. France gained its revenge and little else except a heavy national debt, while Spain acquired Great Britain's Florida colonies.<ref>Dull, ''A Diplomatic History of the American Revolution'', ch. 18.</ref><ref name="historiographical431">Lawrence S. Kaplan, "The Treaty of Paris, 1783: A Historiographical Challenge", ''International History Review,'' September 1983, Vol. 5, Issue 3, pp 431–42.</ref> ==Causes== {{main|American Revolution}} ===Taxes Rates=== The close of the [[Seven Years' War]] in 1763 (called the [[French and Indian War]] in America) saw Great Britain triumphant in driving the French from North America. Though triumphant, Britain had been forced to borrow heavily to win the war, in particular in using the American colonies as a base for invading and seizing French territories. In the year between 1763-4, the British revenue service in America cost four times more to administer than it collected in duties,<ref>Thomas Chavez; Spain & the Independence of the United Sates; An Intrinsic Gift. Page 22</ref> and London therefore decided that it was time to end the policy of [[Salutary Neglect]], and enforce a more vigorous approach to collecting legal revenues from the thirteen colonies. Since the earliest times, Americans had experienced an extremely relaxed approach towards smuggling. Nowhere in the British Empire were taxes as low as in the thirteen colonies - India and Britain itself were subjected to much higher levels of exploitation. For example, the 1733 Molasses Act, introduced to protect the plantations from their more productive French counterparts, imposed a tax of sixpence per gallon on imports of molasses from non-British West Indian colonies. But it was so heavily violated that it produced only a trickle of revenue; twenty years later, only 384 hogsheads of molasses officially entered Boston, a town housing 63 rum distilleries that together required an annual 40,000 hogsheads of molasses to maintain normal production.<ref>Smuggler Nation, how illicit trade made America. Peter Andreas Page 15</ref> Parliament passed the [[Stamp Act]] in March 1765, which imposed direct taxes on the colonies for the first time starting November 1. This was met with strong condemnation among American spokesmen, who argued that their "Rights as Englishmen" meant that taxes [[no taxation without representation|could not be imposed on them]] because they lacked representation in Parliament.<ref>{{cite book|author= Gladney, Henry M. |title=No Taxation without Representation: 1768 Petition, Memorial, and Remonstrance|year=2014|url=http://www.hgladney.com/PMR/No_Taxation_without_Representation_(book_description).pdf}}http://wayback.archive.org/web/20150513135503/http://www.hgladney.com/PMR/No_Taxation_without_Representation_(book_description).pdf</ref> At the same time the colonists rejected the solution of being provided with the representation, claiming that "their local circumstances" made it impossible.<ref>"the people of these colonies are not, and from their local circumstances cannot be, represented in the House of Commons in Great-Britain." quoted from the [http://avalon.law.yale.edu/18th_century/resolu65.asp Resolutions of the "Stamp Act Congress"] October 19, 1765</ref><ref>"...&nbsp;as the English colonists are not represented, and from their local and other circumstances, cannot properly be represented in the British parliament, they are entitled to a free and exclusive power of legislation in their several provincial legislatures, where their right of representation can alone be preserved&nbsp;..." quoted from the [http://avalon.law.yale.edu/18th_century/resolves.asp Declarations and Resolves of the First Continental Congress] October 14, 1774.</ref> Civil resistance prevented the Act from being enforced, and organized boycotts of British goods were instituted. This resistance was by and large unexpected and "produced a violent and very natural irritation."<ref>{{cite book|author=W.E.H. Lecky|title=The American Revolution, 1763–1783|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=faZCVmrtqJoC&pg=PA95|year=1898|page=95}}</ref> A change of government in Britain led to the repeal of the Stamp Act as inexpedient, but also the passage of the [[Declaratory Act]], which stated, "the said colonies and plantations in America have been, are, and of right ought to be, subordinate unto, and dependent upon the imperial crown and parliament of Great Britain."<ref>{{cite book|author=Charles Howard McIlwain|title=The American Revolution: A Constitutional Interpretation|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uPCOs3MBUUEC&pg=PA51|year=1938|page=51}}</ref> In their declarations Americans had deemed internal taxes like the Stamp Act as unlawful, but not external taxes like custom duties. In 1767 Parliament passed the [[Townshend Act]] in order to demonstrate its supremacy. It imposed duties on various British goods exported to the colonies. The Americans quickly denounced this as illegal as well, since the intent of the act was to raise revenue and not regulate trade.<ref>{{cite book|author=Paul Boyer|title=The Enduring Vision: A History of the American People|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kDAaCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA142|year=2014|publisher=Cengage Learning|page=142|display-authors=etal}}</ref> In 1768 violence broke out in Boston over attempts to suppress smuggling and 4000 British troops were sent to occupy the city. Parliament threatened to try Massachusetts residents for [[treason]] in England. Far from being intimidated, the colonists formed new associations to boycott British goods, albeit with less effectiveness than previously since the Townshend imports were so widely used. In March 1770 five colonists in Boston were killed in the [[Boston Massacre]], sparking outrage.<ref>{{cite web|title=What was the Boston Massacre?|website=Boston Massacre Society|url=http://www.bostonmassacre.net/}}</ref> That same year Parliament agreed to repeal all taxes except the one on tea. In 1773, in an effort to rescue the [[East India Company]] from financial difficulties, the government attempted to increase the company's tea sales by permitting direct export to the colonies (reducing the price of its tea) while retaining the tax and appointing certain merchants in America to receive and sell it. The landing of this tea was resisted in all the colonies and, when the royal governor of Massachusetts refused to send back the tea ships in Boston, Patriots [[Boston Tea Party|destroyed the tea]] chests.<ref>{{cite web|title=Boston Tea Party|website=History.com.|accessdate=|url=http://www.history.com/topics/american-revolution/boston-tea-party}}</ref> ===Crisis=== [[File:Boston Tea Party Currier colored.jpg|thumb|alt=Two ships in a harbor, one in the distance. On board, men stripped to the waist and wearing feathers in their hair throw crates of tea overboard. A large crowd, mostly men, stands on the dock, waving hats and cheering. A few people wave their hats from windows in a nearby building.|This iconic 1846 lithograph by [[Nathaniel Currier]] was entitled "The Destruction of Tea at Boston Harbor"; the phrase "Boston Tea Party" had not yet become standard. Contrary to Currier's depiction, few of the men dumping the tea were actually disguised as Indians.<ref>Young, ''Shoemaker'', 183–85.</ref>]] Nobody was punished for the "[[Boston Tea Party]]" and in 1774 Parliament ordered Boston Harbor closed until the destroyed tea was paid for. It then passed the [[Massachusetts Government Act]] to punish the rebellious colony. The upper house of the Massachusetts legislature would be appointed by the Crown, as was already the case in other colonies such as [[New York]] and [[Virginia]]. The royal governor was able to appoint and remove at will all judges, sheriffs, and other executive officials, and restrict town meetings. Jurors would be selected by the sheriffs and British soldiers would be tried outside the colony for alleged offenses. These were collectively dubbed the "[[Intolerable Acts]]" by the Patriots. Although these actions were not unprecedented (the Massachusetts charter had already been replaced once before in 1691), the people of the colony were outraged. Town meetings resulted in the [[Suffolk Resolves]], a declaration not to cooperate with the royal authorities. In October 1774 an illegal "[[Massachusetts Provincial Congress|provincial congress]]" was established which took over the governance of Massachusetts outside of British-occupied Boston and began training militia for hostilities. Meanwhile, in September 1774 representatives of the other colonies convened the [[First Continental Congress]] in order to respond to the crisis. The Congress rejected a "[[Galloway's Plan of Union|Plan of Union]]" to establish an American parliament that could approve or disapprove of the acts of the British parliament. Instead, they endorsed the Suffolk Resolves and demanded the repeal of all Parliamentary acts passed since 1763, not merely the tax on tea and the "Intolerable Acts". They stated that Parliament had no authority over internal matters in America, but that they would "cheerfully consent" to trade regulations, including customs duties for the benefit of the empire.<ref>"Resolved, 4. That the foundation of English liberty, and of all free government, is a right in the people to participate in their legislative council: and as the English colonists are not represented, and from their local and other circumstances, cannot properly be represented in the British parliament, they are entitled to a free and exclusive power of legislation in their several provincial legislatures, where their right of representation can alone be preserved, in all cases of taxation and internal polity, subject only to the negative of their sovereign, in such manner as has been heretofore used and accustomed: But, from the necessity of the case, and a regard to the mutual interest of both countries, we cheerfully consent to the operation of such acts of the British parliament, as are bonfide, restrained to the regulation of our external commerce, for the purpose of securing the commercial advantages of the whole empire to the mother country, and the commercial benefits of its respective members; excluding every idea of taxation internal or external, for raising a revenue on the subjects, in America, without their consent." quoted from the [http://avalon.law.yale.edu/18th_century/resolves.asp Declarations and Resolves of the First Continental Congress] October 14, 1774.</ref> They also required Britain to acknowledge that unilaterally stationing troops in the colonies in a time of peace was "against the law". Although the Congress lacked any legal authority, it ordered the creation of Patriot committees who would enforce a boycott of British goods starting on December 1, 1774. This time, however, the British would not yield. [[Edmund Burke]] introduced a motion to repeal all the Acts of Parliament the Americans objected to and waive any rights of Britain to tax for revenue, but it was defeated 210–105. Parliament voted to restrict all colonial trade to Britain, prevent them from using the [[Cod fishing in Newfoundland|Newfoundland fisheries]], and to increase the size of the army and navy by 6,000. In February 1775 Prime Minister [[Lord North]] proposed not to impose taxes if the colonies themselves made "fixed contributions". This would safeguard the taxing rights of the colonies from future infringement while enabling them to contribute to maintenance of the empire. This proposal was nevertheless rejected by the Congress in July as an "insidious maneuver", by which time hostilities had broken out. ===Internal British politics=== During this time the British did not present a united front toward the American Patriots. The Parliament of Great Britain at this time was informally divided between conservative ([[Tory]]) and liberal ([[Patriot Whigs|Whig]]) factions. The Whigs generally favored lenient treatment of the colonists short of independence while the Tories staunchly upheld the rights of Parliament. The Whigs felt that the Tory policies were pushing Americans to rebel, while the Tories thought Whig leniency (such as repealing the Stamp Act) was doing the same. Many Whigs freely associated themselves with the American Patriot cause, which Tories thought were encouraging the Americans in their resistance. The result was that, although [[Lord North|Lord North's]] Tory government usually had a Parliamentary majority, a large Whig minority opposed it and constantly criticized its policies.<ref>Lecky, William Edward Hartpole, [https://archive.org/stream/historyofengland03leck#page/545/mode/1up A History of England in the Eighteenth Century] (1882), p. 545.</ref> Meanwhile, Whig commanders in America such as [[Sir William Howe]] and his brother Admiral Howe came under the suspicion of Tories and Loyalists for not vigorously prosecuting the war effort.<ref>Sabine, Lorenzo, [https://books.google.com/books?id=QjUNAAAAIAAJ Biographical Sketches of Loyalists of the American Revolution], Vol. I (1864), p. 74.</ref> ==First phase, 1775–1778== ===Outbreak of the War 1775–1776=== ====Massachusetts==== <!-- and this section is a brief summary of the "Boston campaign" article, so add additional details there rather than here.--> {{Main|Boston campaign}} In February 1775 Parliament declared Massachusetts to be in a state of rebellion. Lieutenant General [[Thomas Gage]], the British [[Commander-in-Chief, North America|North American commander-in chief]], commanded four regiments of British regulars (about 4,000 men) from his headquarters in Boston, but the countryside was in the hands of the Revolutionaries. On April 14, he received orders to disarm the rebels and arrest their leaders. [[File:British Army in Concord Detail.jpg|thumb|left|The British marching to [[Concord, Massachusetts|Concord]] in April 1775]] On the night of April 18, 1775, General Gage sent 700 men to seize munitions stored by the colonial militia at [[Concord, Massachusetts]]. Riders including [[Paul Revere]] alerted the countryside, and when British troops entered [[Lexington, Massachusetts|Lexington]] on the morning of April 19, they found 77 [[Minutemen (militia)|Minutemen]] formed up on the village green. Shots were exchanged, killing several Minutemen. The British moved on to Concord, where a detachment of three companies was engaged and routed at the North Bridge by a force of 500 minutemen. As the British retreated back to Boston, thousands of militiamen attacked them along the roads, inflicting many casualties before timely British reinforcements prevented a total disaster. With the [[Battles of Lexington and Concord]], the war had begun.<ref>David Hackett Fischer, ''Paul Revere's Ride'' (1994), Pulitzer Prize-winning history of the campaign.</ref> The militia converged on Boston, [[siege of Boston|bottling up the British]] in the city. About 4,500 more British soldiers arrived by sea, and on June 17, 1775, British forces under General [[William Howe, 5th Viscount Howe|William Howe]] seized the Charlestown peninsula at the [[Battle of Bunker Hill]]. The British mounted a costly frontal attack.<ref>Adams, Charles Francis, [https://archive.org/stream/americanhistoric18951896jame#page/401/mode/1up "The Battle of Bunker Hill"], in ''American Historical Review'' (1895–1896), pp. 401–13.</ref> The Americans fell back, but British losses totaled over 1,000 men. The siege was not broken, and Gage was soon replaced by Howe as the British commander-in-chief.<ref>Higginbotham (1983), pp.&nbsp;75–77.</ref> General Gage wrote to the Secretary at War in London: :These people show a spirit and conduct against us they never showed against the French….They are now spirited up by a rage and enthusiasm as great as ever people were possessed of and you must proceed in earnest or give the business up. A small body acting in one spot will not avail, you must have large armies making diversions on different sides, to divide their force. The loss we have sustained is greater than we can bear. Small armies cannot afford such losses, especially when the advantage gained tends to do little more than the gaining of a post.<ref>{{cite book|author=Hugh F. Rankin, ed.|title=Rebels and Redcoats: The American Revolution Through the Eyes of Those who Fought and Lived it|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_BiqdpZ9hlcC&pg=PA63|year=1987|publisher=Da Capo Press|page=63}}</ref> In July 1775, newly appointed General Washington arrived outside Boston to take charge of the colonial forces and to organize the Continental Army. Realizing his army's desperate shortage of gunpowder, Washington asked for new sources. Arsenals were raided and some manufacturing was attempted; 90% of the supply (2 million pounds) was imported by the end of 1776, mostly from France.<ref>Stephenson (1925), pp.&nbsp;271–81.</ref> Patriots in New Hampshire had seized powder, muskets and cannons from [[Fort William and Mary]] in Portsmouth Harbor in late 1774.<ref>* Elwin L. Page. "The King's Powder, 1774", ''New England Quarterly'' Vol. 18, No. 1 (Mar., 1945), pp. 83–92 [http://www.jstor.org/stable/361393 in JSTOR]</ref> Some of the munitions were used in the Boston campaign. The standoff continued throughout the fall and winter. During this time Washington was astounded by the failure of Howe to attack his shrinking, poorly armed force.<ref>Lecky, William Edward Hartpole, [https://archive.org/stream/historyofengland03leck#page/449/mode/1up A History of England in the Eighteenth Century] (1882), pp. 449–50.</ref> In early March 1776, heavy cannons that the patriots had [[Capture of Fort Ticonderoga|captured at Fort Ticonderoga]] were brought to Boston by Colonel [[Henry Knox]], and [[fortification of Dorchester Heights|placed on Dorchester Heights]]. Since the artillery now overlooked the British positions, Howe's situation was untenable, and the British fled on March 17, 1776, sailing to their naval base at [[City of Halifax|Halifax, Nova Scotia]], an event now celebrated in Massachusetts as [[Evacuation Day (Massachusetts)|Evacuation Day]]. Washington then moved most of the Continental Army to fortify New York City.<ref>{{cite book|author=John R. Alden|title=A History of the American Revolution|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-o03VtlglokC&pg=PA189|year=1989|publisher=Da Capo Press|pages=188–90}}</ref> ====Quebec==== {{Main|Invasion of Canada (1775)}}<!-- This is a brief summary of the main article "Invasion of Canada (1775)". Add details to that article rather than here. --> [[File:Canadian militiamen and British soldiers repulse the American assault at Sault-au-Matelot.jpg|thumb|British soldiers and Provincial militiamen repulse the American assault at [[Battle of Quebec (1775)|Sault-au-Matelot]], [[Canada]], December 1775]] Three weeks after the siege of Boston began, the Green Mountain Boys, a group of militia volunteers led by [[Ethan Allen]] and [[Benedict Arnold]], [[Capture of Fort Ticonderoga|captured Fort Ticonderoga]], a strategically important point on [[Lake Champlain]] between New York and the [[Province of Quebec (1763–1791)|Province of Quebec]]. After that action they also raided [[Fort Saint-Jean (Quebec)|Fort St. John's]], not far from Montreal, which alarmed the population and the authorities there. In response, Quebec's governor [[Guy Carleton, 1st Baron Dorchester|Guy Carleton]] began fortifying St. John's, and opened negotiations with the [[Iroquois]] and other Native American tribes for their support. These actions, combined with lobbying by both Allen and Arnold and the fear of a British attack from the north, persuaded the Congress, on 27th June 1775, to authorize an invasion of Quebec, with the goal of driving the British military from that province. (Quebec was then frequently referred to as ''Canada'', as most of its territory included the former French Province of [[Canada, New France|Canada]].)<ref>Mark R. Anderson, ''The Battle for the Fourteenth Colony: America's War of Liberation in Canada, 1774–1776'' (University Press of New England; 2013).</ref> Two Quebec-bound expeditions were undertaken. On September 28, 1775, Brigadier General [[Richard Montgomery]] marched north from [[Fort Ticonderoga]] with about 1,700 militiamen, [[Siege of Fort St. Jean|besieging and capturing Fort St. Jean]] on November 2 and then Montreal on November 13. General Carleton escaped to [[Quebec City]] and began preparing that city for an attack. The [[Arnold's expedition to Quebec|second expedition]], led by Colonel Arnold, went through the wilderness of what is now northern Maine. Logistics were difficult, with 300 men turning back, and another 200 perishing due to the harsh conditions. By the time Arnold reached Quebec City in early November, he had but 600 of his original 1,100 men. Montgomery's force joined Arnold's, and they [[Battle of Quebec (1775)|attacked Quebec City]] on December 31, but were defeated by Carleton in a battle that ended with Montgomery dead, Arnold wounded, and over 400 Americans taken prisoner.<ref>[[Willard Sterne Randall]], "Benedict Arnold at Quebec", ''MHQ: Quarterly Journal of Military History,'' Summer 1990, Vol. 2, Issue 4, pp 38–49.</ref> The remaining Americans held on outside Quebec City until the spring of 1776, suffering from poor camp conditions and smallpox, and then withdrew when a squadron of British ships under [[Sir Charles Douglas, 1st Baronet|Captain Charles Douglas]] arrived to relieve the siege.<ref>Thomas A. Desjardin, ''Through a Howling Wilderness: Benedict Arnold's March to Quebec, 1775'' (2006).</ref> Another attempt was made by the Americans to push back towards Quebec, but they failed at [[Battle of Trois-Rivières|Trois-Rivières]] on June 8, 1776. Carleton then launched his own invasion and defeated Arnold at the [[Battle of Valcour Island]] in October. Arnold fell back to Fort Ticonderoga, where the invasion had begun. While the invasion ended as a disaster for the Americans, Arnold's efforts in 1776 delayed any full-scale British counteroffensive until the [[Saratoga campaign]] of 1777. The invasion cost the Americans their base of support in British public opinion, "So that the violent measures towards America are freely adopted and countenanced by a majority of individuals of all ranks, professions, or occupations, in this country."<ref>Watson (1960), p.&nbsp;203.</ref> It gained them at best limited support in the population of Quebec, which, while somewhat supportive early in the invasion, became less so later during the occupation, when American policies against suspected Loyalists became harsher, and the army's hard currency ran out. Two small regiments of [[Canadien]]s were recruited during the operation, and they were with the army on its retreat back to Ticonderoga.<ref>Arthur S. Lefkowitz, ''Benedict Arnold's Army: The 1775 American Invasion of Canada during the Revolutionary War'' (2007).</ref> Even after their retreat, the Patriots continued to view Quebec as a part of their cause and made specific provisions for it to join the U.S. under the 1777 [[Articles of Confederation]]. ====Expelling the royal officials==== At the onset of war, the British had a significant force only in Boston, though this force would evacuate by the signing of the [[Declaration of Independence]] in 1776. Patriots in all 13 colonies were quick to establish new revolutionary governments based around various committees and conventions that they had created in 1774 and early 1775. Royal governors and officials found themselves powerless to stop the rebellion and in many places were forced to flee. In many places the Patriots were energetic and were backed by angry mobs while the Loyalists were too intimidated or poorly organized to be effective without the British army. The term "[[lynching]]" originated when Virginia Patriots held informal courts and arrested Loyalists (the term did not suggest execution). ===Loyalist Writings=== Loyalist writings throughout the conflict persistently claimed that they were the majority, and influenced London officials to believe that it would be possible to raise many Loyalist regiments.<ref>Lorenzo Sabine, [https://books.google.com/books?vid=OCLC00425953&id=QjUNAAAAIAAJ&printsec=titlepage#v=onepage&q=%22In%20nearly%20every%20loyalist%20letter%22&f=false ''Biographical Sketches of Loyalists of the American Revolution''], Vol. I (1864) p. 48; Sabine adds they were certainly wrong.</ref> As late as 1780 the Loyalists were deceiving themselves and top London officials about their supposedly strong base of support.<ref name="Lecky1891">{{cite book|author=William Edward Hartpole Lecky|title=A History of England: In the Eighteenth Century|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=m3cUAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA139|year=1891|page=139}}</ref> Patriots overwhelmed Loyalists in the [[Snow Campaign]] in South Carolina in late 1775. Virginia's governor [[John Murray, 4th Earl of Dunmore|Lord Dunmore]] attempted to rally a loyalist force but was decisively beaten in December 1775 at the [[Battle of Great Bridge]]. In February 1776 British General Clinton took 2,000 men and a naval squadron to assist Loyalists mustering in [[Province of North Carolina|North Carolina]], only to call it off when he learned they had been crushed at the [[Battle of Moore's Creek Bridge]]. In June he tried to seize [[Charleston, South Carolina]], the leading port in the South, but [[Battle of Sullivan's Island|the attack failed]] as the naval force was repulsed by the Patriot forts. Apart from the [[Thirteen Colonies|thirteen]], no other British North American colony joined the rebellion. ====British reaction==== King [[George III of Great Britain|George III]] issued a [[Proclamation of Rebellion]] in August 1775, and addressed Parliament on October 26, 1775. He denounced "the authors and promoters of this desperate conspiracy" who had "labored to inflame my people in America&nbsp;... and to infuse into their minds a system of opinions repugnant to the true constitution of the Colonies, and to their subordinate relation to Great Britain&nbsp;..." He detailed measures taken to suppress the revolt, including "[[Hessian (soldiers)|friendly offers of foreign assistance]]". The King's speech was endorsed by both Houses of Parliament, a motion in the [[House of Commons of Great Britain|House of Commons]] to oppose coercive measures was defeated 278–108. The British received an [[Olive Branch Petition]] written by the [[Second Continental Congress]] dated July 8, 1775, imploring the King to reverse the policies of his ministers. However, by this time the invasion of Canada was already well under way, and Parliament debated on whether to accept the petition, but after a lengthy debate rejected it by 53 votes, viewing it as insincere. Parliament then voted to impose a blockade against the Thirteen Colonies. The popularity of war in Britain reached a peak in 1777.<ref>{{cite book|author=Lecky|title=A History of England|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=m3cUAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA70|pages=70–72}}</ref> The king himself took full control as he micromanaged the war effort, despite the opposition of top officials including the prime minister North and the civilian heads of the army and the navy. The king vehemently rejected independence and demanded the use of Indians to distress the Americans.<ref>{{cite book|author=Lecky|title=A History of England|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=m3cUAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA76|pages=76–78}}</ref> Separately, the Irish Parliament pledged its loyalty and agreed to the withdrawal of troops from Ireland to suppress the rebellion in America.<ref>{{cite book|author=Frank A. Biletz|title=Historical Dictionary of Ireland|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rb8eAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA8|year=2013|publisher=Scarecrow Press|page=8}}</ref> Most Irish Protestants were against the war and favored the Americans, but the Catholic establishment supported the king.<ref>{{cite book|author=Vincent Morley|title=Irish Opinion and the American Revolution, 1760–1783|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iBrJz9XYzNgC&pg=PA154|year=2002|publisher=Cambridge UP|pages=154–57}}</ref> The American Revolution was the first war in which Irish Catholics were allowed to enlist in the army.<ref>{{cite book|author=Lecky|title=A History of England|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=m3cUAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA162|pages=162–65}}</ref> Militarily, the weak British response to the rebellion in 1775 and early 1776 around Boston was a losing cause; the British lost control of every colony.<ref>{{cite book|author=John C. Miller|title=Origins of the American Revolution|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DlmrAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA410|year=1959|publisher=Stanford UP|pages=410–12}}</ref> The peacetime British army had been deliberately kept small since the [[Glorious Revolution]] to prevent an abuse of power by the King. To muster a force, the British had to launch recruiting campaigns in Britain and Ireland and hire mercenaries from the small German states, both immensely time-consuming. The king wanted to save money, and the administration of the army was inefficient. Russia refused to rent out soldiers. After a year the British were able to ship [[Sir William Howe]] an army of 32,000 officers and men to open a campaign in summer 1776. It was the largest force the British had ever sent outside of Europe at that time.<ref>{{cite book|author=David Smith|title=New York 1776: The Continentals' First Battle|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IlMa-Krnxl8C&pg=PA21|year=2012|publisher=Osprey Publishing|pages=21–23}}</ref> ===Campaign of 1776–1777=== ====New York==== {{Main|New York and New Jersey campaign}} <!-- This is a brief summary of the "New York and New Jersey campaigns" article. Add more details there rather than here. --> [[File:BattleofLongisland.jpg|thumb|left|American soldiers in the [[Battle of Long Island]], 1776]] Having withdrawn his army from Boston, General Howe now focused on capturing New York City, which then was limited to the southern tip of Manhattan Island. Howe's force arrived off of [[Staten Island]] across the harbor from Manhattan on June 30, 1776, and his army captured it without resistance. To defend the city, General Washington spread his forces along the shores of New York's harbor, concentrated on [[Long Island]] and [[Manhattan]].<ref>Fischer (2004), pp.&nbsp;51–52, 83.</ref> While British and recently hired [[Hessian (soldiers)|Hessian]] troops were assembling, Washington had the newly issued [[United States Declaration of Independence|Declaration of American Independence]] read to his men and the citizens of the city.<ref>Fischer (2004), p.&nbsp;29.</ref> Washington's position was extremely dangerous because he had divided his forces between Manhattan and Long Island, neither of which could match the full strength of the opposing force. Military critics note that Howe could have trapped and destroyed Washington's entire army if he had landed on Manhattan, but instead Howe decided to mount a frontal assault against Long Island.<ref>Adams, Charles Francis, [https://archive.org/stream/americanhistoric18951896jame#page/668/mode/1up "Battle of Long Island"], in ''American Historical Review'' (1895–1896), pp. 668–669.</ref> The British landed 22,000 men on Long Island in late August and [[Battle of Long Island|badly defeated the Continental army]] in the war's largest battle, taking over 1,000 prisoners and driving them back to [[Brooklyn Heights]]. Instead of continuing his pursuit, Howe decided to lay siege to the heights, claiming he wanted to spare his men's lives from an assault on the Patriot fortifications. He actively restrained his subordinates from landing what could have been the finishing blow against Washington's forces.<ref>Adams, Charles Francis, [https://archive.org/stream/americanhistoric18951896jame#page/657/mode/1up "Battle of Long Island"], in ''American Historical Review'' (1895–1896), p. 657.</ref> Washington initially reinforced his exposed position, but then personally directed the [[withdrawal (military)|withdrawal]] of his entire remaining army and all their supplies across the [[East River]] on the night of August 29–30 without loss of men or [[materiel]].<ref>Fischer (2004), pp.&nbsp;91–101.</ref> The unfavorable direction of the wind had prevented British warships from blocking Washington's escape. [[Staten Island Peace Conference|A peace conference took place]] on September 11 to explore the possibility of a negotiated solution. The British advanced Lord North's "fixed contribution" formula of the preceding year and indicated that other laws could be revised or repealed so long as the authority of Britain was acknowledged. The American negotiators insisted they would not give up the Declaration of Independence.<ref>{{cite book|author=Thomas J. McGuire|title=Stop the Revolution: America in the Summer of Independence and the Conference for Peace|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OsNi7Byog6kC&pg=PA166|year=2011|publisher=Stackpole Books|pages=165–66}}</ref> Howe then resumed the attack. On September 15, Howe [[Landing at Kip's Bay|landed about 12,000 men]] on lower Manhattan, quickly taking control of New York City. The Americans withdrew north up the island to Harlem Heights, where they [[Battle of Harlem Heights|battled the next day]] repulsing a British advance. On September 21 a [[Great Fire of New York (1776)|devastating fire]] broke out in the city which the Patriots were widely blamed for, although no proof ever existed. On October 12 the British made an attempt to encircle the Americans, which failed because of Howe's decision to land on an island that was easily cut off from the mainland.<ref>John Richard Alden, ''The American Revolution, 1775–1783'' (1954), ch. 7.</ref> The Americans evacuated Manhattan, and on October 28 fought the [[Battle of White Plains]] against the pursuing British. During the battle Howe declined to attack Washington's highly vulnerable main force, instead attacking a hill that was of no strategic significance.<ref>Fischer (2004), pp.&nbsp;102–11.</ref><ref>Barnet Schecter, ''The battle for New York: The city at the heart of the American Revolution'' (2002).</ref> Washington retreated, and Howe returned to Manhattan and captured [[Fort Washington (New York)|Fort Washington]] in mid November, taking about 3,000 prisoners. Thus began [[Prisoners in the American Revolutionary War|the infamous "prison ships" system]] the British maintained in New York for the rest of the war, in which more American soldiers and sailors [[Prison Ship Martyrs' Monument|died of neglect and disease]] than died in every battle of the entire war, combined.<ref>Larry Lowenthal, ''Hell on the East River: British Prison Ships in the American Revolution'' (2009).</ref> Howe then detached Sir Henry Clinton with 6,000 men to seize [[Newport, Rhode Island]] for the British fleet, which was accomplished without encountering any major resistance.<ref>{{cite book|author=David McCullough|title=1776|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5LBVT46o5yQC&pg=PT122|year=2006|page=122}}</ref> Clinton objected to this move, believing the force would have been better employed up the Delaware River, where they might have inflicted irreparable damage on the retreating Americans.<ref>Stedman, Charles, [https://books.google.com/books?id=bmQFAAAAQAAJ&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_atb#v=onepage&q=%22Henry%20Clinton%20strongly%20urged%20that%20he%20might%22&f=false ''The History of the Origin, Progress and Termination of the American War'' Volume I] (1794), p. 221.</ref> ====New Jersey==== [[Charles Cornwallis, 1st Marquess Cornwallis|General Lord Cornwallis]] continued to chase Washington's army through [[New Jersey]], but Howe ordered him to halt<ref>Stedman, Charles, [https://books.google.com/books?id=bmQFAAAAQAAJ&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_atb#v=snippet&q=%22ordering%20lord%20Cornwallis%20to%20proceed%22&f=false ''The History of the Origin, Progress and Termination of the American War'' Volume I] (1794), p. 223.</ref> and Washington escaped across the [[Delaware River]] into Pennsylvania on December 7.<ref>{{cite book|author=Mary Tucker|title=Washington Crossing the Delaware|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IZUx6QnUxxQC&pg=PA22|date=1 March 2002|publisher=Lorenz Educational Press|pages=22–23}}</ref> Howe refused to order a pursuit across the river, even though the outlook of the Continental Army was bleak. "These are the times that try men's souls," wrote [[Thomas Paine]], who was with the army on the retreat.<ref>Fischer (2004), pp.&nbsp;138–40.</ref> The army had dwindled to fewer than 5,000 men fit for duty, and would be reduced to 1,400 after enlistments expired at the end of the year. Congress moved inland and abandoned Philadelphia in despair, although popular resistance to British occupation was growing in the countryside.<ref>Fischer (2004), pp.&nbsp;143–205.</ref> [[File:Washington Crossing the Delaware by Emanuel Leutze, MMA-NYC, 1851.jpg|thumb|[[Emanuel Leutze|Emanuel Leutze's]] stylized depiction of ''[[Washington Crossing the Delaware]]'']] Howe proceeded to divide his forces in New Jersey into small detachments that were vulnerable to defeat in detail, with the weakest forces stationed the closest to Washington's army.<ref>Stedman, Charles, [https://books.google.com/books?id=bmQFAAAAQAAJ&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_atb#v=onepage&q=dividing%20his%20army%20into%20small%20detachments&f=false ''The History of the Origin, Progress and Termination of the American War'' Volume I] (1794), pp. 224–25.</ref> Washington decided to take the offensive, [[Washington's crossing of the Delaware River|stealthily crossing the Delaware]] on the night of December&nbsp;25–26, and capturing nearly 1,000 surprised and unfortified Hessians at the [[Battle of Trenton]].<ref>Fischer (2004), pp.&nbsp;206–59.</ref> Cornwallis marched to retake Trenton but was first [[Battle of the Assunpink Creek|repulsed]] and then outmaneuvered by Washington, who successfully attacked the British rearguard at [[Battle of Princeton|Princeton]] on January 3, 1777, taking around 200 prisoners.<ref>Fischer (2004), pp.&nbsp;277–343.</ref> Howe then conceded most of New Jersey to Washington, in spite of Howe's massive numerical superiority over him. Washington entered winter quarters at [[Morristown, New Jersey]], having given a morale boost to the American cause. Throughout the winter New Jersey militia [[Forage War|continued to harass]] British and Hessian forces near their three remaining posts along the [[Raritan River]].<ref>Fischer (2004), pp.&nbsp;345–58.</ref> In April 1777 Washington was amazed that Howe made no effort to attack his weak army.<ref>Lecky, William, [https://books.google.com/books?id=m3cUAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA287&dq=%22honourable+and+generous+steps%22+inauthor:lecky&lr=&num=100&as_brr=0#v=snippet&q=%22Ten%20days%20later%2C%20in%20a%20confidential%20letter%22&f=false ''A History of England in the Eighteenth Century''], Vol. IV (1891), p. 57.</ref> ===Campaigns of 1777–1778=== [[File:Joseph Brant painting by George Romney 1776 (2).jpg|thumb|right|upright|[[Mohawk nation|Mohawk]] leader [[Joseph Brant]] led both Native Americans and [[white people|white]] [[Loyalist (American Revolution)|Loyalists]] in battle.]] [[File:Surrender of General Burgoyne.jpg|thumb|"[[Battles of Saratoga|The surrender at Saratoga]]" shows General [[Daniel Morgan]] in front of a French [[Canon de 24 de Vallière|de Vallière]] 4-pounder.]] [[File:Washington and Lafayette at Valley Forge.jpg|thumb|[[George Washington|Washington]] and [[Gilbert du Motier, Marquis de La Fayette|Lafayette]] look over the troops at [[Valley Forge]].]] When the British began to plan operations for 1777, they had two main armies in North America: an army in Quebec (later under the command of [[John Burgoyne]]), and Howe's army in New York. In London, [[George Germain, 1st Viscount Sackville|Lord George Germain]] approved a campaign for these armies to converge on Albany, New York and divide the American colonies in two, but did not give any express orders to Howe, who was developing his own plans. In November 1776 Howe requested large reinforcements so he could launch attacks against Philadelphia, New England, and Albany. These reinforcements were not granted so Howe modified his plan to launch an attack against Philadelphia only. Germain gave his approval to this, believing that Philadelphia could be taken in time for Howe to coordinate with the northern army. Howe, on the other hand, opted to send his army to Philadelphia by sea via the Chesapeake Bay instead of taking shorter routes either overland through New Jersey or through the Delaware Bay. This left him completely incapable of assisting Burgoyne.<ref>Adams, Charles Francis, [https://books.google.com/books?id=CgALAAAAIAAJ&lpg=PA94&ots=oyVHlRQHei&dq=%22Contemporary%20Opinion%20on%20the%20Howes%22&pg=PA94#v=onepage&q&f=false "Campaign of 1777"], ''Proceedings of the Massachusetts Historical Society, Volume 44'' (1910–11), pp. 25–26.</ref> ====Upstate New York==== {{Main|Saratoga campaign}} <!-- This is a brief summary of the "Saratoga campaign" article. Add details there rather than here. --> The first of the 1777 campaigns was an expedition from Quebec led by General [[John Burgoyne]]. The goal was to seize the [[Lake Champlain]] and [[Hudson River]] corridor, effectively isolating [[New England]] from the rest of the American colonies. Burgoyne's invasion had two components: he would lead about 8,000 men along Lake Champlain towards [[Albany, New York]], while a second column of about 2,000 men, led by [[Barry St. Leger]], would move down the [[Mohawk River]] Valley and link up with Burgoyne in Albany.<ref>Ketchum (1997), p.&nbsp;84.</ref> Burgoyne set off in June, and [[Siege of Fort Ticonderoga (1777)|recaptured Fort Ticonderoga]] in early July. Thereafter, his march was slowed by the Americans who knocked down trees in his path, and by his army's extensive baggage train. A detachment sent out to seize supplies was decisively defeated in the [[Battle of Bennington]] by American militia in August, depriving Burgoyne of nearly 1,000 men. Meanwhile, St. Leger—more than half of his force Native Americans led by [[Sayenqueraghta]]—had [[Siege of Fort Stanwix|laid siege to Fort Stanwix]]. American militiamen and their Native American allies marched to relieve the siege but were ambushed and scattered at the [[Battle of Oriskany]]. When a second relief expedition approached, this time led by Benedict Arnold, St. Leger's Indian support abandoned him, forcing him to break off the siege and return to Quebec. Burgoyne's army had been reduced to about 6,000 men by the loss at Bennington and the need to garrison Ticonderoga, and he was running short on supplies.<ref>Ketchum (1997), pp.&nbsp;285–323.</ref> Despite these setbacks, he determined to push on towards Albany. An American army of 8,000 men, officially commanded by General [[Horatio Gates]] (but effectively being led by his subordinate [[Benedict Arnold]]), had entrenched about 10 miles (16&nbsp;km) south of [[Saratoga, New York]]. Burgoyne tried to outflank the Americans but was checked at the [[Battle of Freeman's Farm|first battle of Saratoga]] in September. Burgoyne's situation was desperate, but he now hoped that help from Howe's army in New York City might be on the way. It was not: Howe had instead sailed away on his expedition to capture Philadelphia. American militiamen flocked to Gates' army, swelling his force to 11,000 by the beginning of October. After being badly beaten at the [[Battle of Bemis Heights|second battle of Saratoga]], Burgoyne surrendered on October 17. British General Clinton in New York City attempted a diversion in favor of Burgoyne in early October, [[Battle of Forts Clinton and Montgomery|capturing two key forts]] but withdrawing after hearing of the surrender. Saratoga was the turning point of the war. Revolutionary confidence and determination, suffering from Howe's successful occupation of Philadelphia, was renewed. What is more important, the victory encouraged [[France in the American Revolutionary War|France]] to make an open alliance with the Americans, after two years of semi-secret support. For the British, the war had now become much more complicated.<ref>Higginbotham (1983), pp.&nbsp;188–98</ref> The Americans [[Convention Army|held the British prisoners]] taken at Saratoga until the end of the war, in direct violation of the agreed surrender terms, which specified they would be repatriated immediately. ====Pennsylvania==== {{Main|Philadelphia campaign}} <!-- This is a brief summary of the "Philadelphia campaign" article. Add details there rather than here. --> [[File:Military Costume of the Revolution (1855 Chromolithograph).jpg|thumb|left|upright|Military uniforms of the American Revolution]] Howe began his campaign in June by making a series of maneuvers in New Jersey, which failed to engage Washington's greatly inferior force.<ref>Stedman, Charles, [https://books.google.com/books?id=bmQFAAAAQAAJ&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_atb#v=onepage&q&f=false ''The History of the Origin, Progress and Termination of the American War'' Volume I] (1794), pp. 287–89.</ref> He then loaded his troops onto transports and slowly sailed to the northern end of the [[Chesapeake Bay]], landing 15,000 troops on August 25 at the head of the [[Elk River (Maryland)|Elk River]]. Washington positioned his 11,000 men in a strong position along the [[Brandywine River]], between the British and Philadelphia, but Howe [[Battle of Brandywine|outflanked and defeated him]] on September 11, 1777. French observers noted that Howe failed to follow up on his victory, which could have destroyed Washington's army.<ref>Adams, Charles Francis. [https://books.google.com/books?id=CgALAAAAIAAJ&lpg=PA94&ots=oyVHlRQHei&dq=%22Contemporary%20Opinion%20on%20the%20Howes%22&pg=PA94#v=onepage&q&f=false "Campaign of 1777"], ''Massachusetts Historical Society'', Vol. 44 (1910–11), p. 43.</ref> The Continental Congress again abandoned Philadelphia, and on September 26, Howe finally outmaneuvered Washington and marched into the city unopposed. A part of Howe's army was then split off to [[Siege of Fort Mifflin|reduce rebel forts]] blocking his communications up the [[Delaware River]]. Hoping to bring about another Trenton-like victory while the British were divided, on October 4 Washington [[Battle of Germantown|mounted a surprise assault]] against the British at Germantown. Howe had failed to alert his troops there, despite being aware of the impending attack the previous day. The British were in danger of a rout, but faulty American decisions resulted in Washington being repulsed with heavy losses.<ref>Stephen R. Taaffe, ''The Philadelphia Campaign, 1777–1778'' (2003), pp. 95–100 [http://www.amazon.com/Philadelphia-Campaign-1777-1778-Modern-Studies/dp/070061267X/ except and text search.]</ref> The armies met at [[Battle of White Marsh|White Marsh]] in December, where after some skirmishing Howe decided to retire, ignoring the vulnerability of Washington's rear, where an attack could have cut off Washington from his baggage and provisions.<ref>{{cite book|last=Cadwalader|first=Richard McCall|title=Observance of the One Hundred and Twenty-third Anniversary of the Evacuation of Philadelphia by the British Army. Fort Washington and the Encampment of White Marsh, November 2, 1777:|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kWhar7AYIwAC&pg=PA20|year=1901|pages=20–28|accessdate=2016-01-07}}</ref> Washington and his army encamped at [[Valley Forge]] in December 1777, about 20 miles (32&nbsp;km) from Philadelphia, where they stayed for the next six months. Over the winter, 2,500 men (out of 10,000) died from disease and exposure and the army was reduced to 4,000 effectives. During this time Howe's army, comfortable in Philadelphia, made no effort to exploit the weakness of the American army.<ref>Noel Fairchild Busch, ''Winter Quarters: George Washington and the Continental Army at Valley Forge'' (Liveright, 1974).</ref> The next spring the army emerged from Valley Forge in good order, thanks in part to a training program supervised by [[Friedrich Wilhelm von Steuben|Baron von Steuben]], who introduced the most modern Prussian methods of organization and tactics.<ref>Paul Douglas Lockhart, ''The Drillmaster of Valley Forge: The Baron de Steuben and the Making of the American Army'' (2008).</ref> Historians speculate that the British "forfeited several chances for military victory in 1776–1777&nbsp;..."<ref>[http://history.army.mil/books/AMH-V1/ch04.htm "The Winning of Independence, 1777–1783"] ''American Military History'' Volume I (2005).</ref> and "if General Howe had violated military tradition by advancing in December on the Continental troops quartered [at Valley Forge], he might have readily overwhelmed them and possibly ended the war."<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20120619002020/http://www.history.army.mil/books/RevWar/risch/chpt-14.htm "A Concluding Commentary"] ''Supplying Washington's Army'' (1981).</ref> Howe submitted his resignation in October 1777; until it was accepted he spent his time in Philadelphia preparing his arguments for an expected parliamentary inquiry. Although he had twice as many men as Washington, the bitter memory of [[Battle of Bunker Hill|Bunker Hill]] made him highly reluctant to attack entrenched American forces. General Clinton replaced Howe as British commander-in-chief on May 24, 1778.<ref>{{cite book|author=Frances H. Kennedy|title=The American Revolution: A Historical Guidebook|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rTSTAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA163|year=2014|publisher=Oxford UP|page=163}}</ref> ==Foreign intervention== {{Main|France in the American Revolutionary War|Spain in the American Revolutionary War}} From the spring of 1776, France and Spain had informally been involved in the American Revolutionary War, with French admiral [[Louis-René Levassor de Latouche Tréville|Latouche Tréville]] having provided [[France in the American Revolutionary War#French involvement|supplies, ammunition and guns]] from France to the United States after [[Thomas Jefferson]] encouraged a French alliance. Guns such as [[Florent-Jean de Vallière|de Valliere]] type were used, playing an important role in such battles as the [[Battles of Saratoga|Battle of Saratoga]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nps.gov/spar/historyculture/french-field_4pdr.htm |title=Springfield Armory |publisher=Nps.gov |date=2013-04-25 |accessdate=2013-05-08}}</ref> After learning of the American victory at Saratoga, the French became concerned that the British would reconcile their differences with the colonists and turn on France.<ref name="France In The Revolution">Perkins, James Breck, [http://www.americanrevolution.org/frconfiles/fr12.html France In The Revolution] (1911).</ref> In particular, King [[Louis XVI]] was influenced by alarmist reports suggesting that Britain was preparing to make huge concessions to the colonies and then, allied with them, strike at French and Spanish possessions in the West Indies.<ref name="archive.org">Corwin, Edward Samuel, [https://archive.org/stream/frenchpolicyamer00corwuoft#page/121/mode/1up French Policy and the American Alliance] (1916), pp. 121–48.</ref> To thwart this, they concluded a [[Treaty of Alliance (1778)|Treaty of Alliance]] with the United States on February 6, 1778, committing the Americans to seek nothing less than absolute independence. Previously France had only been willing to act in conjunction with Spain but now they were willing to go to war alone if necessary. Britain responded by recalling its ambassador, although Franco-British hostilities did not actually break out until June 17, 1778. [[File:Redoubt-9.jpg|thumb|left|upright|French troops storming Redoubt #9 during the [[Siege of Yorktown]]]] In 1776, the [[Pedro Pablo Abarca de Bolea, 10th Count of Aranda|Count of Aranda]] met in representation of Spain with the first U.S. Commission composed by Benjamin Franklin, Silas Deane and Arthur Lee.<ref>{{cite book | title=Spain's Support Vital to United States Independence, 1777–1783 | publisher=United States. Dept. of Defense | author=E. Chavez, Thomas | year=1997 | pages=United States}}</ref> The Continental Congress had charged the commissioners to travel to Europe and forge alliances with other European powers that could help break the British naval blockade along the North American coast. Aranda invited the commission to his house in Paris, where he was acting as Spanish ambassador and he became an active supporter of the struggle of the fledgling Colonies, recommending an early and open Spanish commitment to the Colonies. However, he was overruled by [[José Moñino y Redondo, conde de Floridablanca|José Moñino, 1st Count of Floridablanca]] who opted for a more discreet approach. The Spanish position was later summarized by the Spanish Ambassador to the French Court, [[Jerónimo Grimaldi, 1st Duke of Grimaldi|Jerónimo Grimaldi]], in a letter to Arthur Lee who was in Madrid trying to persuade the Spanish government to declare an open alliance. Grimaldi told Lee that "You have considered your own situation, and not ours. The moment is not yet come for us. The war with Portugal&nbsp;— France being unprepared, and our treasure ships from South America not being arrived&nbsp;— makes it improper for us to declare immediately."<ref>Sparks, 1:408.</ref> Meanwhile, Grimaldi reassured Lee, stores of clothing and powder were deposited at New Orleans and Havana for the Americans, and further shipments of blankets were being collected at Bilbao. Spain finally entered the war officially in June 1779, thus implementing the [[Treaty of Aranjuez (1779)|Treaty of Aranjuez]]. The Spanish government had been providing assistance to the revolutionaries since the very beginning of the war, but it did not recognize the United States officially. The [[Dutch Republic]], which also had assisted the colonists since 1776, declared war on Britain at the end of 1780, and did recognize the United States diplomatically.<ref>Jonathan R. Dull, ''A Diplomatic History of the American Revolution'' (1987), ch. 7–9.</ref> ==Second phase, 1778–1781== ===British policies=== Following news of the surrender at Saratoga and concern over French intervention, the British decided to completely accept the original demands made by the American Patriots. Parliament [[Taxation of Colonies Act 1778|repealed the remaining tax on tea]] and declared that no taxes would ever be imposed on colonies without their consent (except for custom duties, the revenues of which would be returned to the colonies). A [[Carlisle Commission|Commission was formed]] to negotiate directly with the [[Continental Congress]] for the first time. The Commission was empowered to suspend all the other objectionable acts by Parliament passed since 1763, issue general pardons, and declare a cessation of hostilities. The Commissioners arrived in America in June 1778 and offered to place the colonies in the condition of 1763 if they would return to the allegiance of the King. Moreover, they agreed that no troops would be placed in the colonies without their consent. The Congress refused to negotiate with the commission unless they first acknowledged American independence or withdrew all troops. On October 3, 1778, the British published a proclamation offering amnesty to any colonies or individuals who accepted their proposals within forty days, implying serious consequences if they still refused. There was no positive reply.<ref>{{cite book|author=Terry M. Mays|title=Historical Dictionary of the American Revolution|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=q3CvVcvmxUQC&pg=PR7|year=2009|publisher=Scarecrow Press|page=7}}</ref> [[File:ChappelWyomingMassacre.jpg|thumb|Oil on canvas painting depicting the [[Wyoming Massacre]] by loyalists and Indians against frontier settlers, July 3, 1778]] [[George III of the United Kingdom|King George III]] gave up all hope of subduing America by more armies, while Britain had a European war to fight. "It was a joke," he said, "to think of keeping Pennsylvania."<ref>{{cite book|author=John Ferling|title=Almost a Miracle: The American Victory in the War of Independence|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lyjjEsqlqo0C&pg=PA294|year=2007|publisher=Oxford UP|page=294}}</ref> There was no hope of recovering New England. But the King was still determined "never to acknowledge the independence of the Americans, and to punish their contumacy by the indefinite prolongation of a war which promised to be eternal".<ref>Trevelyan (1912), vol.&nbsp;1, p.&nbsp;4.</ref> His plan was to keep the 30,000 men garrisoned in New York, Rhode Island, Quebec, and Florida; other forces would attack the French and Spanish in the West Indies. To punish the Americans the King planned to destroy their coasting-trade, bombard their ports; sack and burn towns along the coast and turn loose the Native Americans to attack civilians in frontier settlements. These operations, the King felt, would inspire the Loyalists; would splinter the Congress; and "would keep the rebels harassed, anxious, and poor, until the day when, by a natural and inevitable process, discontent and disappointment were converted into penitence and remorse" and they would beg to return to his authority.<ref>Trevelyan (1912), vol.&nbsp;1, p.&nbsp;5.</ref> The plan meant destruction for the Loyalists and loyal Native Americans, an indefinite prolongation of a costly war, and the risk of disaster as the French and Spanish assembled an armada to invade the British Isles. The King hoped to re-subjugate the rebellious colonies after dealing with the Americans' European allies. ===Northern theater after Saratoga, 1778–1781=== {{See also|Northern theater of the American Revolutionary War after Saratoga}} [[File:SirHenryClinton.jpg|thumb|right|Portrait of [[Henry Clinton (American War of Independence)|Sir Henry Clinton]], British Commander-in Chief in North America 1778–1782]] French entry into the war had changed British strategy, and Clinton abandoned Philadelphia to reinforce New York City, now vulnerable to French naval power. Washington shadowed Clinton on his withdrawal through New Jersey and [[Battle of Monmouth|attacked him at Monmouth]] on June 28, 1778. The battle was tactically inconclusive but Clinton successfully disengaged and continued his retreat to New York.<ref name="John Ferling 2007 294–95">{{cite book|author=John Ferling|title=Almost a Miracle: The American Victory in the War of Independence|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lyjjEsqlqo0C&pg=PA294|year=2007|publisher=Oxford UP|pages=294–95}}</ref> It was the last major battle in the north. Clinton's army went to New York City in July, arriving just before a French fleet under [[Charles Hector, comte d'Estaing|Admiral d'Estaing]] arrived off the American coast. Washington's army returned to [[White Plains, New York]], north of New York City. Although both armies were back where they had been two years earlier, the nature of the war had now changed as the British had to withdraw troops from North America to counter the French threats elsewhere.<ref>Higginbotham (1983), pp.&nbsp;175–88.</ref> In August 1778 the Americans attempted to capture British-held [[Newport, Rhode Island]] with the assistance of France, but [[Battle of Rhode Island|the effort failed]] when the French withdrew their support. The war in the north then bogged down into a stalemate, with neither side capable of attacking the other in any decisive manner. The British instead attempted to wear out American resolve by launching various raiding expeditions such as [[Tryon's raid|Tryon's raid against Connecticut]] in July 1779. In that year the Americans won two morale-enhancing victories by capturing posts at [[Battle of Stony Point|Stony Point]] and [[Battle of Paulus Hook|Paulus Hook]], although the British quickly retook them. In October 1779 the British voluntarily abandoned Newport and Stony Point in order to consolidate their forces. During the winter of 1779–80 the American army suffered worse hardships than they had at [[Valley Forge]] previously.<ref>[http://history.army.mil/books/AMH-V1/ch04.htm#f "The Winning of Independence 1777–1783"], ''American Military History'', Volume 1 (2005).</ref> The Congress was ineffective, the Continental currency worthless, and the supply system was fundamentally broken. Washington was finding it extremely difficult to keep his army together, even without any major fighting against the British. In 1780 actual mutinies broke out in the American camp. The Continental Army's strength dwindled to such an extent that the British decided to mount [[Battle of Connecticut Farms|two probing attacks]] against New Jersey in June 1780. The New Jersey militia strongly rallied, however, and the British quickly returned to their bases. [[File:Plan de stationnement des troupes francaise et de la marine a Newport en 1780.jpg|thumb|left|Map of Newport with the camp of the troops of [[Jean-Baptiste Donatien de Vimeur, comte de Rochambeau|Rochambeau]] and the position of the squadron of Knight Ternay in 1780.]] In July 1780 the American cause received a boost when a 5,500 strong French expeditionary force arrived at Newport, Rhode Island. Washington hoped to use this assistance to attack the British at New York and end the war. Events elsewhere, however, would frustrate this. Additional French reinforcements were prevented from arriving by a British blockade of French ports, and the French troops at Newport quickly found themselves blockaded as well. Moreover, the French fleet refused to visit the American coast in 1780, having suffered significant damage in actions in the West Indies. [[Benedict Arnold]], the American victor of Saratoga, grew increasingly disenchanted with struggle and decided to defect. In September 1780 he attempted to surrender the key American fort at [[West Point]] along the [[Hudson River]] to the British, but his plot was exposed. He escaped and continued to fight under the British army. He [[To the Inhabitants of America|wrote an open letter]] justifying his actions by claiming he had only fought for a redress of grievances and since Britain had withdrawn those grievances (see above) there was no reason to continue shedding blood, particularly in an alliance with an ancient and tyrannical enemy like France. He led the last British attack in the north, [[Battle of Groton Heights|a devastating raid against New London]] in September 1781. The British held [[Staten Island]], [[Manhattan]], and [[Long Island]] until peace was made in 1783. These areas contained about 2% of the population of the [[Thirteen Colonies]]. ===Northern and Western frontier=== {{further|Western theater of the American Revolutionary War}} [[File:Fall of Fort Sackville.jpg|thumb|left|[[George Rogers Clark|George Rogers Clark's]] 180 mile (290 km) winter march led to the capture of General [[Henry Hamilton (governor)|Henry Hamilton]], Lieutenant-Governor of Quebec]] West of the [[Appalachian Mountains]] and along the border with [[Quebec]], the American Revolutionary War was an "[[American Indian Wars|Indian War]]". Most [[Native Americans in the United States|Native Americans]] supported the British. Like the [[Iroquois]] Confederacy, tribes such as the [[Shawnee]] split into factions, and the [[Chickamauga Indian|Chickamauga]] split off from the rest of the [[Cherokee]] over differences regarding peace with the [[Americans]]. The British supplied their [[nativ]]e allies with [[muskets]], [[gunpowder]] and advice, while Loyalists led raids against [[civilian]] settlements, especially in New York, [[Kentucky]], and [[Pennsylvania]]. Joint Iroquois-Loyalist attacks in the [[Wyoming Valley massacre|Wyoming Valley]] in Pennsylvania and at [[Cherry Valley massacre|Cherry Valley]] in New York in 1778 provoked [[George Washington|Washington]] to send the [[Sullivan Expedition]] into western New York during the summer of 1779. There was little fighting as [[John Sullivan (general)|Sullivan]] systematically destroyed the Indians' winter food supplies, forcing them to flee permanently to British bases in [[Quebec]] and the [[Niagara Falls]] area.<ref>Colin Gordon Calloway, ''The American Revolution in Indian Country'' (1995).</ref> During the [[Illinois Campaign]] of 1778, the Virginia frontiersman [[George Rogers Clark]] attempted to neutralize British influence among the Ohio valley tribes by capturing the colonial outposts of [[Kaskaskia, Illinois|Kaskaskia]] and [[Cahokia, Illinois|Cahokia]] and [[Battle of Vincennes|Vincennes]], in the [[Illinois Country]]. When General [[Henry Hamilton (governor)|Henry Hamilton]], the British commander at [[Detroit]], retook Vincennes, Clark returned in a surprise march in February 1779 and captured Hamilton.<ref>Lowell Hayes Harrison, ''George Rogers Clark and the War in the West'' (2001).</ref> In March 1782, Pennsylvania militiamen killed about a hundred neutral Native Americans in the [[Gnadenhütten massacre]]. In the last major encounters of the war, a force of 200 Kentucky militia was defeated at the [[Battle of Blue Licks]] in August 1782. ===Georgia and the Carolinas, 1778–1781=== {{Main|Southern theater of the American Revolutionary War}} During the first three years of the American Revolutionary War, the primary military encounters were in the north, although some attempts to organize Loyalists were defeated, a British [[Battle of Sullivan's Island|attempt at Charleston, South Carolina]] failed, and a variety of efforts to attack British forces in [[East Florida]] failed. After French entry into the war, the British turned their attention to the southern colonies, where they hoped to regain control by recruiting large numbers of Loyalists. This southern strategy also had the advantage of keeping the Royal Navy closer to the Caribbean, where the British needed to defend economically important possessions against the French and Spanish.<ref>Henry Lumpkin, ''From Savannah to Yorktown: The American Revolution in the South'' (2000).</ref> [[File:Banastre-Tarleton-by-Joshua-Reynolds.jpg|thumb|upright|The British Lt. Col. [[Banastre Tarleton]]. Painting by Sir [[Joshua Reynolds]], 1782.]] On December 29, 1778, an expeditionary corps from Clinton's army in New York captured [[Savannah, Georgia]]. An attempt by French and American forces to [[Siege of Savannah|retake Savannah]] failed on October 9, 1779. Clinton then [[siege of Charleston|besieged Charleston]], capturing it and most of the southern Continental Army on May 12, 1780. With relatively few casualties, Clinton had seized the South's biggest city and seaport, providing a base for further conquest.<ref>John W. Gordon and John Keegan, ''South Carolina and the American Revolution: A Battlefield History'' (2007).</ref> The remnants of the southern Continental Army began to withdraw to [[North Carolina]] but were pursued by Lt. Colonel [[Banastre Tarleton]], who defeated them at the [[Waxhaw Massacre|Waxhaws]] on May 29, 1780. With these events, organized American military activity in the region collapsed, though the war was carried on by partisans such as [[Francis Marion]]. Cornwallis took over British operations, while [[Horatio Gates]] arrived to command the American effort. On August 16, 1780, Gates was defeated at the [[Battle of Camden]] in South Carolina, setting the stage for Cornwallis to invade North Carolina.<ref>Hugh F. Rankin, ''North Carolina in the American Revolution'' (1996).</ref> Georgia and South Carolina were thus both restored to Britain for the time being. Cornwallis' efforts to advance into [[North Carolina]] were frustrated. A Loyalist wing of his army was utterly defeated at the [[Battle of Kings Mountain]] on October 7, 1780, which temporarily aborted his planned advance. He received reinforcements, but his light infantry under Tarleton was decisively defeated by [[Daniel Morgan]] at the [[Battle of Cowpens]] on January 17, 1781. In spite of this, Cornwallis decided to proceed, gambling that he would receive substantial Loyalist support. General [[Nathanael Greene]], who replaced General Gates, evaded contact with Cornwallis while seeking reinforcements. By March, Greene's army had grown to the point where he felt that he could face Cornwallis directly. In the key [[Battle of Guilford Court House]], Cornwallis drove Greene's much larger army off the battlefield, but in doing so suffered casualties amounting to one-fourth of his army. Compounding this, far fewer Loyalists were joining up than expected because the Patriots put heavy pressure on them and their families, who would become hostages.<ref>Lumpkin, ''From Savannah to Yorktown: The American Revolution in the South'' (2000).</ref> Cornwallis decided to retreat to coastal [[Wilmington, North Carolina]] for resupply and reinforcement, leaving the interior of the Carolinas and Georgia open to Greene. He then proceeded north into Virginia (see below). American troops in conjunction with Patriot partisans then began the process of reclaiming territory in South Carolina and Georgia. Despite British victories at [[Battle of Hobkirk's Hill|Hobkirk's Hill]] and at the [[Siege of Ninety-Six]], by the middle of the year they had been forced to withdraw to the coastal lowlands region of both colonies. The final battle ([[Battle of Eutaw Springs]]) in September 1781 was indecisive but by the end of the year the British held only Savannah and Charleston. ===Virginia, 1781=== {{Main|Yorktown campaign}} [[File:Surrender of Lord Cornwallis.jpg|thumb|''Surrender of Cornwallis at Yorktown'' by ([[John Trumbull]], 1797)]] Cornwallis proceeded from Wilmington north into [[Virginia]], on the grounds that Virginia needed to be subdued in order to hold the southern colonies. Earlier, in January 1781, a small British raiding force under [[Benedict Arnold]] had landed there, and began moving through the countryside, destroying supply depots, mills, and other economic targets. In February, General Washington dispatched [[Gilbert du Motier, Marquis de La Fayette|General Lafayette]] to counter Arnold, later also sending General [[Anthony Wayne]]. Arnold was reinforced with additional troops from New York in March, and his army was joined with that of Cornwallis in May. Lafayette skirmished with Cornwallis, avoiding a large-scale battle while gathering reinforcements. Cornwallis' Virginia campaign was strongly opposed by his superior, General Clinton, who did not believe such a large and disease-ridden area, with a hostile population, could be pacified with the limited forces available. Clinton instead favored conducting operations further north in the Chesapeake region ([[Maryland]], [[Delaware]], and southern [[Pennsylvania]]) where he believed there was a strong Loyalist presence. Upon his arrival at [[Williamsburg, Virginia|Williamsburg]] in June, Cornwallis received orders from Clinton to establish a fortified naval base and a request to send several thousand troops to New York to counter a possible Franco-American attack. Following these orders, he fortified [[Yorktown, Virginia|Yorktown]], and, shadowed by Lafayette, awaited the arrival of the Royal Navy.<ref>Michael Cecere, ''Great Things are Expected from the Virginians: Virginia in the American Revolution'' (2009).</ref> The northern, southern, and naval theaters of the war converged in 1781 at [[Yorktown, Virginia]]. The French fleet became available for operations, which could either move against Yorktown or New York. Washington still favored attacking New York, but the French decided to send the fleet to their preferred target at Yorktown. Learning of the planned movement of the French fleet in August, Washington began moving his army south to cooperate. The British fleet, not realizing that the French had sent their entire fleet to America, dispatched an inadequate force under Admiral Graves, though the underlying reason for this was a lack of naval resources. Since the entry of France and Spain into the war, the British lacked the necessary ships to match their opponents every move.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Middleton|first=Richard|date=2014|title=Naval Resources and the British Defeat at Yorktown, 1781|url=|journal=Mariner's Mirror, vol. 100, pp 29-43|doi=|pmid=|access-date=}}</ref> [[File:BattleOfVirginiaCapes.jpg|thumb|The French (left) and British (right) lines at the [[Battle of the Chesapeake]]]] In early September, French naval forces defeated the British fleet at the [[Battle of the Chesapeake]], cutting off Cornwallis' escape. Cornwallis, still expecting to receive support, failed to break out while he had the chance. When Washington's army arrived outside Yorktown, Cornwallis prematurely abandoned his outer position, hastening his subsequent defeat. The combined Franco-American force of 18,900 men began [[Siege of Yorktown|besieging Cornwallis]] in early October. For several days, the French and Americans bombarded the British defenses, and then began taking the outer redoubts. The British attempted to cobble together a relief expedition, but encountered numerous delays. Cornwallis decided his position was becoming untenable and he surrendered his entire army of over 7,000 men on October 19, 1781, the same day that the British fleet at New York sailed for his relief.<ref>Richard Ferrie, ''The World Turned Upside Down: George Washington and the Battle of Yorktown'' (1999).</ref> ===Downfall of the North Ministry=== News of the surrender at Yorktown arrived in Britain in November 1781. King [[George III]] took the news calmly and delivered a defiant address pledging to continue the war; a majority of the House of Commons endorsed it. In the succeeding months news arrived of other reverses, however. The French and Spanish successfully took several West Indian islands and appeared to be on the verge of completely expelling the British there. [[Minorca]] also surrendered to a Franco-Spanish force on February 5, 1782 and [[Gibraltar]] seemed to be in danger of falling as well. In light of this, Parliament on February 27, 1782 voted to cease all offensive operations in America and seek peace. Threatened with votes of no confidence, on March 20 Lord North resigned and his Tory government was replaced by the Whigs. Ironically, shortly after North resigned the British won the [[Battle of the Saintes]], putting an end to the French threat in the West Indies, and they successfully relieved Gibraltar. Had the North government held out for a few more months they would have been considerably strengthened and could have continued the war in spite of Yorktown. The new Whig administration accepted American independence as a basis for peace. There were no further major military activities in North America, although the British still had 30,000 garrison troops occupying New York City, Charleston, and Savannah.<ref>Mackesy, p.&nbsp;435.</ref> The war continued elsewhere, including the siege of Gibraltar and naval operations in the East and West Indies, until peace was agreed in 1783. ==Naval war== {{main|Naval operations in the American Revolutionary War}} [[File:Combat de la Dominique 17 Avril 1780 Rossel de Cercy 1736 1804.jpg|thumb|''[[Combat de la Dominique]]'', April 17, 1780, by [[Auguste Louis de Rossel de Cercy]] (1736–1804)]] When the war began, the British had overwhelming naval superiority over the American colonists although their fleet was old and in poor condition, a situation that would be blamed on [[John Montagu, 4th Earl of Sandwich|Lord Sandwich]], the [[First Lord of the Admiralty]]. During the first three years of the war, the Royal Navy was primarily used to transport troops for land operations and to protect commercial shipping. The American colonists had no [[ships of the line]], and relied extensively on [[privateer]]ing to harass British shipping. The privateers caused worry disproportionate to their material success, although those operating out of French [[English Channel|channel]] ports before and after France joined the war caused significant embarrassment to the Royal Navy and inflamed Anglo-French relations. About 55,000 American sailors served aboard the privateers during the war.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.usmm.org/revolution.html |title=Privateers or Merchant Mariners help win the Revolutionary War |publisher=Usmm.org |date= |accessdate=2013-05-08}}</ref> The American privateers had almost 1,700 ships, and they captured 2,283 enemy ships.<ref>{{cite web|author=John Pike |url=http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/agency/navy/privateer.htm |title=Privateers |publisher=Globalsecurity.org |date=1907-10-18 |accessdate=2013-05-08}}</ref> The [[Continental Congress]] authorized the creation of a small [[Continental Navy]] in October 1775, which was primarily used for [[commerce raiding]]. [[John Paul Jones]] became the first great American naval hero, capturing [[HMS Drake (1777)|HMS ''Drake'']] on April 24, 1778, the first victory for any American military vessel in British waters.<ref>Higginbotham (1983), pp.&nbsp;331–46.</ref> [[File:The Siege and Relief of Gibraltar (2).jpg|thumb|left|''[[The Defeat of the Floating Batteries at Gibraltar, September 1782|The Defeat of the Floating Batteries at Gibraltar]]'', September 13, 1782, by [[John Singleton Copley]]]] During the second period, the successive interventions of [[France]], [[Spain]], and the [[Netherlands]] extended the naval war until it ranged from the [[West Indies]] to the [[Bay of Bengal]]. This second period lasted from the summer of 1778 to the middle of 1783, and it included operations already been in progress in America or for the protection of commerce, and naval campaigns on a great scale carried out by the fleets of the maritime powers. ==Britain vs. France, Spain, Mysore, and Holland 1778–1783== ===Europe=== {{Campaignbox American War of Independence: European Waters}} Spain entered the war as a French ally with the goal of recapturing [[Gibraltar]] and [[Minorca]], which had been captured by an Anglo-Dutch force in 1704. [[Great Siege of Gibraltar|Gibraltar was besieged]] for more than three years, but the British garrison stubbornly resisted and was resupplied twice: once after Admiral [[George Rodney|Rodney's]] victory over [[Juan de Lángara]] in the 1780 [[Battle of Cape St. Vincent (1780)|"Moonlight Battle"]], and again by Admiral [[Richard Howe, 1st Earl Howe|Richard Howe]] in 1782. Further Franco-Spanish efforts to capture Gibraltar were unsuccessful. One notable success took place on February 5, 1782, when Spanish and French forces [[Invasion of Minorca, 1781|captured Minorca]], which Spain retained after the war. Ambitious plans for an invasion of Great Britain in 1779 [[Armada of 1779|had to be abandoned]]. ===West Indies and Gulf Coast=== {{Main|Caribbean theater of the American Revolutionary War|Gulf Coast campaign}} {{Campaignbox American War of Independence: West Indies}} <gallery> File:Combat naval 12 avril 1782-Dumoulin-IMG 5484.JPG|The [[Battle of the Saintes]] fought on 12 April 1782 near Guadeloupe. File:Bernardo de Galvez.jpg|[[Bernardo de Gálvez]]. File:Jaillot-Elwe, Norteamerica, 1792.jpg|Norteamerica, 1792, Jaillot-Elwe, Florida's borders after Bernardo Gálvez's military actions. File:Spanish troops at Pensacola.jpg|Spanish forces overran the British lines during the climactic [[Battle of Pensacola (1781)]]. </gallery> There was much action in the West Indies, especially in the [[Lesser Antilles]]. Although France lost [[Battle of St. Lucia|St. Lucia]] early in the war, its navy dominated the West Indies, capturing [[Invasion of Dominica|Dominica]], [[Capture of Grenada (1779)|Grenada]], [[Capture of Saint Vincent|Saint Vincent]], [[Capture of Montserrat|Montserrat]], [[Invasion of Tobago|Tobago]], [[Battle of St. Kitts|St. Kitts]] and the [[Battle of Grand Turk|Turks and Caicos]] between 1778 and 1782. [[Dutch Antilles|Dutch possessions]] in the West Indies and South America [[Dutch West Indies campaign|were captured]] by Britain [[Recapture of Demerara and Essequibo|but later recaptured]] by France and restored to the [[Dutch Republic]]. At the [[Battle of the Saintes]] in April 1782, a victory by Rodney's fleet over the French [[François Joseph Paul de Grasse|Admiral de Grasse]] frustrated the hopes of France and Spain to take [[Jamaica]] and other colonies from the British.<ref>{{Cite book|title = Admiral De Grasse and American Independence|url = https://books.google.com/books?id=sl89BAAAQBAJ|publisher = Naval Institute Press|date = 2014-06-15|isbn = 9781612514734|first = Charles|last = Lewis|page = }}</ref> In the '''[[Gulf Coast campaign]]''', [[Bernardo de Gálvez y Madrid, Count of Gálvez|Count Bernardo de Gálvez]], the Spanish [[governor of Louisiana]], quickly removed the British from their outposts on the lower [[Mississippi River]] in 1779 in actions at [[Battle of Fort Bute|Manchac]] and [[Battle of Baton Rouge (1779)|Baton Rouge]] in British [[West Florida]]. Gálvez then captured [[Battle of Fort Charlotte|Mobile]] in 1780 and [[Siege of Pensacola|stormed and captured]] the British citadel and capital of [[Pensacola, Florida|Pensacola]] in 1781. On May 8, 1782, Gálvez [[Capture of the Bahamas (1782)|captured]] the British naval base at [[New Providence]] in [[the Bahamas]]; it was ceded by Spain after the Treaty of Paris and simultaneously [[Capture of the Bahamas (1783)|recovered]] by British Loyalists in 1783. Gálvez' actions led to the Spanish acquisition of [[East Florida|East]] and West Florida in the peace settlement, denied the British the opportunity of encircling the American forces from the south, and kept open a vital conduit for supplies to the American frontier. The Continental Congress cited Gálvez in 1785 for his aid during the revolution and George Washington took him to his right during the first [[Independence Day (United States)|parade of July 4]].<ref>Heintze, "A Chronology of Notable Fourth of July Celebration Occurrences".</ref> Central America was also subject to conflict between Britain and Spain, as Britain sought to expand its informal trading influence beyond coastal logging and fishing communities in present-day [[Belize]], [[Honduras]], and [[Nicaragua]]. Expeditions against [[Battle of San Fernando de Omoa|San Fernando de Omoa]] in 1779 and [[San Juan Expedition (1780)|San Juan]] in 1780 (the latter famously led by a young [[Horatio Nelson]]) met with only temporary success before being abandoned due to disease. The Spanish colonial leaders, in turn, could not completely eliminate British influences along the [[Mosquito Coast]]. Except for the French acquisition of [[Tobago]], sovereignty in the West Indies was returned to the ''[[status quo ante bellum]]'' in the peace of 1783. ===India=== {{Campaignbox American War of Independence: East Indies}} {{main|Second Anglo-Mysore War}} [[File:Suffren meeting with Haider Ali J B Morret engraving 1789.jpg|thumb|left|[[Pierre André de Suffren de Saint Tropez|Suffren]] meeting with ally [[Hyder Ali]] in 1783. J.B. Morret engraving, 1789.]] When word reached India in 1778 that France had entered the war, the [[British East India Company]] moved quickly to capture French trading outposts there, [[Siege of Pondicherry (1778)|capturing Pondicherry]] after two months of siege.<ref name="Riddick23_5">Riddick (2006), pp.&nbsp;23–25.</ref> The capture of the French-controlled port of [[Mahé, India|Mahé]] on India's west coast motivated [[Kingdom of Mysore|Mysore's]] ruler, [[Hyder Ali]] (who was already upset at other British actions, and benefited from trade through the port), to open the [[Second Anglo-Mysore War]] in 1780. Ali, and later his son [[Tipu Sultan]], almost drove the British from southern India but was frustrated by weak French support, and the war ended ''status quo ante bellum'' with the 1784 [[Treaty of Mangalore]]. French opposition was led in 1782 and 1783 by Admiral the [[Pierre André de Suffren de Saint Tropez|Baillie de Suffren]], who [[Capture of Trincomalee|recaptured Trincomalee]] from the British and fought five celebrated, but largely inconclusive, naval engagements against British Admiral [[Edward Hughes (Royal Navy officer)|Sir Edward Hughes]].<ref name="Fletcher155_8">Fletcher (1909), pp.&nbsp;155–58.</ref> France's trading posts in India were returned after the war. ===Fourth Anglo-Dutch War=== {{main|Fourth Anglo-Dutch War}} The Dutch Republic, nominally neutral, had been trading with the Americans, exchanging Dutch arms and munitions for American colonial wares (in contravention of the British ''[[Navigation Acts]]''), primarily through activity based in [[St. Eustatius]], before the French formally entered the war.<ref>Edler (1911), pp.&nbsp;37–38, 42–62; The American trade via St. Eustatius was very substantial. In 1779 more than 12,000 hogsheads of tobacco and 1.5 million ounces of indigo were shipped from the Colonies to the island in exchange for naval supplies and other goods; Edler, p. 62</ref> The British considered this trade to include contraband military supplies and had attempted to stop it, at first diplomatically by appealing to previous treaty obligations, interpretation of whose terms the two nations disagreed on, and then by searching and seizing Dutch merchant ships. The situation escalated when the British [[Affair of Fielding and Bylandt|seized a Dutch merchant convoy sailing under Dutch naval escort]] in December 1779, prompting the Dutch to join the [[First League of Armed Neutrality|League of Armed Neutrality]]. Britain responded to this decision by declaring war on the Dutch in December 1780, sparking the [[Fourth Anglo-Dutch War]].<ref>Edler (1911), pp.&nbsp;95–173.</ref> The war was a military and economic disaster for the Dutch Republic. Paralyzed by internal political divisions, it could not respond effectively to British blockades of its coast and the capture of many of its colonies. In the 1784 peace treaty between the two nations, the Dutch lost the Indian port of [[Negapatam]] and were forced to make trade concessions.<ref>Edler (1911), pp.&nbsp;233–46.</ref> The Dutch Republic signed a friendship and trade agreement with the United States in 1782, becoming the second country to formally recognize the United States. ==Treaty of Paris== {{Main|Treaty of Paris (1783)}} [[File:Treaty of Paris by Benjamin West 1783.jpg|thumb|[[Benjamin West]]'s famous painting of the American delegations at the Treaty of Paris. The British delegation refused to pose, and the painting was never completed.]] In London, as political support for the war plummeted after Yorktown, British Prime Minister [[Lord North]] resigned in March 1782. In April 1782, the Commons voted to end the war in America. Preliminary peace articles were signed in Paris at the end of November 1782; the formal end of the war did not occur until the [[Treaty of Paris (1783)|Treaty of Paris]] (for the U.S.) and the [[Peace of Paris (1783)|Treaties of Versailles]] (for the other Allies) were signed on September 3, 1783. The last British troops [[Evacuation Day (New York)|left New York City]] on November 25, 1783, and the United States [[Congress of the Confederation]] ratified the Paris treaty on [[Ratification Day (United States)|January 14, 1784]].<ref>Richard Morris, ''The Peacemakers: The Great Powers and American Independence'' (1983).</ref> Britain negotiated the Paris peace treaty without consulting her Native American allies and ceded all Native American territory between the Appalachian Mountains and the Mississippi River to the United States. Native Americans reluctantly confirmed these land cessions with the United States in a series of treaties, but the fighting would be renewed in conflicts along the frontier in the coming years, the largest being the [[Northwest Indian War]].<ref>Benn (1993), p.&nbsp;17.</ref> The British sought to establish a buffer Indian state in the American Midwest, and continued to pursue that goal as late as 1814 in the [[War of 1812]].<ref>Dwight L. Smith, "A North American Neutral Indian Zone: Persistence of a British Idea" ''Northwest Ohio Quarterly'' 1989 61(2–4): 46–63.</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Francis M. Carroll|title=A Good and Wise Measure: The Search for the Canadian-American Boundary, 1783–1842|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1AjlS20Q5J8C&pg=PA24|year=2001|publisher=U of Toronto Press|page=24}}</ref> The United States gained more than it expected, thanks to the award of western territory. The other Allies had mixed-to-poor results. France made some gains over its nemesis, Great Britain, but its material gains were minimal and its financial losses huge. It was already in financial trouble and its borrowing to pay for the war used up all its credit and created the financial disasters that marked the 1780s. Historians link those disasters to the coming of the [[French Revolution]]. The Dutch clearly lost on all points. The Spanish had a mixed result; they did not achieve their primary war goal (recovery of Gibraltar), but they did gain territory. However, in the long run, as the case of Florida shows, the new territory was of little or no value.<ref name="historiographical431"/> ==Analysis of combatants== The population of Great Britain and Ireland in 1780 was approximately 12.6 million<ref>Mulhall, Michael G., [https://archive.org/stream/mulhallsdiction00unkngoog#page/n390/mode/1up Mulhall's Dictionary of Statistics] (1884), p. 357.</ref> while the population of the thirteen colonies for the same year has been estimated at 2.8 million including over 500,000 slaves.<ref>[http://www2.census.gov/prod2/statcomp/documents/CT1970p2-13.pdf Colonial and Pre-Federal Statistics] U.S. Census Bureau.</ref> Theoretically this gave Britain a 4.5:1 manpower advantage. By comparison the Union's manpower advantage over the Confederacy in the [[American Civil War]] was only 2.5:1. In practice, the British army never had more than a slight numerical advantage over the Continental Army due to a number of factors, including the need to maintain significant numbers of troops outside of North America. Conscription outside of naval [[impressment]] did not exist in Britain back then, and the proportion of Americans willing to serve in their own country's defense was believed to be considerably larger than the proportion of Britons willing to serve overseas. One pre-war estimate claimed that the Patriots could mobilize 100,000 men in a matter of months,<ref>Tyler, Moses. [https://archive.org/stream/literaryhistory00tylegoog#page/n437/mode/1up The Literary History of the American Revolution] Vol. I (1897), p. 399.</ref> but substantial loyalist or neutralist sentiment would keep Patriot forces much smaller than their potential.<ref>Lecky, William. [https://books.google.com/books?id=m3cUAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA287&dq=%22honourable+and+generous+steps%22+inauthor:lecky&lr=&num=100&as_brr=0#v=onepage&q=%22If%2C%20indeed%2C%20as%20most%20historians%22&f=false A History of England in the Eighteenth Century] Vol. IV (1891), p. 287.</ref><ref>Perkins, James Breck [http://www.americanrevolution.org/frconfiles/fr25.php France in the Revolution] (1911).</ref> Historians continue to debate whether the odds for American victory were long or short. [[John E. Ferling]] says the odds were so long that the American victory was "Almost A Miracle."<ref>John E. Ferling, ''Almost A Miracle: The American Victory in the War of Independence'' (2009), pp. 562–77.</ref> On the other hand, [[Joseph Ellis]] says the odds favored the Americans, and asks whether there ever was any realistic chance for the British to win. He argues that this opportunity came only once, in the summer of 1776 and the British failed that test. Admiral Howe and his brother General Howe, "missed several opportunities to destroy the Continental Army....Chance, luck, and even the vagaries of the weather played crucial roles." Ellis's point is that the strategic and tactical decisions of the Howes were fatally flawed because they underestimated the challenges posed by the Patriots. Ellis concludes that once the Howe brothers failed, the opportunity for a British victory "would never come again."<ref name="Ellis 2013">{{cite book|author=Joseph J. Ellis|title=Revolutionary Summer: The Birth of American Independence|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=z4RqZJzho1QC&pg=PR11|year=2013|publisher=Random House}}</ref>{{rp|11}} The U.S. Army's official textbook argues that while the British difficulties were great, they were hardly insurmountable. "The British forfeited several chances for military victory in 1776–1777, and again in 1780 they might have won had they been able to throw 10,000 fresh troops into the American war."<ref>[http://history.army.mil/books/AMH-V1/ch04.htm Richard W. Stewart, ed., ''American Military History Volume 1 The United States Army And The Forging Of A Nation, 1775–1917" (2005)] ch 4 "The Winning of Independence, 1777–1783" (2005), p. 103.</ref> ===Patriots=== {{Main|Continental Army|Minutemen}} [[File:Battle of Guiliford Courthouse 15 March 1781.jpg|thumb|1st Maryland Regiment holding the line at the [[Battle of Guilford]]]] The Americans began the war with significant disadvantages compared to the British. They had no national government, no national army or navy, no financial system, no banks, no established credit, and no functioning government departments, such as a treasury. The Congress tried to handle administrative affairs through legislative committees, which proved inefficient. The state governments were themselves brand new and officials had no administrative experience. In peacetime the colonies relied heavily on ocean travel and shipping, but that was now shut down by the British blockade and the Americans had to rely on slow overland travel. However, the Americans had multiple advantages that in the long run outweighed the initial disadvantages they faced. The Americans had a large prosperous population that depended not on imports but on local production for food and most supplies, while the British were mostly shipped in from across the ocean. The British faced a vast territory far larger than Britain or France, located at a far distance from home ports. Most of the Americans lived on farms distant from the seaports—the British could capture any port but that did not give them control over the hinterland. They were on their home ground, had a smoothly functioning, well organized system of local and state governments, newspapers and printers, and internal lines of communications. They had a long-established system of local militia, previously used to combat the French and Native Americans, with companies and an officer corps that could form the basis of local militias, and provide a training ground for the national army created by Congress.<ref name="autogenerated1">Pole and Greene, eds. '' Companion to the American Revolution'', ch. 36–39.</ref> Motivation was a major asset. The Patriots wanted to win; over 200,000 fought in the war; 25,000 died. The British expected the Loyalists to do much of the fighting, but they did much less than expected. The British also hired German mercenaries to do much of their fighting.<ref>{{cite book|author=Michael Lanning|title=American Revolution 100: The Battles, People, and Events of the American War for Independence, Ranked by Their Significance|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1GEs53wMr7EC&pg=PA193|year=2009|publisher=Sourcebooks|pages=195–96}}</ref> At the onset of the war, the Americans had no major international allies. Battles such as the [[Battle of Bennington]], the [[Battles of Saratoga]] and even defeats such as the [[Battle of Germantown]]<ref name="Trevelyan, p. 249">Trevelyan, p. 249.</ref> proved decisive in gaining the attention and support of powerful European nations such as France and Spain, who moved from covertly supplying the Americans with weapons and supplies, to overtly supporting them militarily, moving the war to a global stage.<ref name="K405_48">[[#Ketchum|Ketchum (1997)]], pp. 405–48.</ref> The new Continental Army suffered significantly from a lack of an effective training regime, and largely inexperienced officers and sergeants. The inexperience of its officers was compensated for in part by its senior officers; officers such as [[George Washington]], [[Horatio Gates]], [[Charles Lee (general)|Charles Lee]], [[Richard Montgomery]] and [[Francis Marion]] all had military experience with the British Army during the [[French and Indian War]]. The Americans solved their training dilemma during their stint in Winter Quarters at Valley Forge, where they were relentlessly drilled and trained by General [[Friedrich Wilhelm von Steuben]], a veteran of the famed Prussian General Staff. He taught the Continental Army the essentials of military discipline, drills, tactics and strategy, and wrote the [[Revolutionary War Drill Manual]].<ref>Philander D. Chase. "Steuben, Friedrich Wilhelm von"; [http://www.anb.org/articles/01/01-00855.html ''American National Biography Online'' (2000)]. Accessed January 29, 2015.</ref> When the Army emerged from Valley Forge, it proved its ability to equally match the British troops in battle when they fought a successful strategic action at the [[Battle of Monmouth]].<ref name="John Ferling 2007 294–95"/> [[File:Population Density in the American Colonies 1775.gif|thumb|right|Population density in the [[American Colonies]] in 1775]] When the war began, the 13 colonies lacked a professional army or navy. Each colony sponsored local [[militia]]. Militiamen were lightly armed, had little training, and usually did not have uniforms. Their units served for only a few weeks or months at a time, were reluctant to travel far from home and thus were unavailable for extended operations, and lacked the training and discipline of soldiers with more experience. If properly used, however, their numbers could help the Continental armies overwhelm smaller British forces, as at the [[Battles of the American Revolutionary War|battles]] of [[Battles of Lexington and Concord|Concord]], [[Battle of Bennington|Bennington]] and [[Saratoga campaign|Saratoga]], and the [[siege of Boston]]. Both sides used partisan warfare but the Americans effectively suppressed Loyalist activity when [[British Regulars|British regulars]] were not in the area.<ref>Black (2001), p.&nbsp;59. On militia see Boatner (1974), p.&nbsp;707, and Weigley (1973), ch.&nbsp;2.</ref> Seeking to coordinate military efforts, the [[First Continental Congress|Continental Congress]] established a regular army on June 14, 1775, and appointed [[George Washington]] as commander-in-chief. The development of the Continental Army was always a work in progress, and Washington used both his regulars and state militia throughout the war. The [[United States Marine Corps]] traces its institutional roots to the [[Continental Marines]] of the war, formed by a resolution of the Continental Congress on November 10, 1775, a date regarded and celebrated as the birthday of the Marine Corps. At the beginning of 1776, Washington's army had 20,000 men, with two-thirds enlisted in the Continental Army and the other third in the various state militias.<ref name="Tread">Crocker (2006), p.&nbsp;51.</ref> At the end of the American Revolution in 1783, both the [[Continental Navy]] and Continental Marines were disbanded. About 250,000 men served as regulars or as militiamen for the Revolutionary cause in the eight years of the war, but there were never more than 90,000 men under arms at one time. Armies were small by European standards of the era, largely attributable to limitations such as lack of powder and other logistical capabilities on the American side.<ref>Boatner (1974), p.&nbsp;264 says the largest force Washington commanded was "under 17,000"; Duffy (1987), p.&nbsp;17, estimates Washington's maximum was "only 13,000 troops".</ref> It was also difficult for Great Britain to transport troops across the Atlantic and they depended on local supplies that the Patriots tried to cut off. By comparison, Duffy notes that [[Frederick the Great]] usually commanded from 23,000 to 50,000 in battle.{{citation needed|date=November 2012}} Both figures pale in comparison to the armies that were fielded in the early 19th century, where troop formations approached or exceeded 100,000 men. ===Loyalists=== {{Main|Loyalist (American Revolution)}} Historians<ref>Greene and Pole (1999), p.&nbsp;235.</ref> have estimated that approximately 40 to 45 percent of the colonists supported the rebellion, while 15 to 20 percent remained loyal to the Crown. The rest attempted to remain neutral and kept a low profile. At least 25,000 Loyalists fought on the side of the British. Thousands served in the Royal Navy. On land, Loyalist forces fought alongside the British in most battles in North America. Many Loyalists fought in partisan units, especially in the Southern theater.<ref>Savas and Dameron (2006), p.&nbsp;xli.</ref> The British military met with many difficulties in maximizing the use of Loyalist factions. British historian [[Jeremy Black (historian)|Jeremy Black]] wrote, "In the American war it was clear to both royal generals and revolutionaries that organized and significant Loyalist activity would require the presence of British forces."<ref>Black (2001), p.&nbsp;12.</ref> In the South, the use of Loyalists presented the British with "major problems of strategic choice" since while it was necessary to widely disperse troops in order to defend Loyalist areas, it was also recognized that there was a need for "the maintenance of large concentrated forces able" to counter major attacks from the American forces.<ref>Black (2001), p.&nbsp;13–14.</ref> In addition, the British were forced to ensure that their military actions would not "offend Loyalist opinion", eliminating such options as attempting to "live off the country", destroying property for intimidation purposes, or coercing payments from colonists ("laying them under contribution").<ref>Black (2001), p.&nbsp;14.</ref> ===British=== {{main|British Army during the American War of Independence}} [[File:John Singleton Copley 001.jpg|thumb|''[[The Death of Major Peirson]]'', in the 1781 [[Battle of Jersey]]]] Britain entered the war with confidence; it had the world's most powerful navy, a well-trained professional army, a sound financial system that could pay the costs, a stable government, and experienced leadership.<ref>On the top leaders see Andrew Jackson O'Shaughnessy, ''The Men Who Lost America: British Leadership, the American Revolution, and the Fate of the Empire'' (Yale University Press, 2013).</ref> However they were beset with major challenges. Compared to the Americans, the British had no major allies, and only had troops provided by small German states to bolster the small British Army. At the onset of the war, the British Army was less than 48,000 strong worldwide, and suffered from a lack of effective recruiting. By 1778, the army was pardoning criminals for military service and had extended the age range for service to be from 16 to 50. Although its officer and non-commissioned officer corps were relatively professional and experienced, this professionalism was diluted because wealthy individuals lacking military experience could purchase commissions and promotions. As a consequence, inexperienced officers sometimes found their way into positions of high responsibility.<ref>{{cite book|author=Michael Lanning|title=American Revolution 100: The Battles, People, and Events of the American War for Independence, Ranked by Their Significance|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1GEs53wMr7EC&pg=PA193|year=2009|publisher=Sourcebooks|pages=193–96}}</ref> Distance was also a major problem for the British. Although the Royal Navy was the largest and most experienced in the world at the time, it sometimes took months for troops to reach North America, and orders were often out of date because the military situation on the ground had changed by the time they arrived.<ref>Black (2001), p.&nbsp;39; Greene and Pole (1999), pp.&nbsp;298, 306.</ref> Additionally, the British had logistical problems whenever they operated away from the coast; they were vulnerable to [[Guerilla warfare|guerilla attacks]] on their supply chains whenever they went far inland. On a logistical note, the flints used in British weapons also put them at a disadvantage on the battlefield. British flints could only fire for 6 rounds before requiring re-sharpening, while American flints could fire 60 rounds before resharpening. A common expression ran among the redcoats; which was that "Yankee flint was as good as a glass of grog."<ref name="Curtis">Edward E. Curtis, ''The Organization of the British Army in the American Revolution'' (Yale U.P. 1926) [http://www.americanrevolution.org/britisharmy1.html ch 1 online.]</ref> Although discipline was harsh in the army, the redcoats had little self-discipline; gambling, looting, promiscuity and heavy drinking were common problems, among all ranks alike. The army suffered from mediocre organisation in terms of logistics, food supplies were often bad and the sparse land of America offered little in the way of finding reliable substitutes.<ref>Curtis, ''The Organization of the British Army in the American Revolution'', ch. 4.</ref> [[File:American Revolution Campaigns 1775 to 1781.jpg|thumb|Map of campaigns in the Revolutionary War]] Suppressing a rebellion in America also posed other problems. At the onset of the war, the British had around 8,000 men stationed in North America. However, these were required to cover an area that stretched from northern Canada to Florida, a distance of almost 2,000 miles (3,200&nbsp;km). As the colonies had not been united before the war, there was no central area of strategic importance. In European conflicts, the capture of a capital city often meant the end of the war; however in America, when the British seized key cities such as New York, Philadelphia or Boston—or [[Washington D.C.]] in the [[War of 1812]] thirty years later—the war continued unabated. Furthermore, despite the fact that at its height, the British fielded some 56,000 men in the colonies exclusive of mercenaries and militia,<ref>Curtis, ''The Organization of the British Army in the American Revolution'', ch. 3.</ref> they lacked the sufficient numbers to both defeat the Americans on the battlefield and simultaneously occupy the captured areas. It was not unusual for the Americans to suffer a string of defeats, only to have the British retreat because they could not occupy the captured land. Despite strong Loyalist support, these troops were often displaced by Patriot militia when British regulars were not in the area, demonstrated at battles such as [[Battle of Kings Mountain|Kings Mountain]]. The manpower shortage became critical when France, Spain and the Netherlands entered the war, as the British were spread across several theatres worldwide, when before they were concentrated only in America.<ref>Higginbotham (1983), pp.&nbsp;298, 306; Black (2001), pp.&nbsp;29, 42.</ref> The British also had to contend with several psychological factors during the conflict. The need to maintain Loyalist allegiance provided setbacks, as the British could not use the harsh methods of suppressing rebellion they had used in Ireland and Scotland. Loyalists often came from the same communities as Patriots and as a result, such methods could not be employed for fear of alienating them. Even despite these limitations, neutral colonists were often driven into the ranks of the Revolutionaries due to the conflict, such as the war in the Carolinas, marked by heavy brutality on both sides.<ref>Black (2001), pp.&nbsp;14–16 (Harsh methods), pp.&nbsp;35, 38 (slaves and Indians), p.&nbsp;16 (neutrals into revolutionaries).</ref> As a result of the manpower shortage and Patriot control of the countryside, where the majority of the American population lived, the British often could not simultaneously defeat the Americans on the field and occupy the captured areas, evidenced by withdrawals from [[Philadelphia campaign|Philadelphia]] and the [[Southern theater of the American Revolutionary War|Carolinas]] after great initial success. A single American victory could often reverse the impact of a string of British successes, as shown by engagements at [[Battle of Trenton|Trenton]], [[Battle of Bennington|Bennington]], [[Battle of Kings Mountain|King's Mountain]] and even defeats such as [[Battle of Germantown|Germantown]],<ref name="Trevelyan, p. 249"/> all of which went a long way to galvanizing Patriot support for the war, and of persuading European powers such as France and Spain to support the rebellion. Early in 1775, the [[British Army]] consisted of about 36,000 men worldwide, but wartime recruitment steadily increased this number. Great Britain had a difficult time appointing general officers, however. General [[Thomas Gage]], in command of British forces in North America when the rebellion started, was criticized for being too lenient (perhaps influenced by his [[Margaret Kemble Gage|American wife]]). General [[Jeffrey Amherst, 1st Baron Amherst]] turned down an appointment as commander in chief due to an unwillingness to take sides in the conflict.<ref>Ketchum (1997), p.&nbsp;76.</ref> Similarly, Admiral [[Augustus Keppel, 1st Viscount Keppel|Augustus Keppel]] turned down a command, saying "I cannot draw the sword in such a cause." The [[Thomas Howard, 3rd Earl of Effingham|Earl of Effingham]] publicly resigned his commission when his [[Cheshire Regiment|22nd Regiment of foot]] was posted to America, and [[William Howe, 5th Viscount Howe|William Howe]] and [[John Burgoyne]] were members of parliament who opposed military solutions to the American rebellion. Howe and [[Henry Clinton (1730–1795)|Henry Clinton]] stated that they were unwilling participants in the war and were only following orders.<ref>Ketchum (1997), p.&nbsp;77.</ref> The British Parliament was also far from united in supporting military opposition to the American Patriots. [[Frederick North, Lord North|Lord North]] held the post of Prime Minister with a Tory majority backing him, advocating military suppression of the American rebellion. However, they were constantly and vehemently opposed by a large Whig minority, with politicians such as [[Charles James Fox]] and [[Edmund Burke]] of the [[Rockingham Whigs]] fiercely voicing their derision of pursuing military solutions to the rebellion. The Whigs gained prominence in Parliament as the British suffered strategic defeats at [[Battles of Saratoga|Saratoga]] and later at [[Siege of Yorktown|Yorktown]], resulting in the collapse of Lord North's ministry. Over the course of the war, Great Britain signed treaties with various [[Germans in the American Revolution|German]] states, which supplied about 30,000 soldiers.<ref>Ingrao, Charles. "" Barbarous Strangers": Hessian State and Society during the American Revolution." ''American Historical Review'' (1982): 954–976. [http://www.jstor.org/stable/1857901 in JSTOR.]</ref> Germans made up about one-third of the British troop strength in North America. The [[Landgraviate of Hesse-Kassel]] contributed more soldiers than any other state, and German soldiers became known as "[[Hessian (soldiers)|Hessians]]" to the Americans. Revolutionary speakers called German soldiers "foreign mercenaries", and they are scorned as such in the [[United States Declaration of Independence|Declaration of Independence]]. By 1779, the number of British and German troops stationed in North America was over 60,000, although these were spread from Canada to Florida.<ref>Black (2001), pp.&nbsp;27–29; Boatner (1974), pp.&nbsp;424–26.</ref> Initially, several German principalities offered military support to Great Britain but these offers were rejected. However, as the war dragged on it became clear that Great Britain would need the extra manpower of the German states and led to Great Britain seeking support from German principalities such as Hesse-Kassel and Ansbach-Bayreuth.<ref>Morrissey (2004), pp. 20, 21.</ref> The Secretary of State at War [[Lord Barrington]] and the Adjutant-General [[Edward Harvey]] were both strongly opposed to outright war on land. In 1766 Barrington had recommended withdrawing the army from the Thirteen Colonies to Canada, Nova Scotia and Florida. At the beginning of the war he urged a naval blockade, which would quickly damage the colonists' trading activities.<ref>''The Oxford Illustrated History of the British Army'' (1994), p. 122–23.</ref> ===African Americans=== [[File:Soldiers at the siege of Yorktown (1781), by Jean-Baptiste-Antoine DeVerger.png|thumb|1780 drawing of American soldiers from the [[Yorktown campaign]] shows a black infantryman from the [[1st Rhode Island Regiment]].]] [[African Americans in the Revolutionary War|African Americans]]—slave and free—served on both sides during the war. The British recruited slaves belonging to [[Patriot (American Revolution)|Patriot]] masters and promised freedom to those who served by act of Lord [[Dunmore's Proclamation]]. Because of manpower shortages, George Washington lifted the ban on black enlistment in the Continental Army in January 1776. Small all-black units were formed in [[Rhode Island]] and [[Massachusetts]]; many slaves were promised freedom for serving. Some of the men promised freedom were sent back to their masters, after the war was over, out of political convenience. Another all-black unit came from [[Saint-Domingue]] with French colonial forces. At least 5,000 black soldiers fought for the Revolutionary cause.<ref>Kaplan and Kaplan (1989), pp.&nbsp;64–69.</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Leslie Alexander|title=Encyclopedia of African American History|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uivtCqOlpTsC&pg=PA356|year=2010|publisher=ABC-CLIO|page=356}}</ref> Tens of thousands of slaves escaped during the war and joined British lines; others simply moved off in the chaos. For instance, in South Carolina, nearly 25,000 slaves (30% of the enslaved population) fled, migrated or died during the disruption of the war.<ref>Peter Kolchin, ''American Slavery: 1619–1877'', New York: Hill and Wang, 1994, p. 73</ref> This greatly disrupted plantation production during and after the war. When they withdrew their forces from Savannah and Charleston, the British also evacuated 10,000 slaves belonging to Loyalists.<ref>Kolchin, p.73</ref> Altogether, the British evacuated nearly 20,000 blacks at the end of the war. More than 3,000 of them were freedmen and most of these were resettled in Nova Scotia; other blacks were sold in the West Indies.<ref>{{cite book|author=William Weir|title=The Encyclopedia of African American Military History|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WEXj4gHHARgC&pg=PA32|year=2004|publisher=Prometheus Books|pages=31–32}}</ref><ref>Cassadra Pybus, "Jefferson's Faulty Math: the Question of Slave Defections in the American Revolution", ''William and Mary Quarterly'' (2005) 62#2 pp: 243–264. [http://www.jstor.org/stable/3491601 in JSTOR]</ref> ===Native Americans=== Most [[Native Americans in the United States|Native Americans]] east of the [[Mississippi River]] were affected by the war, and many communities were divided over the question of how to respond to the conflict. Though a few tribes were on friendly terms with the Americans, most Native Americans opposed the United States as a potential threat to their territory. Approximately 13,000 Native Americans fought on the British side, with the largest group coming from the [[Iroquois]] tribes, who fielded around 1,500 men.<ref>Greene and Pole (1999), p.&nbsp;393; Boatner (1974), p.&nbsp;545.</ref> The powerful [[Iroquois Confederacy]] was shattered as a result of the conflict; although the Confederacy did not take sides, the [[Seneca nation|Seneca]], [[Onondaga (tribe)|Onondaga]], and [[Cayuga nation|Cayuga]] nations sided with the British. Members of the [[Mohawk nation|Mohawk]] fought on both sides. Many [[Tuscarora (tribe)|Tuscarora]] and [[Oneida tribe|Oneida]] sided with the colonists. The Continental Army sent the [[Sullivan Expedition]] on raids throughout New York to cripple the Iroquois tribes that had sided with the British. Both during and after the war friction between the Mohawk leaders [[Joseph Louis Cook]] and [[Joseph Brant]], who had sided with the Americans and the British respectively, further exacerbated the split. [[File:ContinentalArmy LeffertsWatercolor.jpg|thumb|A watercolor painting depicting a variety of Continental Army soldiers.]] [[Muscogee people|Creek]] and [[Seminole]] allies of Britain fought against Americans in Georgia and South Carolina. In 1778, a force of 800 Creeks destroyed American settlements along the [[Broad River (Georgia)|Broad River]] in Georgia. Creek warriors also joined [[Thomas Brown (loyalist)|Thomas Brown's]] raids into South Carolina and assisted Britain during the [[Siege of Savannah]].<ref name="Ward1999">{{cite book|last=Ward|first=Harry M.|title=The war for independence and the transformation of American society|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kgqa4_OBcIkC&pg=PA198|accessdate=March 25, 2011|year=1999|publisher=Psychology Press|isbn=978-1-85728-656-4|page=198}}</ref> Many Native Americans were involved in the fighting between Britain and Spain on the [[Gulf Coast of the United States|Gulf Coast]] and up the Mississippi River—mostly on the British side. Thousands of Creeks, [[Chickasaw]]s, and [[Choctaw]]s fought in or near major battles such as the [[Battle of Fort Charlotte]], the [[Battle of Mobile (1781)|Battle of Mobile]], and the [[Siege of Pensacola]].<ref name="O'Brien2008">{{cite book|last=O'Brien|first=Greg|title=Pre-removal Choctaw history: exploring new paths|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jGFmNPevedUC&pg=PA123|accessdate=March 25, 2011|date=April 30, 2008|publisher=University of Oklahoma Press|isbn=978-0-8061-3916-6|pages=123–126}}</ref> ===Race and class=== Pybus (2005) estimates that about 20,000 slaves defected to or were captured by the British, of whom about 8,000 died from disease or wounds or were recaptured by the Patriots. The British took along some 12,000 at the end of the war; of these 8000 remained in slavery. Including those who left during the war, a total of about 8000 to 10,000 ex-slaves gained freedom.<ref>[http://www.jstor.org/stable/3491601 Cassandra Pybus, "Jefferson's Faulty Math: the Question of Slave Defections in the American Revolution"], ''William and Mary Quarterly'' 2005 62#2: 243–264.</ref> About 4000 freed slaves went to Nova Scotia along with about 1200 blacks who remained slaves.<ref>John N. Grant, "Black Immigrants into Nova Scotia, 1776–1815." ''Journal of Negro History'' (1973): 253–270. [http://www.jstor.org/stable/2716777 in JSTOR]</ref><ref>James W. St G. Walker, ''The Black Loyalists: The Search for a Promised Land in Nova Scotia and Sierra Leone, 1783–1870'' (1992).</ref> Baller (2006) examines family dynamics and mobilization for the Revolution in central Massachusetts. He reports that warfare and the farming culture were sometimes incompatible. Militiamen found that living and working on the family farm had not prepared them for wartime marches and the rigors of camp life. Rugged individualism conflicted with military discipline and regimentation. A man's birth order often influenced his military recruitment, as younger sons went to war and older sons took charge of the farm. A person's family responsibilities and the prevalent patriarchy could impede mobilization. Harvesting duties and family emergencies pulled men home regardless of the sergeant's orders. Some relatives might be Loyalists, creating internal strains. On the whole, historians conclude the Revolution's effect on patriarchy and inheritance patterns favored [[egalitarianism]].<ref>William Baller, "Farm Families and the American Revolution," ''Journal of Family History'' (2006) 31(1): 28–44. {{ISSN|0363-1990}}. Fulltext: online in [[EBSCO]].</ref> McDonnell (2006) shows a grave complication in Virginia's mobilization of troops was the conflicting interests of distinct social classes, which tended to undercut a unified commitment to the Patriot cause. The Assembly balanced the competing demands of elite slave-owning planters, [[Plain Folk of the Old South|the middling yeomen]] (some owning a few slaves), and landless indentured servants, among other groups. The Assembly used deferments, taxes, military service substitute, and conscription to resolve the tensions. Unresolved class conflict, however, made these laws less effective. There were violent protests, many cases of evasion, and large-scale desertion, so that Virginia's contributions came at embarrassingly low levels. With the British invasion of the state in 1781, Virginia was mired in class division as its native son, George Washington, made desperate appeals for troops.<ref>Michael A. McDonnell, "Class War: Class Struggles During the American Revolution in Virginia", ''William and Mary Quarterly'' 2006 63(2): 305–344. {{ISSN|0043-5597}} Fulltext: online at [[History Cooperative]].</ref> [[File:Couder Yorktown Versailles.JPG|thumb|Washington and the [[Comte de Rochambeau]] at Yorktown, 1781]] ==Costs of the War== ===Casualties=== ====Americans and allies==== The total loss of life throughout the war is largely unknown. As was typical in the wars of the era, disease claimed far more lives than battle. Between 1775 and 1782 a [[North American smallpox epidemic|smallpox epidemic]] swept across North America, killing 40 people in Boston alone. Historian [[Joseph Ellis]] suggests that Washington's decision to have his troops [[inoculation|inoculated]] against the [[smallpox]] epidemic was one of his most important decisions.<ref>Ellis (2004), p.&nbsp;87.</ref> At least 25,000 American Patriots died during active military service.<ref name="Howard H. Peckham 1974"/> About 6,800 of these deaths were in battle; the other 17,000 recorded deaths were from disease, including about 8,000–12,000 who died of starvation or disease brought on by deplorable conditions while [[POW|prisoners of war]],<ref name="Burrows">{{cite journal |last=Burrows |first=Edwin G. |author-link=Edwin G. Burrows |title=Patriots or Terrorists |url=http://www.americanheritage.com/content/patriots-or-terrorists |work=American Heritage |accessdate=November 29, 2014 |archiveurl=//web.archive.org/web/20130323233806/http://www.americanheritage.com/content/patriots-or-terrorists |archivedate=March 23, 2013 |date=Fall 2008 |series=58 |issue=5}}</ref> most in rotting British [[Prisoners in the American Revolutionary War|prison ships]] in New York. Another estimate, however, puts the total death toll at around 70,000, which if true would make the conflict proportionately deadlier than the [[American Civil War]].<ref name=medical/> The uncertainty arises from the number of disease deaths, which were believed to be quite numerous, amounting to an estimated 10,000 in 1776 alone.<ref name=medical/> The number of Patriots seriously wounded or disabled by the war has been estimated from 8,500 to 25,000.<ref>American dead and wounded: Shy, pp.&nbsp;249–50. The lower figure for number of wounded comes from Chambers, p.&nbsp;849.</ref> Proportionate to the population of the colonies, the Revolutionary War [[United States military casualties of war|was at least the second-deadliest conflict in American history]], ranking ahead of World War II and behind only the Civil War. ====British and allies==== In 1784 a British lieutenant compiled a detailed list of 205 British officers killed in action during the war, including deaths in Europe, the Caribbean, and the East Indies.<ref>[https://archive.org/stream/pennsylvaniamaga27hist#page/176/mode/1up ''The Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography''], Volume 27 (1903), p. 176.</ref> An extrapolation based on this list puts British Army losses at some 4,000 killed and died of wounds.<ref name=medical/> A table from 1781 puts total British Army deaths at 6,046 in North America (from 1775–1779) and 3,326 in the West Indies (from 1778–1780).<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=zc5ZwyqzpQQC&pg=PA298&dq=parliamentary+register+1780&hl=en&sa=X&ei=M-rPVO-pMrT7sASv6oCgCw&ved=0CCUQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q&f=false Parliamentary Register] (1781), pp. 263–65.</ref> Approximately 1,800 Germans were killed in combat out of a total of 7,774 deaths.<ref name=medical/> British returns in 1783 listed 43,633 rank and file deaths "in the British service".<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=p7T9O3aNmVoC&pg=PA199&dq=Annual+register+43,633&hl=en&sa=X&ei=HmfKVOSMGKrIsATz14K4DQ&ved=0CB8Q6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=Annual%20register%2043%2C633&f=false Annual Register, 1783] (1785), pp. 199–200.</ref> About 171,000 sailors served in the Royal Navy during the war; about a quarter had been [[impressment|pressed]] into service. About 1,240 were killed in battle, while 18,500 died from disease (figures from 1776–1780 only).<ref name="Parliamentary Register"/> The greatest killer was [[scurvy]], a disease that had been shown to be preventable by issuing lemon or lime juice to sailors but was not taken seriously. Scurvy would be eradicated in the Royal Navy in 1790s by the chairman of the Navy's Sick and Hurt Board, [[Gilbert Blane]]. About 42,000 British sailors [[desertion|deserted]] during the war.<ref>Mackesy (1964), pp.&nbsp;6, 176 (British seamen).</ref> ===Costs=== {{main|Financial costs of the American Revolutionary War}} The British spent about £80 million and ended with a [[national debt]] of £250 million, which it easily financed at about £9.5 million a year in interest.<ref>{{cite book|author=Robert Tombs and Isabelle Tombs|title=That Sweet Enemy: The French and the British from the Sun King to the Present|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TxUqAAAAYAAJ&q=american+revolution+British+%C2%A380+million++of+%C2%A3250+million,++%C2%A39.5+interest+inauthor:Tombs&dq=american+revolution+British+%C2%A380+million++of+%C2%A3250+million,++%C2%A39.5+interest+inauthor:Tombs&hl=en&sa=X&ei=d6KXVaThE8zeUaTMg7gN&redir_esc=y |year=2006|page=179|publisher=Knopf Doubleday }}</ref> The French spent 1.3 billion livres (about £56 million). Their total national debt was £187 million, which they could not easily finance; over half the French national revenue went to debt service in the 1780s. The debt crisis became a major enabling factor of the [[French Revolution]] as the government could not raise taxes without public approval.<ref>Tombs (2007), p.&nbsp;179.</ref> The United States spent $37 million at the national level plus $114 million by the states. This was mostly covered by loans from France and the Netherlands, loans from Americans, and issuance of an increasing amount of paper money (which became "not worth a continental"). The U.S. finally solved its debt and currency problems in the 1790s when Secretary of the Treasury [[Alexander Hamilton]] secured legislation by which the national government assumed all of the state debts, and in addition created a [[First Bank of the United States|national bank]] and a funding system based on tariffs and bond issues that paid off the foreign debts.<ref>{{cite book|author=David Kennedy|title=The Brief American Pageant: A History of the Republic, Volume I: To 1877|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dfWPpr84E7QC&pg=PA136|year=2011|publisher=Cengage Learning|page=136|display-authors=etal}}</ref> ==See also== * [[British Army during the American War of Independence]] * [[Bibliography of the American Revolutionary War]] * [[Diplomacy in the American Revolutionary War]] * [[First Treaty of San Ildefonso]] * [[First League of Armed Neutrality]] * [[Fourth Anglo-Dutch War]] * [[George Washington in the American Revolution]] * [[Naval operations in the American Revolutionary War]] * [[Intelligence in the American Revolutionary War]] * [[List of American Revolutionary War battles]] * [[List of British Forces in the American Revolutionary War]] * [[List of Continental Forces in the American Revolutionary War]] * [[List of plays and films about the American Revolution]] * [[List of revolutions and rebellions]] ==Notes== {{Reflist|group=N}} ==References== To avoid duplication, notes for sections with a link to a "Main article" will be found in the linked article. <!-- To add a reference simply enclose the text you want to appear here inside a pair in the correct place in the body of the article.--> {{Reflist|30em}} ==Further reading== <!-- works cited in the notes --> {{Refbegin|3}} * [[Jeremy Black (historian)|Black, Jeremy]]. ''War for America: The Fight for Independence, 1775–1783''. 2001. Analysis from a noted British military historian. * Benn, Carl. ''Historic Fort York, 1793–1993''. Toronto: Dundurn Press Ltd., 1993. ISBN 0-920474-79-9. * Boatner, Mark Mayo, III. ''Encyclopedia of the American Revolution.'' 1966; revised 1974. ISBN 0-8117-0578-1. Military topics, references many [[secondary source]]s. * Chambers, John Whiteclay II, ed. in chief. ''The Oxford Companion to American Military History''. [[Oxford University Press]], 1999. ISBN 0-19-507198-0. * {{Cite book|last=Crocker III|first=H. W.|title=Don't Tread on Me|publisher=Crown Forum|year=2006|location=New York|isbn=978-1-4000-5363-6}} * Curtis, Edward E. ''The Organization of the British Army in the American Revolution'' (Yale U.P. 1926) [http://www.americanrevolution.org/britisharmy.html online] * Duffy, Christopher. ''The Military Experience in the Age of Reason, 1715–1789'' Routledge, 1987. ISBN 978-0-7102-1024-1. * Edler, Friedrich. [https://books.google.com/books?id=MhoMAAAAYAAJ ''The Dutch Republic and The American Revolution'']. University Press of the Pacific, 1911, reprinted 2001. ISBN 0-89875-269-8. * Ellis, Joseph J. ''His Excellency: George Washington''. (2004). ISBN 1-4000-4031-0. * Fenn, Elizabeth Anne. ''Pox Americana: The Great Smallpox Epidemic of 1775–82''. New York: Hill and Wang, 2001. ISBN 0-8090-7820-1. * [[David Hackett Fischer]]. ''[[Washington's Crossing (book)|Washington's Crossing]]''. New York: Oxford University Press, 2004. ISBN 0-19-517034-2. * Fletcher, Charles Robert Leslie. [https://books.google.com/books?id=dvM1AAAAMAAJ ''An Introductory History of England: The Great European War'', Volume 4]. E.P. Dutton, 1909. OCLC 12063427. * Greene, Jack P. and Pole, J.R., eds. ''The Blackwell Encyclopedia of the American Revolution''. Malden, Massachusetts: Blackwell, 1991; reprint 1999. ISBN 1-55786-547-7. Collection of essays focused on political and social history. * Gilbert, Alan. ''Black Patriots and Loyalists: Fighting for Emancipation in the War for Independence''. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2012. ISBN 978-0-226-29307-3. * [[Don Higginbotham|Higginbotham, Don]]. ''The War of American Independence: Military Attitudes, Policies, and Practice, 1763–1789''. Northeastern University Press, 1983. ISBN 0-930350-44-8. Overview of military topics; online in ACLS History E-book Project. * Morrissey, Brendan. ''Monmouth Courthouse 1778: The Last Great Battle in the North''. Osprey Publishing, 2004. ISBN 1-84176-772-7. * Jensen, Merrill. ''The Founding of a Nation: A History of the American Revolution 1763–1776.'' (2004) * Kaplan, Sidney and Emma Nogrady Kaplan. ''The Black Presence in the Era of the American Revolution''. Amherst, Massachusetts: The [[University of Massachusetts Press]], 1989. ISBN 0-87023-663-6. * Ketchum, Richard M. ''Saratoga: Turning Point of America's Revolutionary War''. Henry Holt, 1997. ISBN 0-8050-4681-X. * [[Piers Mackesy|Mackesy, Piers]]. [http://www.questia.com/library/book/the-war-for-america-1775-1783-by-piers-mackesy.jsp ''The War for America: 1775–1783'']. London, 1964. Reprinted [[University of Nebraska Press]], 1993. ISBN 0-8032-8192-7. Highly regarded examination of British strategy and leadership. * [[David McCullough|McCullough, David]]. ''[[1776 (book)|1776]]''. New York: Simon & Schuster, 2005. * Middleton, Richard, ''The War of American Independence, 1775-1783''. London: Pearson, 2012. ISBN 978-0-582-22942-6 * {{cite book | last=Reynolds, Jr. | first=William R. | title=Andrew Pickens: South Carolina Patriot in the Revolutionary War | publisher=McFarland & Company, Inc. | location=Jefferson NC | year=2012 | isbn=978-0-7864-6694-8}} * Riddick, John F. ''The History of British India: a Chronology''. Greenwood Publishing Group, 2006. ISBN 978-0-313-32280-8. * Savas, Theodore P. and Dameron, J. David. ''A Guide to the Battles of the American Revolution.'' New York: Savas Beatie LLC, 2006. ISBN 1-932714-12-X. * [[Schama, Simon]]. ''[[Rough Crossings: Britain, the Slaves, and the American Revolution]]'', New York, NY: Ecco/HarperCollins, 2006 * Shy, John. ''A People Numerous and Armed: Reflections on the Military Struggle for American Independence''. New York: Oxford University Press, 1976 (ISBN 0-19-502013-8); revised University of Michigan Press, 1990 (ISBN 0-472-06431-2). Collection of essays. * Stephenson, Orlando W. "The Supply of Gunpowder in 1776", ''American Historical Review'', Vol.&nbsp;30, No.&nbsp;2 (Jan.&nbsp;1925), pp.&nbsp;271–281 in [[JSTOR]]. * Tombs, Robert and Isabelle. ''That Sweet Enemy: The French and the British from the Sun King to the Present'' Random House, 2007. ISBN 978-1-4000-4024-7. * Trevelyan, George Otto. ''George the Third and Charles Fox: the concluding part of The American revolution'' Longmans, Green, 1912. * Watson, J. Steven. [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=22810670 ''The Reign of George III, 1760–1815'']. 1960. Standard history of British politics. * Weigley, Russell F. ''The American Way of War''. Indiana University Press, 1977. ISBN 978-0-253-28029-9. * Weintraub, Stanley. ''Iron Tears: America's Battle for Freedom, Britain's Quagmire: 1775–1783''. New York: Free Press, 2005 (a division of Simon & Schuster). ISBN 0-7432-2687-9. An account of the British politics on the conduct of the war. {{Refend}} ==Reference literature== <!-- books about the war in general that are not cited above --> {{Refbegin|30em}} These are some of the standard works about the war in general that are not listed above; books about specific campaigns, battles, units, and individuals can be found in those articles. * Billias, George Athan. ''George Washington's Generals and Opponents: Their Exploits and Leadership'' (1994) scholarly studies of key generals on each side * Conway, Stephen. ''The War of American Independence 1775–1783''. Publisher: E. Arnold, 1995. ISBN 0-340-62520-1. 280 pages. *Lowell, Edward J. [http://www.americanwars.org/american-revolution-hessians.htm ''The Hessians in the Revolution ''] Williamstown, Massachusetts, Corner House Publishers, 1970, Reprint * [[George Bancroft|Bancroft, George]]. ''History of the United States of America, from the discovery of the American continent.'' (1854–78), vol. 7–10. * Bobrick, Benson. ''Angel in the Whirlwind: The Triumph of the American Revolution''. Penguin, 1998 (paperback reprint). * Fremont-Barnes, Gregory, and Ryerson, Richard A., eds. ''The Encyclopedia of the American Revolutionary War: A Political, Social, and Military History'' (ABC-CLIO, 2006) 5 volume paper and online editions; 1000 entries by 150 experts, covering all topics * Frey, Sylvia R. ''The British Soldier in America: A Social History of Military Life in the Revolutionary Period'' (University of Texas Press, 1981). * Hibbert, Christopher. ''[[Redcoats and Rebels: The American Revolution through British Eyes]].'' New York: Norton, 1990. ISBN 0-393-02895-X. * Kwasny, Mark V. ''Washington's Partisan War, 1775–1783''. Kent, Ohio: 1996. ISBN 0-87338-546-2. Militia warfare. * [[Robert Middlekauff|Middlekauff, Robert]]. ''The Glorious Cause: The American Revolution, 1763–1789''. Oxford University Press, 1984; revised 2005. ISBN 0-19-516247-1. [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=84633736 online edition] * {{cite book|author1=Savas, Theodore|author2=J. David Dameron|title=Guide to the Battles of the American Revolution|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KRRSfy7eVoIC&pg=PR37|year=2006|publisher=Savas Beatie}} Contains a detailed listing of American, French, British, German, and Loyalist regiments; indicates when they were raised, the main battles, and what happened to them. Also includes the main warships on both sides, And all the important battles. * Simms, Brendan. ''Three Victories and a Defeat: The Rise and Fall of the First British Empire, 1714–1783'' (2008) 802 pp., detailed coverage of diplomacy from London viewpoint * Symonds, Craig L. ''A Battlefield Atlas of the American Revolution'' (1989), newly drawn maps emphasizing the movement of military units * Ward, Christopher. ''The War of the Revolution''. (2 volumes. New York: Macmillan, 1952.) History of land battles in North America. * Wood, W. J. ''Battles of the Revolutionary War, 1775–1781''. ISBN 0-306-81329-7 (2003 paperback reprint). Analysis of tactics of a dozen battles, with emphasis on American military leadership. * Men-at-Arms series: short (48pp), very well illustrated descriptions: ** Zlatich, Marko; Copeland, Peter. ''General Washington's Army (1): 1775–78'' (1994) ** Zlatich, Marko. ''General Washington's Army (2): 1779–83'' (1994) ** Chartrand, Rene. ''The French Army in the American War of Independence'' (1994) ** May, Robin. ''The British Army in North America 1775–1783'' (1993) * ''[[The Partisan in War]]'', a treatise on light infantry tactics written by Colonel Andreas Emmerich in 1789. {{Refend}} ==External links== {{Wiktionary|American Revolutionary War}} {{Commons}} * [http://www.pbs.org/ktca/liberty/ Liberty – The American Revolution] from PBS * [http://revolutionarywar.cloudworth.com/ American Revolutionary War 1775–1783 in the News] * [http://theamericanrevolution.org/battles.aspx Important battles of the American Revolutionary War] ===Bibliographies=== * [http://www.loc.gov/rr/program/bib/revolution/home.html Library of Congress Guide to the American Revolution] * [http://www.history.army.mil/reference/revbib/revwar.htm Bibliographies of the War of American Independence] http://wayback.archive.org/web/20151101171424/http://www.history.army.mil/reference/revbib/revwar.htm compiled by the [[United States Army Center of Military History]] * [http://revolution.h-net.msu.edu/bib.html Political bibliography from] Omohundro Institute of Early American History and Culture {{American Revolutionary War}} {{Continental Army}} {{American conflicts}} {{British colonial campaigns}} {{US history}} {{United States topics}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:American Revolutionary War| ]] [[Category:Global conflicts]] [[Category:Resistance to the British Empire]] [[Category:Wars of independence]] [[Category:1770s conflicts]] [[Category:1780s conflicts]] 00t95txgzcysn6bcte4eoowludcp66j 0 772 715209779 715209613 2016-04-14T10:55:46Z 137.191.233.71 /* Portable devices */ Fixed formatting wikitext text/x-wiki {{Other uses}} {{Infobox Unit | bgcolour = [[#0000FF]] | name = Ampere | image = [[File:Amperemeter hg.jpg|200px]] | caption = Demonstration model of a moving iron ammeter. As the current through the coil increases, the plunger is drawn further into the coil and the pointer deflects to the right. | standard = [[SI base unit]] | quantity = [[Electric current]] | symbol = A | dimension = I | namedafter = [[André-Marie Ampère]] | units1 = | inunits1 = | units2 = | inunits2 = }} The '''ampere''' ([[International System of Units|SI]] [[Units of measurement|unit]] symbol: A), often [[Clipping (morphology)|shortened]] to "amp",<ref name=BIPM2006>SI supports only the use of symbols and deprecates the use of abbreviations for units.{{cite web | format = [[PDF]] | url= http://www.bipm.fr/utils/common/pdf/si_brochure_8_en.pdf |title=Bureau International des Poids et Mesures |year=2006 |page=130 | accessdate =21 November 2011}}</ref> is the SI unit of [[electric current]]<ref name="BIPMdefinition">{{Citation | chapter = 2.1. Unit of electric current (ampere)|url= http://www.bipm.org/en/si/si_brochure/chapter2/2-1/ampere.html | title =SI brochure | edition = 8th |publisher= BIPM|accessdate= 19 November 2011}}</ref><ref>[http://physics.nist.gov/cuu/Units/ampere.html Base unit definitions: Ampere]. Physics.nist.gov. Retrieved on 2010-09-28.</ref> ([[Dimension of a physical quantity|dimension]] symbol: I)<ref>{{Citation | chapter =2. SI base units|url=http://www.bipm.org/en/si/si_brochure/chapter2/2-1/ | title = SI brochure | edition = 8th | publisher = BIPM|accessdate= 19 November 2011}}</ref> and is one of the seven<ref>The other six are the [[metre]], [[kelvin]], [[second]], [[Mole (unit)|mole]], [[candela]], and [[kilogram]]</ref> [[SI base unit]]s. It is named after [[André-Marie Ampère]] (1775–1836), French mathematician and physicist, considered the father of [[electrodynamics]]. The ampere is equivalent to one [[coulomb]] (roughly {{val|6.241|e=18}} times the [[elementary charge]]) per second.<ref>{{Citation | author-link = David Bodanis| last = Bodanis | first = David | year = 2005 | title = Electric Universe | place = New York | publisher = Three Rivers Press | ISBN = 978-0-307-33598-2}}</ref> Amperes are used to express flow rate of electric charge. For any point experiencing a current, if the number of charged particles passing through it&nbsp;&mdash; or the charge on the particles passing through it&nbsp;&mdash; is increased, the amperes of current at that point will proportionately increase. The ampere should not be confused with the [[coulomb]] (also called "ampere-second") or the [[ampere-hour]] (A⋅h). The ampere is a unit of current, the amount of charge transiting per unit time, and the coulomb is a unit of [[electric charge|charge]]. When [[International System of Units|SI units]] are used, constant, instantaneous and average current are expressed in amperes (as in "the charging current is 1.2&nbsp;A") and the charge accumulated, or passed through a circuit over a period of time is expressed in coulombs (as in "the [[battery (electricity)|battery]] charge is {{val|30000|u=C}}"). The relation of the ampere to the coulomb is the same as that of the [[watt]] to the [[joule]], and that of [[metre per second]] to [[metre]]. ==Definition== [[File:Ampere-def-en.svg|thumb|Illustration of the definition of the ampere unit]] [[Ampère's force law]]<ref name=Serway>{{cite book | first1 =Raymond A | last1 = Serway | last2 = Jewett | first2 = JW |title=Serway's principles of physics: a calculus based text |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1DZz341Pp50C&pg=RA1-PA746&dq=wire+%22magnetic+force%22&lr=&as_brr=0&sig=4vMV_CH6Nm8ZkgjtDJFlupekYoA#PRA1-PA746,M1 |publisher=Thompson Brooks/Cole |edition=Fourth |location=Belmont, CA |year=2006 |page=746 |isbn = 0-53449143-X}}</ref><ref name = "Beyond">{{Citation | url = http://www.nist.gov/public_affairs/newsfromnist_beyond_the_kilogram.htm | title = Beyond the Kilogram: Redefining the International System of Units | year = 2006 | publisher = [[National Institute of Standards and Technology]] | place = USA | accessdate = March 2008| archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20080321221139/http://www.nist.gov/public_affairs/newsfromnist_beyond_the_kilogram.htm| archivedate= 21 March 2008 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}.</ref> states that there is an attractive or repulsive force between two parallel wires carrying an electric current. This force is used in the formal definition of the ampere, which states that the ampere is the constant current that will produce an attractive force of 2&nbsp;&times;&nbsp;10⁻⁷ [[newton (unit)|newtons]] per metre of length between two straight, parallel conductors of infinite length and negligible circular [[cross section (geometry)|cross section]] placed one [[metre]] apart in a [[vacuum]].<ref name= "BIPMdefinition" /><ref>{{Citation | first = Paul MS | last = Monk | title = Physical Chemistry: Understanding our Chemical World | publisher = John Wiley & Sons | year = 2004 | ISBN = 0-471-49180-2 | url = https://books.google.com/books?vid=ISBN0471491802&id=LupAi35QjhoC&pg=PA16&lpg=PA16&ots=IMiGyIL-67&dq=ampere+definition+si&sig=9Y0k0wgvymmLNYFMcXodwJZwvAM}}.</ref> The SI unit of charge, the [[coulomb]], "is the quantity of electricity carried in 1 second by a current of 1 ampere".<ref>{{Citation | publisher = [[Bureau International des Poids et Mesures]] | year = 2006 | url = http://www.bipm.org/utils/common/pdf/si_brochure_8_en.pdf | title = The International System of Units (SI) | edition = 8th | page = 144 | format = PDF}}.</ref> Conversely, a current of one ampere is one coulomb of charge going past a given point per second: :<math>\rm 1\ A=1\tfrac C s.</math> In general, charge ''Q'' is determined by steady current ''I'' flowing for a time ''t'' as {{nowrap|1=''Q'' = ''It''}}. == History == The ampere was originally defined as one tenth of the unit of [[electric current]] in the [[centimetre–gram–second system of units]]; that unit, now known as the [[abampere]], was defined as the amount of current that generates a force of two [[dyne]]s per centimetre of length between two wires one centimetre apart.<ref>{{Citation | url = http://alpha.montclair.edu/~kowalskiL/SI/SI_PAGE.HTML | title = A short history of the SI units in electricity | publisher = Montclair | last = Kowalski | first = L}}.</ref> The size of the unit was chosen so that the units derived from it in the MKSA system would be conveniently sized. The "international ampere" was an early realization of the ampere, defined as the current that would deposit {{val|0.001118000|u=grams}} of silver per second from a [[silver nitrate]] solution.<ref>{{Citation | url = http://www.sizes.com/units/ampHist.htm | title = History of the ampere | publisher = Sizes}}</ref> Later, more accurate measurements revealed that this current is {{val|0.99985|u=A}}. == Realization == The standard ampere is most accurately realized using a [[watt balance]], but is in practice maintained via [[Ohm's law]] from the units of [[electromotive force]] and [[electrical resistance|resistance]], the [[volt]] and the [[ohm]], since the latter two can be tied to physical phenomena that are relatively easy to reproduce, the [[Josephson junction]] and the [[quantum Hall effect]], respectively.<ref name = "Electrical quantities">{{Citation | url = http://www.bipm.org/en/si/si_brochure/appendix2/electrical.html | title = SI brochure | chapter = Appendix 2: Practical realization of unit definitions: Electrical quantities | publisher = BIPM}}.</ref> At present, techniques to establish the realization of an ampere have a [[relative uncertainty]] of approximately a few parts in 10⁷, and involve realizations of the watt, the ohm and the volt.<ref name= "Electrical quantities" /> == Proposed future definition == {{Main|New SI definitions}} Rather than a definition in terms of the force between two current-carrying wires, it has been proposed to define the ampere in terms of the rate of flow of elementary charges.<ref name = "Beyond" /> Since a [[coulomb]] is approximately equal to {{val|6.2415093|e=18}} [[elementary charge]]s (such as [[electron]]s), one ampere is approximately equivalent to {{val|6.2415093|e=18}} elementary charges moving past a boundary in one second, or the reciprocal of the value of the elementary charges in coulombs.<ref>{{Citation | url = http://physics.nist.gov/cgi-bin/cuu/Value?e | publisher = NIST | place = USA | title = Physics | contribution = Value}}.</ref> The proposed change would define 1&nbsp;A as being the current in the direction of flow of a particular number of elementary charges per second. In 2005, the [[International Committee for Weights and Measures]] (CIPM) agreed to study the proposed change. The [[New SI definitions|new definition]] was discussed at the 25th [[General Conference on Weights and Measures]] (CGPM) in 2014 but for the time being was not adopted. == Everyday examples == {{main|Orders of magnitude (current)}} The current drawn by typical constant-voltage energy distribution systems is usually dictated by the power ([[watt]]s) consumed by the system and the operating voltage. For this reason the examples given below are grouped by voltage level. === Portable devices === *Hearing aid (typically 1&nbsp;mW at 1.4&nbsp;V): 0.7&nbsp;mA === Internal combustion engine vehicles – 12 V DC === A typical motor vehicle has a 12&nbsp;V battery. The various accessories that are powered by the battery might include: *Instrument panel light (typically 2&nbsp;W): 166&nbsp;mA. *Headlights (typically 60&nbsp;W): 5&nbsp;A each. *Starter motor (typically 1–2&nbsp;kW): 80–160&nbsp;A === North American domestic supply – 120 V AC === Most United States, Canada and Mexico domestic power suppliers run at 120&nbsp;V. Household [[circuit breaker]]s typically provide a maximum of 15&nbsp;A or 20&nbsp;A of current to a given set of outlets. *22-inch/56-centimeter portable television (35&nbsp;W): 290&nbsp;mA *Tungsten light bulb (60–100&nbsp;W): 500–830&nbsp;mA *Toaster, kettle (1.5&nbsp;kW): 12.5&nbsp;A *Hair dryer (1.8&nbsp;kW): 15&nbsp;A === European & Commonwealth domestic supply – 230-240 V AC === Most European domestic power supplies run at 230&nbsp;V, and most Commonwealth domestic power supplies run at 240&nbsp;V. For the same amount of power (in watts), the current drawn by a particular European or Commonwealth appliance (in Europe or a Commonwealth country) will be less than for an equivalent North American appliance.<ref group="Note">The formula for power is given by :<math> P(t) = I(t) \cdot V(t) \, </math> so it follows that if the voltage is doubled and the power remains the same, the current will be halved.</ref> Typical circuit breakers will provide 16&nbsp;A. The current drawn by a number of typical appliances are: *22-inch/56-centimeter portable television (35&nbsp;W): 145–150&nbsp;mA *Tungsten light bulb (60–100&nbsp;W): 240–450&nbsp;mA *Compact fluorescent lamp (11–30&nbsp;W): 56–112&nbsp;mA *Toaster, kettle (2&nbsp;kW): 9&nbsp;A *Immersion heater (4.6&nbsp;kW): 19–20&nbsp;A == See also == * [[Ammeter]] * [[Ampacity]] (current-carrying capacity) * [[Electric current]] * [[Electric shock]] * [[Hydraulic analogy]] * [[Magnetic constant]] * [[Orders of magnitude (current)]] == Notes == {{Reflist | group = "Note"}} == References == {{Reflist}} == External links == * [http://physics.nist.gov/cuu/ The NIST Reference on Constants, Units, and Uncertainty] * [http://physics.nist.gov/cuu/Units/ampere.html NIST ''Definition of ampere and μ₀''] * [http://afrotechmods.com/tutorials/2011/11/29/basic-electricity-amps/ Tutorial video explaining amperes and current] {{SI units}} {{Use dmy dates|date=June 2013}} [[Category:SI base units]] [[Category:Units of electric current]] ifo0ykj3ld7u7it7npytcsmoy8rex4s 0 775 717822654 717041854 2016-04-29T22:48:26Z Salon Essahj 5887941 Minor wording edits wikitext text/x-wiki {{other uses}} {{Use mdy dates|date=June 2013}} [[Image:Euclid flowchart.svg|thumb|lright| [[Flow chart]] of an algorithm ([[Euclid's algorithm]]) for calculating the greatest common divisor (g.c.d.) of two numbers ''a'' and ''b'' in locations named A and B. The algorithm proceeds by successive subtractions in two loops: IF the test B ≥ A yields "yes" (or true) (more accurately the ''number'' ''b'' in location B is greater than or equal to the ''number'' ''a'' in location A) THEN, the algorithm specifies B ← B − A (meaning the number ''b'' − ''a'' replaces the old ''b''). Similarly, IF A > B, THEN A ← A − B. The process terminates when (the contents of) B is 0, yielding the g.c.d. in A. (Algorithm derived from Scott 2009:13; symbols and drawing style from Tausworthe 1977).]] In [[mathematics]] and [[computer science]], an '''algorithm''' ({{IPAc-en|audio=en-us-algorithm.ogg|ˈ|æ|l|ɡ|ə|r|ɪ|ð|əm}} {{respell|AL|gə-ri-dhəm}}) is a self-contained step-by-step set of operations to be performed. Algorithms perform [[calculation]], [[data processing]], and/or [[automated reasoning]] tasks. The words 'algorithm' and '[[algorism]]' come from the name al-Khwārizmī. [[Al-Khwārizmī]] ({{lang-fa|خوارزمی}}, c. 780-850) was a [[Persian people|Persian]] mathematician, [[astronomer]], [[geographer]], and scholar. An algorithm is an [[effective method]] that can be expressed within a finite amount of space and time<ref>"Any classical mathematical algorithm, for example, can be described in a finite number of English words" (Rogers 1987:2).</ref> and in a well-defined formal language<ref>Well defined with respect to the agent that executes the algorithm: "There is a computing agent, usually human, which can react to the instructions and carry out the computations" (Rogers 1987:2).</ref> for calculating a [[Function (mathematics)|function]].<ref>"an algorithm is a procedure for computing a ''function'' (with respect to some chosen notation for integers) ... this limitation (to numerical functions) results in no loss of generality", (Rogers 1987:1).</ref> Starting from an initial state and initial input (perhaps [[null string|empty]]),<ref>"An algorithm has [[zero]] or more inputs, i.e., [[quantity|quantities]] which are given to it initially before the algorithm begins" (Knuth 1973:5).</ref> the instructions describe a [[computation]] that, when [[Execution (computing)|executed]], proceeds through a finite<ref>"A procedure which has all the characteristics of an algorithm except that it possibly lacks finiteness may be called a 'computational method'" (Knuth 1973:5).</ref> number of well-defined successive states, eventually producing "output"<ref>"An algorithm has one or more outputs, i.e. quantities which have a specified relation to the inputs" (Knuth 1973:5).</ref> and terminating at a final ending state. The transition from one state to the next is not necessarily [[deterministic]]; some algorithms, known as [[randomized algorithms]], incorporate random input.<ref>Whether or not a process with random interior processes (not including the input) is an algorithm is debatable. Rogers opines that: "a computation is carried out in a discrete stepwise fashion, without use of continuous methods or analogue devices . . . carried forward deterministically, without resort to random methods or devices, e.g., dice" Rogers 1987:2.</ref> The concept of ''algorithm'' has existed for centuries; however, a partial formalization of what would become the modern ''algorithm'' began with attempts to solve the [[Entscheidungsproblem]] (the "decision problem") posed by [[David Hilbert]] in 1928. Subsequent formalizations were framed as attempts to define "[[effective calculability]]"<ref>Kleene 1943 in Davis 1965:274</ref> or "effective method";<ref>Rosser 1939 in Davis 1965:225</ref> those formalizations included the [[Kurt Gödel|Gödel]]–[[Jacques Herbrand|Herbrand]]–[[Stephen Cole Kleene|Kleene]] [[Recursion (computer science)|recursive function]]s of 1930, 1934 and 1935, [[Alonzo Church]]'s [[lambda calculus]] of 1936, [[Emil Post]]'s "[[Formulation 1]]" of 1936, and [[Alan Turing]]'s [[Turing machines]] of 1936–7 and 1939. Giving a formal definition of algorithms, corresponding to the intuitive notion, remains a challenging problem.<ref>{{cite book| last1 = Moschovakis| first1 = Yiannis N.| editor1-last = Engquist| editor1-first = B.| editor2-last = Schmid| editor2-first = W.| title = Mathematics Unlimited — 2001 and beyond| url = http://citeseer.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.32.8093| year = 2001| publisher = Springer| isbn = 9783540669135| pages = 919–936 (Part II)| chapter = What is an algorithm? }}</ref> == Informal definition == {{about||a detailed presentation of the various points of view on the definition of "algorithm"| Algorithm characterizations}} An informal definition could be "a set of rules that precisely defines a sequence of operations."<ref>Stone 1973:4</ref> which would include all computer programs, including programs that do not perform numeric calculations. Generally, a program is only an algorithm if it stops eventually.<ref>Stone simply requires that "it must terminate in a finite number of steps" (Stone 1973:7–8).</ref> A prototypical example of an algorithm is [[Euclid's algorithm]] to determine the maximum common divisor of two integers; an example (there are others) is described by the [[flow chart]] above and as an example in a later section. {{Harvtxt|Boolos|Jeffrey|1974, 1999}} offer an informal meaning of the word in the following quotation: <blockquote>No human being can write fast enough, or long enough, or small enough† ( †"smaller and smaller without limit ...you'd be trying to write on molecules, on atoms, on electrons") to list all members of an enumerably infinite set by writing out their names, one after another, in some notation. But humans can do something equally useful, in the case of certain enumerably infinite sets: They can give ''explicit instructions for determining the '''n'''th member of the set'', for arbitrary finite ''n''. Such instructions are to be given quite explicitly, in a form in which ''they could be followed by a computing machine'', or by a ''human who is capable of carrying out only very elementary operations on symbols.''<ref>Boolos and Jeffrey 1974,1999:19</ref></blockquote> An "enumerably infinite set" is one whose elements can be put into one-to-one correspondence with the integers. Thus, Boolos and Jeffrey are saying that an algorithm implies instructions for a process that "creates" output integers from an ''arbitrary'' "input" integer or integers that, in theory, can be arbitrarily large. Thus an algorithm can be an algebraic equation such as ''y = m + n'' – two arbitrary "input variables" ''m'' and ''n'' that produce an output ''y''. But various authors' attempts to define the notion indicate that the word implies much more than this, something on the order of (for the addition example): :Precise instructions (in language understood by "the computer")<ref>cf Stone 1972:5</ref> for a fast, efficient, "good"<ref>Knuth 1973:7 states: "In practice we not only want algorithms, we want ''good'' algorithms ... one criterion of goodness is the length of time taken to perform the algorithm ... other criteria are the adaptability of the algorithm to computers, its simplicity and elegance, etc."</ref> process that specifies the "moves" of "the computer" (machine or human, equipped with the necessary internally contained information and capabilities)<ref>cf Stone 1973:6</ref> to find, decode, and then process arbitrary input integers/symbols ''m'' and ''n'', symbols ''+'' and ''='' ... and "effectively"<ref>Stone 1973:7–8 states that there must be, "...a procedure that a robot [i.e., computer] can follow in order to determine precisely how to obey the instruction." Stone adds finiteness of the process, and definiteness (having no ambiguity in the instructions) to this definition.</ref> produce, in a "reasonable" time,<ref>Knuth, loc. cit</ref> output-integer ''y'' at a specified place and in a specified format. The concept of ''algorithm'' is also used to define the notion of [[decidability (logic)|decidability]]. That notion is central for explaining how [[formal system]]s come into being starting from a small set of [[axiom]]s and rules. In [[logic]], the time that an algorithm requires to complete cannot be measured, as it is not apparently related with our customary physical dimension. From such uncertainties, that characterize ongoing work, stems the unavailability of a definition of ''algorithm'' that suits both concrete (in some sense) and abstract usage of the term. == Formalization == <!-- If you change this heading's title, [[Computer program]] links here. --> Algorithms are essential to the way computers process data. Many computer programs contain algorithms that detail the specific instructions a computer should perform (in a specific order) to carry out a specified task, such as calculating employees' paychecks or printing students' report cards. Thus, an algorithm can be considered to be any sequence of operations that can be simulated by a [[Turing completeness|Turing-complete]] system. Authors who assert this thesis include Minsky (1967), Savage (1987) and Gurevich (2000): <blockquote> Minsky: "But we will also maintain, with Turing . . . that any procedure which could "naturally" be called effective, can in fact be realized by a (simple) machine. Although this may seem extreme, the arguments . . . in its favor are hard to refute".<ref name="Minsky 1967:105">{{harvnb|Minsky|1967|page=105}}</ref></blockquote> <blockquote>Gurevich: "...Turing's informal argument in favor of his thesis justifies a stronger thesis: every algorithm can be simulated by a Turing machine ... according to Savage [1987], an algorithm is a computational process defined by a Turing machine".<ref>Gurevich 2000:1, 3</ref></blockquote> Typically, when an algorithm is associated with processing information, data are read from an input source, written to an output device, and/or stored for further processing. Stored data are regarded as part of the internal state of the entity performing the algorithm. In practice, the state is stored in one or more [[data structure]]s. For some such computational process, the algorithm must be rigorously defined: specified in the way it applies in all possible circumstances that could arise. That is, any conditional steps must be systematically dealt with, case-by-case; the criteria for each case must be clear (and computable). Because an algorithm is a precise list of precise steps, the order of computation is always critical to the functioning of the algorithm. Instructions are usually assumed to be listed explicitly, and are described as starting "from the top" and going "down to the bottom", an idea that is described more formally by ''[[control flow|flow of control]]''. So far, this discussion of the formalization of an algorithm has assumed the premises of [[imperative programming]]. This is the most common conception, and it attempts to describe a task in discrete, "mechanical" means. Unique to this conception of formalized algorithms is the [[assignment operation]], setting the value of a variable. It derives from the intuition of "[[memory]]" as a scratchpad. There is an example below of such an assignment. For some alternate conceptions of what constitutes an algorithm see [[functional programming]] and [[logic programming]]. === Expressing algorithms === Algorithms can be expressed in many kinds of notation, including [[natural language]]s, [[pseudocode]], [[flowchart]]s, [[DRAKON|drakon-chart]]s, [[programming language]]s or [[control table]]s (processed by [[Interpreter (computing)|interpreters]]). Natural language expressions of algorithms tend to be verbose and ambiguous, and are rarely used for complex or technical algorithms. Pseudocode, flowcharts, [[DRAKON|drakon-chart]]s and control tables are structured ways to express algorithms that avoid many of the ambiguities common in natural language statements. Programming languages are primarily intended for expressing algorithms in a form that can be executed by a computer, but are often used as a way to define or document algorithms. There is a wide variety of representations possible and one can express a given [[Turing machine]] program as a sequence of machine tables (see more at [[finite state machine]], [[state transition table]] and [[control table]]), as flowcharts and [[DRAKON|drakon-chart]]s (see more at [[state diagram]]), or as a form of rudimentary [[machine code]] or [[assembly code]] called "sets of quadruples" (see more at [[Turing machine]]). Representations of algorithms can be classed into three accepted levels of Turing machine description:<ref>Sipser 2006:157</ref> ; 1 High-level description : "...prose to describe an algorithm, ignoring the implementation details. At this level we do not need to mention how the machine manages its tape or head." ; 2 Implementation description : "...prose used to define the way the Turing machine uses its head and the way that it stores data on its tape. At this level we do not give details of states or transition function." ; 3 Formal description : Most detailed, "lowest level", gives the Turing machine's "state table". For an example of the simple algorithm "Add m+n" described in all three levels, see [[Algorithm#Examples]]. == Implementation == [[Image:TTL npn nand.svg|right|thumb|[[Logical NAND]] algorithm implemented electronically in [[7400 series|7400]] chip]] Most algorithms are intended to be implemented as [[computer programs]]. However, algorithms are also implemented by other means, such as in a biological [[neural network]] (for example, the [[human brain]] implementing [[arithmetic]] or an insect looking for food), in an [[electrical circuit]], or in a mechanical device. == Computer algorithms == [[File:Euclid's algorithm structured blocks 1.png|thumb|right|176px|Flowchart examples of the canonical [[Structured program theorem|Böhm-Jacopini structures]]: the SEQUENCE (rectangles descending the page), the WHILE-DO and the IF-THEN-ELSE. The three structures are made of the primitive conditional GOTO (<tt>IF ''test''=true THEN GOTO step xxx</tt>) (a diamond), the unconditional GOTO (rectangle), various assignment operators (rectangle), and HALT (rectangle). Nesting of these structures inside assignment-blocks result in complex diagrams (cf Tausworthe 1977:100,114).]] In [[computer systems]], an algorithm is basically an instance of [[logic]] written in software by software developers to be effective for the intended "target" computer(s) to produce ''output'' from given ''input'' (perhaps null). An optimal algorithm, even running in old hardware, would produce faster results than a non optimal (higher [[time complexity]]) algorithm for the same purpose, running in more efficient hardware; that is why the algorithms, like computer hardware, are considered technology. ''"Elegant" (compact) programs, "good" (fast) programs '': The notion of "simplicity and elegance" appears informally in Knuth and precisely in Chaitin: :Knuth: ". . .we want ''good'' algorithms in some loosely defined aesthetic sense. One criterion . . . is the length of time taken to perform the algorithm . . .. Other criteria are adaptability of the algorithm to computers, its simplicity and elegance, etc"<ref>Knuth 1973:7</ref> :Chaitin: " . . . a program is 'elegant,' by which I mean that it's the smallest possible program for producing the output that it does"<ref>Chaitin 2005:32</ref> Chaitin prefaces his definition with: "I'll show you can't prove that a program is 'elegant'"—such a proof would solve the [[Halting problem]] (ibid). ''Algorithm versus function computable by an algorithm'': For a given function multiple algorithms may exist. This is true, even without expanding the available instruction set available to the programmer. Rogers observes that "It is . . . important to distinguish between the notion of ''algorithm'', i.e. procedure and the notion of ''function computable by algorithm'', i.e. mapping yielded by procedure. The same function may have several different algorithms".<ref>Rogers 1987:1–2</ref> Unfortunately there may be a tradeoff between goodness (speed) and elegance (compactness)—an elegant program may take more steps to complete a computation than one less elegant. An example that uses Euclid's algorithm appears below. ''Computers (and computors), models of computation'': A computer (or human "computor"<ref>In his essay "Calculations by Man and Machine: Conceptual Analysis" Seig 2002:390 credits this distinction to Robin Gandy, cf Wilfred Seig, et al., 2002 ''Reflections on the foundations of mathematics: Essays in honor of Solomon Feferman'', Association for Symbolic Logic, A. K Peters Ltd, Natick, MA.</ref>) is a restricted type of machine, a "discrete deterministic mechanical device"<ref>cf Gandy 1980:126, Robin Gandy ''Church's Thesis and Principles for Mechanisms'' appearing on pp. 123–148 in J. Barwise et al. 1980 ''The Kleene Symposium'', North-Holland Publishing Company.</ref> that blindly follows its instructions.<ref>A "robot": "A computer is a robot that performs any task that can be described as a sequence of instructions." cf Stone 1972:3</ref> Melzak's and Lambek's primitive models<ref>Lambek’s "abacus" is a "countably infinite number of locations (holes, wires etc.) together with an unlimited supply of counters (pebbles, beads, etc). The locations are distinguishable, the counters are not". The holes have unlimited capacity, and standing by is an agent who understands and is able to carry out the list of instructions" (Lambek 1961:295). Lambek references Melzak who defines his Q-machine as "an indefinitely large number of locations . . . an indefinitely large supply of counters distributed among these locations, a program, and an operator whose sole purpose is to carry out the program" (Melzak 1961:283). B-B-J (loc. cit.) add the stipulation that the holes are "capable of holding any number of stones" (p. 46). Both Melzak and Lambek appear in ''The Canadian Mathematical Bulletin'', vol. 4, no. 3, September 1961.</ref> reduced this notion to four elements: (i) discrete, distinguishable ''locations'', (ii) discrete, indistinguishable ''counters''<ref>If no confusion results, the word "counters" can be dropped, and a location can be said to contain a single "number".</ref> (iii) an agent, and (iv) a list of instructions that are ''effective'' relative to the capability of the agent.<ref>"We say that an instruction is ''effective'' if there is a procedure that the robot can follow in order to determine precisely how to obey the instruction." (Stone 1972:6)</ref> Minsky describes a more congenial variation of Lambek's "abacus" model in his "Very Simple Bases for [[Computability]]".<ref>cf Minsky 1967: Chapter 11 "Computer models" and Chapter 14 "Very Simple Bases for Computability" pp. 255–281 in particular</ref> [[Minsky machine|Minsky's machine]] proceeds sequentially through its five (or six depending on how one counts) instructions unless either a conditional IF–THEN GOTO or an unconditional GOTO changes program flow out of sequence. Besides HALT, Minsky's machine includes three ''assignment'' (replacement, substitution)<ref>cf Knuth 1973:3.</ref> operations: ZERO (e.g. the contents of location replaced by 0: L ← 0), SUCCESSOR (e.g. L ← L+1), and DECREMENT (e.g. L ← L − 1).<ref>But always preceded by IF–THEN to avoid improper subtraction.</ref> Rarely must a programmer write "code" with such a limited instruction set. But Minsky shows (as do Melzak and Lambek) that his machine is [[Turing complete]] with only four general ''types'' of instructions: conditional GOTO, unconditional GOTO, assignment/replacement/substitution, and HALT.<ref>However, a few different assignment instructions (e.g. DECREMENT, INCREMENT and ZERO/CLEAR/EMPTY for a Minsky machine) are also required for Turing-completeness; their exact specification is somewhat up to the designer. The unconditional GOTO is a convenience; it can be constructed by initializing a dedicated location to zero e.g. the instruction " Z ← 0 "; thereafter the instruction IF Z=0 THEN GOTO xxx is unconditional.</ref> ''Simulation of an algorithm: computer (computor) language'': Knuth advises the reader that "the best way to learn an algorithm is to try it . . . immediately take pen and paper and work through an example".<ref>Knuth 1973:4</ref> But what about a simulation or execution of the real thing? The programmer must translate the algorithm into a language that the simulator/computer/computor can ''effectively'' execute. Stone gives an example of this: when computing the roots of a quadratic equation the computor must know how to take a square root. If they don't then for the algorithm to be effective it must provide a set of rules for extracting a square root.<ref>Stone 1972:5. Methods for extracting roots are not trivial: see [[Methods of computing square roots]].</ref> This means that the programmer must know a "language" that is effective relative to the target computing agent (computer/computor). But what model should be used for the simulation? Van Emde Boas observes "even if we base [[Computational complexity theory|complexity theory]] on abstract instead of concrete machines, arbitrariness of the choice of a model remains. It is at this point that the notion of ''simulation'' enters".<ref>{{cite book| last = Leeuwen| first = Jan| title = Handbook of Theoretical Computer Science: Algorithms and complexity. Volume A| url = https://books.google.com/?id=-X39_rA3VSQC| year = 1990| publisher = Elsevier| isbn = 978-0-444-88071-0 | page = 85}}</ref> When speed is being measured, the instruction set matters. For example, the subprogram in Euclid's algorithm to compute the remainder would execute much faster if the programmer had a "modulus" (division) instruction available rather than just subtraction (or worse: just Minsky's "decrement"). ''Structured programming, canonical structures'': Per the [[Church–Turing thesis]] any algorithm can be computed by a model known to be [[Turing complete]], and per Minsky's demonstrations Turing completeness requires only four instruction types—conditional GOTO, unconditional GOTO, assignment, HALT. Kemeny and Kurtz observe that while "undisciplined" use of unconditional GOTOs and conditional IF-THEN GOTOs can result in "[[spaghetti code]]" a programmer can write structured programs using these instructions; on the other hand "it is also possible, and not too hard, to write badly structured programs in a structured language".<ref>[[John G. Kemeny]] and [[Thomas E. Kurtz]] 1985 ''Back to Basic: The History, Corruption, and Future of the Language'', Addison-Wesley Publishing Company, Inc. Reading, MA, ISBN 0-201-13433-0.</ref> Tausworthe augments the three [[Structured program theorem|Böhm-Jacopini canonical structures]]:<ref>Tausworthe 1977:101</ref> SEQUENCE, IF-THEN-ELSE, and WHILE-DO, with two more: DO-WHILE and CASE.<ref>Tausworthe 1977:142</ref> An additional benefit of a structured program is that it lends itself to [[proof of correctness|proofs of correctness]] using [[mathematical induction]].<ref>Knuth 1973 section 1.2.1, expanded by Tausworthe 1977 at pages 100ff and Chapter 9.1</ref> ''Canonical flowchart symbols<ref>cf Tausworthe 1977</ref>'': The graphical aide called a [[flowchart]] offers a way to describe and document an algorithm (and a computer program of one). Like program flow of a Minsky machine, a flowchart always starts at the top of a page and proceeds down. Its primary symbols are only 4: the directed arrow showing program flow, the rectangle (SEQUENCE, GOTO), the diamond (IF-THEN-ELSE), and the dot (OR-tie). The Böhm-Jacopini canonical structures are made of these primitive shapes. Sub-structures can "nest" in rectangles but only if a single exit occurs from the superstructure. The symbols and their use to build the canonical structures are shown in the diagram. == Examples == {{further|List of algorithms}} === Algorithm example === [[File:Sorting quicksort anim.gif|thumb|right|An animation of the [[quicksort|quicksort algorithm]] sorting an array of randomized values. The red bars mark the pivot element; at the start of the animation, the element farthest to the right hand side is chosen as the pivot.]] One of the simplest algorithms is to find the largest number in a list of numbers of random order. Finding solution requires looking at every number in the list. From this follows a simple algorithm, which can be stated in a high-level description English prose, as: ''High-level description:'' # If there are no numbers in the set then there is no highest number. # Assume the first number in the set is the largest number in the set. # For each remaining number in the set: if this number is larger than the current largest number, consider this number to be the largest number in the set. # When there are no numbers left in the set to iterate over, consider the current largest number to be the largest number of the set. ''(Quasi-)formal description:'' Written in prose but much closer to the high-level language of a computer program, the following is the more formal coding of the algorithm in [[pseudocode]] or [[pidgin code]]: {{algorithm-begin|name=LargestNumber}} Input: A list of numbers ''L''. Output: The largest number in the list ''L''. '''if''' ''L.size'' = 0 '''return''' null ''largest'' ← ''L''[0] '''for each''' ''item'' '''in''' ''L'', '''do''' '''if''' ''item'' > ''largest'', '''then''' ''largest'' ← ''item'' '''return''' ''largest'' {{algorithm-end}} === Euclid’s algorithm === {{further|Euclid algorithm}} [[File:Euclid's algorithm Book VII Proposition 2 2.png|250px|thumb|left|The example-diagram of Euclid's algorithm from T.L. Heath 1908 with more detail added. Euclid does not go beyond a third measuring and gives no numerical examples. Nicomachus gives the example of 49 and 21: "I subtract the less from the greater; 28 is left; then again I subtract from this the same 21 (for this is possible); 7 is left; I subtract this from 21, 14 is left; from which I again subtract 7 (for this is possible); 7 is left, but 7 cannot be subtracted from 7." Heath comments that, "The last phrase is curious, but the meaning of it is obvious enough, as also the meaning of the phrase about ending 'at one and the same number'."(Heath 1908:300).]] [[Euclid]]’s algorithm to compute the greatest common divisor (GCD) to two numbers appears as Proposition II in Book VII ("Elementary Number Theory") of his ''[[Euclid's Elements|Elements]]''.<ref>Heath 1908:300; Hawking’s Dover 2005 edition derives from Heath.</ref> Euclid poses the problem: "Given two numbers not prime to one another, to find their greatest common measure". He defines "A number [to be] a multitude composed of units": a counting number, a positive integer not including 0. And to "measure" is to place a shorter measuring length ''s'' successively (''q'' times) along longer length ''l'' until the remaining portion ''r'' is less than the shorter length ''s''.<ref>" 'Let CD, measuring BF, leave FA less than itself.' This is a neat abbreviation for saying, measure along BA successive lengths equal to CD until a point F is reached such that the length FA remaining is less than CD; in other words, let BF be the largest exact multiple of CD contained in BA" (Heath 1908:297</ref> In modern words, remainder ''r = l − q*s'', ''q'' being the quotient, or remainder ''r'' is the "modulus", the integer-fractional part left over after the division.<ref>For modern treatments using division in the algorithm see Hardy and Wright 1979:180, Knuth 1973:2 (Volume 1), plus more discussion of Euclid's algorithm in Knuth 1969:293-297 (Volume 2).</ref> For Euclid’s method to succeed, the starting lengths must satisfy two requirements: (i) the lengths must not be 0, AND (ii) the subtraction must be “proper”, a test must guarantee that the smaller of the two numbers is subtracted from the larger (alternately, the two can be equal so their subtraction yields 0). Euclid's original proof adds a third: the two lengths are not prime to one another. Euclid stipulated this so that he could construct a [[reductio ad absurdum]] proof that the two numbers' common measure is in fact the ''greatest''.<ref>Euclid covers this question in his Proposition 1.</ref> While Nicomachus' algorithm is the same as Euclid's, when the numbers are prime to one another it yields the number "1" for their common measure. So to be precise the following is really Nicomachus' algorithm. [[File:Euclids-algorithm-example-1599-650.gif|350px|thumb|right|A graphical expression of Euclid's algorithm to find the greatest common divisor for 1599 and 650. <source lang="text" highlight="1,5"> 1599 = 650*2 + 299 650 = 299*2 + 52 299 = 52*5 + 39 52 = 39*1 + 13 39 = 13*3 + 0</source>]] ==== Computer language for Euclid's algorithm ==== Only a few instruction ''types'' are required to execute Euclid's algorithm—some logical tests (conditional GOTO), unconditional GOTO, assignment (replacement), and subtraction. * A ''location'' is symbolized by upper case letter(s), e.g. S, A, etc. * The varying quantity (number) in a location is written in lower case letter(s) and (usually) associated with the location's name. For example, location L at the start might contain the number ''l'' = 3009. ==== An inelegant program for Euclid's algorithm ==== [[File:Euclid's algorithm Inelegant program 1.png|thumb|163px|right|"Inelegant" is a translation of Knuth's version of the algorithm with a subtraction-based remainder-loop replacing his use of division (or a "modulus" instruction). Derived from Knuth 1973:2–4. Depending on the two numbers "Inelegant" may compute the g.c.d. in fewer steps than "Elegant".]] The following algorithm is framed as Knuth's 4-step version of Euclid's and Nicomachus', but rather than using division to find the remainder it uses successive subtractions of the shorter length ''s'' from the remaining length ''r'' until ''r'' is less than ''s''. The high-level description, shown in boldface, is adapted from Knuth 1973:2–4: '''INPUT''': {{vanchor|1|el1}} [Into two locations L and S put the numbers ''l'' and ''s'' that represent the two lengths]: INPUT L, S {{vanchor|2|el2}} [Initialize R: make the remaining length ''r'' equal to the starting/initial/input length ''l'']: R ← L '''E0: [Ensure ''r'' ≥ ''s''.]''' {{vanchor|3|el3}} [Ensure the smaller of the two numbers is in S and the larger in R]: IF R > S THEN the contents of L is the larger number so skip over the exchange-steps [[#4|4]], [[#5|5]] and [[#6|6]]: GOTO step [[#6|6]] ELSE swap the contents of R and S. {{vanchor|4|el4}} L ← R (this first step is redundant, but is useful for later discussion). {{vanchor|5|el5}} R ← S {{vanchor|6|el6}} S ← L '''E1: [Find remainder]''': Until the remaining length ''r'' in R is less than the shorter length ''s'' in S, repeatedly subtract the measuring number ''s'' in S from the remaining length ''r'' in R. {{vanchor|7|el7}} IF S > R THEN done measuring so GOTO [[#10|10]] ELSE measure again, {{vanchor|8|el8}} R ← R − S {{vanchor|9|el9}} [Remainder-loop]: GOTO [[#7|7]]. '''E2: [Is the remainder 0?]''': EITHER (i) the last measure was exact and the remainder in R is 0 program can halt, OR (ii) the algorithm must continue: the last measure left a remainder in R less than measuring number in S. {{vanchor|10|el10}} IF R = 0 THEN done so GOTO [[#15|step 15]] ELSE CONTINUE TO [[#11|step 11]], '''E3: [Interchange ''s'' and ''r'']''': The nut of Euclid's algorithm. Use remainder ''r'' to measure what was previously smaller number ''s'':; L serves as a temporary location. {{vanchor|11|el11}} L ← R {{vanchor|12|el12}} R ← S {{vanchor|13|el13}} S ← L {{vanchor|14|el14}} [Repeat the measuring process]: GOTO [[#7|7]] '''OUTPUT''': {{vanchor|15|el15}} [Done. S contains the [[greatest common divisor]]]: PRINT S '''DONE''': {{vanchor|16|el16}} HALT, END, STOP. ==== An elegant program for Euclid's algorithm ==== The following version of Euclid's algorithm requires only 6 core instructions to do what 13 are required to do by "Inelegant"; worse, "Inelegant" requires more ''types'' of instructions. The flowchart of "Elegant" can be found at the top of this article. In the (unstructured) Basic language the steps are numbered, and the instruction <source lang="cbmbas" inline>LET [] = []</source> is the assignment instruction symbolized by ←. <source lang="cbmbas"> 5 REM Euclid's algorithm for greatest common divisor 6 PRINT "Type two integers greater than 0" 10 INPUT A,B 20 IF B=0 THEN GOTO 80 30 IF A > B THEN GOTO 60 40 LET B=B-A 50 GOTO 20 60 LET A=A-B 70 GOTO 20 80 PRINT A 90 END </source> ''How "Elegant" works'': In place of an outer "Euclid loop", "Elegant" shifts back and forth between two "co-loops", an A > B loop that computes A ← A − B, and a B ≤ A loop that computes B ← B − A. This works because, when at last the minuend M is less than or equal to the subtrahend S ( Difference = Minuend − Subtrahend), the minuend can become ''s'' (the new measuring length) and the subtrahend can become the new ''r'' (the length to be measured); in other words the "sense" of the subtraction reverses. === Testing the Euclid algorithms === Does an algorithm do what its author wants it to do? A few test cases usually suffice to confirm core functionality. One source<ref>{{cite web|url=http://aleph0.clarku.edu/~djoyce/java/elements/bookVII/propVII2.html |title=Euclid's Elements, Book VII, Proposition 2 |publisher=Aleph0.clarku.edu |date= |accessdate=May 20, 2012}}</ref> uses 3009 and 884. Knuth suggested 40902, 24140. Another interesting case is the two [[relatively prime]] numbers 14157 and 5950. But exceptional cases must be identified and tested. Will "Inelegant" perform properly when R > S, S > R, R = S? Ditto for "Elegant": B > A, A > B, A = B? (Yes to all). What happens when one number is zero, both numbers are zero? ("Inelegant" computes forever in all cases; "Elegant" computes forever when A = 0.) What happens if ''negative'' numbers are entered? Fractional numbers? If the input numbers, i.e. the [[domain (mathematics)|domain]] of the function computed by the algorithm/program, is to include only positive integers including zero, then the failures at zero indicate that the algorithm (and the program that [[instance (computer science)|instantiates]] it) is a [[partial function]] rather than a [[total function]]. A notable failure due to exceptions is the [[Ariane V]] rocket failure. ''Proof of program correctness by use of mathematical induction'': Knuth demonstrates the application of [[mathematical induction]] to an "extended" version of Euclid's algorithm, and he proposes "a general method applicable to proving the validity of any algorithm".<ref>Knuth 1973:13–18. He credits "the formulation of algorithm-proving in terms of asertions and induction" to R. W. Floyd, Peter Naur, C. A. R. Hoare, H. H. Goldstine and J. von Neumann. Tausworth 1977 borrows Knuth's Euclid example and extends Knuth's method in section 9.1 ''Formal Proofs'' (pages 288–298).</ref> Tausworthe proposes that a measure of the complexity of a program be the length of its correctness proof.<ref>Tausworthe 1997:294</ref> === Measuring and improving the Euclid algorithms === ''Elegance (compactness) versus goodness (speed)'': With only 6 core instructions, "Elegant" is the clear winner compared to "Inelegant" at 13 instructions. However, "Inelegant" is ''faster'' (it arrives at HALT in fewer steps). [[Algorithm analysis]]<ref>cf Knuth 1973:7 (Vol. I), and his more-detailed analyses on pp. 1969:294-313 (Vol II).</ref> indicates why this is the case: "Elegant" does ''two'' conditional tests in every subtraction loop, whereas "Inelegant" only does one. As the algorithm (usually) requires many loop-throughs, ''on average'' much time is wasted doing a "B = 0?" test that is needed only after the remainder is computed. ''Can the algorithms be improved?'': Once the programmer judges a program "fit" and "effective"—that is, it computes the function intended by its author—then the question becomes, can it be improved? The compactness of "Inelegant" can be improved by the elimination of 5 steps. But Chaitin proved that compacting an algorithm cannot be automated by a generalized algorithm;<ref>Breakdown occurs when an algorithm tries to compact itself. Success would solve the [[Halting problem]].</ref> rather, it can only be done [[heuristic]]ally, i.e. by exhaustive search (examples to be found at [[Busy beaver]]), trial and error, cleverness, insight, application of [[inductive reasoning]], etc. Observe that steps 4, 5 and 6 are repeated in steps 11, 12 and 13. Comparison with "Elegant" provides a hint that these steps together with steps 2 and 3 can be eliminated. This reduces the number of core instructions from 13 to 8, which makes it "more elegant" than "Elegant" at 9 steps. The speed of "Elegant" can be improved by moving the B=0? test outside of the two subtraction loops. This change calls for the addition of 3 instructions (B=0?, A=0?, GOTO). Now "Elegant" computes the example-numbers faster; whether for any given A, B and R, S this is always the case would require a detailed analysis. == Algorithmic analysis == {{Main|Analysis of algorithms}} It is frequently important to know how much of a particular resource (such as time or storage) is theoretically required for a given algorithm. Methods have been developed for the [[analysis of algorithms]] to obtain such quantitative answers (estimates); for example, the sorting algorithm above has a time requirement of O(''n''), using the [[big O notation]] with ''n'' as the length of the list. At all times the algorithm only needs to remember two values: the largest number found so far, and its current position in the input list. Therefore, it is said to have a space requirement of ''O(1)'', if the space required to store the input numbers is not counted, or O(''n'') if it is counted. Different algorithms may complete the same task with a different set of instructions in less or more time, space, or '[[algorithmic efficiency|effort]]' than others. For example, a [[binary search]] algorithm usually outperforms a [[Brute-force search|brute force]] sequential search when used for [[lookup table|table lookup]]s on sorted lists. === Formal versus empirical === {{Main|Empirical algorithmics|Profiling (computer programming)|Program optimization}} The [[analysis of algorithms|analysis and study of algorithms]] is a discipline of [[computer science]], and is often practiced abstractly without the use of a specific [[programming language]] or implementation. In this sense, algorithm analysis resembles other mathematical disciplines in that it focuses on the underlying properties of the algorithm and not on the specifics of any particular implementation. Usually [[pseudocode]] is used for analysis as it is the simplest and most general representation. However, ultimately, most algorithms are usually implemented on particular hardware / software platforms and their [[algorithmic efficiency]] is eventually put to the test using real code. For the solution of a "one off" problem, the efficiency of a particular algorithm may not have significant consequences (unless n is extremely large) but for algorithms designed for fast interactive, commercial or long life scientific usage it may be critical. Scaling from small n to large n frequently exposes inefficient algorithms that are otherwise benign. Empirical testing is useful because it may uncover unexpected interactions that affect performance. [[Benchmark (computing)|Benchmark]]s may be used to compare before/after potential improvements to an algorithm after program optimization. === Execution efficiency === {{Main|Algorithmic efficiency}} To illustrate the potential improvements possible even in well established algorithms, a recent significant innovation, relating to [[Fast Fourier transform|FFT]] algorithms (used heavily in the field of image processing), can decrease processing time up to 1,000 times for applications like medical imaging.<ref>{{cite web| title=Better Math Makes Faster Data Networks| author=Gillian Conahan| date=January 2013| url=http://discovermagazine.com/2013/jan-feb/34-better-math-makes-faster-data-networks#.URAnVieX98F| publisher=discovermagazine.com}}</ref> In general, speed improvements depend on special properties of the problem, which are very common in practical applications.<ref name="Hassanieh12">Haitham Hassanieh, [[Piotr Indyk]], Dina Katabi, and Eric Price, "[http://siam.omnibooksonline.com/2012SODA/data/papers/500.pdf ACM-SIAM Symposium On Discrete Algorithms (SODA)], Kyoto, January 2012. See also the [http://groups.csail.mit.edu/netmit/sFFT/ sFFT Web Page].</ref> Speedups of this magnitude enable computing devices that make extensive use of image processing (like digital cameras and medical equipment) to consume less power. == Classification == There are various ways to classify algorithms, each with its own merits. === By implementation === One way to classify algorithms is by implementation means. ; Recursion : A [[recursive algorithm]] is one that invokes (makes reference to) itself repeatedly until a certain condition (also known as termination condition) matches, which is a method common to [[functional programming]]. [[Iteration|Iterative]] algorithms use repetitive constructs like [[Program loops|loops]] and sometimes additional data structures like [[Stack (data structure)|stacks]] to solve the given problems. Some problems are naturally suited for one implementation or the other. For example, [[towers of Hanoi]] is well understood using recursive implementation. Every recursive version has an equivalent (but possibly more or less complex) iterative version, and vice versa. ; Logical : An algorithm may be viewed as controlled [[Deductive reasoning|logical deduction]]. This notion may be expressed as: ''Algorithm = logic + control''.<ref>Kowalski 1979</ref> The logic component expresses the axioms that may be used in the computation and the control component determines the way in which deduction is applied to the axioms. This is the basis for the [[logic programming]] paradigm. In pure logic programming languages the control component is fixed and algorithms are specified by supplying only the logic component. The appeal of this approach is the elegant [[Formal semantics of programming languages|semantics]]: a change in the axioms has a well-defined change in the algorithm. ; Serial, parallel or distributed : Algorithms are usually discussed with the assumption that computers execute one instruction of an algorithm at a time. Those computers are sometimes called serial computers. An [[algorithm design]]ed for such an environment is called a serial algorithm, as opposed to [[parallel algorithm]]s or [[distributed algorithms]]. Parallel algorithms take advantage of computer architectures where several processors can work on a problem at the same time, whereas distributed algorithms utilize multiple machines connected with a [[Computer Network|network]]. Parallel or distributed algorithms divide the problem into more symmetrical or asymmetrical subproblems and collect the results back together. The resource consumption in such algorithms is not only processor cycles on each processor but also the communication overhead between the processors. Some sorting algorithms can be parallelized efficiently, but their communication overhead is expensive. Iterative algorithms are generally parallelizable. Some problems have no parallel algorithms, and are called inherently serial problems. ; Deterministic or non-deterministic : [[Deterministic algorithm]]s solve the problem with exact decision at every step of the algorithm whereas [[non-deterministic algorithm]]s solve problems via guessing although typical guesses are made more accurate through the use of [[heuristics]]. ; Exact or approximate : While many algorithms reach an exact solution, [[approximation algorithm]]s seek an approximation that is close to the true solution. Approximation may use either a deterministic or a random strategy. Such algorithms have practical value for many hard problems. ; [[Quantum algorithm]] : They run on a realistic model of [[quantum computation]]. The term is usually used for those algorithms which seem inherently quantum, or use some essential feature of quantum computation such as [[quantum superposition]] or [[quantum entanglement]]. === By design paradigm === Another way of classifying algorithms is by their design methodology or paradigm. There is a certain number of paradigms, each different from the other. Furthermore, each of these categories include many different types of algorithms. Some common paradigms are: ; [[Brute force search|Brute-force]] or exhaustive search : This is the naive method of trying every possible solution to see which is best.<ref>{{cite book| last1 = Carroll| first1 = Sue| last2 = Daughtrey| first2 = Taz| title = Fundamental Concepts for the Software Quality Engineer| url = https://books.google.com/?id=bz_cl3B05IcC&pg=PA282| date = July 4, 2007| publisher = American Society for Quality| isbn = 978-0-87389-720-4| pages = 282 et seq. }}</ref> ; Divide and conquer : A [[divide and conquer algorithm]] repeatedly reduces an instance of a problem to one or more smaller instances of the same problem (usually [[recursion|recursively]]) until the instances are small enough to solve easily. One such example of divide and conquer is [[mergesort|merge sorting]]. Sorting can be done on each segment of data after dividing data into segments and sorting of entire data can be obtained in the conquer phase by merging the segments. A simpler variant of divide and conquer is called a ''decrease and conquer algorithm'', that solves an identical subproblem and uses the solution of this subproblem to solve the bigger problem. Divide and conquer divides the problem into multiple subproblems and so the conquer stage is more complex than decrease and conquer algorithms. An example of decrease and conquer algorithm is the [[binary search algorithm]]. ; Search and enumeration : Many problems (such as playing [[chess]]) can be modeled as problems on [[graph theory|graphs]]. A [[graph exploration algorithm]] specifies rules for moving around a graph and is useful for such problems. This category also includes [[search algorithm]]s, [[branch and bound]] enumeration and [[backtracking]]. ;[[Randomized algorithm]] : Such algorithms make some choices randomly (or pseudo-randomly). They can be very useful in finding approximate solutions for problems where finding exact solutions can be impractical (see heuristic method below). For some of these problems, it is known that the fastest approximations must involve some [[randomness]].<ref>For instance, the [[volume]] of a [[convex polytope]] (described using a membership oracle) can be approximated to high accuracy by a randomized polynomial time algorithm, but not by a deterministic one: see {{citation | last1 = Dyer | first1 = Martin | last2 = Frieze | first2 = Alan | last3 = Kannan | first3 = Ravi | date = January 1991 | doi = 10.1145/102782.102783 | issue = 1 | journal = J. ACM | location = New York, NY, USA | pages = 1–17 | publisher = ACM | title = A Random Polynomial-time Algorithm for Approximating the Volume of Convex Bodies | volume = 38}}.</ref> Whether randomized algorithms with [[P (complexity)|polynomial time complexity]] can be the fastest algorithms for some problems is an open question known as the [[P versus NP problem]]. There are two large classes of such algorithms: # [[Monte Carlo algorithm]]s return a correct answer with high-probability. E.g. [[RP (complexity)|RP]] is the subclass of these that run in [[polynomial time]]. # [[Las Vegas algorithm]]s always return the correct answer, but their running time is only probabilistically bound, e.g. [[Zero-error Probabilistic Polynomial time|ZPP]]. ; [[Reduction (complexity)|Reduction of complexity]] : This technique involves solving a difficult problem by transforming it into a better known problem for which we have (hopefully) [[asymptotically optimal]] algorithms. The goal is to find a reducing algorithm whose [[Computational complexity theory|complexity]] is not dominated by the resulting reduced algorithm's. For example, one [[selection algorithm]] for finding the median in an unsorted list involves first sorting the list (the expensive portion) and then pulling out the middle element in the sorted list (the cheap portion). This technique is also known as ''transform and conquer''. === Optimization problems === For [[optimization problem]]s there is a more specific classification of algorithms; an algorithm for such problems may fall into one or more of the general categories described above as well as into one of the following: ; [[Linear programming]] : When searching for optimal solutions to a linear function bound to linear equality and inequality constraints, the constraints of the problem can be used directly in producing the optimal solutions. There are algorithms that can solve any problem in this category, such as the popular [[simplex algorithm]].<ref> [[George B. Dantzig]] and Mukund N. Thapa. 2003. ''Linear Programming 2: Theory and Extensions''. Springer-Verlag.</ref> Problems that can be solved with linear programming include the [[maximum flow problem]] for directed graphs. If a problem additionally requires that one or more of the unknowns must be an [[integer]] then it is classified in [[integer programming]]. A linear programming algorithm can solve such a problem if it can be proved that all restrictions for integer values are superficial, i.e., the solutions satisfy these restrictions anyway. In the general case, a specialized algorithm or an algorithm that finds approximate solutions is used, depending on the difficulty of the problem. ; [[Dynamic programming]] : When a problem shows [[optimal substructure]]s — meaning the optimal solution to a problem can be constructed from optimal solutions to subproblems — and [[overlapping subproblems]], meaning the same subproblems are used to solve many different problem instances, a quicker approach called ''dynamic programming'' avoids recomputing solutions that have already been computed. For example, [[Floyd–Warshall algorithm]], the shortest path to a goal from a vertex in a weighted [[graph (discrete mathematics)|graph]] can be found by using the shortest path to the goal from all adjacent vertices. Dynamic programming and [[memoization]] go together. The main difference between dynamic programming and divide and conquer is that subproblems are more or less independent in divide and conquer, whereas subproblems overlap in dynamic programming. The difference between dynamic programming and straightforward recursion is in caching or memoization of recursive calls. When subproblems are independent and there is no repetition, memoization does not help; hence dynamic programming is not a solution for all complex problems. By using memoization or maintaining a [[Mathematical table|table]] of subproblems already solved, dynamic programming reduces the exponential nature of many problems to polynomial complexity. ; The greedy method : A [[greedy algorithm]] is similar to a dynamic programming algorithm in that it works by examining substructures, in this case not of the problem but of a given solution. Such algorithms start with some solution, which may be given or have been constructed in some way, and improve it by making small modifications. For some problems they can find the optimal solution while for others they stop at [[local optimum|local optima]], that is, at solutions that cannot be improved by the algorithm but are not optimum. The most popular use of greedy algorithms is for finding the minimal spanning tree where finding the optimal solution is possible with this method. [[Huffman coding|Huffman Tree]], [[kruskal's algorithm|Kruskal]], [[Prim's algorithm|Prim]], [[Sollin's algorithm|Sollin]] are greedy algorithms that can solve this optimization problem. ;The heuristic method :In [[optimization problem]]s, [[heuristic algorithm]]s can be used to find a solution close to the optimal solution in cases where finding the optimal solution is impractical. These algorithms work by getting closer and closer to the optimal solution as they progress. In principle, if run for an infinite amount of time, they will find the optimal solution. Their merit is that they can find a solution very close to the optimal solution in a relatively short time. Such algorithms include [[local search (optimization)|local search]], [[tabu search]], [[simulated annealing]], and [[genetic algorithm]]s. Some of them, like simulated annealing, are non-deterministic algorithms while others, like tabu search, are deterministic. When a bound on the error of the non-optimal solution is known, the algorithm is further categorized as an [[approximation algorithm]]. === By field of study === {{See also|List of algorithms}} Every field of science has its own problems and needs efficient algorithms. Related problems in one field are often studied together. Some example classes are [[search algorithm]]s, [[sorting algorithm]]s, [[merge algorithm]]s, [[numerical analysis|numerical algorithms]], [[graph theory|graph algorithms]], [[string algorithms]], [[computational geometry|computational geometric algorithms]], [[combinatorial|combinatorial algorithms]], [[medical algorithm]]s, [[machine learning]], [[cryptography]], [[data compression]] algorithms and [[parsing|parsing techniques]]. Fields tend to overlap with each other, and algorithm advances in one field may improve those of other, sometimes completely unrelated, fields. For example, dynamic programming was invented for optimization of resource consumption in industry, but is now used in solving a broad range of problems in many fields. === By complexity === {{See also|Complexity class| Parameterized complexity}} Algorithms can be classified by the amount of time they need to complete compared to their input size. There is a wide variety: some algorithms complete in linear time relative to input size, some do so in an exponential amount of time or even worse, and some never halt. Additionally, some problems may have multiple algorithms of differing complexity, while other problems might have no algorithms or no known efficient algorithms. There are also mappings from some problems to other problems. Owing to this, it was found to be more suitable to classify the problems themselves instead of the algorithms into equivalence classes based on the complexity of the best possible algorithms for them. Burgin (2005, p.&nbsp;24) uses a generalized definition of algorithms that relaxes the common requirement that the output of the algorithm that computes a function must be determined after a finite number of steps. He defines a super-recursive class of algorithms as "a class of algorithms in which it is possible to compute functions not computable by any Turing machine" (Burgin 2005, p.&nbsp;107). This is closely related to the study of methods of [[hypercomputation]]. == Continuous algorithms == The adjective "continuous" when applied to the word "algorithm" can mean: * An algorithm operating on data that represents continuous quantities, even though this data is represented by discrete approximations—such algorithms are studied in [[numerical analysis]]; or * An algorithm in the form of a [[differential equation]] that operates continuously on the data, running on an [[analog computer]].<ref>{{cite book| author = Tsypkin| title = Adaptation and learning in automatic systems| url = https://books.google.com/?id=sgDHJlafMskC&pg=PA54| year = 1971| publisher = Academic Press| isbn = 978-0-08-095582-7| page = 54 }}</ref> == Legal issues == :''See also: [[Software patents]] for a general overview of the patentability of software, including computer-implemented algorithms.'' Algorithms, by themselves, are not usually patentable. In the United States, a claim consisting solely of simple manipulations of abstract concepts, numbers, or signals does not constitute "processes" (USPTO 2006), and hence algorithms are not patentable (as in [[Gottschalk v. Benson]]). However, practical applications of algorithms are sometimes patentable. For example, in [[Diamond v. Diehr]], the application of a simple [[feedback]] algorithm to aid in the curing of [[synthetic rubber]] was deemed patentable. The [[Software patent debate|patenting of software]] is highly controversial, and there are highly criticized patents involving algorithms, especially [[data compression]] algorithms, such as [[Unisys]]' [[Graphics Interchange Format#Unisys and LZW patent enforcement|LZW patent]]. Additionally, some cryptographic algorithms have export restrictions (see [[export of cryptography]]). == Etymology == The words 'algorithm' and '[[algorism]]' come from the name al-Khwārizmī. [[Al-Khwārizmī]] ({{lang-fa|خوارزمی}}, c. 780-850) was a [[Persian people|Persian]] mathematician, [[astronomer]], [[geographer]], and scholar in the [[House of Wisdom]] in [[Baghdad]], whose name means 'the native of [[Khwarezm]]', a region that was part of [[Greater Iran]] and is now in [[Uzbekistan]].<ref name="Hogendijk">{{cite journal|first=Jan P. |last=Hogendijk |title=al-Khwarzimi |journal=Pythagoras |volume=38 |issue=2 |year=1998 |pages=4–5 |url=http://www.kennislink.nl/web/show?id=116543 |ref=harv |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/20090412193516/http://www.kennislink.nl:80/web/show?id=116543 |archivedate=12 April 2009 }}</ref><ref name="Oaks">{{cite web|first=Jeffrey A.|last= Oaks|url=http://facstaff.uindy.edu/~oaks/MHMC.htm|title=Was al-Khwarizmi an applied algebraist?|publisher=[[University of Indianapolis]]|accessdate=2008-05-30}}</ref> About 825, he wrote a treatise in the Arabic language, which was translated into [[Latin]] in the 12th century under the title ''Algoritmi de numero Indorum''. This title means "Algoritmi on the numbers of the Indians", where "Algoritmi" was the translator's Latinization of Al-Khwarizmi's name.<ref>{{cite book| last = Brezina| first = Corona| title = Al-Khwarizmi: The Inventor Of Algebra| url = https://books.google.com/?id=955jPgAACAAJ| year = 2006| publisher = The Rosen Publishing Group| isbn = 978-1-4042-0513-0 }}</ref> Al-Khwarizmi was the most widely read mathematician in Europe in the late Middle Ages, primarily through his other book, the [[Al-Jabr|Algebra]].<ref>[http://www-history.mcs.st-and.ac.uk/Extras/Boyer_Foremost_Text.html Foremost mathematical texts in history], according to [[Carl B. Boyer]].</ref> In late medieval Latin, ''algorismus'', English '[[algorism]]', the corruption of his name, simply meant the "decimal number system". In the 15th century, under the influence of the Greek word ἀριθμός 'number' (''cf.'' 'arithmetic'), the Latin word was altered to ''algorithmus'', and the corresponding English term 'algorithm' is first attested in the 17th century; the modern sense was introduced in the 19th century.<ref>''[[Oxford English Dictionary]]'', Third Edition, 2012 [http://www.oed.com/view/Entry/4959 ''s.v.'']</ref> == History: Development of the notion of "algorithm" == === Ancient Near East === Algorithms were used in ancient Greece. Two examples are the [[Sieve of Eratosthenes]], which was described in [[Introduction to Arithmetic]] by [[Nicomachus]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.math.wichita.edu/history/men/eratosthenes.html|title=Eratosthenes|publisher=}}</ref><ref name=Cooke2005>{{cite book |last=Cooke |first=Roger L. |title=The History of Mathematics: A Brief Course |date=2005 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons|isbn=9781118460290}}</ref>{{rp|Ch 9.2}} and the [[Euclidean algorithm]], which was first described in [[Euclid's Elements]] (c. 300 BC).<ref name=Cooke2005/>{{rp|Ch 9.1}} [[Babylonian astronomy|Babylonian clay tablets]] describe and employ algorithmic procedures to compute the time and place of significant astronomical events.<ref>{{Citation | last = Aaboe | first = Asger | author-link = Asger Aaboe | date = 2001 | title = Episodes from the Early History of Astronomy | publisher = Springer | place = New York | pages = 40-62 | isbn = 0-387-95136-9 }}</ref> === Discrete and distinguishable symbols === '''Tally-marks''': To keep track of their flocks, their sacks of grain and their money the ancients used tallying: accumulating stones or marks scratched on sticks, or making discrete symbols in clay. Through the Babylonian and Egyptian use of marks and symbols, eventually [[Roman numerals]] and the [[abacus]] evolved (Dilson, p.&nbsp;16–41). Tally marks appear prominently in [[unary numeral system]] arithmetic used in [[Turing machine]] and [[Post–Turing machine]] computations. === Manipulation of symbols as "place holders" for numbers: algebra === The work of the ancient [[Greek mathematics|Greek geometers]] ([[Euclidean algorithm]]), the [[List of Indian mathematicians|Indian mathematician]] [[Brahmagupta]], and the [[Islamic mathematics|Persian mathematician]] [[Muhammad ibn Mūsā al-Khwārizmī|Al-Khwarizmi]] (from whose name the terms "[[algorism]]" and "algorithm" are derived), and Western European mathematicians culminated in [[Gottfried Leibniz|Leibniz]]'s notion of the [[calculus ratiocinator]] (ca 1680): {{quote|A good century and a half ahead of his time, Leibniz proposed an algebra of logic, an algebra that would specify the rules for manipulating logical concepts in the manner that ordinary algebra specifies the rules for manipulating numbers.<ref>Davis 2000:18</ref>}} === Mechanical contrivances with discrete states === ''The clock'': Bolter credits the invention of the weight-driven [[clock]] as "The key invention [of Europe in the Middle Ages]", in particular the [[verge escapement]]<ref>Bolter 1984:24</ref> that provides us with the tick and tock of a mechanical clock. "The accurate automatic machine"<ref>Bolter 1984:26</ref> led immediately to "mechanical [[automata theory|automata]]" beginning in the 13th century and finally to "computational machines"—the [[difference engine]] and [[analytical engine]]s of [[Charles Babbage]] and Countess [[Ada Lovelace]], mid-19th century.<ref>Bolter 1984:33–34, 204–206.</ref> Lovelace is credited with the first creation of an algorithm intended for processing on a computer - Babbage's analytical engine, the first device considered a real [[Turing-complete]] computer instead of just a [[calculator]] - and is sometimes called "history's first programmer" as a result, though a full implementation of Babbage's second device would not be realized until decades after her lifetime. ''Logical machines 1870—[[Stanley Jevons]]' "logical abacus" and "logical machine"'': The technical problem was to reduce [[Boolean equation]]s when presented in a form similar to what are now known as [[Karnaugh map]]s. Jevons (1880) describes first a simple "abacus" of "slips of wood furnished with pins, contrived so that any part or class of the [logical] combinations can be picked out mechanically . . . More recently however I have reduced the system to a completely mechanical form, and have thus embodied the whole of the indirect process of inference in what may be called a ''Logical Machine''" His machine came equipped with "certain moveable wooden rods" and "at the foot are 21 keys like those of a piano [etc] . . .". With this machine he could analyze a "[[syllogism]] or any other simple logical argument".<ref>All quotes from W. Stanley Jevons 1880 ''Elementary Lessons in Logic: Deductive and Inductive'', Macmillan and Co., London and New York. Republished as a googlebook; cf Jevons 1880:199–201. Louis Couturat 1914 ''the Algebra of Logic'', The Open Court Publishing Company, Chicago and London. Republished as a googlebook; cf Couturat 1914:75–76 gives a few more details; interestingly he compares this to a typewriter as well as a piano. Jevons states that the account is to be found at Jan . 20, 1870 ''The Proceedings of the Royal Society''.</ref> This machine he displayed in 1870 before the Fellows of the Royal Society.<ref>Jevons 1880:199–200</ref> Another logician [[John Venn]], however, in his 1881 ''Symbolic Logic'', turned a jaundiced eye to this effort: "I have no high estimate myself of the interest or importance of what are sometimes called logical machines ... it does not seem to me that any contrivances at present known or likely to be discovered really deserve the name of logical machines"; see more at [[Algorithm characterizations]]. But not to be outdone he too presented "a plan somewhat analogous, I apprehend, to Prof. Jevon's ''abacus'' ... [And] [a]gain, corresponding to Prof. Jevons's logical machine, the following contrivance may be described. I prefer to call it merely a logical-diagram machine ... but I suppose that it could do very completely all that can be rationally expected of any logical machine".<ref>All quotes from John Venn 1881 ''Symbolic Logic'', Macmillan and Co., London. Republished as a googlebook. cf Venn 1881:120–125. The interested reader can find a deeper explanation in those pages.</ref> ''Jacquard loom, Hollerith punch cards, telegraphy and telephony—the electromechanical relay'': Bell and Newell (1971) indicate that the [[Jacquard loom]] (1801), precursor to [[Hollerith cards]] (punch cards, 1887), and "telephone switching technologies" were the roots of a tree leading to the development of the first computers.<ref>Bell and Newell diagram 1971:39, cf. Davis 2000</ref> By the mid-19th century the [[telegraph]], the precursor of the telephone, was in use throughout the world, its discrete and distinguishable encoding of letters as "dots and dashes" a common sound. By the late 19th century the [[ticker tape]] (ca 1870s) was in use, as was the use of Hollerith cards in the 1890 U.S. census. Then came the [[teleprinter]] (ca. 1910) with its punched-paper use of [[Baudot code]] on tape. ''Telephone-switching networks'' of electromechanical [[relay]]s (invented 1835) was behind the work of [[George Stibitz]] (1937), the inventor of the digital adding device. As he worked in Bell Laboratories, he observed the "burdensome' use of mechanical calculators with gears. "He went home one evening in 1937 intending to test his idea... When the tinkering was over, Stibitz had constructed a binary adding device".<ref>* Melina Hill, Valley News Correspondent, ''A Tinkerer Gets a Place in History'', Valley News West Lebanon NH, Thursday March 31, 1983, page 13.</ref> Davis (2000) observes the particular importance of the electromechanical relay (with its two "binary states" ''open'' and ''closed''): : It was only with the development, beginning in the 1930s, of electromechanical calculators using electrical relays, that machines were built having the scope Babbage had envisioned."<ref>Davis 2000:14</ref> === Mathematics during the 19th century up to the mid-20th century === ''Symbols and rules'': In rapid succession the mathematics of [[George Boole]] (1847, 1854), [[Gottlob Frege]] (1879), and [[Giuseppe Peano]] (1888–1889) reduced arithmetic to a sequence of symbols manipulated by rules. Peano's ''The principles of arithmetic, presented by a new method'' (1888) was "the first attempt at an axiomatization of mathematics in a symbolic language".<ref>van Heijenoort 1967:81ff</ref> But Heijenoort gives Frege (1879) this kudos: Frege's is "perhaps the most important single work ever written in logic. ... in which we see a " 'formula language', that is a ''lingua characterica'', a language written with special symbols, "for pure thought", that is, free from rhetorical embellishments ... constructed from specific symbols that are manipulated according to definite rules".<ref>van Heijenoort's commentary on Frege's ''Begriffsschrift, a formula language, modeled upon that of arithmetic, for pure thought'' in van Heijenoort 1967:1</ref> The work of Frege was further simplified and amplified by [[Alfred North Whitehead]] and [[Bertrand Russell]] in their [[Principia Mathematica]] (1910–1913). ''The paradoxes'': At the same time a number of disturbing paradoxes appeared in the literature, in particular the [[Burali-Forti paradox]] (1897), the [[Russell paradox]] (1902–03), and the [[Richard Paradox]].<ref>Dixon 1906, cf. Kleene 1952:36–40</ref> The resultant considerations led to [[Kurt Gödel]]'s paper (1931)—he specifically cites the paradox of the liar—that completely reduces rules of [[recursion]] to numbers. ''Effective calculability'': In an effort to solve the [[Entscheidungsproblem]] defined precisely by Hilbert in 1928, mathematicians first set about to define what was meant by an "effective method" or "effective calculation" or "effective calculability" (i.e., a calculation that would succeed). In rapid succession the following appeared: [[Alonzo Church]], [[Stephen Kleene]] and [[J.B. Rosser]]'s [[λ-calculus]]<ref>cf. footnote in Alonzo Church 1936a in Davis 1965:90 and 1936b in Davis 1965:110</ref> a finely honed definition of "general recursion" from the work of Gödel acting on suggestions of [[Jacques Herbrand]] (cf. Gödel's Princeton lectures of 1934) and subsequent simplifications by Kleene.<ref>Kleene 1935–6 in Davis 1965:237ff, Kleene 1943 in Davis 1965:255ff</ref> Church's proof<ref>Church 1936 in Davis 1965:88ff</ref> that the Entscheidungsproblem was unsolvable, [[Emil Post]]'s definition of effective calculability as a worker mindlessly following a list of instructions to move left or right through a sequence of rooms and while there either mark or erase a paper or observe the paper and make a yes-no decision about the next instruction.<ref>cf. "Formulation I", Post 1936 in Davis 1965:289–290</ref> Alan Turing's proof of that the Entscheidungsproblem was unsolvable by use of his "a- [automatic-] machine"<ref>Turing 1936–7 in Davis 1965:116ff</ref>—in effect almost identical to Post's "formulation", [[J. Barkley Rosser]]'s definition of "effective method" in terms of "a machine".<ref>Rosser 1939 in Davis 1965:226</ref> [[S. C. Kleene]]'s proposal of a precursor to "[[Church thesis]]" that he called "Thesis I",<ref>Kleene 1943 in Davis 1965:273–274</ref> and a few years later Kleene's renaming his Thesis "Church's Thesis"<ref>Kleene 1952:300, 317</ref> and proposing "Turing's Thesis".<ref>Kleene 1952:376</ref> === Emil Post (1936) and Alan Turing (1936–37, 1939) === Here is a remarkable coincidence of two men not knowing each other but describing a process of men-as-computers working on computations—and they yield virtually identical definitions. [[Emil Post]] (1936) described the actions of a "computer" (human being) as follows: :"...two concepts are involved: that of a ''symbol space'' in which the work leading from problem to answer is to be carried out, and a fixed unalterable ''set of directions''. His symbol space would be :"a two way infinite sequence of spaces or boxes... The problem solver or worker is to move and work in this symbol space, being capable of being in, and operating in but one box at a time.... a box is to admit of but two possible conditions, i.e., being empty or unmarked, and having a single mark in it, say a vertical stroke. :"One box is to be singled out and called the starting point. ...a specific problem is to be given in symbolic form by a finite number of boxes [i.e., INPUT] being marked with a stroke. Likewise the answer [i.e., OUTPUT] is to be given in symbolic form by such a configuration of marked boxes.... :"A set of directions applicable to a general problem sets up a deterministic process when applied to each specific problem. This process terminates only when it comes to the direction of type (C ) [i.e., STOP]".<ref>Turing 1936–7 in Davis 1965:289–290</ref> See more at [[Post–Turing machine]] [[File:Alan Turing.jpg|thumb|200px|Alan Turing's statue at [[Bletchley Park]].]] [[Alan Turing]]'s work<ref>Turing 1936 in Davis 1965, Turing 1939 in Davis 1965:160</ref> preceded that of Stibitz (1937); it is unknown whether Stibitz knew of the work of Turing. Turing's biographer believed that Turing's use of a typewriter-like model derived from a youthful interest: "Alan had dreamt of inventing typewriters as a boy; Mrs. Turing had a typewriter; and he could well have begun by asking himself what was meant by calling a typewriter 'mechanical'".<ref>Hodges, p. 96</ref> Given the prevalence of Morse code and telegraphy, ticker tape machines, and teletypewriters we might conjecture that all were influences. Turing—his model of computation is now called a [[Turing machine]]—begins, as did Post, with an analysis of a human computer that he whittles down to a simple set of basic motions and "states of mind". But he continues a step further and creates a machine as a model of computation of numbers.<ref>Turing 1936–7:116</ref> :"Computing is normally done by writing certain symbols on paper. We may suppose this paper is divided into squares like a child's arithmetic book....I assume then that the computation is carried out on one-dimensional paper, i.e., on a tape divided into squares. I shall also suppose that the number of symbols which may be printed is finite.... :"The behaviour of the computer at any moment is determined by the symbols which he is observing, and his "state of mind" at that moment. We may suppose that there is a bound B to the number of symbols or squares which the computer can observe at one moment. If he wishes to observe more, he must use successive observations. We will also suppose that the number of states of mind which need be taken into account is finite... :"Let us imagine that the operations performed by the computer to be split up into 'simple operations' which are so elementary that it is not easy to imagine them further divided."<ref name="Turing 1936-7 in Davis 1965:136">Turing 1936–7 in Davis 1965:136</ref> Turing's reduction yields the following: :"The simple operations must therefore include: ::"(a) Changes of the symbol on one of the observed squares ::"(b) Changes of one of the squares observed to another square within L squares of one of the previously observed squares. "It may be that some of these change necessarily invoke a change of state of mind. The most general single operation must therefore be taken to be one of the following: ::"(A) A possible change (a) of symbol together with a possible change of state of mind. ::"(B) A possible change (b) of observed squares, together with a possible change of state of mind" :"We may now construct a machine to do the work of this computer."<ref name="Turing 1936-7 in Davis 1965:136"/> A few years later, Turing expanded his analysis (thesis, definition) with this forceful expression of it: :"A function is said to be "effectively calculable" if its values can be found by some purely mechanical process. Though it is fairly easy to get an intuitive grasp of this idea, it is nevertheless desirable to have some more definite, mathematical expressible definition . . . [he discusses the history of the definition pretty much as presented above with respect to Gödel, Herbrand, Kleene, Church, Turing and Post] . . . We may take this statement literally, understanding by a purely mechanical process one which could be carried out by a machine. It is possible to give a mathematical description, in a certain normal form, of the structures of these machines. The development of these ideas leads to the author's definition of a computable function, and to an identification of computability † with effective calculability . . . . ::"† We shall use the expression "computable function" to mean a function calculable by a machine, and we let "effectively calculable" refer to the intuitive idea without particular identification with any one of these definitions".<ref>Turing 1939 in Davis 1965:160</ref> === J. B. Rosser (1939) and S. C. Kleene (1943) === ''[[J. Barkley Rosser]]'' defined an 'effective [mathematical] method' in the following manner (italicization added): :"'Effective method' is used here in the rather special sense of a method each step of which is precisely determined and which is certain to produce the answer in a finite number of steps. With this special meaning, three different precise definitions have been given to date. [his footnote #5; see discussion immediately below]. The simplest of these to state (due to Post and Turing) says essentially that ''an effective method of solving certain sets of problems exists if one can build a machine which will then solve any problem of the set with no human intervention beyond inserting the question and (later) reading the answer''. All three definitions are equivalent, so it doesn't matter which one is used. Moreover, the fact that all three are equivalent is a very strong argument for the correctness of any one." (Rosser 1939:225–6) Rosser's footnote #5 references the work of (1) Church and Kleene and their definition of λ-definability, in particular Church's use of it in his ''An Unsolvable Problem of Elementary Number Theory'' (1936); (2) Herbrand and Gödel and their use of recursion in particular Gödel's use in his famous paper ''On Formally Undecidable Propositions of Principia Mathematica and Related Systems I'' (1931); and (3) Post (1936) and Turing (1936–7) in their mechanism-models of computation. ''[[Stephen C. Kleene]]'' defined as his now-famous "Thesis I" known as the [[Church–Turing thesis]]. But he did this in the following context (boldface in original): :"12. ''Algorithmic theories''... In setting up a complete algorithmic theory, what we do is to describe a procedure, performable for each set of values of the independent variables, which procedure necessarily terminates and in such manner that from the outcome we can read a definite answer, "yes" or "no," to the question, "is the predicate value true?"" (Kleene 1943:273) === History after 1950 === A number of efforts have been directed toward further refinement of the definition of "algorithm", and activity is on-going because of issues surrounding, in particular, [[foundations of mathematics]] (especially the [[Church–Turing thesis]]) and [[philosophy of mind]] (especially arguments about [[artificial intelligence]]). For more, see [[Algorithm characterizations]]. == See also == {{colbegin|3}} * [[Abstract machine]] * [[Algorithm engineering]] * [[Algorithm characterizations]] * [[Algorithmic composition]] * [[Algorithmic synthesis]] * [[Algorithmic trading]] * [[Garbage in, garbage out]] * ''[[Introduction to Algorithms]]'' * [[List of algorithm general topics]] * [[List of important publications in theoretical computer science#Algorithms|List of important publications in theoretical computer science - Algorithms]] * [[Numerical Mathematics Consortium]] * [[Theory of computation]] ** [[Computability theory]] ** [[Computational complexity theory]] {{colend}} == Notes == {{Reflist|30em}} == References == {{refbegin|30em}} * {{cite journal | last1 = Axt | first1 = P | year = 1959 | title = On a Subrecursive Hierarchy and Primitive Recursive Degrees | url = | journal = Transactions of the American Mathematical Society | volume = 92 | issue = | pages = 85–105 | doi=10.2307/1993169}} * Bell, C. Gordon and Newell, Allen (1971), ''Computer Structures: Readings and Examples'', McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York. ISBN 0-07-004357-4. * {{cite book|last=Bellah|first=Robert Neelly|year=1985|authorlink=Robert N. Bellah|title=Habits of the Heart: Individualism and Commitment in American Life| location=Berkeley| isbn=978-0-520-25419-0|publisher=University of California Press|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=XsUojihVZQcC |ref=harv}} * {{Cite journal|author1-link=Andreas Blass|first1=Andreas|last1=Blass|author2-link=Yuri Gurevich|first2=Yuri|last2=Gurevich|year=2003|url=http://research.microsoft.com/~gurevich/Opera/164.pdf|title=Algorithms: A Quest for Absolute Definitions|journal= Bulletin of European Association for Theoretical Computer Science|volume= 81}} Includes an excellent bibliography of 56 references. * {{cite book| last1 = Boolos| first1 = George| last2 = Jeffrey| first2 = Richard| title = Computability and Logic| edition = 4th| origyear = 1974| year = 1999| publisher = Cambridge University Press, London| isbn = 0-521-20402-X| ref = harv| author1-link = George Boolos| author2-link = Richard Jeffrey }}: cf. Chapter 3 ''Turing machines'' where they discuss "certain enumerable sets not effectively (mechanically) enumerable". * {{cite book| last = Burgin| first = Mark| title = Super-Recursive Algorithms| year = 2004| publisher = Springer| isbn = 978-0-387-95569-8 }} * Campagnolo, M.L., [[Cris Moore|Moore, C.]], and Costa, J.F. (2000) An analog characterization of the subrecursive functions. In ''Proc. of the 4th Conference on Real Numbers and Computers'', Odense University, pp.&nbsp;91–109 * {{Cite journal|last=Church|first=Alonzo|authorlink=Alonzo Church|title=An Unsolvable Problem of Elementary Number Theory|journal=The American Journal of Mathematics|volume=58|pages= 345–363|year=1936a|doi=10.2307/2371045|issue=2|jstor=2371045}} Reprinted in ''The Undecidable'', p.&nbsp;89ff. The first expression of "Church's Thesis". See in particular page 100 (''The Undecidable'') where he defines the notion of "effective calculability" in terms of "an algorithm", and he uses the word "terminates", etc. * {{Cite journal|last=Church|first=Alonzo|authorlink=Alonzo Church|title=A Note on the Entscheidungsproblem|journal=The Journal of Symbolic Logic|volume=1|year=1936b|pages=40–41|doi=10.2307/2269326|issue=1|jstor=2269326}} {{cite journal|last=Church|first=Alonzo|title=Correction to a Note on the Entscheidungsproblem|journal=The Journal of Symbolic Logic|volume=1|year=1936|pages=101–102|doi=10.2307/2269030|issue=3|jstor=2269030}} Reprinted in ''The Undecidable'', p.&nbsp;110ff. Church shows that the Entscheidungsproblem is unsolvable in about 3 pages of text and 3 pages of footnotes. * {{cite book| last = Daffa'| first = Ali Abdullah al-| title = The Muslim contribution to mathematics| year = 1977| publisher = Croom Helm| location = London| isbn = 0-85664-464-1 }} * {{cite book| last = Davis| first = Martin| authorlink = Martin Davis| title = The Undecidable: Basic Papers On Undecidable Propositions, Unsolvable Problems and Computable Functions| year = 1965| publisher = Raven Press| location = New York| isbn = 0-486-43228-9 }} Davis gives commentary before each article. Papers of [[Gödel]], [[Alonzo Church]], [[Alan Turing|Turing]], [[J. Barkley Rosser|Rosser]], [[Kleene]], and [[Emil Post]] are included; those cited in the article are listed here by author's name. * {{cite book| last = Davis| first = Martin| authorlink = Martin Davis| title = Engines of Logic: Mathematicians and the Origin of the Computer| year = 2000| publisher = W. W. Nortion| location = New York| isbn = 0-393-32229-7 }} Davis offers concise biographies of [[Gottfried Leibniz|Leibniz]], [[George Boole|Boole]], [[Gottlob Frege|Frege]], [[Georg Cantor|Cantor]], [[David Hilbert|Hilbert]], Gödel and Turing with [[John von Neumann|von Neumann]] as the show-stealing villain. Very brief bios of [[Joseph-Marie Jacquard]], [[Babbage]], [[Ada Lovelace]], [[Claude Shannon]], [[Howard Aiken]], etc. * {{DADS|algorithm|algorithm}} * {{cite journal|title= Evolution and moral diversity |author=Dean, Tim |journal=Baltic International Yearbook of Cognition, Logic and Communication|year=2012|volume=7}} * {{cite book| last = Dennett| first = Daniel| authorlink = Daniel Dennett| title = Darwin's Dangerous Idea| year = 1995| publisher = Touchstone/Simon & Schuster| location = New York| isbn = 0-684-80290-2 }} * [[Yuri Gurevich]], [http://research.microsoft.com/~gurevich/Opera/141.pdf ''Sequential Abstract State Machines Capture Sequential Algorithms''], ACM Transactions on Computational Logic, Vol 1, no 1 (July 2000), pages 77–111. Includes bibliography of 33 sources. * {{cite book| last1=Hertzke| first1=Allen D.|last2=McRorie|first2=Chris| year=1998|editor1-last=Lawler| editor1-first=Peter Augustine| editor2-last=McConkey|editor2-first=Dale|chapter=The Concept of Moral Ecology|title=Community and Political Thought Today|location =Westport, CT|publisher=[[Praeger Publishers|Praeger]]|ref=harv}} * {{Cite journal|last=Kleene|first=Stephen C.|authorlink=Stephen Kleene |title=General Recursive Functions of Natural Numbers|journal=Mathematische Annalen|volume=112|pages=727–742|url=http://gdz.sub.uni-goettingen.de/index.php?id=11&PPN=GDZPPN002278499&L=1|year=1936 | doi = 10.1007/BF01565439|issue=5}} Presented to the American Mathematical Society, September 1935. Reprinted in ''The Undecidable'', p.&nbsp;237ff. Kleene's definition of "general recursion" (known now as mu-recursion) was used by Church in his 1935 paper ''An Unsolvable Problem of Elementary Number Theory'' that proved the "decision problem" to be "undecidable" (i.e., a negative result). * {{Cite journal|last=Kleene|first=Stephen C.|authorlink=Stephen Kleene |title= Recursive Predicates and Quantifiers|journal=American Mathematical Society Transactions|volume=54|pages=41–73|year=1943 |doi= 10.2307/1990131|issue=1|jstor=1990131}} Reprinted in ''The Undecidable'', p.&nbsp;255ff. Kleene refined his definition of "general recursion" and proceeded in his chapter "12. Algorithmic theories" to posit "Thesis I" (p.&nbsp;274); he would later repeat this thesis (in Kleene 1952:300) and name it "Church's Thesis"(Kleene 1952:317) (i.e., the [[Church thesis]]). * {{cite book| last = Kleene| first = Stephen C.| authorlink = Kleene| title = Introduction to Metamathematics| edition = Tenth|year= 1991| orig-year = 1952| publisher = North-Holland Publishing Company| isbn = 0-7204-2103-9 }} Excellent—accessible, readable—reference source for mathematical "foundations". * {{cite book| last = Knuth| first = Donald| authorlink = Donald Knuth| title = Fundamental Algorithms, Third Edition| year = 1997| publisher = Addison–Wesley| location = Reading, Massachusetts| isbn = 0-201-89683-4 }} * {{Cite book|last=Knuth|first=Donald|authorlink=Donald Knuth|title=Volume 2/Seminumerical Algorithms, The Art of Computer Programming First Edition|publisher=Addison–Wesley|location=Reading, Massachusetts|year=1969|isbn= }} * Kosovsky, N. K. ''Elements of Mathematical Logic and its Application to the theory of Subrecursive Algorithms'', LSU Publ., Leningrad, 1981 * {{Cite journal|last=Kowalski|first=Robert|authorlink=Robert Kowalski|title=Algorithm=Logic+Control|journal=[[Communications of the ACM]]|volume=22|issue=7|pages=424–436|year=1979|doi=10.1145/359131.359136}} * [[A. A. Markov]] (1954) ''Theory of algorithms''. [Translated by Jacques J. Schorr-Kon and PST staff] Imprint Moscow, Academy of Sciences of the USSR, 1954 [i.e., Jerusalem, Israel Program for Scientific Translations, 1961; available from the Office of Technical Services, U.S. Dept. of Commerce, Washington] Description 444 p.&nbsp;28&nbsp;cm. Added t.p. in Russian Translation of Works of the Mathematical Institute, Academy of Sciences of the USSR, v. 42. Original title: Teoriya algerifmov. [QA248.M2943 Dartmouth College library. U.S. Dept. of Commerce, Office of Technical Services, number OTS 60-51085.] * {{cite book| last = Minsky| first = Marvin| authorlink = Marvin Minsky| title = Computation: Finite and Infinite Machines| edition = First| year = 1967| publisher = Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ| isbn = 0-13-165449-7 }} Minsky expands his "...idea of an algorithm—an effective procedure..." in chapter 5.1 ''Computability, Effective Procedures and Algorithms. Infinite machines.'' * {{Cite journal|last=Post|first=Emil|authorlink=Emil Post|title=Finite Combinatory Processes, Formulation I |journal=The Journal of Symbolic Logic |volume=1 |year=1936 |pages=103–105 |doi=10.2307/2269031 |issue=3 |jstor=2269031}} Reprinted in ''The Undecidable'', p.&nbsp;289ff. Post defines a simple algorithmic-like process of a man writing marks or erasing marks and going from box to box and eventually halting, as he follows a list of simple instructions. This is cited by Kleene as one source of his "Thesis I", the so-called [[Church–Turing thesis]]. * {{Cite book|last=Rogers, Jr|first=Hartley|title=Theory of Recursive Functions and Effective Computability|publisher=The MIT Press|year=1987|isbn=0-262-68052-1}} * {{Cite journal|last=Rosser|first=J.B.|authorlink=J.B. Rosser|title=An Informal Exposition of Proofs of Godel's Theorem and Church's Theorem|journal=Journal of Symbolic Logic|volume= 4 |year=1939|doi=10.2307/2269059|pages=53–60}} Reprinted in ''The Undecidable'', p.&nbsp;223ff. Herein is Rosser's famous definition of "effective method": "...a method each step of which is precisely predetermined and which is certain to produce the answer in a finite number of steps... a machine which will then solve any problem of the set with no human intervention beyond inserting the question and (later) reading the answer" (p.&nbsp;225–226, ''The Undecidable'') * {{cite book |last=Santos-Lang |first=Christopher | year=2014 |editor1-first=Simon |editor1-last=van Rysewyk |editor2-first=Matthijs |editor2-last=Pontier |title=Machine Medical Ethics |publisher=Springer | location=Switzerland | pages=111–127 | chapter=Moral Ecology Approaches to Machine Ethics| url=http://grinfree.com/MoralEcology.pdf | format=PDF | doi=10.1007/978-3-319-08108-3_8}} * {{Cite book|last=Scott|first=Michael L.|title=Programming Language Pragmatics |edition=3rd |publisher=Morgan Kaufmann Publishers/Elsevier|year=2009|isbn=978-0-12-374514-9}} * {{cite book| last = Sipser| first = Michael| title = Introduction to the Theory of Computation| year = 2006| publisher = PWS Publishing Company| isbn = 0-534-94728-X }} * {{cite book |last=Sober |first=Elliott |last2=Wilson |first2=David Sloan |year=1998 |title=Unto Others: The Evolution and Psychology of Unselfish Behavior |location=Cambridge |publisher=Harvard University Press}} * {{Cite book|last=Stone|first=Harold S.|title=Introduction to Computer Organization and Data Structures|edition=1972|publisher=McGraw-Hill, New York|isbn=0-07-061726-0|year=1972}} Cf. in particular the first chapter titled: ''Algorithms, Turing Machines, and Programs''. His succinct informal definition: "...any sequence of instructions that can be obeyed by a robot, is called an ''algorithm''" (p.&nbsp;4). * {{cite book| last = Tausworthe| first = Robert C| title = Standardized Development of Computer Software Part 1 Methods| year = 1977| publisher = Prentice-Hall, Inc.| location = Englewood Cliffs NJ| isbn = 0-13-842195-1 }} * {{Cite journal|last=Turing|first=Alan M.|authorlink=A. M. Turing|title=On Computable Numbers, With An Application to the Entscheidungsproblem|journal=[[Proceedings of the London Mathematical Society]], Series 2|volume=42|pages= 230–265 |year=1936–37|doi=10.1112/plms/s2-42.1.230 }}. Corrections, ibid, vol. 43(1937) pp.&nbsp;544–546. Reprinted in ''The Undecidable'', p.&nbsp;116ff. Turing's famous paper completed as a Master's dissertation while at King's College Cambridge UK. * {{Cite journal|last=Turing|first=Alan M.|authorlink=A. M. Turing|title=Systems of Logic Based on Ordinals|journal=Proceedings of the London Mathematical Society|volume=45|pages=161–228|year=1939|doi=10.1112/plms/s2-45.1.161}} Reprinted in ''The Undecidable'', p.&nbsp;155ff. Turing's paper that defined "the oracle" was his PhD thesis while at Princeton USA. * {{Cite book | first1 = Wendell | last1 = Wallach | first2 = Colin | last2 = Allen |date=November 2008 | title = Moral Machines: Teaching Robots Right from Wrong | isbn = 978-0-19-537404-9 | publisher = Oxford University Press | location = USA | ref = harv}} * [[United States Patent and Trademark Office]] (2006), [http://www.uspto.gov/web/offices/pac/mpep/documents/2100_2106_02.htm ''2106.02 **>Mathematical Algorithms: 2100 Patentability''], Manual of Patent Examining Procedure (MPEP). Latest revision August 2006 === Secondary references === * {{cite book| last = Bolter| first = David J.| title = Turing's Man: Western Culture in the Computer Age| edition = 1984| year = 1984| publisher = The University of North Carolina Press, Chapel Hill NC| isbn = 0-8078-1564-0 }}, ISBN 0-8078-4108-0 pbk. * {{cite book| last = Dilson| first = Jesse| authorlink = Dilson| title = The Abacus| edition = (1968,1994)| year = 2007| publisher = St. Martin's Press, NY| isbn = 0-312-10409-X }}, ISBN 0-312-10409-X (pbk.) * {{cite book| last = van Heijenoort| first = Jean| authorlink = van Heijenoort| title = From Frege to Gödel, A Source Book in Mathematical Logic, 1879–1931| edition = (1967)| year = 2001| publisher = Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA| isbn = 0-674-32449-8 }}, 3rd edition 1976[?], ISBN 0-674-32449-8 (pbk.) * {{cite book| last = Hodges| first = Andrew| title = Alan Turing: The Enigma| edition = (1983)| year = 1983| publisher = Simon and Schuster, New York| isbn = 0-671-49207-1 }}, ISBN 0-671-49207-1. Cf. Chapter "The Spirit of Truth" for a history leading to, and a discussion of, his proof. {{refend}} == Further reading == {{refbegin}} * {{cite book| author = Jean Luc Chabert| title = A History of Algorithms: From the Pebble to the Microchip| year = 1999| publisher = Springer Verlag| isbn = 978-3-540-63369-3 }} * {{cite book| title = Algorithmics.: The Spirit of Computing.| year = 2004| publisher = Addison-Wesley| isbn = 978-0-321-11784-7 }} * [[Donald Knuth|Knuth, Donald E.]] (2000). ''[http://www-cs-faculty.stanford.edu/~uno/aa.html Selected Papers on Analysis of Algorithms]''. Stanford, California: Center for the Study of Language and Information. * Knuth, Donald E. (2010). ''[http://www-cs-faculty.stanford.edu/~uno/da.html Selected Papers on Design of Algorithms]''. Stanford, California: Center for the Study of Language and Information. * {{cite book| last = Berlinski| first = David| title = The Advent of the Algorithm: The 300-Year Journey from an Idea to the Computer| year = 2001| publisher = Harvest Books| isbn = 978-0-15-601391-8 }} * {{cite book|author = Thomas H. Cormen, Charles E. Leiserson, Ronald L. Rivest and Clifford Stein| title = Introduction To Algorithms, Third Edition| year = 2009| publisher = MIT Press | isbn =978-0262033848 }} {{refend}} == External links == {{wiktionary}} {{wikibooks|Algorithms}} {{WVD}} * {{springer|title=Algorithm|id=p/a011780}} * {{dmoz|Computers/Algorithms/|Algorithms}} * {{MathWorld | urlname=Algorithm | title=Algorithm}} * [http://www.nist.gov/dads/ Dictionary of Algorithms and Data Structures]—[[National Institute of Standards and Technology]] * [http://www.softpanorama.org/Algorithms/index.shtml Algorithms and Data Structures by Dr Nikolai Bezroukov] ; Algorithm repositories * [http://www.cs.sunysb.edu/~algorith/ The Stony Brook Algorithm Repository]—[[State University of New York at Stony Brook]] * [http://www.netlib.org/ Netlib Repository]—[[University of Tennessee]] and [[Oak Ridge National Laboratory]] * [http://calgo.acm.org/ Collected Algorithms of the ACM]—[[Association for Computing Machinery]] * [http://www-cs-staff.stanford.edu/~knuth/sgb.html The Stanford GraphBase]—[[Stanford University]] * [http://www.combinatorica.com/ Combinatorica]—[[University of Iowa]] and [[State University of New York at Stony Brook]] * [http://www.algorithmic-solutions.com/ Library of Efficient Datastructures and Algorithms (LEDA)]—previously from [[Max-Planck-Institut für Informatik]] * [http://www.keithschwarz.com/interesting/ Archive of Interesting Code] * [http://allmyalgorithms.org A semantic wiki to collect, categorize and relate all algorithms and data structures] ; Lecture notes * [http://compgeom.cs.uiuc.edu/~jeffe//teaching/algorithms/ Algorithms Course Materials]. Jeff Erickson. [[University of Illinois]]. ; Community * [https://plus.google.com/communities/101392274103811461838 Algorithms] on [[Google+]] {{Authority control}} [[Category:Algorithms| ]] [[Category:Articles with example pseudocode]] [[Category:Mathematical logic]] [[Category:Theoretical computer science]] rn6d98dcq9l7dfxo73t3zzdyz595kho